UNDERGRADUATE JOURNAL OF NEAR AND MIDDLE EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS

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Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 3

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ISSUE2016 9, Near and Middle and Middle Near UndergraduateJournal of A publication of the University of Toronto of Toronto University ofA publication the Eastern Civilizations Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations Students Eastern Civilizations Middle and Near 4

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

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University of Toronto of University Undergraduate Journal of Near and Hasssan IIMosque, Casablanca, Bancroft Building,Bancroft 2 [email protected] Middle Eastern Studies Toronto, ON Canada 4 BancroftAvenue Copyright Copyright 2017© Sarah McMillanSarah Eastern Studies Cover photo by (June, 2016) M5S 1C1M5S

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Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 5

- in - 2017 Chief - - s name Union ’ in - ’ 2016

Omar Qashoa Omar

Editor Credits The Undergraduate to to

especially especially our layout editor,

— to reflect the broader scope of nd nd millennium BCE in , Arts & ScienceArts Students Special Thanks Near & MiddleDepartment of Eastern Civilizations 2016 journal, we are very excited to resume thisexcited resume to are very 2016journal, we - A note from the editors the from A note states. We have also decided to put the spotlight on the -

Chief:

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The Undergraduate Journal of Middle East Studies in

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chief chief and who were just as keen as year. I to Most ensure importantly, that I the journal have get to published this mention completed were it that not for this the help of journal all our editors would not have Lila Nawar, been who was indispensable in putting everything together so that we could have a journal ready for print Silvestri and from publication. I the would NMCSU also of the regarding cover We front a the this hope that provides journal. journal glimpse like executive to committee thank Jason for his into help some of with the suggestions excellent of Toronto. at University the department Civilizations talent we have here at the Near and Middle Eastern history history and culture covered in both the presented NMC in this department journal. itself The papers and we in selected for the publication essays cover about a period 4 of millennia, going Mesopotamia, and Ancient back , and leading right up to the recent as history of Arab far as and North the African nation 2 academic talent of undergraduate students in the NMC department, so every presented paper in this edition of student, specifically the for a journal course in the was NMC department. I written would like by to the people thank in all a the NMCSU executive committee who University appointed me as of the editor Toronto After being unable to release a 2015 arelease to unable After being year with our 9th issue edition. You will notice that we changed the journal from Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

Haseeb Hassan Marketing Coordinator: Lila NawarLila Print Design/Layout Editor:

John Zabbal Matthew JohnstoneMatthew Gabi Lichtblau Mehreen Zahra Jiwan Hania Hameed Editorial Board: Mahdi Chowdhury

Omar Qashoa Editor 6

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 7

21 15 33 46 - 37 - - - - 8 16 22 38 34 Ruler Ruler McLeod - Morocco Morocco Imagined Imagined Alyssa Atef Alyssa s Arabism: Arabism: s Contents ’ NaomiSinclair Judy Androsoff Aylin Manduric Aylin

Riam Kim Riam of Revolt in Egypt in Revolt of University of Toronto University of Toronto University of Toronto University of Toronto

University of Toronto The Great Sasanian Sasanian Great The

State as History and and History as State - – An Analysis of Analysis An

The Many Faces of Arab Unity Unity Arab of Faces Many The Folktales and Magic in Ancient Egypt Egypt Ancient in Magic and Folktales Empires: A History Empires: Construction: Modern Amazigh Identity Discourses in in Discourses Identity Amazigh Modern Empire and Nation and Empire From to a People a to Nationalism From Khusrau I Anushirvan Anushirvan I Khusrau 8 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

On Wives, Husbands, and Letters: Female Ancient EgyptianTreatment Practices in Apocalyptic Literaturein Mesopotamia Literacy and Self Contents Continued - Determinationin Old University of Toronto University University of Toronto University University of Toronto University Women's Health 1500 Loreina Jones Bianca Grier Erin Mandel - 100 BCE Assyria 59 52 47 - - - 63 51 58

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 9 10 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

6 5 4 3 2 1 aspirations. thosefor vehicle a serveas would stateArab which common a unity,in political Arab of feeling a comprised nationalism Arab century, sovereignty. and separateness political for desire strong a manifest who and whole, development its traces and nationalism, unity. Arab callsfor other and nationalism Arab between differences the understanding Twentieth Century the Nationalism in conflictual. cultural formcoherent a they that membersbelieve as nationhood defines Dawisha twentiethcentury. are that origins has intellectual groupsand different to things different means nationalism Arab that Nafaaadds matters, complicating Further “ legitimatefor claima merely or state, bounded territorially a acquire to aspiration an includes necessarily nationalism that Nafaabelieves whether unclear pan between blursthe distinction unity.for desire a and history; shared glorious nation; a Arab an to belonging feeling of shared a comprising ideology as an Arabism withArab Nafaaassociates nationalism1987, pan pan that concept intellectual or elite as an nationalism Arab define Nafaa, like others, Hassan work,and their in definition concrete a presenting avoid scholars Some in others. concepts overlapping as defined are and contexts some in usedinterchangeably are pan Arabism, term. the firstdefine to important Nationalism Arab Defining re states Arab inthe living people the between connection of sense the 1970s, the in decline its since function this fulfilled not has nationalism Arab While claims. political organizing for ideology useful a was Nationalism Arab Accords, David Camp the following twenty the during solidarity more a of rise the to century twentieth mid the in nationalism Arab of decline the from Egypt in unity Arab to appeals Unity Arabism: TheMany Facesof Arab From Nationalism toa People Ibid. AdeedDawisha, 149. Ibid., Nafaa, 149. Ibid., HassanNafaa, Press,13. 2003), ism participation in the actual international system of nations and civilizations. and nations of system international the actual in participation , ed. Tawfic Farah, (Boulder: Westview (Boulder: 149. 1987), ,ed. Tawfic Press, Farah, , Inthe book it is nationalism, Arab of ofthe decline dynamics delvingintothe Before of function and nature the in changes the of some explore will paper This 4. “

ArabNationalism,

“ ArabAjamiNationalism: A Responseto

Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: Despair From to inArabNationalism Twentieth the Triumph ” 6

4

This paper will instead rely on Adeed Dawisha Adeed rely on will instead paper This

’ s first chapter, Dawisha begins defining the concept of Arab of concept the defining begins Dawisha chapter, sfirst ” 149. ” - - is cnuy rb pig oeet I te hry years thirty the In movement. Spring Arab century first

emerged as a mobilizing force during the 2011 Arab Spring.Arab 2011 the during force mobilizing as a emerged

- Arabism mainstreamed. Arabism - Arabism and and makes it nationalismand Arab and Arabism ’ s Thesis on the sThesison , which, useful offers for foundation a

”

5 ‘ He notes that, in the twentieth the twentieth that, in notes He End of Pan Endof - Arabism, and Arab nationalism nationalism Arab and Arabism, - - “ oriented concept of Arab unity unity Arab of concept oriented Arabism and definesArabism pan a human solidarity, whose solidarity, human a “ - Arabism, different and often often and different 1

Aylin Manduric (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton(PrincetonandUniversity Oxford: In an essay published in essay Inpublished an “ 2 unity This definition largely largely definition This ’” in

’ Pan through the early through the ” s 2003 book book s2003 and a call for call a and - Arabism and Arab National Arab Arabismand ’ s Arab ” - 3

-

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 11

–

17 - - ” — al ’ suited - s location,s ’ As history While

centred on s

The 1948

’ 8 “ 16 In theIn 1920s

20 14 This was 13 Nasser

” that distinguishesthat a 22 ” specified demarcated “ that is, a that definition

National claims for political unity – At that time, that theAt Iraq was

9 Arab Arab conferences as as a well 12 Throughout World War like clubs II, -

Arab Arab Nationalism. 19

“ ) became) increasingly popular, and by s claims to nationhood, considersDawisha Arab Arab cooperation the during first Arab ’ - Husri, however, thought Egyptthat Arabi

‘ Here seems he to diverge Israelfrom Gershoni 15

-

7 108. 13. Despite temporarily highlighting the inability temporarily theDespite of highlighting

21 a desire for political separateness “ Itihad al s calls for political separation and Arab statehood, - ’ requisite for a group - Nadi al Israeli inspired then war colonelthe and a - 39 started the to salienceincrease theof in Egypt.Arab identity - The Egyptian government itself faced popular pressure to cooperate

This definition of Arab nationalism

11 18 ” 10 to be defining the feature a of nation.

” ” derived desire topolitical achieve sovereignty within a recognized

Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth the in Arab Nationalism Century, Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth the in Arab Nationalism Century, -

8.

-

109. 5. 8. ,

In particular, the intensification particular,In the the of struggle during Palestinian the Arab Though Though scholarssome trace theof origins Arab nationalism to 1916 the Arab , self

“ bid., 7. bid., Ibid., 128. Ibid., 134. Ibid, Ibid., 47 Ibid., 103. Ibid., 105. Ibid., Dawisha, Ibid. 116. Ibid., 123. 118, Ibid., Dawisha, Dawisha, 8. Ibid., 40. Ibid., 47. Ibid., heightened awareness by peoples and leaders of thealike possibilities of Arab I Ibid. Ibid.,

19 20 21 22 16 17 18 13 14 15 9 10 11 12 7 8 subsequent regime would carryideology the of Arab nationalism to peak its and later aserve as catalyst for decline. its group armyof officers to overthrow the Egyptian monarchy. Arab Arab states to and coordinatemobilize troopstheir successfully against Israel, the theloss of Arab Arab Arab states to unite over, although pan Israeli Warfailed. ultimately 1945 had Arab League beenthe formed and headquartered in Cairo. theinception of Jewish state of Israel marked one common causemore for the position to the defend in name all of . the ( Arab Union with other with Arab leaders to start a solidarity and,movement, before engaging with Britain Palestine on the question, Arab leaders in Cairo met to settle on a coherent solidarity. The Revolt by was a followed number panof “ of 1936Revolt territory interritory the Arab to thefulfill world promise of Arab nationalism. would have it, provenhe was andright, this due in partwas to Palestine.. events in interest ininterest striving for Arab unity. size, and history interactionsof other globalwith entities made bestit the Husri, a Husri, nationalist thinker and former education inminister Syria. and 1930s, later which Egypt, rose of totheforefront the showedmovement, little promoted a through national education system that drew ideasits Sati from Ottoman Empire and the end Worldof War I. launching point for a formally propagated Revolt andRevolt Rashid Rida Dawisha rightly links emergence the of Arab nationalism to fallthe of the The of Rise Arab Nationalism helps Dawishahelps to avoid some conceptual the of haziness otherfound in works on subject.the territory. ultimatethe goal of Arab political and unity desire the for a unitary Arab state territory thereforemust be demanded only the boundswithin a of statehood as a pre a Gershoni and Jankowski do not require a desire for independent, sovereign nation nation a from mere . and James Jankowski, cites inhe hiswhom discussion of nationhood. Dawisha asserts it that is 12 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 century. twentieth ofthe issues most salient werethe legitimacy nationalism. by state a addressed more easily with be that but each could hadinterests wereat odds another, one pan the Six especiallyafter Israel, Egypt moreself a implementing by trauma itsPalestinian from Egypt in detaching role significant played a Sadat Anwar thatrealizes also experience. traumatizing wounding and deeplyworlda [and] Arab entire as were perceived 1948 in Palestine the of defeat and ofIsrael the birth that Ajami recognizes twentiethcentury. mid in the Palestine and ofEgypt circumstances the seen might in be interests nationalism Arab by highlighted divisions fewjust a are the concerns political of and differentials opportunity in economic the states oil calling states, Arab the between disparities the Ajami,acknowledges of in critique his interests concernsand mid relevantthe after be to ceased either ideologies the of features constitutive salient most the someof notes that that pan 1978 in argued who Ajami, state in rise a to nationalism Arab in decline links the Dawisha usefulness. political inand importance nationalism Arab supersede to ofNationalism Arab Eclipse The movement,in protagonist 1970. of the Six ofthe failure catastrophic until the somecurrency hold to continued ideology, as an appealing nationalism, UAR. Syriafrom the separate to coup a launched society, ofSyrian elements struggling other and discontents capitalist shortages. commodity and flight capital both triggered restrictions new economic and practices bureaucratic Egyptian slow of the introduction firings, and appointments withSyria Nasser unsustainable. proved unsurprisingly, state. Arab commona under together jurisdictions discrete multiple bring attempt to merelypan not (and nationalism Arab applying leadership Egyptian example ofthe significant most the represents

Ibid., 370. Ibid., 357. Ibid., 368. Ibid., Nafaa, Ajami,Fouad 51. Ibid., 251. Ibid., 227. Ibid., 226. Ibid., 186. Ibid., Dawisha, Ajami, Ibid., 231. Ibid., In the following decades, a number of competing interests and identities came identities and interests numbera ofcompeting decades, following Inthe 1958, 1, February on (UAR) Republic Arab formationUnited ofthe The This is clearest in the case of Palestine, whereself Palestine, of the case in is clearest This nationalArab and state between incompatibilities most glaring Someofthe - Arabism. 24 “ “ ’ ArabNationalism, The EndofPan The

s interests clearly diverged from those of the Palestinians on the issue of of issue the on Palestinians ofthe from those clearlydiverged sinterests Egypt and Syria were fused together at breakneck speed, and the project, the and project, speed, breakneck at together fused were Syria Egypt and Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century, Century, ArabNationalismin Twentieth the

“ 26 ’ The EndofPan The s more liberal leanings. moreliberal s

by supported military, Syrian the alienated 1961, InSeptember ” 34 - Arabism,

Not only did Egypt and Palestine have domestic interests that that interests domestic have Palestine Egypt and did only Not ” 136. ” - - Arabism, “ centered framework than by a trans a by than framework centered

natural foes ofpan foes natural ” 367 ” — -

8. most significantly, state interests. state mostsignificantly, ”

Foreign Affairs Foreign - - Day War in 1967 and the death of Nasser, the theofNasser, and death in 1967 DayWar Day War, which Ajami refers to as to which refers Ajami DayWar, -

Arabism) to foreign policy. foreign to Arabism) 187. - 25 1960s or were eclipsed by more pressing were by or eclipsed 1960s -

“ 57, no. 2 (1978): 370. (1978): 57,no.2

In addition to controversial military controversial to Inaddition Arabism and Arab nationalism were dead, weredead, nationalism Arab and Arabism an injury to the pride and integrity of the integrity and of pride the to aninjury 27 28

Even with these struggles, Arab withstruggles, these Even - Arabism, ’ sdetractors. ’ s authoritarian tendencies clashed clashed tendencies sauthoritarian

” - centered foreign policy. centered and remarking that that remarking and - - based identities. based determination and political political and determination 31 -

state ideology like Arab ideologystate like 30 23

Hassan Nafaa, even even Nafaa, Hassan

It was It clear a 35

“ the Waterloo of Waterloo the 29

Fouad Fouad ” 32 33

He

-

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 13

48 ’

36

for the for the

group and – - Picot - Palestinian - Whereas it was “ s diplomacys with ’ after all, Palestine was

– In additionIn to these and perhaps die

As a ideology, unifying As Arab

Sadat official also transformed – 37

47

42 39 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 81. 2014), University Stanford (Stanford:

” . the Palestiniansthe comehave to realize

– Ajami notes Ajami these that , who were 40 Ending Ending the conflict Israelwith the most was

44 The OctoberWar 1973 gave in Sadat finally the

45 s s death; appeals to Arab unity were tolimited Arab determination of the of Palestinians:determination s existence as state.as Arabism Arabism broadly.more ’ - ’ - It would be counterproductive for Palestinians to let

38 66.

- ” ” 365 ” ” 372. ” 368.

While the followers Yasserof to sought Arafat protect

This response was in likely toeconomic the Egyptproblems

41 43 ” ” 136. ” 137. ” ” 135. Arabism, Arabism, Arabism, - - -

49 Official Stories: Politics and National Narratives in Egypt and Egyptin and Narratives National and Politics Official Stories:

71.

- 46 2.

The End of Pan End of The The End of Pan End of The The End of Pan End of The Arab Nationalism, Arab - Nationalism, Arab Arab Nationalism, Arab colonialism once unified the Arabs, especially theirin shared outrage “ “ “

“ “ “ - In additionIn to rise thesethe of pressing domestic concerns, the thatissues were At the sameAt time, people Egypt in sufferingwere from significant economic

Ajami, Ajami, 366. Ibid., Nafaa, Ibid., 365. Ibid., Ajami, Brand, Laurie 81 Ibid., 82. Ibid., Nafaa, Ibid., 370 Ibid., Nafaa, Ajami, 371. Ibid., 370. Ibid., 49 46 47 48 43 44 45 40 41 42 36 37 38 39 Agreement. Anti surrounding documents like the Balfour Declaration and the Sykes their differencestheir they when faced externala common threat. For example, Arab nationalism accelerated when the masses rallied Europeanagainst colonialism. nationalism helped achieve Arabs politicaltheir aims even when state governments otherwise lacked and legitimacy helped groups overcome Arabs of once the onceglue ofthe became Arab nationalism less and less relevant time, with until longerno sufficed they to interests. outweigh state fights. opportunity to break Arabwith and nationalism Egypttake of out other Arabs efficient for way Sadat to free Egyptian state resources and focus on remediating domesticthe economic crisis. borrowing, borrowing, to finance both the and domestic war employment, caused unsustainable levels inflation.of economic unity. was experiencing the in 1970s as Israelwith war frightened investors and state conflict by accepting Israel by conflict narratives following Nasser themselves anwith appeal to , Sadat Israel relations brought closer to of realm the politicsnormal and transformed the benefit ofbenefit others. placed at a by disadvantage Arab begannationalism, to the view ideology as an thatimplement was being used them to make fight hardships. hardships. Talented peopleyoung tostruggled find jobs, thatthose succeededand often struggled endsto make meet. that they toothat require the normalcy statehoodof once heresy once heresy to speak anof independent Palestinian state supposed to be a partof larger Arab entity acceptance the within Arab solution the worldto that Israeli the entail the selfconflict must undermine undermine their territorial claims to sovereignty. Ajami highlights the general claimed the claimedWest the Bank. themselves be caught under the of umbrella Arab nationalism doing when so could conceptual tensions, Palestinians faced challenges to territorialtheir sovereignty theirfrom fellow Arab states, most from notably Jordanian the monarchy, which delegitimizes boundaries and aspirations that belong to one Arab sub operate pan tension with in identifying as aboveArabs all else hardly makes the case that Palestinians require a state theirof own. frames theAjami danger of as Arab nationalism one that Another Another issue raisedis by the Palestinians goal the of in their Israel:conflict with for supportmobilizing different from Arab thestates, failure the of Arab to world protect Palestine adequately made clearit something that more needed. was While the While the offeeling shared 1948 failure in made Arab nationalism a useful tool 14 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 pan from away looked both Palestine when Egypt and moment as the this Ajami cites statesArab afterSadat all threat to a represent nationalism. Arab fromEgypt withdrawal of the to led and States, withthe United rapprochement unity Arab political heavilyon and focused States, theindependence,United alienated Nasser between thedifferences exploitation. economic and pretensions, Pan usefulness. its retain to thefor ideology cause give mightcolonialism replaced have that structures modern thehow consider to fails but nationalism Arab to blow as a colonialism offormal theon focuses end Ajami Nafaa, to According common enemy. the against ofunity exigencies the by hidden differences ideological with the along surface questions social the ofindependence: aftermath inthe movement nationalist within every thecrisis was independence following states Arab the strifebetween theirnational instruggles. states aspiring independent other supporting in interested were also independence for movements national domestic theirown building states colonialism, against struggle the faced world Arab the states in As the states. situated similarly of claims theindependence support to morelikely movement are broader a of part as a independence seeking control. from external givenofa community the independence for seek both objectives: similar have they because compatible . pan between worldthe and incompatibility Arab the Ajami criticizes charisma. magic the of touch to not lend performance, problems themselves solo do to that fervour thewhich at as the point in 1970 hisdeath cites and masses, the Nasser. Abdel suchas Gamal longernorelevant. the that since movement and Turk Young ofthe the nationalism to wasresponse a universalism system. the Ottoman of universalism from the drawn ofpan universalism Ajami,the According to universalism. first isOttoman The time. over diminished influence whose factors unifying other diminished. experience shared their of element important Arabs,an ofthe objective an end. to come had independence Arab on Britishassault French and formal however, the After1962, Ibid., 365.Ibid., Nafaa, Ibid.,144. Ibid.,146. Ibid.,146. Ibid.,141. Ibid.,141. Ibid.,141. Nafaa, Ibid.,369. Ibid.,368. Ibid.,365. Ibid.,369. Ajami, Ibid.,138. In his response to Ajami to response In his ofseveral role highlightsthe Ajami ofthecolonialism, decline to Inaddition Nafaa also criticizes Ajami criticizes Nafaaalso - - Arabism in earnest, earnest, in Arabism Arabism can still be a defense from Western defense a still be canArabism “ “ “ ArabNationalism, ArabNationalism, — TheofEnd Pan

”

and Sadat and yielded to ” 56 51

57

“ Ajami refers to this as the end of a of the end as this to refers Ajami -

Ottoman experience has been committed to history, to committed been has experience Ottoman Arabism, Nafaa argues that local nationalisms and pan and nationalisms local that argues Nafaa ” 138. ” 140. ” ’ s emphasis on both the antagonisms between state nationalisms in in nationalisms state between the antagonisms both on semphasis 63 ’ 54

a to led from socialism, awaymoved which spolicies, “ ” 366. ” 50 On a similar note, Ajami note, similar a On a coming to the fore of economic issues and demands, of of demands, and issues oftheeconomic fore to coming a The other diminishing influence is that of charismatic leaders leaders of charismatic is that influence diminishing other The

Once anti Once

’ s work on the apparent demise ofpan demise theon apparent work s 55 ’

’ s treatment of the end of formal colonialism. colonialism. offormal the of end streatment Ajami credits Nasser for bringing pan bringing for Nasser Ajami credits - s policies spolicies colonialism ceased to be the primary political primary the political be to ceased colonialism ” 62 — To illustrate this point, Nafaa refers to to Nafaarefers point, illustrate this To 58

’ which sought economic which economic sought s assertion that Israel ceased to to ceased Israel that sassertion ’

Nafaa also suggests that states states suggests that Nafaaalso s diplomacy is contested. is sdiplomacy ” 60 “ “ collective Arab crisis.Arab collective

imperialism, hegemonic hegemonic imperialism, - 53 Arabism and state state and Arabism 59

Ajami argues that pan argues Ajami that

Nafaa argues any that Nafaa - “ Arab ideologies is ideologies Arab - of the same natureas ofthe same Arabism are are Arabism “ nationalist nationalist - ” Arabism, Nafaa Nafaa Arabism, the matteris the - Arabism to to Arabism ” 64 52

While While

- Arab 61

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 15

of of 72 It is ”

deal This 69 “ While 66 70 71

” Arabism andArabism ideas about - cultural ’ “

65 doctrine Arab of “ immortal function “ first first century intact. - negotiate idea.an with “ centric centric approach to pan state state actors shaping in movements to - - in in Dawishawhat calls their ” Arabism, explaining that, addition in to - Arabism as idea.Arabism an He cites a study in which

- that unifies that Arabs without accompanying an

11. – nor could anyone ” the sense the a of common identity and tobelonging a This study This study conductedwas by the UniversityAmerican in

– 68 Arabism, andArabism, Dawisha Arab nationalism. Nafaa also a brief importantbut makes point about the - Arabism is a of politicalmore term, a ” ” 356.

