1957 – The Year the Space Age Began Roger L. Easton, retired Naval Research Laboratory Linda Hall Library Kansas City MO 6 September 2007 Conditions in 1957 z Much different from now, slower, more optimistic in some ways z Simpler, yet very frightening, time 1 1957 in Politics z January 20: Second Presidential Inauguration of Dwight Eisenhower 1957 in Toys z First “Frisbee” from Wham-O 2 1957 in Sports z Third Year of Major League Baseball in Kansas City z the “Athletics,” not the “Royals” 1957 in Sports z No pro football in Kansas City z AFL was three years in future z no Chiefs until 1963 3 1957 at Home z No microwave ovens z (TV dinners since 1954) z Few color television sets z (first broadcasts late in 1953) z No postal Zip Codes z Circular phone diales z No cell phones z (heck, no Area Codes, no direct long-distance dialing!) z No Internet, no personal computers z Music recorded on vinyl discs, not compact or computer disks 1957 in Transportation z Gas cost 27¢ per gallon z September 4: Introduction of the Edsel by Ford Motor Company z cancelled in 1959 after loss of $250M 4 1957 in Transportation z October 28: rollout of first production Boeing 707 1957 in Science z International Geophysical Year (IGY) z (actually, “year and a half”) 5 IGY Accomplishments z South Polar Stations established z Operation Deep Freeze z Discovery of mid-ocean submarine ridges z evidence of plate tectonics z USSR and USA pledged to launch artificial satellites (“man-made moons”) z discovery of Van Allen radiation belts 1957: “First” Year of Space Age z Space Age arguably began in 1955 z President Eisenhower announced that USA would launch small unmanned earth-orbiting satellite as part of IGY z Project Vanguard 6 Our Story: z The battle to determine who would launch the first artificial satellite: z Werner von Braun of the U.S. Army Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville AL z Milton Rosen of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington DC Rockets in WWII z German V-2 Missiles attacked London z German missile experts brought to USA for Operation “Paperclip” z Best known was Dr. Werner Von Braun 7 Post WWII Rocket Experiments z Milton Rosen used V-2s as launch vehicles for scientific experiments z Needed more performance z Proposed improved vehicle z led to Viking Rocket Viking Rocket z 1949, built for NRL by Glenn L. Martin Co. z Important innovations in Viking: z gimbaled rocket motor for steering z aluminum as principal structural material z intermittent gas jets for stabilizing vehicle after the main power cutoff z Launches z Viking No. 1, spring 1949, 50-mile altitude z Viking No. 4, May 1950 from ship, 104 miles 8 Scientific Results from Viking z NRL Electron Optics Branch z ion chambers and photon counters to measure radiation from sun at x-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths z Single-Axis Phase-Comparison Angle-Tracking Unit z antecedent of Minitrack z Continuous tracking of small instrumented body in space z Viking 10, April 1954, 136 miles, measured ion composition z Viking 11, May 1954, altitude of 158 miles radio 9 Viking Results z Five years of successes z Total cost less than $6 million z Encouraged NRL to propose a more powerful rocket engine and added upper stages to build vehicle capable of launching an artificial earth satellite Project Vanguard z Grew out of NRL Proposal z Led by Dr. John P. Hagen 10 Vanguard Launcher & Satellite z Efficient Three-stage launch vehicle z Stage 1: based on Viking z Stage 2: based on Aerobee Sounding Rocket z Stage 3: new solid-fuel rocket z Innovative, Miniaturized Scientific Payload z Planned IGY use: measure locations of Pacific islands 11 Planned Vanguard Trajectory 12 Solar Cell Batteries z 6 units on sphere Later Vanguard Spacecraft z Larger spheres z More scientific equipment 13 Plan for Tracking Vanguard Satellite z Remember, no worldwide tracking stations z no communication network, not even telephones z Would be difficult to ascertain whether satellite had orbited (hence, Project Moonwatch) z Satellite Tracking Program in Project Vanguard: z Minimum Trackable Satellite = Minitrack Minitrack Antenna Array 14 Minitrack Station, Blossom Point, MD Tracking Computer z Vanguard Computing Center z in downtown DC z IBM 704 “Electronic Data-Processing Machine” z Magnetic core memory (not vacuum tubes) z 40,000 = 40 × 103 instructions per second z fastest 2007 computers Washington Post, July 10, 1957 z 300,000,000,000 = 300 × 109 instructions/second 15 Competitor to Vanguard: Project Orbiter z Proposal by U.S. Army, led by Werner Von Braun z Believed his project was certain to be chosen Orbiter Satellite & Launcher z Launched by Army Redstone IRBM z range of 200 miles, 55-mile vertical height z Subsequent boost from 3 Rotating (for stability) clusters of unguided solid-fuelled Loki anti-aircraft rockets z 2nd Stage: Bundle of 24 Loki, burns for < 2 sec z 3rd Stage: Bundle of 6 Loki z 4th Stage: 1 Loki z Switched to following Loki stage at intervals of 2.5 seconds (!) 