-

linguistic, religious, historical, and emotional bonds tie thethat

“ ” ” 145. ” 141. Arabism, - that does require not call the for sovereign single statehood.

” 67 ” local nationalism. But institutions are in dead, it a would be inexact heads state and of simplistic states to with where identify separate the nationalisms. democracy A gap positions theof heads statesof and nationalism inspiration could exist. between is the political absent and [T]he positions of the heads of Arab states made them the legal voices of

speaking people other, to each

Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth in Nationalism Arab Century, -

The End of The Pan of End Arab Nationalism, Arab Arab Nationalism, Arab “ “ “

Arabism Arabism may have survived of turn twenty the the - Both Nafaa and takeAjami a statehighly It is also toimportant delineate sentimentsthe of nationalism that are not When discussingWhen this point in it becomeshistory, especially toimportant

Ajami, Ajami, Nafaa, Ibid., 147. Dawisha, Ibid., 13. Nafaa, Ibid., 145. Ibid., 139. 70 71 72 67 68 69 65 66 political environment. potential for disconnection between leaders the of a state and people: the who who they are, and about constitutes thewhat nations and states to they which belong, shape how they behave and how they becan mobilized their to change it is true true thatit is no one can negotiate an idea, with alsoit is true ideas, that expressed skill, bring or people apart.with can drive them Individuals together unify unify Arabs. reportsAjami thethat rumour Kissinger said that couldhe not latentwith intangible forces, engage engage the with role peopleof and other non Arab nationalism, which is why both authors a miss valuable opportunity to community community a sharedwith history territorial element. pan cultural the is construct or categories. While the claim or the categories. While afor single state Arab have ceased tomay be a politically operational concept, Nafaa refers to what as the the opinionsthe and identities held the public by eventuallymay be for mobilized political purposes nonetheless, after even being eclipsed by powerfulmore claims nationalisms and other ideologies truly are, it but is important to bear that in mind Cairo 1980, in when a Arabtime nationalism was apparently decline. on the to difficult ascertain any with surety public the what truly feels about different would have a joint shared policy,military, and foreign in everything which else would remain separate. there there should be at least some kind coordinationof policyof between the Arab states, roughly with 60 percent favouring the idea a of federal Arab state that role people the of nourishing in pan over 5000 different from Arabs states shown were to thehave belief strong that reflected any in state policy, held various publics, by the from appeals to that emanatenationalisms authorities from state and leaders. the Nafaa mentions

Arabic uniformity. While Arab nationalism contains an element of territoriality, Arabism refers exclusively to the cultural heritage, pan political unity being distinct being from Arab nationalism, the two concepts are also distinct eachfrom other. While is describedArabism referring to as ashared term and language delineates between andArabism Pan delineate between pan Nafaa holds Nafaa that Israel still posed a threat rallying around.worth 16 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/02/201121115231647934.html 77 76 75 74 73 be to something not and occupation Israeli end to struggle the for prerequisite a states Arab within injustice addressing that understanding an represent Andoni, Arab to according protests, these leaders; state not being despite not excused, Hamas are the to threats external other justify and to world Palestine like causes common to appeal freedom for world Arab dictatorship. the and fromrepression in regimes domestic democratic upon of demand a fulfilment is the it for freedoms: and wealth of distribution equitable more a for peoples the carries the movement Spring Israel. to Arab the against response of interventions Arabism military a the Rather, for not call is a or It influence. of threat Western encroaching of means visible a even less or domination of Western protest direct to response a not is it past, the of Arabism to — appeals through accumulated have world Arab the as Israel. enemy such common a by against or rallying unity, Arab or nationalism in regimes many that of “ absence the Arab to the reaction across wealth a world. of is distribution inequitable it the Today, and freedoms Israel. key democratic of state several the are of establishment there that argues pan Andoni symbolizes. Nasser of Arabism the Nasser between differences that one the and movement their between parallels some drew protesters 2011 the that suggests which world, their Arab the in in elsewhere and Egypt in coherence protests solidarity accompanied find to Arabs as identify whopresent world the around people for nations for ideology an not for movement. Spring Arab article the through Arabism 2011 a cosmopolitan In by (280). and Jazeera alternatives appeal, political regional for seeking looking always intellectuals media, mass by driven found ideology dead politically the of remains the Today policies. Americanstrategic gameof in chessthe piece manipulable easily and vulnerable Egypt that Nafaaasserts the pan of components ofother systems local pan pan ofthe naturalleader Egypt isthe pan awayfrom state wouldsway a willpeople ofthe thewhy legitimate reason no sees apparently family.royal or dictator anindividual of maintenanceconcerns whims regime the to or traceable be might thisdeviation withpan conflict state a of the interests whenever that Nafaasuggests Ibid., 150. Ibid., transcends narrow nationalism narrow transcends Lamis Adoni,Lamis 150. Ibid., 150. Ibid., 150. Ibid.,

though in some ways it is a reclaiming of the state by the people. Unlike the the Unlike people. the by state the of reclaiming a is it ways some in though Several decades after the death of Nasser, a few scholars who had inspected inspected had who scholars few a Nasser, of death the after decades Several Andoni highlights the protesters the highlights Andoni claim territorial a with come not does movement this nationalism, Arab Unlike - - Arabism was a direct response to Western domination and the 1948 1948 the and domination Western to response direct a was Arabism use pan could leader fact,anEgyptian In Arabism. ’ ”

s Arabism: Not for Nation for Arabism: Not s -

Lms noi xlrs h psiiiis o a eurcin f pan of resurrection a for possibilities the explores Andoni Lamis , day struggles and show solidarity for one another. Photographs of Nasser Nasser of Photographs another. one for solidarity show and struggles day ” Andoni suggests that the protests are representative of a movement that that movement a of representative are protests the that suggests Andoni 76 “ The resurrection ofThe pan

- Arabism. “ maintaining martial laws and silencing dissent. silencing and laws martial maintaining ’ - Arabism, s 74 “ Taking the example of Egypt, Nafaa explains that that explains Nafaa ofEgypt, example Takingthe defection from the Arab system makes her a more a her makes systemArab from the defection –

or even for states states for even or ”

Al ” -

- Jazeera and aims to check the often the check to aims and States ’ - 73 Arab system and so has nothing to fear from fearfrom to nothing has so systemArab and , February 11, 2011, accessed October 26, 2016, 26, October accessed 2011, 11, February , concerns about the oppressive regimes who regimes oppressive the about concerns

This is an interesting position: Nafaa position: is an interesting This

’ . s day and the 2011 movement: 2011 the and day s

- Arab system. Arab 77

She argues that pan that argues She –

any longer. Instead, it is a way way a is it Instead, longer. any “ e Arabism, New - Arabism to to Arabism ” 75 75 - At the same time, time, Atsame the authoritarian power power authoritarian ” Even Fatah and and Fatah Even

“ http:// - disrupt the disrupt ” - Arabism was was Arabism Arabism, Arabism, an ideology ideology an ’ demands demands “ Then, Then, Al “ is is

- -

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 17

- governance. -

It is perhaps an attempt to close the gap  ” , ” - - opin

End of of End ‘ 152. Boul 152. - Arabism.

-

, February, 11,

s Thesis on the the on s Thesis .

’ 57, no. 2 no.(1978): 57, 355

Jazeera once national, now individual) has changed over time. In the mid ’” ’” Arab Nationalism in the in Nationalism Arab - The resurrection of pan of resurrection The

Arab Nationalism: A Re A Nationalism: Arab Arabism, the new Arab unity, is a step toward resolving that “ The End of Pan End of The “ - – Al Official Stories: Politics and and Politics Official Stories: “ ”

. Princeton and Oxford: Arabism and Arab Nationalism Arab and Arabism -

http://www.jstor.org/ Arabism.

- s s pan Pan ’

. Stanford: Stanford University Press, Stanford: . University Stanford

edited by Tawfic Farah, 133 Farah, Tawfic by edited 1987 Press, Westview der: sponse to Ajami sponse Pan In Twentieth Century: From Triumph to to Triumph From Century: Twentieth Despair 2003. Press, University Princeton National Narratives in Egypt and Alger and in Egypt Narratives National ia 2014. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/ ion/2011/02/201121115231647934.htm l. Arabism. 2016. 26, October 2011. Accessed Foreign Affairs Foreign 373.. stable/20040119

The target of political claims for recognition of rights (and, in a sense,

Hassan. Nafaa,

Adeed. Dawisha,

Brand, Laurie. Laurie. Brand,

Andoni, Lamis. Lamis. Andoni,

Ajami, Fouad. Fouad. Ajami, Works Cited Works

as a tomechanism lend coherence to popular for demands rights. inconsistency. The Arab Spring movement has shown that calls for Arab unity can be politically useful again: not as a tool to combat foreign dominance, but rather the the people who were today ostensibly supposed to benefit from independence, and behaviours by highlighting their alignment with movements for self There was a certain hypocrisy in fighting for national liberation while repressing twentieth twentieth century, it was Western powers like leaders Britain that or for many . years Now, have tried it to is justify or the sideline their own oppressive personhood between state nationalism and sentimentthe of the people, as by Nafaa.mentioned endured for the sake of that struggle. 18 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

4 3 2 1 Spring. Arab the to theirrelevance and Egypt in imperialism economic and American to cultural mayapplied be failure imperial against subalternrevolt of pattern historical this that arguing by concludes She groups. subaltern these by rebellion and resistance to led systematically of that empires failure ofthe as evidence disease, and between empire correlation the well as as QinaProvince, to agency economic political and provide to empires of inability the on focuses Abul minorities. religious women,and as peasants, groupssuch subaltern to applicable not universally are thus and elites, local and of imperial perceptions Abul forge capitalismto national identities. elitesof used colonized that theoryof Province. in Qina suchas those by its subjects accepted truth historical a than rather historians resultis a of effectiveness, oftheir in terms today, particularly interpreted deemed be may empires these arguethat world dependency, and ofimperialism earlytwenty twentiethand (1882 BritishEmpires Pasha Ottoman The (1500 Empire nation and identity national universalofa the rise spurred and successful were inEgypt that empires assumption the against argues She theirpresence. to responses local the and impacts; economic and social environmental, policies; groups. ofsubaltern agency the on overemphasis her and empire, goals of and nature the regarding assumptions her to failsdue Ratherit persuasive. be to groupsfails ofsubaltern by reactions measured the nation the of development the to approach classist takea to refusing by nationalism ofEgyptian romanticview a avoids and groupsis compelling subaltern on effectsofempire empire. against ofrevolt center as a here Egypt in imperialism of historiography the in periphery in found the Magd Abul groups. subaltern marginalized, by empire against ofrevolt examination Magd Empires: AHistory Construction: Empire andNation Ibid, p. 123 p. Ibid, Abul 3 p. Ibid, Abul Empire has for centuries provided a backdrop to Arab history. Zeinab Abul history.Arab Zeinab to backdrop a provided centuries for has Empire Abul - - Magd, p. 8 p. Magd, 3 p. Magd, - Magd argues that both empire and the Egyptian nation are theresult ofthe are nation the and Egyptian empire both that argues Magd ’ ’ ’

s Khedival Empire (1805 Empire sKhedival ofQina Egyptian province Upper the on focuses snarrative s - 124 Imagined Empires: A History of Revolt in Egypt in Revolt Historyof Empires: Imagined A - Magd studies empires in Qina Province by analyzing: their hegemonic hegemonic their analyzing: by Qina Province in empires studies Magd 3 “ ’

-

imagined communities, imagined This notion of This and the ruling class ruling the and 4

- “ system, postcolonial and subaltern studies approaches to to approaches studies subaltern and system,postcolonial non - 1950), as well as the informal American Empire of the late ofthe Empire American wellinformal the as as 1950), -

nationalist “ AnAnalysis of - - imagined empires imagined state, her argument that the success of empire may be ofempire success thatthe argument her state, first century all provide the backdrop for her analysisher for backdrop the provide all century first - 1800), French(1798 1800), Empire ’ s perception of themselves and their colonies, theircolonies, and ofthemselves sperception - 1848), the informal (1848 1848), ” -

” State as History and of Revolt in Egypt which argues that nations are the inventions theinventions are nations which that argues rebellion. 1 “

While Abul Magd While imagined, ” is inspired by Benedict Anderson Benedict by isinspired 2

Abul Riam Kim

” Imagined - meaning that how they are are howmeaningthey that Magd employs Marxist, employs Magd Marxist, -

provides a topical topical a provides 1801), MuhammadAli 1801), - 1882) and formal and 1882) ’ s analysis of the ofthe sanalysis - McLeod 4 –

Similarly,

a place often place a

–

but treated but treated

- - state. state. Magd Magd -

- ’ s

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 19

s

’

5 8 - Magd versa. existing - - - identity. ” Rather

6 Muslim s discussions of the “ ’ Magd response to imperialism that -

– who controlledwho the

However, similar to Upper this Egypt, state state is anot product popularof

- understandably emphasizes the 10

efforts to maneuver themselves into Istiqlalis ’ state. - states are necessarilynot produceda nation by state, and consequently other Arab nation Nonetheless, Hijazi King Abdullah managed - -

9

March 17th,March 2016 Nationalism was by built elites and state institutions

” 11 state. institutions such as the Council of Consultation of - not populistnot or romantic

” – Imagined Empires s ’ Additionally, instead seeingof nationalism as an

7 Magd s arguments about nationalism as an elitist response, rather than a

- ’ nationalist

“ implying implying that the is nation created the state by and vice not

130

- –

Magd argues that nation

- 185 148 - Magd Qusus Qusus who resented the Arab - - - 131 - called state state initially incurredwas ofat expense the native Transjordanians such as state state as a classist - - - Magd argues that the Egyptian nation Transjordan under the British Mandate, under Transjordan the British

“ - Magd, Magd, p. 125 - While a sideshow to her analysis empire,of Abul While Abul Abul

Ibid, Ibid, March 17th, 2016 Rogan, p. 184 Reilly, Reilly, Rogan, p. 147 Abul Ibid, p. 130 March 17th,Reilly, 2016

9 10 11 6 7 8 5 Egypt shouldEgypt been ablehave to develop a nationalist movement, given which, the shared historical experience, and insider of notion versus outsider, Upper then states, states, elitistwere movements on built existing state institutions rather than a nationalist movement. If restsnationalism on a sense territorialof homeland, social history Upperof Egypt and ProvinceQina also inadvertently supports her perception Egyptian the that nation interpretation theof nation often at theoften expense localsof or groups, insubaltern contrast to romantic the that produce nations nationalist view credence thus to Abul giving states, Awda al Awda Transjordanian government. nation using Petra, rootsIslamic the royal the of Hashemite family, and Arabism to legitimize the Transjordanian nation natural birthnatural a of national identity. to a forge national identity by emphasizing imagery, historical imagery Unlike Unlike Egypt, there existed no of sense territorial homeland, no shared historical experience, and no sense of insiders versus outsiders that could contribute to the formation of other of formation states. did a Arab national identity For in exist not example, Transjordan prior to formation its British by the following the First World War. method resistanceof to empire, evidencedis by the contemporaneousness Egypt Egypt the from Ottoman Empire, as to discourage as well a undifferentiated resistance to empire, author the provides evidence the that British under Lord Cromer in Egypt encouraged nationalism as a distancingmeans of infrastructure and introducing reformstax that Upperput would on similar Egypt footing toelites. the and statist, suiting the needs of Delta the and Cairo landowners. done This at was calculatedthe expense Upperof and includedEgypt sabotaging of irrigation that so that Representatives formed by Khedive Ismail1886 in not nationalist butwere elitist reacting toreacting empire, elites ratherbut propagatingby nationalism through state that be empire. by institutions arguesin may fact encouraged she For example, sum, sum, Abul nationalism produced was the elites by positions the with influence,most often expenseat the of their fellow nationals. In Rogan emphasizes the that development of Arab nationalism the in early twentieth century as a response to Ottoman Turkification and imperialism. Abul resistance to imperialism, isas presumed often by historians. For example, Eugene entity. This in is contrast to Anderson's theof view asnation imaginedan community is the the is compelling.most Romantic nationalism regards the nation as a pre analysis ofanalysis empire, in is it fact her analysisdevelopment the of of the Egyptian nation

20 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

16 15 14 13 12 Ali Pasha Muhammad non deemeda may be Empire the Ottoman analysis.Whereas blankether in types ofempire Abul empire. ofeach systems goals and differing ofthe regardless isreiterated, narrative This subalternrevolt. to leading thereafter, and destitution, and in plague resulting modernization, form of the in particularly intervention, of genericpattern a followed all Province in Qina empires she that argues differently. Instead, interpreted be groupsto subaltern on mayeffects their cause that bases different theoretical non between distinction Abul Empires, British and French,Khedival analyzeof to Ottoman, In empire. choosing the assumptionsnature the regarding empire. theorize to which from vantage best the is ofsubalterns perspective fromthe empires thatanalyzing claim her in persuasive be she to fails empire, Egypt their of intoUpper people the assimilating in succeeded fully analyzes she fiveempires ofthe thatnone argues convincingly she While colonizers. oftheir perceptions their groupsand subaltern are narrative their from Excluded ofthemselves. classes perception largelyEgypt is Upper in that empire Abul stated, As previously short. falls groups ofsubaltern reaction the through measurable is ofempire effectiveness the that claim her persuasive, of theelites. Egyptian nation Upper Abul supports This movement. nationalist Egyptian prevailingno Upper developed there oppression, imperial significant as well as outsiders, versus insiders of sense and symbols historical alike. elite nationalistic the and colonizer against the struggles liberating theirown on they embarked Thus, withepidemics. recurring them killed withand poverty them afflicted local elite corrupt northand hegemonic the them, For struggles. or discourses withpatriotic these identify mennot possibly could womenand writes, she century nineteenth late inthe movement nationalist the Egyptian to Inregards Lower and Egypt. ofUpper the populations between Abul Nonetheless,Muslims Christians. and Coptic Arab of combination a rather but population, homogenous not a Egypt,as itis oppression. fight against al bandit suchas the figureswith myth, to history almost transcended Egypt has also inUpper symbol banditry of The affiliation self Arab of theexample Particularly experience. historical shared Egyptunique, a Upper give distinctions . Arab the by ruled Lower fromEgypt, polity distinct a was whenit Ottomans the until and Egyptians ancient ofthe time since the distinct wetterDelta. thanthe in ofdesert prevalence greater weather, and hotter and its dryer to Egypt Lower due from distinct Egypt geographically is Upper clear, makes ofplague examination AsAbul statehood. to led have could perspective, nationalist romantic Ibid, p. 140 p. Ibid, 154 p. Ibid, 23 p. Ibid, 19 p. Ibid, Abul The distinction between insiders and outsiders is difficult to discern in Upper in discern Upper to difficult is outsiders and insiders distinction between The The first issue with Abul withfirst issue The Abul Although - Magd, p. 49 p. Magd, ” 16

Despite the caveats of nationalism such as distinct territorial homeland, territorial suchas distinct nationalism of caveats the Despite –

were given significant political agency was unseen in Lower Egypt. Lower in was unseen agency political weresignificant given - national dynastic empire, the French and British Empires and even even and Empires British and the French empire, nationaldynastic - Magd ’ - s Empire, were colonial. Muhammad Ali Pasha wereMuhammad colonial. sEmpire, state did not develop because it did not suit the interests interests not suit the it did because not develop did state - 12 15 - national dynastic empires and colonial empires, and their and empires, colonial and empires dynastic national ’ governance governance

s argument about the nation the about sargument

Historically, has also been geographically geographically been Egypt has also Upper Historically, - Magd - Magd overlooks critical differences between two between differences critical overlooks Magd - Magd ’ s concept of imagined empires isher empires imagined of sconcept ’ – “ s general view of the nation the view of sgeneral imagined

- wherein peasants, regardless of religious ofwhereinreligious regardless peasants, Khutt acting as symbols of a nationalist nationalist ofa symbols as Khutt acting - Magd makes no theoretical theoretical makesno Magd ” by historians by - Magd conveysseparation a - states as an elitist project is project elitist as an states ’ “ and the ruling ruling the and Qina - - state:an Magd argues argues Magd 13 ’ s subaltern subaltern s -

’ Magd These These s Empire sEmpire ’ s 14

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 21 s ’

s ’ In In 19 18 Unlike

Magd - 21 a fact the the a fact

national – Upper -

meaning that meaning

22 ” ” ” empires outside ” nineteenth nineteenth century, - modernized “ imagined

“

state state system, it made no national dynastic empires, - 17 - French sugarFrench company. - In the mid s Empires is considered colonial “ internal colonialism, meaning that meaning it economically ’ “ ” state state to one - Turkish EmpireTurkish s arguments for - Magd, the Magd,French the Empire entered in Egypt ’ - Magd - s s main market measures failed because the ’ Magd argues that, national dynastic empires, thereby undermining the s Ottomans - ’ - Qina based and on ethnic cultural differences internal colonialism, “ Finally, British both the informally and attempted formally ” Magd also undermines her argument that empire be may

-

s theoreticals take on empire, thereby undermining the 20 ’

coloniesby them after modelling the newly founded French ” Magd - national dynasticnational empire, Ottoman the Empire particularlyis out of 115, 131 115, 131

- -

modernize

“ 54 - liberate “ For example, Abul

s politicals and economic systems through a legislative council, modernized

’ Magd frames failure as being whenever a colonial empire to accountfails for

- Magd, Magd, p. 114 Magd, p. 121 Magd, Magd, p. 71 - - -

Conversely, Conversely, Abul As a non

Abul Abul Abul Ibid, Ibid, p. 3 Ibid, p. 53 47, Ibid, p. 87 20 21 22 17 18 19 discontented subalterns theof south fundamentally resented them. attempted neverbut penetrated Upper or in any Egypt closeway was to domination there. The empire Britain far beingwas from a successful informal empire in Upper Britain Egypt. detrimental to interests. its This a is accurate more understanding theof of goals empire. than informal than social or economic control, a revolt by disenfranchised colonial subjects does not necessarily constitute a failure for a colonial empire unless it is of subalternof groups. While this be true for may non since colonialunlike empires they depend far on more formal territorial rather the interests the of subaltern groups and is revolt,met with rather than failure being empires towhenever are their interests, ifunable atown the satisfy expense even the failuresthe colonialof empires accounting without for their imperialist goals. Abul evaluated based acceptance on its by subaltern groups by focusing too on much of a of colonial setting. distinguish them from non applicabilityuniversal of Abul due to ethnic due differences.to ethnic While efforts their failed,supporting thus Abul critical analysis empire,of their at attempts modernization through colonization ventures the as ventures agriculturalsuch and bank Anglo Ottomanthe Empire Egypt, in three colonial the empires attempted modernization modernization, such as through influencing Khedive Ismail to the Shariachange codelegal on private property tothat imitate theof British, capitalistand through them representation.them Egypt bureaucracy and reformed court that system taxed Upper allowingEgypt without Republic, believing Egypt to be a countrybackwards in need enlightenment.of MuhammadSimilarly, Ali part due intereststo economic and political competition with Britain, alsobut in order to contrast, the contrast,French, the Khedival and EmpiresBritish all attempted modernization inventures Qina. toAccording Abul attempt toattempt is claims essentialauthor the to of her overlooked empires. failure of analysis Province throughout rule its a two from crucial crucial difference between it and other the examples empireof althoughthat, is the Ottoman Empire changed the governing system in Upper and QinaEgypt place Abul in applicability her of argument to in otherMiddle empires Eastern history. One exploited internalan province to expand externally. Empire, colonial. Muhammadwere PashaAli based oftheory on the dynastic empire, the French and EmpiresBritish and even Muhammad Pasha Ali it economically exploited internal an province to expand externally. analysis.blanket Whereas the Ottoman Empire be deemedmay a non is consideredis colonial based theory on the of 22 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

25 24 23 nationEgyptian Upper theofan rise willlong Egypt cause any Upper that in revolt unlikely it is revolt, to leading failure of imperial perception her supports Spring Arab theaccompanying While Consensus. Washington States the nation ofempire, theories Abul agency. subaltern much on too emphasis places and ofempire, goals and nature the between notdistinguish shedoes since isless persuasive, groups ofthesubaltern on reactions based judged be should empires of effectiveness the argumenther that However, movement. nationalist Egyptian Upper an of the and lackof development Transjordan, in nationalism ofelitist study case nationalism,the support to try empires how by evidenced nation beyond. and East Middle in the ofempire success the understanding for necessary groupsis subalternon ofempire effects the analyzing Abul ofrevolt, tradition historyand a possesses Egypt indeed Upper that argues succinctly she While subalternrevolt. Abul support to needed theagency Qus al Ahmad saw that Ali Pasha against Muhammad revolt 1820 suchas the establishment, the ruling disrupted Sultan. Ottoman the by reinstated be to themfor flee,only themto forced family and Hawwara ruling against the revolted Egyptian whenpeasants Upper century, eighteenth on theeve of the occurred change regimeclosest ofto example revoltleading a Her theserevolts. by about brought change political clear a shearticulate does point no at however empire; against revolting groups ofsubaltern significance Abul groups. these of the agency of overemphasis her to due isunconvincing ofempire success the whenanalyzing groups of theory her argue that convincingly she to fails goals ofempires, ofthe perspective Abul Since empire. of its aims to essential notwas groups subaltern of lot improving the since goals, colonial economic and its political achieved partially theyleast at since weresuccessful empires formal and its informal both argue that to thus possible it is Britishperspective, grain. Egyptian for low prices off exploiting profited and freetrade theirideology of expanded nonetheless the British ofQina, thefor people success Ibid, p. 78 p. Ibid, 29 p. Ibid, 98 p. Ibid, “ However, while it may have been a humanitarian failure with little economic withlittleeconomic failure humanitarian a been while have may it However, Abul Abul Lastly, imagined 25 , none came close to truly providing the subaltern groups of Upper Egypt ofUpper groups subaltern the providing truly to close nonecame , ’ -

states as elitist movements rather than populist responses to oppression, oppression, to responses populist than movementsrather stateselitist as - informal empire propagated by economic development and the the and development economic by propagated empire informal

99 - Magd

”

empires is indeed an innovative lens with which to analyze empire. empire. analyze to which with lens an innovative isempires indeed ’ s - 24 Magd Imagined Empires Imagined

While many of the revolts described by Abul by described revolts many ofthe While ’ s argument for the importance of considering subaltern subaltern ofconsidering the importance for sargument - lasting detriment to the American Empire, nor resultAmerican nor Empire, thein to lasting detriment - - Salah briefly declare himself governor of Qina and ofQina and governor himself declare Salahbriefly state and revolt in Upper Egypt to the United to Egypt Upper in revolt and state - Magd -

- offers a persuasive argument for the rise of for the persuasiverise offers a argument that argue convincingly to fails thus Magd state.  ’ - s claim that empire was undermined by wasundermined empire that sclaim

Magd does not account for thisfor notaccount does Magd - Magd concludes by applying her byapplying concludes Magd - Magd emphasizes the the emphasizes Magd - Magd indeed indeed Magd 23

From a From

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 23

New York: York: New

. Berkeley: University of of University . Berkeley: Imagined Empires: A Empires: History Imagined

The Arabs: AThe Arabs: History. Transjordan under the British British the under Transjordan Class lecture, NMC378 (Modern (Modern NMC378 lecture, Class “ ”

of Revolt in Egypt ofRevolt 2013. Press, California Magd, Zeinab. Zeinab. Magd, Basic Books, 2011. Books, Basic - Mandate, Toronto, of University from History) Arab 2016. 17, March Eugene. Rogan, Reilly, James. James. Reilly,

Abul Works Cited Works 24 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

2007), 51. 2007), 10 would fruitionIt schools.come not and issuedto hisKing when until son, predecessor Royal a 2003 Muhammad VI, representspoliticala1994 9 fromthaw shiftMorocco or notorietygaveKabyle theirininpostcousinsAlgeriatheto staunchdefender ofpan bid to marginalize them from an independent, 8 and modern Arab 7 amazigh 6 5 4 ‘ 3 2 University Press, 2014), 203. 1 common destiny. fundamentalto the continuity of a collective cultural identityas is the sense of a discourse, collective commemorations, and rituals.Shared memories are as appropriate or instrumental past, andwhen NorthAfrica andwithin the Berber diaspora. identityhas been accompaniedby thefashioning of amemory most ethno University,specializing in Maghrebi politicalidentity studies, states that aswith external political actors. BruceMaddy faceted, and often contentiousphenomenon nationalist and Islamic linguistic recognition and respectwithin their corresponding,hegemonic Arab movementshave emerged because oftheir ongoingstruggle towin culturaland movement,which also callsfor greater political pluralism. “ injusticesserved, especially inthe post are seeking cultural and linguistic recognition aswell as retributionfor groups thathave withstood centuries of capitulation andsurrender, NorthAfrica presencewithin their respective nation Intrinsicto Maghrebi society and culture,Amazigh arestruggling for a bolstered the postcolonialnation broader NorthAfrican issue:the contentious articulation ofa twenty thousandyears, comprising nearlyfifty percent of Morocco population of theNorth African region,where theyhave resided for overfour immediate aftermath. noteworthy political subject inthe The Maghreb inNorth Africa is no exception, but ethnicity only became a a hallmark ofmany newly independent countries in post Discourses in Morocco Modern Amazigh Identity barboris In the early days of independence, Istiqlal (Morocco Ethnicity is demarcated by a commonlanguage, culture, historiography as well as ancestral experiences. Most Berbers are observant Muslims. Their conflict is not with IslamAnna Jacobs,but more with linguistic imperialismLike the in Egypt or the MaronitesBruce Maddy in Lebanon. Berbers refer to themselves as Imazighen. Amazigh is singular. Michael J. Willis, cultural and political demands through an increasingly vocal Pan BruceMaddy The Amazigh culturalmovement that has emerged since 1994 Political questions and conflicts regardingethnicity and languagehave become - ’ movement or barbaric. Tamazight refers to of which there are numerous dialects spoken throughout the Maghreb.

- five percent ofAlgeria. - “ Weitzman, ’ The Amazigh Movement and Democratic Reform: A Look at Morocco and Algeria, - s Weitzman, Power and Politics in the Maghreb: lgeria, A Tunisia and Morocco from Independence to the Arab Spring - - ‘ democratic national projects, original - Arabismprevent wouldin region,hethe periodicallythem rebelliousness the grant smallconcessions to The Berber Identity Movement and the Challenge to North African States

The Maghrib in the New Century: Identity, Religion and Century: Religion Politics Identity, Maghrib The inNew the

- reform ’ ” inhabitants in waya thatthe 1, 2 - - - look centered states. state. The Berber

- TheBerbers or morocco “ ’ s party of liberation) and the Monarchy were not willing to give the Amazigh their due the elaboration and dissemination ofmodern Berber ”

- algeria/. 4

The case ofthe “ ’ s King Hassan when he entertained the ideainsKing heHassanwhenof having theentertainedtaught Tamazight generation afterindependence, rather than in its

- Islamic “ - colonialperiod. Berber - ’ - Weitzman, a researchfellow at TelAviv 7, 8 snational narrative. Like many indigenous independence era. Berbers are asserting

Imazighen national state. But given Berber devotion and loyalty to Kinga Hassan, ” ‘

minority is deemed pejorative, stemming from the Romans who labeled them ‘ found, – ”

10 within itsmovement andwith

This involvesseeking an Imazighen ‘ ’ ’ majorities, 3 to consecrate it in new claim to be descendants ofthe represent the Judy AndrosoffJudy - ” colonialAfrica andAsia.

(Gainesville:UniversityFlorida of Press, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011), 1. (blog), July 18, 2014, http://muftah.org/ ” 6 ’

s population and is an illustration of a . Modern Berber

‘ ’ minority community, both in allegedly, arenot. 9 -

is amulti Amazigh “ indigenous

(New York: Oxford ’ identityin Dahir

- .

that that

in a ’

5 s

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 25

15 14 ” In In es also also es

colonial colonial ias 17 - ny was in play ny play in was ” zabeth Fentress zabeth Eli When When

11 ” related topics. related websites and and websites The post The

- Islamic Islamic hegemo “ - 13 (Bloomington: Indiana University Indiana University (Bloomington:

The recapturing and and recapturing The , ed. Kevin Lacey (New York: Peter Lang, Lang, Peter Lacey (New York: , Kevin ed. Islamism. that drove many indigenous languages to to languages extinc- indigenous many that drove - ” s books. Music recordings and and recordings Music books. s in 1956, Berber speakers speakers Berber 1956, in

’

There is a current internet internet current a is There 12

16 ’ 18 killer languages killer “ colonial academics, wanting to to wanting academics, colonial ” -

Post state. - , are alive with debates about Amazigh about debates Amazigh are , with alive Net - official language official ‘ Fortunately for scholarship and Berbers, discourse discourse Berbers, and scholarship for Fortunately uniqueness drove researchers away from Berber Berber from away researchers drove uniqueness “ Berbers and Others: Beyond Tribe and Nation in the Maghrib the in Beyond Nation and Tribe Others: and Berbers Essentially Amazigh: Urban Berbers and the Global Village Global the and Berbers Amazigh:Essentially Urban

Islamic state in 1962 when the constitution was written. However, Arab written. constitution was the 1962 in when state Islamic

- , 3. Amazigh a Berber Berber a

building and the of language, education, and media media and education, language, of Arabization the and building - March 9, 1956. March

– Berbers and Others and Berbers Islamic backdrop to which Berbers belong. Katherine Hoffman from from Hoffman Katherine belong. Berbers which to backdrop Islamic Since the political openness of 1994, Amazigh cultural associations associations cultural Amazigh 1994, of openness political the Since -

“ .

urban Berber migration further reduced the number of Tamazight speakers speakers Tamazight of number the reduced further migration Berber urban -

Islamic landscape and renegotiating the balance between Arab nationalism nationalism Arab between balance the renegotiating and landscape Islamic

- making and essentializing of the Berber spirit. Promoting culture and a a and culture Promoting spirit. Berber the of essentializing and making and insights regarding the Amazigh project. Amazigh the regarding insights and to

Arab components of North African society and culture received even less less even received culture and society African North of components Arab - - - The Berbers Today, along with the growing literature in this field of study, study, of field this in literature growing the with along Today, This paper will discuss the historical contributions to Berber identity identity Berber to contributions historical the discuss will paper This The reopening of North African history to include Berbers challenges and and challenges Berbers include to history African North of reopening The

Ibid., 118. Ibid., Hoffman and Miller, and Hoffman E. Hoffman, and Katherine Crawford David Katherine E. Hoffman and Susan Gilson Miller, Susan Gilson and E. Hoffman Katherine an Arab itself declared officially Morocco Arab b and Urban urban Arab and the Morocco. Morocco rural Berber the mountainous : two created essentially Migration This linguistic imperialism also rings true for English, French, Spanish, and other and other Spanish, French, English, for true also rings imperialism linguistic This Brett and Michael by Berbers book on firstscholarly the English publication of the 1996 in with ended drought academic This This adverse environment inhibited the academic study of Berber of study academic the inhibited environment adverse This called called 17 2000), 118. 18 tion. 15 16 13 dialect. asaTamazight backward constructed 14 Press, 2010), 2. Press, 2010), 12 after independence shortly outside of (the capital) have proliferated. have capital) (the Rabat of outside 11 video reproductions featuring Berber culture are also lucrative and burgeoning burgeoning and lucrative also are culture Berber featuring reproductions video enterprise. Morocco, Tamazight writings have shifted from academia to include more more include to academia from shifted have writings Tamazight Morocco, children and literature poetry, of books popularized discussion groups, like like groups, discussion society. and history Maghrebi in Imazighen of place the and consciousness Internet languages. several in matters Berber on information carry now blogs and knowledge production have progressed over the last twenty years, with fresh fresh with years, twenty last the over progressed have production knowledge and ideas attention during the Cold War. War. Cold the during attention “ Non processes of state of processes sphere. public the in place its finding from language and culture Berber prohibited rural communities. indigenous their with touch lose to began also who concealed, rebuffed and even abandoned their Amazigh culture and ancestry by by ancestry and culture Amazigh their abandoned even and rebuffed concealed, of acceleration The . dialectal to Berber from away use language their shifting Morocco asserted Arabic as its its as Arabic asserted Morocco . Emphasizing Islam. Arabo of program ideological safer the toward and topics distance themselves from racialized French scholarship, were understandably understandably were scholarship, French racialized from themselves distance and Arabs demonized which stereotypes, colonial sustaining about apprehensive fifty years, ideas about Berber particularism or distinctness were constructed by by constructed were distinctness or particularism Berber about ideas years, fifty policies. and literature strategies, colonial larger Arab larger over For area. this in scholarship of dearth past the explains University Northwestern the and states African North current by disseminated history official the disputes and Berber identity in a pluralist nation pluralist a in identity Berber and reclaiming and rewriting history on their terms, creating a new discourse in an an in discourse new a creating terms, their on history rewriting and reclaiming Arabo of Moroccan society. Examining the current progress and challenges of Amazigh Amazigh of challenges and progress current the Examining society. Moroccan of undertaking: their of enormity the demonstrate will Morocco in workers cultural geography or temporal space. The more success in the course of remembering, remembering, of course the in success more The space. temporal or geography entirety the for significance the greater the history, Berber inventing and recouping myth imagined an of existence the is as paramount, are language Amazigh of continuity environments to consider for Berbers searching a usable past. past. usable a searching Berbers for consider to environments of degree sizeable a require memory and history Berber accurate an of advocacy attention to Morocco. , and in this case Morocco, has many historical historical many has Morocco, case this in and Africa, North Morocco. to attention construction, highlighting key periods and events that have come to shape the the shape to come have that events and periods key highlighting construction, particular paying Maghreb, the in identity Berber modern and memory collective

26 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

ningwitharrival inAD,establishmentthe Islamthe788 Idrisid of of the of descendentMohammad.Idrisa Dynasty, being itappearshistory,caninas incorporatingnationalist/dynasticis officialeducationcurriculum, Moroccan historical experi 32 31 30 29 28 - 27 no.3 255. (2013):13, 26 writein Arabic, as part of the 25 24 23 22 21 Studies 20 19 Amazigh Origin Myths profoundly influence nearly everyfacet oftheir lives. adopting Islam intotheir beliefs and customs. Over previous Berber institutions; instead, itwas integrated into avibrant Berber culture, imagination, Islam their identity, The Islamization of Berberswas not the end of theirstory asit did not layeredwith otherforms of political, social and cultural identity inthe region. that illiteratetribesmen. pre Imazighenstress that theyhave more than just asingle history and highlight their bondingwith the past, thus widening the Amazigh sense of cultural identity. Arab,identity. nationalnarrative, by affirmation of objectives ofAmazigh activism andmemory work is to counter the dominant have inhabited NorthAfrica for thirty MohammedChafik, a leadingAmazigh activistfrom Rabat, claims making it difficult tonegate pejorative dominantArab nationalist discourses. The scarcity ofwritten Tamazight text placesmemory work at a disadvantage, Islamichistory is complicatedand tedious as Berberswere mostly an oral culture. Islamicfaith to justifytheir mission and assumption of power. legitimized theirinclusion in the history, which provided them with an Eastern and Arab “ histories, Berbershave been characterized as barbaric andsavage, requiring a anotherwith stronger,more advanced civilizations. lingual and always part of the NorthAfrica, Berbers misrepresented them. writing and situatingthemselves into thehistories theyinsist have overlooked or declarations andmanifestos conservatism. “ revival of cultural performances is renewing oral traditions, and highlightingthe accommodate the demands of thenational and transnational Berber community. campaignlobbying Google Translateto integrate Tamazightinto itssoftware to Islamic past, datingIslamic Romans,the past, to Carthaginiansback Greeks, and Egypt. evenPharaonic civilizing hand. conflicts ofcontemporary Moroccan identity torn betweenglobalization and If there was any semblance of a collective memorywasanythere If ofcollective semblanceapre of the Maddy Atia,Cornwell and Maddy Atia,Cornwell and intellectualslikeredefine Berber seek ChafikMaghrebito memoryidentity bycollectiveand re Atia,CornwellGraham MonaH. and example, ArabFor nationalist RachidIdrissi that asserts combatively 55. Ibid., Maddy Maddy and Crawford Hoffman, Jay. Cleo has already Berbers.forlinguisticFacebook thismade accommodation MayaSchatzmiller, amedieval historian at Western University,writes that The task of Berbermemory work is daunting. Over thecourse ofhistory in - Berbers insistthey have resided in NorthAfrica for avery long time. Islamic pastwhere theywere not “

21, no. 1 (2016): 69. no.1 (2016): 21, Islamisation didnot sweep through an emptylandscape, but ratherwas - - - - Weitzman, Weitzman, Weitzman, Weitzman,

“ Playing the Berber: the performancethe Berber: the of Playing Amazighidentitiesin Morocco, contemporary The Maghrib, The Maghrib The Maghrib The Berber The Identity “ “ ” Imaginative Geographies,Imaginative Geographies,Imaginative “ ” 20 norfringe it to a perfectstate. 28 Essentially Amazigh, EssentiallyAmazigh,

” ThisAmazigh renaissancehas produced a deluge of compelling

Chafikmaintains that embracing pre ummah. 23 ’

” sseventh They are particularlyweighed down bythe 29 , 52. , 55. , ”

52. 52.