16 Project Orbiter Payload z 5-pound, 20-inch diameter sphere z no radio transmitter z would be tracked by optical telescopes ONLY z difficult, not reliable z No science – propaganda value only z would only be able to say that USA had orbited a spacecraft Launch Vehicle: Loki Rockets z Unguided, solid-fueled rocket z Based on German Taifun from WWII z Loki failed in antiaircraft role z replaced by Nike-Ajax in September 1955 z Loki later used as a sounding rocket z Small payload: 3.2 kg z Dimensions: z booster: 2.63m long × 76mm dia. z payload “dart:” 1.02m long × 35mm dia. 17 Loki Rocket “Dart” Booster Selection by “Stewart Committee” z Chaired by Homer Stewart of Jet Propulsion Laboratory z Eight members to select proposal for funding z Vote on August 3, 1955 z 1 member absent z 3 votes for Vanguard z 2 votes for Orbiter z 2 other members (“not rocket scientists”) voted with majority z Final vote: 5 to 2 18 Reasons for Decision: Deficiencies of Project Orbiter z Very Limited Weight Capacity – 5 lbs. z Uncertain Optical Detection of Successful Orbit z Untested Launch Vehicle z Problems had not been fixed (at least, not well enough) z Technological world had changed, but von Braun had not Plusses for Vanguard z Launch vehicle based on Viking z no interference with research in ballistic missile weaponry z less tied to military vehicle zgood for propaganda purposes z Much better tracking system z Better scientific value z Innovative vehicle and payload z also a “minus” ⇒ uncertainty and complexity 19 Second Hearing by Stewart Committee z August 15, 1955 (12 days later) z Army memo had been circulated that criticized NRL satellite program for low probability of success and time required to develop launch vehicle z In short, von Braun could not believe he and the Army had lost Project Orbiter Killed z September 9, 1955 z Army forbidden from launching satellites z NRL forbidden from soliciting scientific data from military missile programs z Vanguard team could not believe it had won 20 Vanguard Launch Sequence Vanguard Launch Sequence 21 October 4, 1957: News Flash Sputnik successfully launched into orbit Five Scientific Objectives of Sputnik z to test method for orbiting an artificial satellite; z to provide information on density of atmosphere by calculating orbital lifetime; z to test radio and optical methods of orbital tracking; z to determine effects of atmospheric radio wave propagation; and z to check methods for pressurizing satellite 22 Sputnik I Rocket Booster Track as seen in Washington, DC on night of 15 October 1957 Easily visible to unaided eye Sputnik Radio Transmitters z 20.005 MHz and 40.002 MHz z NRL converted Minitrack receivers at Blossom Point Tracking Station from 108 MHz in two days z New Antennas and Receivers installed z Worked well until someone “tidied up” the site 23 Minitrack System Calibration z Opportunity provided by surprise launch of Sputnik z Satellite’s orbit computed using Doppler shifts of radio transmissions z After orbit established, NRL proposed “illuminating” Sputnik with FM transmitter at Fort Monmouth, NJ z Reflected signal used for calibration z Led to idea of using “bistatic” radar to track orbiting bodies z Naval Space Surveillance System “Fence” Navspasur Radar Sites 24 Reaction to Sputnik z Pressure from Press/Public/Politicians for Vanguard to launch z Launch of “Test Vehicles” considered point of national pride z Revived/modified plan from U.S. Army Test Vehicle 3 (TV-3) z December 6, 1957 z Nationally televised z First-stage guidance failed z Satellite survived in “working” order z now in NASM z TV-3B, 5 February 1958, second stage did not ignite 25 Army Backup Plan z small spacecraft carried by four- stage Jupiter-C launch vehicle z based on Jupiter IRBM z Contained Vanguard electronics package to appear as a scientific experiment Explorer-I Launch, January 31, 1958 26 Explorer-I Launch, January 31, 1958 Pickering, Van Allen, von Braun Next Vanguard Attempt z March 1958 z Test-Vehicle 4 (TV-4) + small satellite 27 28 HAVE BALL, WILL ORBIT 29 Vanguard Test Vehicle (TV-4) z Successfully launched March 17, 1958 z Stable orbit z apogee: 3969 km z perigee: 650 km z Early predicted orbital life: 200 years z 7-cell mercury battery, two radio transmitters, temperature sensor, six clusters of solar cells 30 Vanguard Test Vehicle (TV-4) z March 17, 1958 z Two radio transmitters z 108 MHz @ 10 mW z 108.03 MHz @ 5 mW z Signal after 1 year z Transmissions ceased after 75 months 31 Vanguard I z 3 pounds, 6.4-inch diameter z Khrushchev called it “the grapefruit satellite” Scientific Experiments z Radio