“ BothAmazigh intellectuals andmemory workers emphasize 21

have straddledmultiple worlds; they have beenmulti

“

Imaginative Geographies of Amazigh ActivisminAmazighGeographiesMorocco, of Imaginative , 202. , “

- aboutwho they are andwhy itmatters. Imazighen are century arrival in NorthAfrica did not devastate ” 258. ” 256. ” 119. ‘ other,

ummah

“ ’ NorthAfrica “ - engaged in oneform ofaccommodation or three centuries. merely voiceless, namelessfoot soldiers and - Islamic epochs among the BerberIslamictheit amongpopulations, disappeared.Moroc- epochs , albeit as a primitivecommunity requiring Berbersbegan to have a collectivememory when theylearned to ”

31

I nthe Amazigh ’ shistorical Amazigh, andnot ” time,however, Islamwould 22 32 ”

- Innearly all recorded 26, 27 Islamic history allowsfor

‘

origin myth One of the central - historicizingMoroccanBerber ” The Journal of North African Journal of The ” ” 24 Social and CulturalGeographyand Social ’ “ shistorical legacy of Islamic

Recovering pre “ ’ Imazighen that marginalize enc

- 25 e begin-e ”

30

’ spre 19

-

A

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 27

a h ion. ion. sts n, n, The The dit

lowers of of lowers fol after the the after

e Berbers Berbers e ed based in the the in based

th

linguistic linguistic as as barbariyya - to be aware of events events of aware be to -

ve ve

were were adopted. Despite the slow and and slow the Despite fitna al fitna

- , considered to be a sin according , a to sin considered be lambasting Berbers as as Berbers lambasting

al

33, 34 33, madrasa ” 36 Ummah ”

hadiths myth myth making. Arab origin. It should be noted that these various various these that noted be should It origin. Arab - ’ Islamic Almoravid dynasty assumed power in the eleventh eleventh the in power assumed dynasty Almoravid Islamic origin in the East occurred because the relationship between between relationship the because occurred East the in origin - ’ succumb to the Arab conquest conquest Arab the to succumb

led revolts, starting in 740, against against 740, in starting revolts, led “ . - land reform and the reform and land

Andalusian genealogists, during this this during genealogists, Andalusian -

waqf Based on sources used by Ibn Khaldun, Khaldun, Ibn by used sources on Based interaction and resistance, creativity and and creativity resistance, and interaction Ummah

“ 38 Eastern historians and genealogists made the trek to the Maghreb. the to trek the made genealogists and historians Eastern ’ (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2000), Publishers, 3. Wiener (Princeton: Markus

development and chronicling of the myth of of myth the of chronicling and development Shatzmiller links these tirades to ethnic tensions in in tensions ethnic to tirades these links Shatzmiller “

origins, ‘ 42 was one of of one was Countless Berber Countless

’ The genesis of the myth of the Berbers the of myth the of genesis The but even this did not indicate a mass cultural mass a indicate not did this even but 41

” during two specific medieval periods, by three different different three by periods, medieval specific two during politics over Berber origins were bound up from the onset onset the from up bound were origins Berber over politics

56. 56. 35 “ Arab Eastern origin myth in favor of a Western, Iberian Iberian Western, a of favor in myth origin Eastern Arab ”

37 ’ ” Within the first period, there was much debate among Arabs Arabs among debate much was there period, first the Within p. 25. Islamic reforms such as the as such reforms Islamic 25. p. 17. Arab Muslims to the privileged status of Arabs within the status within Arabs toof Muslims the privileged Arab

- process ‘ 39 Arab genealogies were fabricated to safeguard social status and and status social safeguard to fabricated were genealogies Arab A local Iberian origin narrative was proffered by a rival ethnic group group ethnic rival a by proffered was narrative origin Iberian local A

The Berbers and the Islamic the Islamic State and The Berbers The Berber Identity, Identity, Berber The 40 century, these were several small Berber dynasties but the Berber the but dynasties Berber small several were these century, 44

. th in the seventh century. The did not not did The century. seventh the in from distinct Islamic regions. Islamic distinct from ’ Arab origin, Arab The State, Islamic The State, Islamic Kharijites, at odds with the exalted Berbers as pure and devoted pure as Berbers the and UmayyadMuslims. odds Kharijites, exalted at caliphate with ’ demonstrates the hostility and desire of the former to block the sharing of of sharing the block to former the of desire and hostility the demonstrates ’

In the 9 the In

43 century Andalusia, where Arabs perceived Berbers as as Berbers perceived Arabs where Andalusia, century Weitzman, Weitzman,

- Shatzmiller, - ubiyya Islamic Berber religions rested on pagan beliefs and deities often developed locally were developed and time throug throughand often deities influenced locally rested beliefs Berber religions on Islamic pagan Islamic statehood through bilingual practices and the introduction of Islamic Islamic of introduction the and practices bilingual through statehood Islamic Schatzmiller states, states, Schatzmiller ’ - Concurrently, there was the the was there Concurrently, “

Conversely, Conversely, way of genealogi toPalestine. orWestern thatway by Andalusian their Africa North Eastern genealogists decided made Berbers toRefers non the by responses Shatzmiller, Shatzmiller, Shatzmiller, Maya Maya Pre Ibid., 21. These schools, comprised of historians and genealogists succeeded one another in chronological order. The East nam East The order. chronological in another one succeeded genealogists and historians of comprised schools, These 21. Ibid., Ibid., 56. Ibid., Ibid., 22. 22. Ibid., Maddy Ibid., 25. Ibid.,

schools universe Islam. It was a direct response to the Quraysh privilege to lead the toprivilege the Quraysh lead to It response Islam. a direct was determined Berbers hailed from Yemen. hailed Berbers determined from 44 among all used to equality it the Kharijites century. of the word use ninth before The bring Islam. the of tenetsto existed 42 43 center and periphery in the Islamic empire was changing. For Arab historians who lived in the center, to gain knowledge about knowledge gain to center, the in imperati was lived it who As rule. historians Islamic Arab of For years changing. early was the in empire them to Islamic the in unavailable was it periphery as and center difficult was lands their Berber of and version themselves their formulate to periphery the in 41 century, continuing with the Almohads in the twelfth and the Marinids in the thirteenth century. thirteenth the in Marinids the and twelfth the in Almohads the with continuing century, 40 academics who lived there ceded its place to the Andalusian school based in Muslim Spain. A third one, the Ifriqiya school, w school, Ifriqiya the one, third A Spain. Muslim in based school Berbers Andalusian the competitive. of the to became myth place the of its ceded historiography history and there lived chronological who narratives the their in academics thus, phase and first the origin their on completed Maghreb, disagreed myths origin Berber of schools 39 37 37 38 contact with traditional African religions, Judaism and . Christianity. Judaism religions, and African traditional contact with 35 36 tradition that carried through to King Hassan II in 1960. His son and current king, Mohammed VI has broken away tra from away this VI broken and son currenthas IIHassan Mohammed throughking, that 1960.to in His tradition King carried derive Berbers markers that nation upon this which one of point The here is many is 33 34 Although Berbers are subsumed in this history, they carry some standing as the Idrisids Berber are wome known the to as standing Idrisids some this they have married carry are Berbers subsumed history, Although in shu political the demonstrates power, sharing from community Berber the prevent to political, economic and social power by Berber groups, who they accused of of accused they who groups, Berber by power social and economic political, period, of the Berbers the of period, origin tenth Arab by denial The warriors). (quarrelsome Islamic authorities prompted an abundance of forged forged of abundance an prompted authorities Islamic Islam. of enemies duplicitous issues. political extant of myth of origin in the Maghreb. But, a Berber myth of origin existed well before the the before well existed origin of myth Berber a But, Maghreb. the in origin of myth one. with them provided chroniclers Arab other cultural articulations in Amazigh authenticating their existence or proving a a proving or existence their authenticating Amazigh in articulations cultural other material advantages to justify the usurpation of power, or to legitimize political political legitimize to or power, of usurpation the justify to advantages material any or traditions oral texts, written tree, family a leave not did Berbers The action. from the East, during the Abbasid empire, grappled with the historical invisibility of of invisibility historical the with grappled empire, Abbasid the during East, the from Berbers. the fifteenth centuries. fifteenth geographers and Historians postulation. of shortage no with origin, Berber regarding Schatzmiller, provides us with two consecutive periods in myth development. myth in periods consecutive two with us provides Schatzmiller, to twelfth the from second the and century, twelfth the to ninth the from period first Berbers ‘

digression, evolution and disruption, a continuous process of negotiation between between negotiation of process continuous a disruption, and evolution digression, power. state and identity over society and individual the norms and institutions, and norms The acculturation. thirteenth century Marinid Dynasty that Berbers were brought into the mainstream mainstream the into brought were Berbers that Dynasty Marinid century thirteenth of uneven linguistic, cultural, and religious assimilation over centuries, there is a a is there centuries, over assimilation religious and cultural, linguistic, uneven the until not was It Africa. North of Arabization the to contestation simultaneous resistance both to Islam and to Arab political dominance. political Arab to and Islam to both resistance ‘ Berber of period a by followed was conquest initial the and fight a without Berbers were not immediately aware that they were becoming part of the Islamic Islamic the of part becoming were they that aware immediately not were Berbers 28 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

his remains returned to the from Egypt. Amazighmemory overall MoroccanAmazigh discourse andthe more localRiffian one aswell. connectedto the themes ofmarginalization and identity denial that characterize the ofAbdelkrim andhis short legacyalso jolted thelarger Amazigh memory project: imagealong with Tamazightslogans demanding democratization.Abdelkrim rock status among Moroccan Berberyouth who carried placards bearinghis of Berber Pride, during the 2012 Arab protests thatswept NorthAfrica, assuming threaten tomanipulate them orsweep themaway. reinforcetheir identities against the constant push endeavor to resuscitatinghis anti liberation movements. Spanish and Frenchimperialism in theRif Mountains inspired globalnational to a modern discourse. appropriating and adapting the legacies of mythical Berberdisseminating individuals andBerber adapting culture it that bears his name. “ crossed theStrait of Gibraltar in 711AD into Iberia. Africa and Spain. Tariq binZiyad, afabled Berber commander of Umayyadforces, the ranks ofconquerors aswell as in the dissemination of Islam in both Northern indigenous resistance to the Muslim conquest ofthe Maghreb. among the Imazighen as the Berberwarrior queen and religiousleader who led an kingdom Numidia. prince captured and raised by JuliusCaesar and then subsequentlygiven his own shortage. Berber literature andchildren celebrating ancientAmazigh heroes and symbols, and there appears to be no Amazigh Commemorations and Symbols history or past. Amazighmasses, and Islamizationleft most Berberswith no awareness of their long lost cousins tothe fold. Muslim conquests in NorthAfrica, fostering a reunion Anointing Berberswith Arab origins servedto wash over thebenign details ofthe to their socialstatus and accommodation to overarching Islamic norms. the officialhistory of their conversion to Islam, in the act of simultaneous resistance power of Islam of the time. 57 56 55 Berberregionofsuppressiontribesthe and ultimate intervention. required whose French 54 53 52 51 50 Maghreb. Anand hisarts. allyforbythe ofBerbershonored Romeand ofvery scholarlyareGreece plethora of Jubawork, proud 49 lineages. 48 47 46 45 wasdirectaIslam. response It to leadQuraysh the privilegeto the existedto tenets ofthe Islam.bringThe beforeninth use word ofthe century. theKharijitesit equality to used allamong 44 pantheon of Berber heroes and is epitomized by the Rabat cultural center and school

Maddy Bruce Maddy Maddy leadersInfluenced Movement NationalHo suchas andinThe school culturalopened center 2013. 53. Ibid., Maddy knownThe region asNumidia. Maddy 33. Ibid., 33. Ibid., Maddy politicalthe fromideologyThisto constructed refers Islamreligion theitself. than A prolific scholar and fluent inAfluentandprolificandGreek both Latin,scholar books numerous Juba wrote history,archeology, on geography,natural h Refersto responsesbythe non Abdelkrim al Keyto memory work andrestoring the Berbernarrative is historicizingand -

- - - Weitzman,

Weitzman, Weitzman, Weitzman,

- Weitzman, - Weitzmanclaims The Maghrib “ The Maghrib The Maghrib The Berber The Identity re 48 - “ create and protect images andmemory sites that allowgroups to A Turning Point? The Arab Spring and the Amazigh Movement,

-

Khattabiis a Berber herofrom the 1920s,whose fightagainst workers in Morocco have been trying, for several decades, to have 49 , 58. Collective memory can also be selective -

-

Arab Muslims to the privileged status Arab ofprivilegedMuslimsArabsthestatus to within the Kahina is another heroine, holding special mythical status colonialaccomplishments is part of theAmazigh movement , 52. , 53. ,

54 what remained for Berbersforremained fabricated includedtheirwere Sharifiantribal what which genealogies,

Abdelkrim has been sidelined by Moroccan history, so , 34. , - 45 lived Republicis an ongoing project, intimately

” The Berber responsewas to 47

Competing originmyths never trickled down to the - Chi - MinHisCheGuevara. and wouldRifian temporarilyRepublic the unite ’ s booksfeature Juba, theLibyan Ummah

57

– .

it is as much about forgetting as it is about remembering. While

” 52, 53 - ” pull ofhistorical currentsthat 55 51

Abdelkrim becamea symbol

Memory work involves ” He, too, Ethnic and Racial Studies

“ “ basedon the return of the the recovery of thehistory Ummah “ deconstruct and rebuild , considered to beconsideredsinto a , according 50 belongs in the Berbers engaged in

38, no. 14 (2015), 2504. ” - 46 born ’

s legacyins the fol lowersof ” ’ 56 s ist

ory ’ s

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 29

- while while olitical olitical 950 BCE. 950 a of of a n other forms other forms ash “ a and, and, a ’ a courts courts a ’ Arab Arab

created in 1997, 1997, in created 63 “ century.

controlled and directed and controlled p st -

Amazigh dichotomy dichotomy Amazigh

colonial Morocco until until Morocco colonial The Journal of Journal African North Studies The - - s states, elites and general population and general s states, elites ’ 62 they could tolerate, tolerate, could they

The flag is a pervasive pervasive a is flag The ” ’

58 1996),” James McDougall writes that that writes McDougall James - a law and erroneously erroneously and law a ” , ed. K. van Nieuwkerk, Mark Levin and Martin Martin and Levin Mark Nieuwkerk, van K. ed. ,

’

policy toMoroccopolicy in Algeria, further and contestations. race

’ 64 ‘ ” script, back dating to the fourth read more like a punishment, punishment, a like more read (1930 65, 66 65, Dahir Dahir Dahir

divide divide and rule ‘ Tifinagh s century identity. century ’ It is these allegories of resistance and pre and resistance of allegories these is It consistent with maintaining them in a state state a in them maintaining with consistent -

Weitzman says that reciprocal actions by with Berbers that by actions says reciprocal Weitzman “ - Islam and Popular Culture Popular and Islam 59 in in . ” first - a and customary law among Berbers was a norm and only only a red became a and among flag norm was Berbers a and customary law ’ will be how key MoroccoAlgeria in and will ness

- ” . It allows them the capacity to become effective effective become to capacity the them allows It

scholars, who knew little about the Amazigh, noted noted Amazigh, the about little knew who scholars,

Amazigh activists with a forum to illustrate their deep their illustrate to forum a with activists Amazigh The most divisive clause of the decree stated that in in that stated decree the of clause divisive most The 60

“

Dahir instigated mass urban protests against French rule and and rule French against protests urban mass instigated would benefit the Berbers, who would subsequently subsequently would who Berbers, the benefit would ”

61 . s plan to separate the Berbers from the Arabs was a a was Arabs the from Berbers the separate to plan s ’ underdevelopment, keeping them isolated from urban life and and life urban from isolated them keeping underdevelopment, Dahir Dahir constructed by the French as a a as French the by constructed

Dahir - Islamic symbolsIslamic like , 52. ,

- autochthonous a. This gross misunderstanding by the French and their subsequent subsequent their and French the by misunderstanding gross This a. ’ ” ” 20. Pre tribal, national and religious tribal, national

– Berber attachment to Islam was superficial. was Islam to attachment Berber s occupation of Morocco. The The Morocco. of occupation s ’ “

The Maghrib The The conscious adoption of symbols is meant to demonstrate Amazigh Amazigh demonstrate to meant is symbols of adoption conscious The The Berber Dahir of 1930 in Colonial and NowMorocco:of Dahir 1930 Colonial Then Berber The in

Visual Culture and the Amazigh Renaissance, Amazigh the and Culture Visual “ “ Dahir is a holiday that marks the first manifestation of Berber civilization in recorded history: the conquest of Pharaonic Egypt i Egypt Pharaonic of conquest the history: recorded in civilization Berber of manifestation first the marks that holiday a is

Weitzman, Weitzman, The Berber Dahir, The

means decree.means 1930 Berber The decree partwas France of -

“ French authorities attempted to institutionalize Berber customary law at the the at law customary Berber institutionalize to attempted authorities French David M. Hart, an ethnologist, specializing in the Berber tribes of the Rif, claims claims Rif, the of tribes Berber the in specializing ethnologist, an Hart, M. David

exist and accept the complex and interconnected political, economic and social tensions the social of 21 and economic and acceptpolitical, interconnected the and exist complex - For Arabs and Berbers alike, the practice of of the both and practice alike, ForBerbers Shari Arabs Hart, to antithesis as a and palpable a constructof itself state Current is finds modernity Berber identity Dahir David M. Hart, Yennayer Maddy Cynthia Becker, Becker, Cynthia rooted history and to fashion a coherent and usable historical narrative complete complete narrative historical usable and coherent a fashion to and history rooted

co and social life, as well as hostile political Islamist trends. Maddyastrends. Islamist well hostile political as social life, and affiliation collective of when the French made it an issue in the Berber the Berber the French an made issue when it in 64 65 entrench themselves and delineate good Berbers recalcitrant Arabs. themselves and good delineate from Berbers entrench 62 2, (1997): no.2 13. 63 59 59 60 61 , rarely gets a mention in Amazigh work. Amazigh in mention a gets rarely Marrakesh, 100. 58 2016), Press, Texas of University (Austin: Stokes Abdelkrim remains highly revered among the Imazighen, Thami El Glaoui, who personified colonial collaborator and became the P the became and collaborator colonial personified who Glaoui, El Thami Imazighen, the among revered highly remains Abdelkrim Berber identity was re was identity Berber communities. Arab from separated simultaneously removed from modernisation and political discourse. political and empire, Arab modernisation and from conquest removed their of part as Arabs by invented been have Berbers as just with Berbers on the losing end and was was and end losing the on Berbers with and stagnation rural of serious flaw in colonial policy. Berbers played leading roles in the grand battles that that battles grand the in roles leading played Berbers policy. colonial in flaw serious France ended not occur and that France that and occur not nationalists feared the the feared nationalists did latter the history, of reading careful upon that insists Hart Arabs. the against rally galvanized the Arab national movement. Berbers, mostly opted for Shari for opted mostly Berbers, movement. national Arab the galvanized the in heard rarely were voices their ironically, expense of Shari of expense the of implementation deduced that that deduced customary Berber law. French French law. Berber customary Shari alongside practice customary observing Berbers would cease to have jurisdiction and separate courts would be set up according to to according up set be would courts separate and jurisdiction have to cease would with the 1930 Berber Berber 1930 the with Shari speaking, Berber was population the of majority the where areas the debate over the Amazigh identity was not evident in pre in evident not was identity Amazigh the over debate the Arab an manufactured protectorate French the of authorities Berber Berber Amazigh culture and vibrant twenty vibrant and culture Amazigh organizers and agitators for the Amazigh movement and not mere casualties of Arab Arab of casualties mere not and movement Amazigh the for agitators and organizers robust a launched have symbols and heroines heroes, Immortalizing subjugation. with commemorative rituals. commemorative with Islamic symbols that provide provide that symbols Islamic - script and homage to heroes, Berber holidays have also been resurrected as further further as resurrected been also have holidays Berber heroes, to homage and script Amazigh to claim Tamazight. Tamazight. symbols, of revival a to addition In Arabs. from uniqueness their and indigeneity century century BCE, at appropriatedwas first Amazigh for the flag and propaganda purposes and now is the official script adopted for writing teaching, and reading in the diaspora. the in at the Amazigh World Congress in the . Canary the in Congress World Amazigh the at and nationally both movement linguistic and cultural Amazigh the by adopted icon Over the years, symbols have emerged, such as the Amazigh flag, flag, Amazigh the as such emerged, have symbols years, the Over 30 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

73 72 71 70 69 ter, as they wereseen as a threat to Istiqlal supported themovement to re 68 67 mutualBerbergeneral solidarity,customaryland to accordinglaw, vanished with confiscation. negativeyieldedsocialon effectslife. culturalandKeydemonstratedits holidays sharingland,traditionalharthe that of BerbersocietyTheAmazighwasFrench organized. overturned traditionsAppropriation land communal and rights. ofla communal 66 79 78 77 76 75 plainspre and and ArabiantheEgypt fromintolargeendhelpedPeninsulathecenturylanguage tenthArabic of spreadthe portions ofth 74 the state was notwilling to relinquish. viewed as a serious threat to Moroccan official culture andhigh political Arabic identity,culture. which impediment to urban civilization that strongly identifieswith language, and the sheer numbers of Tamazight speakers, wascontroversy considered testedan the power of the state and Islamwhere Qur the tenacity of the Berber unpleasant events from early Islamic history. banned in Morocco until 2003. context. “ as Friday prayers were delivered in Tamazight and used in cementedreligious their books, Berber Berber spoken for as long as they existed in the Maghreb, and identity. Here they draw from the historical evidence that Tamazight has been Language, a Royal alive. to the determination of the Imazighen to keep their linguisticculture, and concernedcultural withpractices preserving cultural and linguisticdiminished, traditions, therewas an increase in the Berber languages had been downgraded to rural dialect and policiesthe number of of Arabization speakers diminished the number of speakers,Berber significantly. speakers constituted two to the construction of contemporary identity politics. culturalPrior to exchangesthe 1912 betweenTreaty Arabof Fez, and Amazigh populations inwell this asphase limitwas its crucial capacity to forge legitimate institutions.building, weakening the Moroccan state following independence Malaki praxis and primacy to the Arabic language. dialects under the rubric of a homogeneous national identityincorporate based on heterogeneous,Sunni Islam, tribe authority and its indigenous populations. Morocco credentials. Moroccowho were challenged to demonstrate their patriotic- and anti the decree in 1934, Berbers, and constructed set of original and charactermythology, created obstacles for Berbers in AlgeriaQur the translated Berbers,in large numbers, fought with theLiberation Army to oust the French, highlighting their supra SamirBen Atia,Cornwell and wasbriefathere RomanDuringoccupation, Latin the switch to by elites. 68. Ibid., Maddy BruceMaddy Maddy fromfundamental colonial but Separate decree, primaryBerberaaround thewasconfiscation to theland, practice, offactor defending the legitimacy of their language and speaking population in a religious Ben Refersto tyrannynon the newlyUmayyad the toward of Caliphs converted Maddy Hart, The Berber For current activists, the Tamazight language is the cornerstone of Berber culture - ’ Layashi, anwas already translated into numerous languages, so why not Tamazight? “

TheDahir,Berber - - - Weitzman, Weitzman, Weitzman,

-

Islamic dynasties - ” Layashi, - 75 desert plateaus,was and incompletelydesert Morocco becontinues Arabized. to - “ Weitzman,

Secularism, But, fast ” 67, 68 the schism it generated is still palpable. Although The Berber The Identity Berber The Identity The Berber The Identity, “ “ Imaginative Geographies,Imaginative Secularism in the Moroccan AmazighinDiscourse, SecularismMoroccan the Dahir

” 16. ” Independence delivered a new set of controversies between the state ’ “ an into into inwithanassistanceTamazight the Religious 2007 Affairs of Ministry. - ” 167. ” Ethno install Mohammed V as the king ofindependent Morocco. Istiqlalhad Berberleaders killed, shortly Dahir its policy of dividing Berbers from Arabs, - ”

forward to 1999 when the Tamazight

78 remains embedded in the collective memory of both Arabs and -

- politicsGlobalisationAfrica:andin no. 180. Movement (2006), TheCulture11, Berber North

Islamic identity. The Tamazight translation of the Qur , the process of nation

’ – , 8. 8. Todayforty make, speakersBerber up 66. , and an Imagined Geography s ambitions. 25.

where a confluence of culture, language, and Islam

” 259. “ 259. ” 76 76 - - thirds of Morocco oriented speakers of primarily unwritten Berber This linguistic minefield opened oldwounds of

Evennumberarrival greater the a though of of Arabic 79, 80 74 ’ “

s ability to exercise effective social control as Arab speaking functionarieswere replaced self

77 - ” conscious manifestation of Berber -

building obstructed the task of state The JournalofTheStudies North African Berber intellectuals argued that the

- Arabs to Islam.Arabsto 73 ’ ” ’ s vision of ruling eliteswas s populace.

- 69 fiveofMoroccans. percent and also from the medieval

Over the course of two decades

” “

The political, social and - translated Qur

’ “ an, at the time, was “ orthodox Islam and 70 the French abandoned underpinned by awell - tribalBerber identity,

Post

” 72 - -

- colonial

colonial speakingfromtribes 12, no. 2 (2007): 165. (2007): 12,no.2 which speaks 71 ’ anwas

Although ves and then t and t “ e c e thereaf- whi to

The oastal ch -

nd

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 31

e l g in the the in g rs in the the in rs s mist Justice Justice mist ’ lin tou s sla ’ s cultural cultural s ’ The political political The 85 ”

the growing Islamist Islamist growing the and social Promoting The Journal of North Africa North The of Journal “ ” 86 88, 89 88, s base of operations in in operations of base s ” ’ 26. Fearing the wrath of King King of wrath the Fearing

- was compulsory for all all for compulsory was ’ His visit to the Rif in 2001 2001 in Rif the to visit His

83, 84 83, 87 ” Arabism. - created by the new King were likely a response to a the were response the new King created likely by ’ dialects ‘ s decision. It should be noted that the the that noted be should It decision. s ’ and the State in North and Africa,the State in ’ openings monthly Amazigh journal and holding holding and journal Amazigh monthly ‘ -

, ed. Joshua A. Fishman and Ofelia (New and York:Ofelia Garcia Oxford Fishman A. , Joshua ed. s Berbers at the center of the country the of center the at Berbers s these these ’ s official language status as another way for the state to keep all political political all keep to state the for way another as status language official s ’ ‘ Often accused of being separatists by Islamists and and Islamists by separatists being of accused Often

over the last four decades, Amazigh activists in in activists Amazigh decades, four last the over

“ that building nation of process homogenization The 90

a far cry from the official story, with a set of nine nine of set a with story, official the from cry far a Berbers, Berbers, o. Penned in 2000, by mostly Moroccan Berber Berber Moroccan mostly by 2000, in Penned o.

” ” ” 260. ” 262. – late 1960s to protect and promote Amazigh identity in in identity Amazigh promote and protect to 1960s late 81, 82 81,

“ Moroccan authorities eventually made small gestures to to gestures small made eventually authorities Moroccan ” Mohammad VI, with honoring Abdelkrim, was looking to emphasize that the Berbers were that the Berbers emphasize was to VI,looking Abdelkrim, honoring with Mohammad

politics and Globalisation in NorthBerber 11,Culture The (2006), Movement 1 75. no. in and Africa: Globalisation politics - Contested Identities Ethno s practice of appeasing s practice of Imazighen, “ “ ’

Imaginative Geographies, Imaginative Imaginative Geographies, Imaginative “ “ Weitzman assertsthatWeitzman - The Teaching of Amazigh Morocco in (Berber) Weitzman, Weitzman, Weitzman, - -

Arab rapprochement in a profoundly symbolic way. Upon the King the Upon way. symbolic profoundly a in rapprochement Arab

s formation coincided with neighboring Kabyle actions in Algeria who were more vocal and politically active, challenging politically who with and coincided actions were Algeria neighboring in vocal s Kabyle more formation -

’ s hegemonic state building path. King Hassan closely monitored the situation in Algeria, who consistently provided the closely who Algeria, the consistently monitoredsituation in path. Hassan stateKing building s hegemonic ’

6, no. 3 6,(2001): 3 no. 36.

The official attitude toward Berbers shifted, in a positive direction in 2001, when when 2001, in direction positive a in shifted, Berbers toward attitude official The Berbers sensing an opening with the new King pushed to promote the demands demands the promote to pushed King new the with opening an sensing Berbers Cornwell and Atia assert that that assert Atia and Cornwell

spectacular revival of Amazigh language and culture came at a time when Islamic Islamic when time a at came culture and language Amazigh of revival spectacular Bruce Bruce Maddy In keeping with his with his father keeping In Bruce Maddy Ibid., Maddy36. Fatima, Sadiqi, Sadiqi, Fatima, Ibid., 35. Cornwell and Atia, and Atia, Cornwell th role an in ofrightsand increased culture activists recognition arguments to employ greater minority advocateAmazigh for and Atia, Cornwell Language, the defining feature of Amazigh identity politics, has taken a positive turn, albeit with numerous obstacles and de and obstacles numerous with albeit turn, positive a taken has politics, identity Amazigh of feature defining the Language, AMREC

Tamazight and Amazigh culture. Amazigh and Tamazight acknowledges that the Arabic language is an elemental piece of Morocco of piece elemental an is language of Arabic the detriment that the to not but acknowledges Maghreb, the in Arabs for link strongest the and heritage collective identity. As well as outlining a program of remediation, the Manifesto Manifesto the remediation, of program a outlining as well As identity. collective analysis of Moroccan history history Moroccan of analysis Morocco situate to demands substantial intellectuals, it is an extraordinary documented that presented its perception and and Manifest Amazigh perception the its in found presented that documented extraordinary an is it intellectuals, Ajdir, which was the capital of the Rif Republic from 1921 from Republic Rif the of capital the was which Ajdir, invitation, the son of Abdelkrim journeyed from Cairo to meet him during the Rif visit. visit. Rif the during him meet to Cairo from journeyed Abdelkrim of son the invitation, Abdelkrim of ruins the reconstruct to pledged VI Mohammed neglected by his father, Muhammad VI used his trip to advocate for a decidedly decidedly a for advocate to trip his used VI Muhammad father, his by neglected Berber economic improvement, along with the abatement of poverty in a region much much region a in poverty of abatement the with along improvement, economic recalibrate their positions and make necessary reforms. necessary make and positions their recalibrate legitimacy. renewed a with project memory Amazigh the fuelled the new King Muhammad VI claimed that the advancement of Amazigh language and and language Amazigh of advancement the that claimed to VI Istiqlal Muhammad and King new forces the Moroccan all urged He responsibility. Moroccan a was culture ideology and the Middle Eastern homogenizing Pan homogenizing Eastern Middle the and ideology extremism started to gain space in the Moroccan political landscape. political Moroccan the in space gain to started extremism against vaccination a as promotion language Amazigh saw elite language and culture to help enforce the King the enforce help to culture and language “ . Amazigh cultural organizations amplified their work to promote Amazigh Amazigh promote to work their amplified organizations cultural Amazigh Moroccans. language and culture. A turning point in official attitude came in 1994 when King King when 1994 in came attitude official in point turning A culture. and language Amazigh learning and teaching declared Hassan AMREC, allowing their publication of a bi a of publication Berber to their related allowing issues AMREC, on society Moroccan overall the sensitize to forums public Hassan, AMREC maintained a low profile over the next fifteen years, much to the the to much years, fifteen next the over profile low a maintained AMREC Hassan, Berbers. militant of chagrin Cultural Association) in the the in Association) Cultural discourse. political national the in and towns, villages, largely excluded the Amazigh narrative led to the creation of AMREC (Morocco (Morocco AMREC of creation the to led narrative Amazigh the excluded largely Morocco have sought to redress the unequal distribution of power in defining defining in power of distribution unequal the redress to sought have Morocco identity. national Moroccan

89 part the of Moroccan an fabric. integral 90 marginalisation and strict Arabisation policies of the of policies state. and strict Algerian Arabisation marginalisation 88 Studies 86 87 cultura of to were clashes These a Amazigh decades response the Spring. 2001Algeria,Black culminating violent in in protests their statetheir to how not template act. for Moroccan leaders 85 Press, 2011),University 35. political sphere. political 83 84 players divided. But this development is significant for modern Amazigh identity construction. identity Amazigh modern for significant is development this But divided. players 81 82 new millennium. Tamazight has been an official language of Morocco since 2012, although it does not exactly receive equal bil equal receive exactly not does it although 2012, since I Morocco the of and language Arabs official Moroccan an both by been has contestation Tamazight and millennium. consternation new of source a is status official Its Constitution. Moroccan new Tamazight view Berbers Cynical (PJD). Party Development and 80 32 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

99 98 focusedhistorically,culturalhaslinguisticon like makingmatters, anand Tamazight official language. itisremainsnational inpopularquestionhardly narrativeaddressed, Atia Rif. Cornwella theclaim and country the itsrichrepublicanism,hasownhistory ofrevolt, more poverty migration,confrontational and pursue politicalWhile action. 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 neousimaginesTurkishnation is Amazigh culture, theand integration Manifesto andMorocco anof geography,ethnici culture, lawreligionbasisasthein trendsfor linethe with ofcontemporary civilization. Maddy cautiously present their political desires through a geographicalconsequences imagining. and is interpretedThis as a threat to the Monarchy.“ legacieswhile advocating for Amazigh rights in a constrictedArab politicalthen French, space iswhere an ongoing challenge. Theymust confront these colonial the Moroccan public zeitgeistwithout questioning the legitimacynon of themonarchy. emphasize their cultural and linguistic features over politicaldefinitions demands. and deploymentIt is a mostly of Amazigh identity. emphasizes the strong sense of internal politics, debate strategiesand contestation and practices over pursued by the different groups thatmovements make upto theorganize movement and inspire their communities is arduousnot homogeneous work. in itswork and discourse, and the burden of ethno Amazigh Renaissance. Tifinagh marker only used on the flag, posters and graffiti. Standardizedwell as in Tamazight,the diaspora. with was considered to be a very bold move among Amazigh throughoutArab the Maghreb as Development Party (PJD) who strove to contain Berber identityhistorywithin a traditional not wish to alienate the palace, the ultimate authoritywho in couldthe Maghreb.pull the IRCAM plug tread on this carefully as they faced two major– challenges. They did protracted dispute over the pertinent script for TamazightBut, whatwould follow of Berbers, particularly children, spoke it as their firstnecessity language toor motherpreserve tongue. it as a marker of Morocco movement. while others, more cynical, saw it as a Imazighen,with some seeing it as an opportunity to move forwardprivate with sphere their to thedemands public arena of authority. space, for the first time in history. This marked the transition2003 Amazigh of Amazigh officially from theentered the Moroccan educational system,implementation a powerful of Tamazight,public universally, into all Moroccanin schools.Rabat, recognizing Amazigh culture and language and mandatingera. the component of Morocco purpose to contest an instituted hegemonic cultural programrearranging that entombs of anational vital priorities. Authors of the ManifestoIstiqlal, are resolute Berbers in reject their the charge and instead demand democratization and a

questioning certain elements of national identity has considerable legal

Ibid., 261. Ibid., CornwellAtia,and 256.Againhomogeneousa Ibid., not narrativememoryAmazighamong Moroccanculturaland in workers. BerbersRif, the which CornwellAtia,and KabylesAlgerianArabicwhen becameas usedtheir script innational aTamazight language 2001. The MichaelWillis,J. Fatima,Sadiqi, modernisationincludedThisliberateto women children. rights andprotect and the latter an ancient script used only by Touregs, thatwas otherwise no longer in use Mohammad VI embarked on a series of reforms to usher the state into the modern 91 For Amazigh activists conquering the The debate over a script and tactics demonstrates that t - Berber languageBerber thrivedto sheerandduenumbersmostly theendured ofruralspeakers. -

Weitzman claims that the BerberWeitzmanhastheclaims project it iscommonalitythat Attaturkism, in with secular, explicitly that - confrontational strategy that allows a polemical and political debate to be part of

By a Royal Islamic milieu. IRCAM finally decided on - changing mandate. They also faced the fury of the Islamist Justice and

script, now serves foundation as a of unity rallying and a force for the ” The Teaching of Amazigh (Berber) in Morocco Amazigh of Teaching The 93 Berbersin an Arab Spring, “ “

ImaginativeGeographies, ImaginativeGeographies, The teaching of Amazighwas officially motivated by two things: the Dahir 95 , he created the Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture (IRCAM) ’ (within the Berber community and outside of it)was a s civilizational heritage.

Until this point,

ed. YahiaZouhir ed. andH. White. 87. York: New Routledge Gregory (2016), ” 265. ” 256. ”

“ classical state plan to co Tifinagh , 35. , “ double layering of colonialism,

” 92 ’ s ancestral identity and that millions

” Tifinagh IRCAM

96

” had been a resurrected identity

Whereas Ataturk stressedWhereas Ataturk homoge-centralitythe of a

Most Amazigh activists

’ – as the chosen script,which he Amazigh community is s formation split the - Latin, Arabic or ”

99

Instead, activists

-

opt and defang their

- cultural “ By September “ “ The various ’ opposing the useofthe opposing s Berber movement, sBerber ” 98

Tifinagh first

th e Berbere ty. 94

97

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 33 -

roc- or The The

ive Arab Arab s rished rished that that 103 ” ’ not not ove and be be and

to execute execute to

s ’ ’ 104 ” Arab dichotomy dichotomy Arab culture - ‘ resulting in a vibrant, vibrant, a in resulting s perception of space space of perception s

’ – Berber speakers across across speakers Berber Nationalism and Minority Minority and Nationalism Berber identity has been been has identity Berber “

in in ” 105 science of the concrete the of science ‘ Activists use use Activists “ relationship requires a more nuanced nuanced more a requires relationship despite the human mind human the despite “ ’ century political conflict. The Amazigh movement in Mo conflict. political Amazigh movement in The century narratives. Clinging to outdated adages adages outdated to Clinging narratives. - ’

first -

106

” official ‘

Berbers would assimilate and their ethnic identity, identity, ethnic their and assimilate would Berbers “ outsiders who wrote the history of the region with a a with region the of history the wrote who outsiders Berber and Arab and Berber ” 265. ” 263. “ ‘ Charting the world into local, national or regional regional or national local, into world the Charting that that

.

” , 7. , 7. where and how do Berbers fit in? fit Berbers do how and where

century Arab nationalist and Islamic modernity. However, However, modernity. Islamic and nationalist Arab century , 66. Part of this memory project is the imagining of the Moroccan or or Moroccan the of imagining the is project memory this of Part -

a process of turning an individual or group or individual an turning of process a 100 However, it is imperative to note that the Berber the that note to imperative is it However,

of Amazigh cultural and memory work. memory and cultural Amazigh of s political landscape. political s ”

’ Both Berbers and Arabs are responsible for the construction of these these of construction the for responsible are Arabs and Berbers Both

108 examining the the examining harden social boundaries and intolerance in the name of cultural cultural of name the in intolerance and boundaries social harden

Imaginative Geographies, Imaginative Geographies, - Geographical imagination allows citizens to recognize the function of of function the recognize to citizens allows imagination Geographical “ Royal Interest in Local Culture: Amazigh Identity and the Moroccan State, Moroccan the and Identity Amazigh Culture: Local in Interest Royal “ “ 109

The Berber IdentityThe Berber The Maghrib The Berber IdentityThe Berber “ nation. Edward Said observed that that observed Said Edward nation. ”

Land of the Free Men. the of Free Land Re “ 102

involves involves ” The individual and collective discourses of Amazigh activists demonstrate demonstrate activists Amazigh of discourses collective and individual The 101

“ 107

raison principale raison ” the most part, the social boundaries between Arabs and Berbers in modern modern in Berbers and Arabs between boundaries social the part, most the

Weitzman, Weitzman, Weitzman, Weitzman, Weitzman, - - -

For

The question remains: remains: question The

This is the the is This Crawford, L. David Maddy Maddy Cornwell and Cornwell Atia, Literally means and Cornwell Atia, Ibid., 263. Maddy Canada States. the United to and degree and the in Thi Netherlands, and lesser France Berber in a diasporaThe mainly resides

107 108 109 co is largely an urban endeavor. Rural Berbers are mostly removed from these processes and are often agitated with commemorat agitatedare often these and removed with processes are Berbers mostly endeavor. an urban from Rural colargely is their imp from rising are,Berbers and in are first interested foremost, Amazigh objectives. Rural atoddsefforts. They with lives. 106 105 struggle Movement global to f Amazigh The a discourse.an worklarger speaks Amazigh memory and voice in diasporaintegral is twentyof the form classical quickly becoming which recognition, is 102 103 104 100 101 biased intent. biased Moroccan state. Moroccan by invented only not terms are dual ethnic distinction and striking a balance between Berbers and Arabs as two two as Arabs and Berbers between balance a striking and distinction pluralist ethnic modern a dual of framework the within heredity and language of communities awareness of Maghrebi history, to stop looking at cultural differences, yet appreciate a a appreciate yet differences, another. cultural at looking stop to history, Maghrebi of awareness authenticity, a process which can only substitute one essential authenticity for for to authenticity serves only essential one substitute only can which process a authenticity, it might be necessary to revisit these these revisit to necessary be might it and notions among some scholars and policy makers who speak in terms of a Berber a of terms in speak who makers policy and scholars some among workers, memory notions and and cultural Amazigh by made advances the Given dichotomy. Arab Morocco are generally smooth and cordial, contradicting French colonial discourse discourse colonial French contradicting cordial, and smooth generally are Morocco myths and historical memories, elements of shared culture and links with a historical historical a with links and culture shared of elements memories, historical and myths solidarity. shared a with along territory national and transnational Amazigh Cultural Movement. Cultural Amazigh ancestry transnational and common with national population, the of unit named a themselves see Africa North Berber perseverance was highly underestimated and in the last decades there has been been has there decades last the in and underestimated highly was perseverance Berber imagining Berber of practices and ideas new of emergence an wedded to a twentieth a to wedded independence, it was thought thought was it milieu, Islamic an independence, within loyalties tribal particular their past develop not constructed and reconstructed throughout space and time. During the early decades of of decades early the During time. and space throughout reconstructed and constructed Thoughts Final land, Berbers expand their identity from its consigned space in villages or towns to the the to towns or villages in space consigned its from identity their expand Berbers land, Morocco of heart how striving for language rights creates an imaginative geography of Amazigh Amazigh of geography imaginative an creates rights and language for Amazigh, as striving how Morocco of imaginings temporal and spatial Using identity. discourse. into something that appears both concrete and embedded with political power. political with embedded and concrete both Berber appears the that to speaking something of into way distinct a sanction geographies imaginative of workings place and space in their lives their in space and place partitions constructs fixed boundaries between categories and delineates markers of of markers delineates and categories between boundaries fixed constructs difference. a possess to seems always it distractions, innumerable Amazigh identity. Amazigh as narrative, but also as both strategy and objective. objective. and strategy of both as primacy the also but asserting narrative, while as identity national questions safely that project political a highlights North Africa as special and separate from the Arab Middle East, not simply simply not East, Middle Arab the from separate and special as Africa North highlights 34 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

113 112 111 Susan(Bloomington:Indiana31. GilsonMiller. University 2010), Press, 110 Identities - endeavorwhose impact has the capacity to reshape and enrichreconstruction the identity of ofa amodern twenty Amazigh identity, by the Imazighen,interconnected will be an political, ongoing economic and social tensions. Itclash is hopefulwith the that direction the of state in how the latter respondswhat to degree complex they and will continue to affect state policies. ItThe remains demands to of becitizens seen if often future Amazigh effortswill be legitimized,present and buildor rejected, a common and future to in a world of competing thenational historical communities. and ethnic past must be salvaged and re convenience of thosewho have ruled over them. included in a historiography fromwhich they have appearedagitating and disappeared and lobbying, for the albeit in differentways, for theirinclusivity cultural authenticityin a national to discourse. be part of normal growing pains of a fairly youngmovement advocatingdiscursive for narratives fuller within Amazigh cultural and memorywork to their should ethnicity be viewed as wellas as cultural and historical legacies.that Arab These nationalism conflicting is aand pernicious foreign import from politicallythe Mashriq charged narrative held among a minority of Berbersand their militants culture who as assert an antithesis of Arabic and Islam. Berber discourse duplicates French colonial tropes and colonial modern state. historians in the premodern state, and then as Arab nationalistethnic historianstensions and in rangethe postof terms, particularlywhen Arabs first century Moroccan society as a whole.

Maddy Translatesto Atia,Cornwell and JamesMcDougall, , ed. Maya Schatzmiller (Montreal: McGill - Weitzman, ‘ East ’, HistoriesHeresyandand of Salvation: State, the Berbers,Arabs, Community, The Maghrib, The “ anArabic region termEastern referringthe to East. Middleof the Imaginative Geographies,Imaginative ” 68. 110

It might also be important to consider the extent to which - Queen ” 270. ”

’ Moroccan Amazigh intellectuals and activists are s University Press, 2005), 180.

“ If the

” - appropriated so as to renew the 111 “

secret of identity is memory, essentialism about Berbers

There is a vigorous and “ wrote as Muslim

Ed. KatherineEd. Hoffman andE. 112

and a danger ” - 113

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 35

-

”

73. - Protectorate Protectorate -

writing writing politics and politics - -

16. 47. - - The Journal of of Journal The ” Ethno A Turning Point? The The Point? Turning A Identities: Contested Writing Systems Systems Writing “ “ “ and the State in State the and ” The Journal of North North of Journal The ’ ”

Histories of Heresy and Heresy of Histories “ The Journal of North African African North of Journal The Writing and re Writing “ ”

In Berbers and Others: Beyond Beyond and Others: Berbers In Berberism ” and Ofelia Garcia. New York: York: New Garcia. Ofelia and ‘ Studies. Austin: University of Texas of Texas University Austin: Studies. Playing the Berber: the Berber: Playing the “ 2515. - State. Weitzman, Bruce. The Maghrib in the in the Maghrib The Bruce. Weitzman, Weitzman, Bruce. Bruce. Weitzman, Bruce. Weitzman, Bruce. Weitzman, Identity Berber The Bruce. Weitzman,

- - - - - Independence to the Arab Spring. New York: York: New Spring. Arab to the Independence 2014. Press, University Oxford dited by Yahia H. Zoubir and Gregory White. and Gregory Yahia H. Zoubir by dited 2016. Routledge, York: New from Morocco and Tunisia Algeria, ghreb: Oxford University Press, 2011. Press, University Oxford Pre In Experience Marinid State: Weiner Markus Princeton: Morocco. 2000. Publishers, and Orthographies identity: Amazigh/Berber Ideologies. Language 1 1 no.(2016): 8, Research African African 2011. Press, Politics. and Religion, Identity, Century: New 2007. Press, of Florida University Gainsville: and Community, Berbers, Arabs, Salvation: the by edited Magbrib, the in and Nation Tribe Gilson Susan and E. Hoffman Katherine University Indiana Bloomington: Miller. 2010. Press, A. Joshua by Edited inMorocco. (Berber) Fishman 80. Movement. Amazigh the and Spring Arab 14 (2015): no. 38, Studies Racial and Ethnic 2499 Berbers, Africa. North 23 3 no.(2001): 6, Studies Berber The Africa: in North Globalisation Movement. Culture 71 (2006): 1 no. 11, Studies African to North Challenge the and Movement performance of Amazigh Identities in in Identities Amazigh of performance Morocco. Contemporary 68 1 (2016): no. 21, Studies African North

the Islamic and Berbers The Maya. Shatzmiller, Dris. Soulaimani, E Spring. in Arab an Berbers J. Michael Willis, Ma inthe Power and J. Politics Michael Willis, Maddy James. McDougall, Amazigh of Teaching The Sadiqi, Fatima. Maddy Maddy Maddy Maddy Jay, Cleo. Cleo. Jay,

-

-

-

-

2011.” The The

” March 1, March algeria/

274. - ” -

70.

movement - - morocco

s Invisible Ima s Invisible - ’ Social and Cultural Cultural and Social

121. The Journal of Journal The - ” ” s Constitution of of s Constitution look ’ - Secularism in the Moroccan in the Secularism 209. Montreal: McGill Montreal: 209. “ - Morocco Cul in Local Interest Royal

Visual Culture and the and Culture Visual “ “ “ The Berber Dahir of 1930 of Dahir Berber The 179 reform “ In Islam and Popular Culture, Culture, and Popular Islam In The Amazigh Movement and and Movement Amazigh The 33. - - “ Morocco Manifesto. Berber The Muftah, (blog), July 28,2014. July (blog), Muftah, ”

“ “ The Journal of North African African North of Journal The ” In Nationalism and Minority Identities Identities Minority and Nationalism In s University Press, 2005. Press, s University ” ’ ”

Imaginative Geographies of Amazigh Amazigh of Geographies Imaginative Democratic Reform: A Look at Morocco and Morocco at Look A Reform: Democratic Algeria, http://muftah.org/amazigh democratic Berbers. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2006. Press, Scarecrow Lanham: Berbers. Berbers and Others: Beyond Tribe and Tribe Beyond and Others: Berbers Indiana Bloomington: Maghrib. the in Nation 2010. Press, University Colonial Morocco: Then and Now. Then Morocco: Colonial 2 2, No. Studies African North of Journal 11 (1997): Essentially Amazigh: Urban Berbers and theand Urban Berbers Amazigh: Essentially New Lacey. Kevin Edited by Village. Global 2000. Lang, Peter York: Shatzmiller, Queen ture: Amazigh Identity and the Moroccan Moroccan the and Identity Amazigh ture: State. Maya by edited Societies, in Islamic zighen. 53 1 no.(2002): 7, Studies “ Morocco. in Activism 255 3 no.(2012): 13, Geography 171. Oxford: of Africa. Peoples The bers: 1996. Publishing, Blackwell Amazigh Discourse. Amazigh 153 2 no. (2007): 12, Studies African North Amazigh Renaissance in North Africa and the the and Africa in North Renaissance Amazigh Diaspora. Levin Mark Nieuwkerk, van Karin by edited 99 Stokes, Martin and 2000. http://www.mondeberbere.com/societe/ 2000. 2016. 24, October Accessed manifest.htm https://www.constituteproject.org/ constitution/Morocco_2011.pdf?lang=en 2016. 25, October Accessed

Jacobs, Anna, Anna, Jacobs,

the of Dictionary Historical Hsain. Ilahiane, Miller. Gilson and Susan E. Katherine Hoffman, Hart, David M. M. Hart, David

Crawford, David and Hoffman, Katherine E. E. Katherine Hoffman, and David Crawford,

Crawford, David. David. Crawford,

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Cornwell, Graham H. and Mona Atia. Atia. Mona and H. Graham Cornwell,

Brett, Michael and Elizabeth Fentress. The Ber The Fentress. Elizabeth and Michael Brett,

Ben Layashi, Samir. Samir. Ben Layashi,

Cynthia. Becker, Anonymous. Anonymous. Works Cited Works 36 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

4 3 2 PeriodsSasanianand Parthian, Seleucid, 1 checkthe newly in their process tax of thecomplaints receive to intended was that his palace from personnel and judges, scribes, by systemrun complaint newly landfrom the fundsredirect and manner intimelya collected be taxto more for Anushirvan,allowed Khusrau by but finalized father in kind. paid were theyalso that highlyprobable it is currency, in hard collected be wereto taxes Although 7 trees, olive 4 for 1 cereals, one (approximately measurement drahm with theprovisions, following per were taxed Landit grew. owners oftypecrop the and land of plot each theof sizeto according season harvest the following taxed would be land meantall which that taxationfor purposes provinces theland 488 (r. Kavad land survey.The landofa in factor the absence was major a and system inefficient taxation system. planning financial a of establishment the preventing thereby anbasis, irregular on taxes of amount an unfixed would receive meanttreasury season. the the This harvest that to cultivation prior irrigation and of state the on vary depending would oftaxes collection The landa on wasbased primarily economy Sasanian the thesereforms, to Prior planning. financial centralized and thefor treasury, revenue increased height. itsat was empire whenSasanian the time a at reigning rulers Sasanian polity centralized a to led ofKhusrau reforms cultural and military, the economic, Thus, empire. Sasanian ofthe diversification and flourishing intellectual in the reformsresulted Khusrau Finally, campaigns. military successful in armyengage to the Sasanian enabled and enemies from empire the Sasanian reformsprotected military His revenue. boosted and planning financial organized for designed newtreasury a created reforms Hiseconomic caliphate. Islamic ofthe later Khusrau polity. the Sasanian ofcentralizing purpose greater the served all which reforms, military and economic, varioushiscultural, to due ruler Sasanian effective Great Sasanian Ruler Khusrau I Anushirvan

Linda T. Darling,Linda T. Iranica, Encyclopaedia Ibid. EhsanYarshater, This essay argues that Khusrau I Anushirvan (r. 531 (r. Anushirvan I Khusrau that essay This argues Khusrau In order to serve the interest of his subjects, Khusrau also implemented a newa implemented Khusrau also subjects, his servethe interest to of Inorder

-

created central treasury. treasury. central created being the currency of the Sasanian polity and the polity and of the Sasanian currency the being - ’ survey project was significant as it resulted in the formation of smaller ofsmaller formation in the resulted wasit as significant surveyproject s reforms established significant precursors for the centralizing reforms reforms centralizing thefor precursors significant established sreforms

4 drahm treasury administrators and provincial governors, who initiallywho governors, provincial and administrators treasury “ A History of Social Justice of History and Political A Power East in Middle the ’ Political,Social,Administrativeand Institutions,andTaxes, Trade. s economic reforms led to greater efficiency in tax collection, collection, efficiency tax greater in to led reforms seconomic - 531), and was completed underKhusrau was and completed 531),

s.v

- for every 4 date palms, for every7 date 4 “ survey reform began during the reign ofKhusrau reign the during reformbegan survey KosrowIii. Reforms – drahms

making Khusrau Anushirvan among the most effective most effective the among Anushirvan making Khusrau - formed districts. This complaint system was established to to was established system complaint This districts. formed , ed. By Ehsan Yarshater (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 746.1983), University Press, Cambridge ed.By , (Cambridge: Yarshater Ehsan

for 6 fig trees, and 8 8 fig 6 and trees, for 3

This particular tax reform, started by Khusrau started tax reform, Thisparticular ”

(byZeevRubin). - tenth of a hectare): 1 1 hectare): oftentha - payers in regards to the tax collection the taxcollection to in payers regards

drahms 1

The land The drahms

for a for a

- (New York: Routledge, 2013), p.44.York:Routledge, (New 2013), owning upper class to the class to upper owning ” In ’ The Cambridge The History of - drahm - for everyfor jarib srule. tax system produced an taxsystem produced

579) wasmost the 579) jarib – Alyssa AtefAlyssa of clover, 7 of7 clover,

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being a unit of a being for every for

The The completion of The jarib ’ ’ s father, father, s s cultural scultural - tax system. taxsystem. ofvine.

jarib drahms

, Vol. 3, Vol.3, ,

-

’ s

of

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Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 37

6 the

or the

While Then, he 11

east, 5 9 - (London: (London: I. B.

duties,

- (2015). . The establishment

One theseof One reforms west, west, north

The Formation of the Islamic The Formation - 7 control - , Vol. 1, north

priests, notables, people Dehghan - – s thats targeted previous the based on their orwealth lack

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Khusrau primarily also was

west borderswest Empire. the of

- 12 By executing these Khusraureforms, drahms

13 Early Islamic Institutions: Administration and Taxation Taxation fromAdministration the and Islamic Institutions: Early , and recruitment the loyal Persianof Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire,of an The Fall Rise and Persia: Sasanian

In In ” In

” and greatly and greatly weakened the aristocracy the in

Iran. - The New History of Islam Cambridge – Diwan (by Rubin). Zeev (by in in almaliyah. tax system,tax Khusrau also reformed the - ” ” - east, and south -

each of each of which were governed by a orgeneral – 122. nuzum alnuzum , (London: I.B. Tauris,, 2011), (London: 91. I.B. - holding holding gentry known as the ”, ”, - al

east – - armed cavalry, as opposed to introducing new orweaponry , ed. Chase (Cambridge:F. Robinson Press, Cambridge University 2010), 122.

- Following this particular reform, Khusrau toset out reorganize Kosrow I ii. Reforms ii. Kosrow I

”, 30. west, southwest, “ 8 - s s Kavadfather, ’ s.v s.v Iran

- Fiscal Systems Systems Fiscal The LateNear The East, Sasanian “ The Reforms of Immortal (The Soul). Reforms of The Khosrow Anushirvan “ class class families, Zoroastrians, and individuals the serving king. “ The Political History of Iran andHistory Iran of an Political The Other military reforms includedOther military the formation of special to units - “

Late Sasanian Late Near East Sasanian 10 “ . acted by the tax actedthe exemptions by allowed to underthose 20 and over 50, as Iran and Iran an - “ Khusrau

west, west, and south east, north Aziz Duri, Aziz - appeared butalso more equitable efficient, than only not other versions. - -

–

tax. Peopletax. taxed 4, 6,were 8, and 12 -

Moreover, also is Khusrau noted seriesfor of the military reforms executed.he

Daryaee, Daryaee, Richard N. Frye, Ibid., 30. Wiesehöfer,

Touraj Daryaee, Touraj Ibid. Abd Al Abd Encyclopaedia Iranica, Wiesehöfer, Josef

11 12 13 Tauris, Tauris, 2009), 29. 9 10 7 Sixth Eleventh World, to Centuries 8 5 Abbasids Caliphate to and the Umayyads 6 leading leading more successful conquests and battles. expansion of military forces in tandem erecting with security along the walls borders empire, the of enabled which tohim protect invaders it from whilst shifting towards another style combat.of was able to strengthen the Sasanian defense forces through the centralization and concerned the reorganizationwith and training theof military whilst greatly on therelying heavy creation a of registry military or operations. forces to outsider aid in military Spahbed internalassume security in the policingof form and border south north proceeded to split Persia fourinto quadrantsmilitary his his military buttressingwhile Persia potential from invaders. First, securedhe the borders Sasanian the of empire erecting a by series defensiveof alongwalls the collectors newly for centralizedthe and treasury, undercut the power held by the aristocratic class. of this new class is new this of critical, since dehghans the replacewould the as nobility the basereformed the of Sasanian They military. would, moreover, act as tax of new centralizing new of economic, and cultural reforms.military established a small land hegemony against the nobility and local powerbrokers through the implementation process. Both Kavad and Khusrau managed to these supress revolts. Khusrau took advantage this of weakened aristocratic by class securing his own monarchical there there had been a Mazdakite during uprising the king His reformsHis aimed to protectpolity against potentialthe invaders and to enable the Sasanian military to launch more campaigns.successful Prior toreforms, these and allowed for organized financial planning. Therefore, implementation the tax various of reforms resulted a highly in that taxation system centralized boosted treasury stabilized the and revenue for jizya counter as well the andsick poor. the context of Within antiquity, this interpretation of the from from upper particularthis reform did excludenot tax exemptions to the wealthy, it was thereof. thereof. Those under the age of 20 and above 50age of the remained untaxed, as as poor,well the chronically ill, scribes, fire warriors, addition to the reforming land poll contributing tocontributing greater overall centralization the taxationwithin system. In administrative reform, this complaint system resulted the in being treasury held to a standardhigher accountabilityof to the and themonarch people, thus conspired to any shield and all public criticism. 38 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

17 16 15 14 flourishing. intellectual and great cultural timea ofbut also empire thefor Sasanian success Anushirvan Khusrau Thus, was codified. alphabet Avestan that the rule underhis was also fields.It artistic and intellectual many other and poetry, philosophy, statecraft, astrology, medicine, on works Indian and Byzantine synthesizing and adopting west by east and with the exchanges in cultural engaged Khusrau Finally, campaigns. military moresuccessful in engage to army the Sasanian enabled invadersand founding of the the military, and the of walls,reorganization the ofdefensive erection classes,the the Khusrau Moreover, planning. financial organized and inincrease revenue, ofand stabilization system, the taxation ofthe the centralization treasury, ofa creation in the resulted alterations the instituted and monarch, land the land Khusraucompleted reforms, hiseconomic Among ruler. Sasanian memorable most the Khusrauas solidify helpingto thereby empire the Sasanian ofcentralizing purpose greater and its empire.Persia reign of Sasanian emblematic Khusrau Therefore, leadership. Khusrau furtherlegitimizing while poetry, fromto law life, Sasanian facets of nearly all enriched achievements literary and cultural exchanges These underKhusrau. rule ofSasanian uponthe period heavilydrew it CE, century 10th famous the Although the Kingsand Khusrau at conceived achievements literary Other alphabet. Avestan ofan creation with the caliphate. Islamic during the subject theon literature Arabic successive for reference of source a wouldwhichbe eventually Persian, workMiddle in singletranslated a literatureinto medical Byzantine Indiancombined He also and statecraft. and strategy for animportant game be to heconsidered which from ofchess India, medicine. and statecraft, astronomy, worksliterature, on Sanskrit various gather to by India Khusrau to sent been had theIndian of translation a commissioned most famouslymonarch Persian The Khusrau. by reformsemployed philosopher 532. in Empire with the negotiations peace during inByzantium frompunishment exemption their negotiated theNeo Justinian Neo Byzantine to hospitality west.of offering His and the east between exchanges in cultural engaged was Khusrau Empire. Persian ofthe diversification cultural

Wiesehöfer, Britannica Encyclopaedia Daryaee, Wiesehöfer, Khusrau Anushirvan Khusrau Lastly,Khusrau Dehghan - - Platonist philosophers, following the closure of their school in Athens as per Athensas per in school oftheir followingthe closure philosophers, Platonist tax system, made the taxation system more accountable to the public and the and the public to moreaccountable system thetaxation made taxsystem, “ Iran and an Iranand - Platonist philosophers expressed their desire to return home, Khusrau return home, Khusrau to desire their expressed philosophers Platonist ’ Late SasanianLate “ 17 Late SasanianEast, NearLate s orders, might indicate his interest in philosophy. Furthermore, when Furthermore, philosophy. his in mightinterest indicate sorders, ’

s helm include the production ofthe production the sinclude helm - The Avesta was also codified during the reign of Khusrau, in tandem tandem Khusrau,in of duringreign the codified also was Avesta The

kings. class and the subsequent reduction in the power of aristocratic aristocratic of the power in reduction the subsequent and class Meydan - Iran Diwan , s.v , , ”, 30. ”,

127. 15 ’ “

s cultural reforms contributed to the literary flourishing and and flourishing the literary to contributed reforms scultural :King ofKhosrow Persia

’ Indian culture also had a significant influence on the cultural cultural the on influence significant a had also culture Indian s reign was not only a time of military and economic economic and military of time a notwas only sreign Shahnameh . These particular reforms safeguarded the empirefrom safeguarded reformsparticular These . - e Hezar Dadestan Hezar e ’ ” 126. ” s economic, military, and cultural reforms all served the served all reforms cultural military,and seconomic, jizya jizya -

survey started by his father, revamped the previous the previous father,revamped his by surveystarted ’ s various military reforms included the creation of the creation militaryincluded reforms svarious ’ s cultural and intellectual activities made hismade activities intellectual and scultural in a more equitable manner. These significant These manner. moreequitable ina

by Ferdowsi was composed around the 9th or the 9thor around was composed Ferdowsi by 16 ” 14 (by Richard N. Frye). (byRichardN.

Additionally, Khusrau imported the gamethe imported Khusrau Additionally, Khusrau became known as one of Plato of as one known Khusrau became  Panchatantra

or the the or

Khwatay Book of a Thousand Deeds aThousand of Book

after the physician Burzoe Burzoe physician afterthe - Namak

or Book or of ’ s . ’ s

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 39 ,

The The 152. In – 38, ” - , chap., 98 Iran Iran nuzum al nuzum , edited , edited . New . New - ” al

, Vol. 3, Vol. ,

–

, chap.1 pp.1, Sasanian Persia: The Rise Persia: Sasanian Fiscal Systems Systems Fiscal Early Islamic Institutions: Institutions: Islamic Early The Late Sasanian Near Sasanian Near Late The “ The Formation of the Islamic Islamic of the Formation The In In Political, Social, and Adminis- and Social, Political, “ The Political History of Iran History Political The The Reforms of Khosrow Khosrow of Reforms The “ In In

A History of Social Justice and A and of History Justice Social ” “ “ ” The of New History Cambridge 160, London: I.B. Tauris, 2011. Tauris, I.B. London: 160, -

Iran. In In - , Vol. 1, 1, Vol. ,

” 777, Cambridge: Cambridge University University Cambridge Cambridge: 777, almaliyah. Islam Centuries Eleventh Sixth to World, pp. 3, chap. Robinson, Chase F. by Press, University Cambridge Cambridge: 2010 - 1983. Press, East. trative Institutions, Taxes, and Trade. Taxes, Institutions, trative of Iran History Cambridge The Periods Sasanian and Seleucid,Parthian, 681 pp. 19, chap. Ehsan Yarshater, by edited www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/ (Accessed reforms_of_anushirvan.php 12,2015.) November Monday, Anushirvan (The Immortal Soul). Immortal (The Anushirvan (http:// Society. Chamber and an an Empire of Fall and 2009. B. Tauris, I. London: Political Power in the Middle East Middle the in Power Political 2013. Routledge, York: - Cali- the from Taxation and Administration Abbasids and Umayyads to the phate 81 pp.2,

Aziz Duri, Abd. Duri, Abd. Aziz -

Josef. Wiesehöfer, Yarshater, Ehsan. Ehsan. Yarshater,

Frye, Richard N. Richard Frye,

Daryaee, Touraj. Touraj. Daryaee,

Darling, Linda T. T. Linda Darling,

Al Works Cited Works 40 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

magic cando. magic what limitsno to are there world,folktale, in whereas real in the not possible wateris manipulationof the because cannot humans real waythat inmagic a use Party Boating lector while the worththat noting is It divinepower. of the impossibility abilityhuman and of limitations real between the bridge a as action suchan of recitation the uses water,but instead control attemptno to that and ofcrocodiles, it free declaring water, stopping Isis storyabout brief a recounts spell The isnot. spell Isis invokeswho the magician water,themanipulate to powerful are enough life inpotential a defense real invokedbyavatar a of protection as an so she does spell, in the the river stops when Isis Incontrast, reason. crucial non for his and over environment control direct exerts He the king. to favour a veryfor different reasons. meansand verydifferent through so do but they magician, willthe of the it to waterbend and movement of natural the stop spells Both the crocodiles. ofmakingit free it and over protection a casting theby river of theconditions manipulates Isiswhich in spell fromprotection a passageis This she, magicianand a by Isis is invoked wherein magic lifespell real a in occurs manipulation water uponthe other water shaped by human consciousness. magic,be could like dailylife, of natural as a part understood something how and magic, impossible and practical between distinction theby conceived impacted Egyptian Ancient thehow demonstrate will I paper, ofthis By the end malecounterparts. their to comparison in depicted, magicians are women howat will look I Additionally, work. Naneferkaptah and Khamwas Setne in described waxanimationas the of act will compare I Then spells. manipulation theso in described as itis folding thelake of event will the analyze I First, accomplish. could they magiciansbelieved real what identify to attempt magicians,thereafter, and real usedby purportedly spells magical with tales inheroes two folkby used magic thewill compare I thisessay, In through education. acquired knowledge forma of as was conceptualized Magic life. daily in real impossible wereconsidered acts fantastical certain However, folktales. in centrally figured it, wielded who the and people magic, then that Egypt Folktales andMagic in Ancient 5 4 3 2 217. 1

Ibid,88. Borghouts, Lichtheim, Lichtheim, Lichtheim,

In In surprise isno It gods. giftfrom a the considered was magic Egypt, InAncient - The Boating PartyBoating The PartyBoating The

called called Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Ancient Egyptian Magical Ancient Texts Three Tales of Wonder of Tales Three

was one of whimsy, crocodiles were a real threat. Folk magicians magicians Folk threat. of one was whimsy, real were a crocodiles

“ closed the mouth of the river mouthofthe the closed …” “ protection has arrived has protection 3 , “ , , the lector the ,

- in order to retrieve a lost necklace. A similar act of act necklace.Alost a similar retrieve to inorder VolumeI VolumeIII, VolumeI or the chief lector chief the

- (Leiden, E.J. Brill, (Leiden,88. E.J. 1978), death situation. While both Isis and the and lector Isis both While situation. death , Old , Kingdoms, and Middle Old , Kingdoms and Middle

The Late PeriodThe - 2 priest uses his magic to retrieve a necklace as necklace a magic retrieve to his uses priest The Boating PartyBoating The 1 to the use of other figurines in attested spell spell attested figurinesto in the use ofother , -

life magician who uses this poweras a magicianwholife uses in conjunction with other water other within conjunction ’ s understanding of their world wasworld oftheir understanding s - priest

(Berkeley:University127 1980), Press,of California ”

5 . The one reciting this spell makes recitingone spell this The . …

… University216 (Berkeley: ofCalifornia 1973), Press, 217. placed one side ofthe lake side one placed the waves do not immerse it do waves the

- priest , one of three stories from stories three of one , Naomi Sinclair ’ s act of magic in of act s - - priest priest

137. The The ’

s -

” 4 - .

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 41 use

8 ”

s, s, which ’

folkloric magic - Words to be said “ had [much] pure [wax “ s s comefigurines toand life ’ the affliction be sentwill down though thisthough could besimply

Naneferkaptah able towas use s s andfigurine Isis of image an of

… – ’ 6 …’” (Berkeley: University of California of Press, 1980), 130. University (Berkeley:

, Naneferkaptah Row Row me ‘ s statues clayof ThePeriod Late ’

While Naneferkaptah Heknu, Heknu, a woman

-

7 ” , 32.

Volume III, Volume Horus - statue. - which is then is consumedwhich by the human to be imbued itswith

– , 55. He said torowers: the … The between connections folkloricand magic real the world application Ancient Egyptian Magical TextsAncient Magical Egyptian TextsMagical Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Literature: Egyptian Setne Khamwas Naneferkaptah and

Once Once again, the real spell attemptsworld magical to bridge human limitations In In Just as Just drew immaterialfigurines things, such as sickness or thelove, from

Words to be said over a woman Borghouts, Borghouts, Borghouts, Lichtheim, Lichtheim,

6 7 8

functioned. Instead, they focused on influencing immaterial. the Egyptian Egyptian society. The utilized daily life magic in accounted for oflimitations the human the world and did attempt tonot influence how the natural world of of are magic tenuous at best, because they served different functions in Ancient in the physical the in world, allowing the Ancient Egyptians to exert greater control over circumstances.their this this sort of allows magic something to be intoput it. Both examples perform the action something bringing immaterial of same intosphere influence the human of eye, eye, anit is whether illness or cure, between states physicality.of Instead of somethingdrawing ofout the human body, as in the spell utilizing clay figurines, positive positive properties. Both spells the transmute something invisible tohuman the the drawnthe image as a vector to something bring immaterial, such as a cure, into physical the world over image an of Atum Horus. To be on the drawn hand the of sufferer. To be by the licked off man body into theinto body physical vessel the of figurine through certain spells, a reverse form of alsois magic possible. includeSpells that actions such as infuses life. infuses figurines with into anotherinto vessel is more probable.Therefore, of use the asfigurines vessels in practical makes sense magic than more having spells, Naneferkaptah like cause of cause which invisibleis to the human eye, becan drawnthe from human body death and imagination are beyond theof that living world. areThese worlds where animating figurine servants are possible. However, the idea illness,an that the perform theirperform labour the in afterlife. explanationOne as to why servant type occurfigurines in andmortuary folkloric becauseis magic bothrealms the of by creatingby life.new The only other figurine similarmagic toperformed that by Naneferkeptah, is done ushabti with figurines, are buriedwhich dead the to with accessing by divine intervention the folkloricwhereas defiesmagician possibility serve serve him, the figurines used in spellsmedicinal are never by made animate only actthey spellcasting, as a for conduit magic. from him intofrom thehim Isis as a vector for poisonwhatever or sickness affecting is the theof body patient; “ explained by the of wisdom having a boat and crew made of a hydrophobic material and clay. not Clay figurines are common for spells, asmedicinal they act there there one is crucial difference. of Many spells the used in non clay specify ratherfigurines, than wax figurines magic to create a a livingboat crew with from towax ferry destination.tohim his spells the In used by real world magicians, where such arefigurines also cast, the the water brought] tobrought] him. He made a boat andit filled rowers its with and sailors. He recited a spellhe to them, made live, them gave he them breath, them put he on

42 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

11 10 al.33. Routledge, ArcherYork, (New et 1994), 9 ofthe danger). youngerbrother warnsthe thisas she result, to ambivalent seems herself she (though brother of his murder Brothers her. for desire intense his from aside reaction any without him ofin front kill to his children her heallows astraythat him so leads the enchantress Tabubu male counterparts. their of the detriment to often and dangerously Naneferkaptah suchstories ofseen as can the otherliterary texts be in women towards wariness men. fromThis absent was that women mysticalabout and suspicious inherently something found Ancient Egyptians that indicate men foreign against spells equivalentno are there fact that the sex.However, of regardless suspect her makewould society Egyptian Ancient of xenophobia the foreign she and is Second, practice. magical womenfemale and about dangerous and suspicious isinherently something there First, reasons. two either woman Aforeign powers. negative womanher and foreign the magicianrepels the 66 Spell InBorghouts woman.unhappy or unknown ofan the dangers womanand a keeping of benefits Ptah of Instruction pleasing. and domestic and unpredictable, Literature and Magic, Women, theirspirituality. as theirphysicality in equally altered be to things material for possible it fantasy is or suchas death situations immaterial inequally Only spiritualimbuement. invisible their only with the ritual, change to expected not are tools ofthese properties physical The meansinfluence. of indirect this contradict not does suchas figurines, tools, magical or ofamplifiers use magicThe itself. as immaterial were as just warding and protection spiritual because moreassured was success powers, protective Isis invoked that spell a magicianrecited a instead, but if, failure automatic waterlector as the over fold to magiciansfail.tried If not automatically would worldtherefore and physical lawsofthe the manipulate not seek to did that magic wereof forms all protection withIsis familiarity spiritual invoking a or statues into Divertingillness

Depla,

Lichtheim, Lichtheim, In Ancient Egypt, women were seen as having dual natures: both violent natures: and havingseen womenwere dual as In Ancient Egypt, In The power that beautiful women have over men inwomen wellpower reflected over have The is that beautiful “ Women inAncientEgyptianWisdom Women Literature, Setne Khamwas and Naneferkaptah Khamwas Setne to him: to “ withTabubu. hethem drank as heard he flesh, and Theytheir ate cats. and dogs windowthe to the from down thrown them had him.She front of killedin hischildren them. to done be your head into that came abomination killed yourchildren must have you “ you kill to inhis order waiting withspear you for brother yourelder leopard a became like brother brother Her husband said to her: to said husband Her him: to said She Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient

wherein the word of word the wherein Anubis …’” … ‘

11 and and No one has had words with me except youryoung withwordsmeexcept had has one No Now if you let him live, I shall I die!... youhimlive, let Now if

- hotep The Two BrothersTwo The ‘…

VolumeII VolumeIII and ’ s - If you desire to do what you wish with me, withwish what you do to youdesire If

“ priest did in did priest negative The Instruction of Any, of Instruction The

, The New Kingdom, New The , , The Late Period,Late , The ‘ Who has had words with you?withwords has had Who ” in … ’ Women in Ancient Societies: An Illusion of the Night the of Illusion Societies: An inAncient Women , where magical womenmagical where , behave ” ” wife agitates him into attempting the attempting the himwifeinto agitates 10 she said to the herdsman to said she powers can be described as such for as such described canbe powers

The Boating PartyBoating The

, Setne Khamwas Setne , 9 …’

Didactic literature, such as thesuch as literature, Didactic 135

205. Setne said: said: Setne .

‘

rule ’

’ makes reference to the the to makes reference because they are also theyalso are because Setne Khamwas and Khamwas Setne Then his elder hiselder Then ‘ Let the ’

they would meetwithwould they encounter with encounter ’ She had had She ” ‘ ” ’

She said said She Here is Here

, ed.Leonie , J. The Two Two The ’

’

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 43 ,

form form 14

’ by by ”

”.

16 ” the villain,

, Paneshe. Spell - idealized “ s duplicitys Osire of ’ Setne Khamwas s s wife who was - - The Two Brothers ’ son of rankpriestly - “ s enemies.s ’ He listened to all that she s s magic and plot his against the

’ ’

. 209. The that power these women have

134 146.

12 18 ” This spell specifically targets foreign

Setne Khamwas Si and

15 Swear to by God, me saying: ” by the troublemakingby that literary these ‘

” ” 37. 17 The Late Period, The Late Period,

The New Kingdom, , The Late Period, The, Late Period,

Are Are a slaveyou Thenwoman? come as “

, 42. andTabubu a is who woman s s wife betrays andhim has killedhim than no less

’ woman, iswoman, as his name thestates a of son Nubian Volume III, Volume III Volume II, Volume take shamethe Egyptof to land the Nubia of 13 - “ Nubian - the - Let Let eat me of the ofliver this bull; for ishe good for nothing. . The Nubian woman was never an Nubian woman . The antagonist in the story, but the ‘ of -

Ancient Texts Magical Egyptian Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Literature: Egyptian Ancient Literature: Egyptian Ancient Literature: Egyptian She poured drink for his andmajesty, he was very happy her. with Whatever she say, I will will listen to it!

210.

Osire said: Sosaid she to him. He became vexed very over she what said, and of heart thethe Pharaoh was sore. “ Thensaid she to his majesty: ‘ son - Women in Ancient Egyptian Wisdom Literature, Wisdom Ancient Egyptian Women in - - “ s s appeasedwife Pharaoh the by charming and him pouring drinkshim before

’ Ancient Egyptian conveyssociety anxiety its towards women outside the What these literary women havecommon in theiris ability to a bring to man Later in the in Later story, Bata This subvertsdomesticity the of as beingwomen a complacent aspect

Depla, Depla, Lichtheim, Ibid, Ibid, 209 Ibid, 207. Lichtheim, Borghouts, Lichtheim,

16 17 18 13 14 15 12 of their personalitytheir of and instead her capacity shows for disruption even her desiredwithin role, harkening back toidea the that women Bata promise to him bull her: toup give making his women instigate.women It is important to note that abuse theirwomen as homemakers aas of way theirfurthering Inmanipulations. domestic orrealm as its disruptors foreigners, and as the mothers and protectors Egypt of magical powers she had along her own son with Pharaoh potentialreflect the threat of foreign aswomen wielders of magic, 66 foreign,targets female sorcerers Nubianthe like inwoman and Si her own magic own allows her which into tomagic her a Egypt goose and to to save transform fly her son when caughtis he and about to Horusbe killed by spiriting away spiriting theaway Pharaoh in the night and beating 500 in him times of the front ruler.Nubian The Nubian thoughwoman, directlynot involved this plot, in has woman. He woman. conspires to well aswell of wary women. theIn story of Horus women, women, which raises the question of theirwhether foreignness or femalenesstheir was the main cause anxiety.of Ancient Egyptians typically were xenophobic as vomit. vomit. Are a noblewoman?you asThen come his piss. Come slime as the of his nose, come as the sweat of his limbs! 66, seeks to which negate the power a of female outsider by likening her to the refuse her antithesis,of a man. or agitation, atgreat least, ruin recognized inpreviously a the fact mentioned Spell female. with the with twofold conundrum of dealing someonewith who was both foreign and female, andmagical female, or the casein worst scenario, foreign, magical, and that the that general anxiety Egyptian society towardsfelt women limitednot towas foreign perhapsbut women, was only heightened an when individual was faced Instruction Instruction texts that advised on how to deal womenwith reflected same this towardsanxiety female behaviour and abilitiestheir to influence men, which show considering the considering the magical properties of some of them, like Bata made by the gods for him over men over wavers betweenmen seduction and entrapment,magical especially three three times, and she vexes her husbandnew Pharaoh the by promise him making tothe destroy andbull trees the values.he

44 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 a of waycreation the to gave eventually and instructiontexts in early expressed is discomfort This loss. ofpersonal risk potential eventhe at men menand necessity to from wastheir women derived surrounding the of anxiety Part dangerous. women of as nature the and these deviations wroteabout who counterparts, maletheirfor uncomfortable was behaviours and roles theiridealized from Deviation spells. magical in and infolklore both weredepicted they how in isthis reflected Ancient and Egypt hierarchy of social in the space subordinate towards the contain predominantly to trying women of natures dual the balance trying to from thought maleintellectual tomorrow suchas the between balance more to it tries than character theirgeneral decries womenand whereas with one, relationship happy maintaininga of the and benefits misbehaviour woman a convey instructiontexts Earlier women. of dismissive and you husband her from womanaway is a Such unknown, “ house lord ardor advises, which Kingdom, earlyas the Old husband. theirroles, Ankhsheshonq of Instruction instruction text, Late Period The women? behaviours and of roles appropriate the about anxiety was social increasing there therefore, and numbers, greater the home, in outside society in newon roles women taking Were determine. withmen. associated previously affairs ofadulterous as instigators moreover,represented were, Greco and onlyEgyptian the literature, into continues woman as a of whicharchetype in the theperiods are out,points whichas Depla respectively, LatePeriod and Kingdom the New untrustworthy. non otherwise or powerful, magical, of consciousness social Egyptian Ancient the growthin underlying an indicate change ofsocial in periods were recorded stories their magicaland wereunusually figures literary facttwo thatthese The malecounterparts. their on had choices self wasthat entirely behaviour in engaged instead and not to choose both they homemaker, ofa role traditional not the fulfil meancould they that necessarily roles ofthese neither Bata men. by beloved are they as difficult makethemas can

Beware of a woman who is a stranger whoa womanis ofa Beware Ibid, 169. Ibid, Lichtheim, Lichtheim, Lichtheim, Lichtheim, 37. Ibid, 49. Ibid, Depla, Both Bata Both Women, though not without considerable rights and freedoms, still occupied a occupied still freedoms, rights and considerable without not though Women, Both ‘ …” …. unpredictable ’ …. s wife was divinely made and Tabubu was high a Tabubu and made was wife divinely s “ ” Women inWomenAncientEgyptianWisdom Literature,

gazes shewhen eyestorm her Her is 24 23

“ Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Gladden her heart as long as you live, She is a fertile field for her field for fertile isa She youlive, long heart as her as Gladden Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient The ” , it is clear that the Late Period instruction texts are both condescending condescending both are instruction texts Period Late that the it isclear , What she does with her husband today she does with another man withanother shedoes today husband withher shedoes What The Two Brothers Two The and and ” 22 25 “

When comparing comparing When A low woman does not have a life. A bad woman does not have a nothave womandoes A life. bad a nothave womandoes A low

and and Instruction of Ankhsheshonq of Instruction ’ The Instruction Any of The s unnamed wife and Tabubu fall outside of the norm for women, as for norm ofthe fall outside Tabubu wifeand sunnamed

“ ’ Do not open your heart to yourwife yourheart to not open Do vs. vs. - serving and gave no consideration for the impact their thefor impact their consideration no gave servingand ‘ domestic ’ VolumeIII VolumeI, VolumeIII VolumeII s ultimate desire to be around them and to please them, them, please to and them around be to ultimatedesire s

and the story of Setne Khamwas and Tabubu are from are Tabubu and Khamwas storyofSetne the and , shows this change in attitude towards women towards and attitude in , showschange this The Instruction of PtahhotepInstruction of The

21 OldKingdoms and Middle , The New Kingdom, New The , , The Late Period,Late , The Period,Late , The ’

The reasoning behind this change is difficult to to ischangedifficult this behind reasoning The natures of women shown earlier. advice Thus, earlier. women shown of natures ” 33.”

from the New Kingdom, whichthe from says, New Kingdom,

…. ….

“ A deep water whose course is course whose water Adeep shows much more distrust towards shows towards much distrust more And love you wife with you wife loveAnd - 169. 179.

‘ Thus will you make her stay in your in stay her makewillyou Thus

unpredictable (Berkeley:137.University California1976) Press, of

, 69. , ‘ temptress

…. - - traditional womenas traditional …” Roman period. - 19 She is ready to ensnare isensnare ready She to ranking priestess. While While rankingpriestess.

26 , possibly composed as composed possibly , ’

illustrates a shift inshift a illustrates woman. ’ ‘ arose in Ancient Ancient in arose temptress –

a role role a ’

s agency in sagencyin 20

Women ’

The The

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 45

–

s s magical capabilities is ’

s s powers. Magical women occupied space a different ’

figure in part,was, channeled by the figure theof magical women ’

Death, Death, and its associated magic and spells, are imperceptible to naked the

The idea death of as a transformative factor iteman in

temptress figurines becausefigurines they do neednot to prove their capabilities,magical the since are living not to see meant them work. work insidework tomb,the where living the do havenot access. Therefore, ushabti the are figures given stronger magical abilitiestransformation of and action than other despite commontheir place in folklore stories. Ushabti arefigurines supposed to to say tothey are say ineffective. This is likely themost reason there are not many commonly known spells for animating besidesfigurines the ushabti figurines, result, theresult, tomb, spells, its and ushabti the figurines outsidefall realm normal the believableof since livingmagic people see them at cannot work, no there proofis chamber where the mortuary spells and tools magical meant the to assist invisible aresoul ideally sealed andaway remain unseen and undisturbed a afterwards. As human eye. One eye. cannota human see soul leavehuman physically and the body burial the dead. the Although, Ancient Egyptians did believe in the power theof dead to thetorment dreams of living the whom they felt had wronged them. which could benot directly prevented by the magical and spiritual theof nature preservation and condition theof tomb and the Givenmummy. physicaltheir vulnerabilities, both these things susceptiblewere to robbery and desecration, acts physical world where human needs and desires would render immaterialtheir magical powers inconsequential. Mortuary closelymagic was tied to the dead aresusceptible then to both ideations of magic, them which allow to both transcend beyond human andvisibility comprehension, and remain yet in the a presence in the material the a presence in world are therefore material and subject laws, in to part its because theof rituals and significance placed tomb on the and the Themummy. associated consideredmagic the in physicalpotent theof living?world While the dead into transition and occupy a spiritualnew realm, they simultaneously remain potential amplifier for transformative at magic, pointwhat were deadthe and their spiritual transformation,spiritual as exemplified by the ushabtis, is it then how that necropolises sowere susceptible to liminality plundering?the If deathof a is worth worth criticalfurther analysis. death If allows opportunity for ofthe physical and and Death Magic and reputation, and their magicaland ability acts treatedwere and performed differently as a consequence. power over foreign women folktales their counterparts than in a as result of different their male social status win andout win reassert authority overnarrative, the just as Spell to 66 reassert sought surprise surprise then that thesewhile texts explored in the ways which couldwomen deviatethe from and norm benefit from it, ultimately the male protagonist would knowledge, increased only the perceived danger theseof and anxiety the women over their abilitiesmagical and both overpowers, or men otherwise. It is no outlier and an unknown. Any subsequent alienation from the stereotypical model Egyptian of womanhood, such as being foreign or possessing unusual magical daily daily lives of inwomen Ancient Egypt, as it a was fundamental resource in childbirth, but women were generally already considered a something of social to upset the to status the upset quo. This is to not that say magic was any a of partless of the ‘ who, either by creation or by vocation, used her powers and unnatural properties figure infigure literature, a astraywho ledwoman and men caused This them grief. 46 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

32 31 30 21. 29 28 27 forces. magical unexpected encountered of possible was spirits and demons, gods, worldof theinvisible whooccupy those mortalsand between encounters whereinsuch world thedream the sharingNaneferkaptah escapes SetneKhamwas wakingthat up by it isonly and dream, a through Setne Khamwas to told was Naneferkaptah gods. encounter or realities alternate experience to dreams their use could as an individual experience, magical potentially a encompasses dreaming and sleeping suggest that to muchreach ofa not too realityit is then mould thebreak of world beyond can reality.If out another dreams to invisible reach humans world.instances, Inboth the of living wholly part not is individual wherein an sleep to laying and down die to down oflaying the action between not wake forms. They “ inimpossible reality. be would that experiences to closer humans bring the ability to share fantasy Death and him to spoke Toth great god the form of mysterious which the dream in dream. Si and Khamwas the suchas in in stories folk paralleled only fantasy an of element meetinghavedemons, withgodsall and strange of thelistedBook Dead, in the experiences The otherworld. in this place that took the of exchanges werepart all occur. dimension but in a mind, not in the Dreamsoccurred ability. magical on constraints the to notextended apply this and did universe ofthe laws conventional theway that sucha fromit in apart wasreality, to close that, though world new a they occupied magicbecause power greater and people gave Death afterlife. inspirit the as a unjust behavior and just between the difference recognized Ankhiry living. the as reasoning and humanity same from the them removed death how and counterparts, living oftheir lives the over influence have powerful to a believed don wrongyou. no against committed I though me even on hands laying your it is havewhatdone, you for you?As against havedone I What youare? which in disposition youevil intothis get for to wrongfully you he laments wife, Ankhiry, deceased his to husband 19 following the living. In ofthe lives the over influence and with power significant were attributed thewriting, dead that reveal letter and through offerings withthe dead, maintained living the connection exist.The another access too as they magic for imaginativeability and transition same the humans living offer dreams and magic, sleeping to susceptibility their increasing realm, an invisible into transition the as dead world. Just fromthe regular obscurity and oftheirinvisibility non for realm anideal provide and feats, magical Dreams and Spaces Transitive

The west, it is a land ofsleepland a west, it is The Ibid Lichtheim, 22. Ibid, Kasia Szpakowska, 217. Ibid, Wente,F. Edward

- Paneshe and for Setne Khamwas, sleep was a transitional space where space wastransitional a sleep Setnefor Khamwas, and Paneshe It is significant to note that Ancient Egyptians referred to death as death to referred Ancient Egyptians that note to issignificant It stronger for ideal is sleep, wakefulness to death, to of life space transitive The Setne Khamwas and Si Khamwas Setne , 63. , ’ t differentiate good from evil. from good t differentiate 30

“

Ancient Egyptian Literature: Ancient Appeals for spiritual and magical assistance, threats, and appeasement appeasement and threats, magicalassistance, and spiritualfor Appeals Horus ” 29 Letters From Ancient Egypt FromLetters Ancient

Behind ClosedDreamEgypt Eyes: Behind and Nightmaresin Ancient where meeting between the living, the gods, and the dead could could the dead and gods, the living, the meetingbetween where - ’ son s husband felt she unfairly tormented him and that she no longerno that she himand tormented she unfairly felt husband s - Osire - of …” - Paneshe lay down in the temple. That night he dreamed a hedreamed night That temple. in laythe down Paneshe whenHorus the VolumeIII 32 - Osire

Perhaps this is a recognition of the similarities the similarities of recognition isthis a Perhaps , ed. EdmundMeltzer (Atlanta,Georgia: , ed. S. 216. 1990), Press,Scholars …. ….

, The Late Period,Late , The , Horus , “ Those who are there sleep in their mummy intheir who sleep there are Those ” world 28

These lines illustrate how the dead were dead how the lines illustrate These - ” son -

son where the limitations of reality do not do ofreality wherelimitations the 146. - of - of

- Paneshe meets the god Toth inToth a god the meets Paneshe ’ - s unhappy fate. In the story of Inthe storyof fate. sunhappy Paneshe encounter Toth through Toth encounter Paneshe - conventional magic because use conventional

(Swansea:TheClassical ofWales,2003), Press “ ” What have I done against done I have What 27

and later, later, and th

Dynasty letter from a letter Dynasty .

For the Horus For “ Now look, you look, Now Setne Setne ‘ sleeping …”

“ ’ they spatial spatial s story s 31 - son

- ’. -

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 47 s fantasticals ’ Setne Khamwas world encounters. - and

s dream.s this In way, humans magic ’ 

Setne Khamwas Naneferkaptah and

are fantasy stories, set up were as but they real

Osire -

Magic Magic operated the realm possibilityof within when it came toapplication the Both the Bothstories the of

world magic was not being able to prove the that beingmagic attempted was the realthe world. performed performed in death and dreams in was similar to folkloric that in they magic were and potentially more powerful, held not tosame as scrutiny up the of level in were just as Onewith magic. does not death, from return nor does the one have ability to prove disproveor events another of the that death andthat dreaming introduce to individual an also were impossible to see, counterparts in folk stories, humans could break away the from constraints of reality breaking while away the real from world themselves. The different worlds same same freedom from conventionalthe limitations reality.of asJust real world magicians preventedwere performingfrom same the magical as feats their provided individualan transition a into of world few magical limitations. As a world experienced on another plane existence,of dreams gave individuals the animated and used and inanimated context, for a labour and only dead the mortuary themselves capablebecame of greater and influencemagic inafterlife. the Dreams, death like unseen unseen theworlds of dead and dreams of provide a framework for onlynot more powerful in othermagic theworlds, in but real too.world Ushabti figurines were impossible. Invisibility was tofundamental other aspects of magic as Thewell. antagonistic intervention.magical The requirementfundamental for effective, real - failed, it was necessarily not because it impossiblewas an task to begin it with; could be otherfor of a variety invisibleequally factors such as demons or world, spiritual but influence was impossible to prove or regardlessdisprove of whether the magical spell worked as intended. attemptan If at influencespiritual cannot see cannot whether it is one cannotworking, prove that is it effective.not Trying to fold over or bring water statues towax life was guaranteed the toin real fail influence influence the material becomes completelyworld improbable. Realistic magic had its invisibility in its toif one because maintain order believability to maintain abilities diverged the from realistic offorms occurs itsmagic when ability to of practical,of daily magical spells. The when moment folkloric magic Conclusion encounters? Or arejust dreams unconnected an part of the more powerful magic prevalentalready in stories of fantasy? encounters and if, like death and fantasy, dreams are unconstrained rules by the of doreality they share the same affiliation heightenedwith magical powers and of of dreams themselveswhether seen as a gatewaywere to greater magical and Si The intense magical experiences protagonists their experienced questionbeg the 48 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

Wente,Edward F. 1990. Szpakowska,Kasia. 2003. ——— ——— Lichtheim,Miriam. 1973. Depla,Annette. "Women 1994. inAncient Works Cited DreamNightmares and Ancient in Egypt. Universityof California Press. VolumeIII, TheLate Period. CaliforniaPress. TheNew Kingdom. CaliforniaPress. Kingdoms. Literature:Volume I,The Old and Middle Atlanta,Georgia: Scholars Press. Egypt. Swansea:The PressClassical ofWales, 2003. EgyptianMagical Texts. Routledge.Borghouts,J.F. 1978. LeonieArcher,J. 24 edited bySusanFischler, and Maria Wyke AncientSocieties: IllusionAn of the Night, EgyptianWisdom Literature."In Women in . . 1980.“ “ Ancient Egyptianliterature. Volume 2, ” Edited byEdmundS. Meltzer.

” AncientEgyptian Literature: Berkeley:University of

” “ - Berkeley:University of LettersFrom Ancient “ New 52. York: “ Ancient Egyptian BehindClosed Eyes: ” Leiden:E.J. Brill. ”

Berkeley:

“ Ancient ”

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 49 -

This

As As 4 13

Because Because

2 11, 12

s health s within ’ s doctors was ’ had four Bianca Grier Bianca 102. There is also an overall cultural 102.alsooverall an is There - e Pharaoh

and also were traineda in

, 101 — Doctors To training, receive this

8 p. 410. 5, 6 ” . , trans. p.Bryan, 87. ma'at being of theirof being female patients. Within - A Concise Dictionary

were imbeddedwere a bureaucraticin )

being of theof being ruler and the royal family. He Clinical Clinical Anatomy, 7 - “

; see Teeter, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Teeter, see Encyclopedia Oxford ; The ınw s et al. ma'at see Faulkner, see The Papyrus Ebers The Papyrus ” s s doctor responsibility assuming for all other 74; the principal primary sources are The Kahun Papyrus (trans. Quirke) and The The and Papyrus Quirke) (trans. primary sources are Kahun 74; The the principal

- ’

order;

s German translation). s German “

’ p. 80. p. or Within the Within the sophisticated practicemedical ancientof

, 44. p. , and 80; p. , 43. p. , 73 pp. , 74. p. , 74. p. ” 1

, 116; and Loukas , and 116; , 21.t p. truth “ While male doctors involved the were in treatment of women, eye, stomach,eye, teeth, and rectum personified in the goddess of the same name. This also carried into everyday supposed one as was alsolife the goddess the of carried same everyday into name. This in personified

3 — ma'at , p. 21. is translated as is

omen Ancientin Egypt On the other the On doctorshand, called for in were more complex medical

Women Ancientin Egypt Women Ancientin Egypt, Women Ancientin Egypt Women Ancientin Egypt Women Ancientin Egypt Women Ancientin Egypt 10 Ma'at It is important to note that, for the part,most midwives or other women Women Ancientin Egypt Women Ancientin Egypt

Egyptian MythEgyptian 9

There several generalwere areas in which all doctors required were to have The doctors Egyptian (called Women's Women's health has often been a taboo subject culture, in western and still we,

Watterson, Watterson, W Watterson, Watterson, Watterson, see Ebers p menopause: The similar Papyrus, 87. symptoms toof we Ebersa now description call there what Papyrus is In

Watterson, Watterson, Watterson, Watterson, Pinch, Pinch, Robins, Robins, term The Chrisler, "Teaching Taboo Topics," p.Taboo 128 "Teaching Chrisler, Topics," Watterson,

11 12 13 8 9 10 connotation of the of wordconnotation to with was with the Pharaoh order, to rule live and 7 4 5 6 2 (trans. Joachim Ebers Bryan from Papyrus 3 1 related problems medical but also for a of host otherwhole includingailments, suchproblems as muscle cramping and appearswhat to becancer. uterine suffered depression from or menopausal symptoms (hot flashes, etc.). lastthese two examples show, doctors justnot treatingwere women for fertility bodies. issues, for example, if there were complications a pregnancy,with orpatient the if community community which within they couldquestions ask and be educated about their Sais. treated female minor health problems, and so createdwomen own their safe training, andtraining, among these areas gynecology. was physicians, as aswell midwives (see below), travelled to The Temple Neithof at wide wide of variety general health areas. ideals presented the cosmicwithin order, specializations administered the tasks the otheradministered of the borders doctors kingdom. the within of structural system thewithin medical profession characterizes larger the general (presumably, despite(presumably, there evidencebeing of at least one female doctor) physicians in physiciansEgypt. in Along this responsibility,with th chargealso in theof health and well hierarchy, hierarchy, the with Pharaoh this this medical culture, themselveswomen also acted as healers and had a voice in own their treatment. Egyptian Egyptian society. they showed sensitivity towards the well the Egyptiansthe believed words held power,the only valuedmost information was recorded, and documentsso revealthese importance the of women treatments concernstreatments various thatfor health apply exclusively to women. doctors and our health. by comparison,Egypt, the medical documentpapyri deal symptoms with and as strugglewomen, to overcome stigma and body image issues dealingwhen with

Practices in Women's HealthPractices Women's in Ancient Egyptian Treatment Treatment Egyptian Ancient 50 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

29 30 29 28 27 26 25 Egypt, Ancient Womenin 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 Egypt Ancient Womenin 17 16 frommassages.becan anything ofapplicationsalves the to (pharmacological) situationfrombe(theysightanywhere can 15 14 symptomand The title. ofa form in the often thefor disease, term medical is using described eachEgyptian such procedure the bymedical procedure, that within papyrus the isorganized document endingThe for pregnancy. a procedure afterpill. morning oftypeancient a had termination. for themselves. protect womento the solely on squarelyand was the onus men,so for and contraception methodsof knownno are there however, bodies; own their control could they options, contraceptive varietyof ovulation. in and, turn, thatfor period menstruation preventing ageofthree, until the children breastfeed to was midwives vagina. from the fluid the seminal release to sneezing and ground squatting the on prescribed who Greek counterparts, thanweremoremedically their thefar Egyptians progressive qualities. spermicidal have today, somespermicides in used iswhich still suchas acacia, remedies, nature. mainlyplant being the other and honey dungand scholars. to known thatare bodies. own their control womencould therefore and methodsofcontraception, to access women. the of consent without the womb, often removalofthe by sterilization was surgical for given order court a hysteria, of extremecases In place. into shift would womb the that thought with the stimulation clitoral wasmild thehysteria ofapplication Victorian cases manner. approachfor ofThe as known disease, equivalent solution. pharmacological a depression. womb,ofthe termmedical the Egyptian identified have who Scholars physicians. Greek Ancient by shared withinbelief a body, movedthe wombactually childbirth. fertility and with is concerned latter while the gynecology. discuss that texts medical of sources most significant among are the reach to order in treatments, medicalpapyrus, a consult tool. diagnostic as a accounts Robins, Watterson, Riddle, Watterson, Riddle, Robins, Watterson, Riddle, Robins, Watterson, Churchill, Watterson, Watterson, ThePapyrus;Kahun and Shephard,See Shephard, examinedTheinformalMedical written texts wereby style. They avary always based start on symptomsdescribing that the Watterson, Egyptian midwives, not doctors, held the medical information and controlled controlled and information medical theheld not doctors, midwives, Egyptian that the believed doctors thatEgyptian suggest today commentators Modern In cases of unwanted pregnancy, the Egyptians had three known procedures procedures known three had the Egyptians pregnancy, unwanted Incases of Physicians listened to women who described their symptoms and used their usedtheir and theirsymptoms womendescribed who to listened Physicians Women in Ancient Egypt, inAncient Women Contraceptionand Abortion Contraceptionand Abortion Contraceptionand Abortion Women in Ancient Egypt inAncient Women Egypt inAncient Women 23 22 “ Illustrated Health History An of and Fitness Women in Ancient Egypt inAncient Women Egypt inAncient Women Egypt inAncient Women Egypt, inAncient Women Egypt inAncient Women Egypt, inAncient Woman Egypt inAncient Women Hysteria,

Modern scientists have found that some ingredients used in these these usedin someingredients that found have scientists Modern There are three types of contraception for women used by the Egyptians by Egyptians women used the for typesthree ofcontraception are There An Illustrated Health An History of and Fitness 19 17 ” The Egyptians Egyptians The ”

The former considers a wide range of women wideof range a formerconsiders The , p.81. , pp. 448 pp. in the Kahun Papyrus, have interpreted the idea to mean to the idea haveinterpreted Papyrus, the Kahun in

p.89. 28 25 The Papyrus The Ebers

Some scholars have suggested that the Egyptians may have also also have may the Egyptians that suggested have scholars Some

The third method of contraception recommended by Egyptian Egyptian by recommended methodofcontraception third The

- 49;Fugh and 24 , p.80. , p.80; and, Jauniaux,

pp.79 , pp. 71 pp. , 71 pp. , 128. p. ,

From a modern perspective, these techniques reveal that reveal techniques these modernperspective, a From , p.89. , p.89. , p.88. , p.86. , p.80. ,

p.44. pp.80 - -

80; and Watterson, W Watterson, 80;and to scent to 15 - -

20

- , trans. Bryan, pp. 82 pp. trans. Bryan, , 72. 72. Two of these methods, one consisting of crocodile ofcrocodile consisting one methods, Twoofthese - Berman, prescribe

81. which documented a list of symptoms and and symptoms lista of whichdocumented a diagnosis. a 14

“

During the Victorian era, by comparison, the comparison, by era, Victorian Duringthe

hysteria,

- After receiving this information, doctors would doctors information, this Afterreceiving based).doThepassageonsay for to Treatmegoes thentreatment. to what “ , p. 90. p. , AlternativeHealing, “ An Introduction to Reproduction AninIntroductionto Egypt, Pharaonic , p. 90, for a list90,afor p. theseWatterson,of sources;referencesprimary, to also d a salvea astreatm d

” omen in Ancient Egypt, inAncient omen 29 16 - 87. was treated in a much more archaic archaic more much in wasa treated

Papyrus Ebers documents the medical the documents Ebers Papyrus

The Kahun Papyrus and Papyrus Ebers Ebers Papyrus and KahunPapyrus The

”

p. 26b. p. - based, are pharmacological in in are pharmacological based, 26

Because women had a had women Because

pp.88 ent for depression, using depression, for ent 18 27 -

89. ’

s health problems, problems, health s 21

” p.109; Watterson, “ disturbance disturbance

nts

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 51

The social and capable of

” 32

99. - pp. 90 pp. unclean ” “ that refer to are menstruation

day period, common the - Medina, lists the which - in Ancient Egypt, in ’ to seven

- Taboo ‘ Medina thatinsinuates may have women - term pregnancy.term Here, in unlike the more - . This depiction consistentis abortionan with

31

The Menstrual The Menstrual This explanation also show would that women were “

72. - 34 , 36. p. 79. - , pp. 71 , 78 pp. menorrhagia) This text is very fragmented and unclear as to these women why

33

, 2, Clinical Care for Women Undergoing Clinical2, , Abortion. Carefor Women Village Life Ancientin Egypt The title concerning first abortion is, "Induce a to woman drop to forth the

Contraception and Abortion and Contraception 30 Women Ancientin Egypt

In this In category abortion,of the description suggests the ofremoval a foetus There known little aboutis menstruation in ancient Egypt, and little we what The "Tothird title is: extract [menstrual] blood." Compared to previous the

The second title concerning abortion "To is: is in expel what her abdomen."

McDowell, McDowell, Frandsen, text commentary Translated in and Riddle, Riddle, SafeAbortion

Robins, 32 33 34 30 31 supported andat home community the within for distinctly female medical conditions. month ormonth for every worker. with theirwith chores or other daily tasks. This practice account a would for only few days being andmissed for absences the why did happennot consistently every that on daysthat when ofwomen the house experienced extreme cramping or other severe symptoms brought on by menstruation, stay homemen would to help them appear, they appear,do typicallynot cover they a four length for ratherbut menstruation, a day atonly a time. A more theory is likely problematic becausehypothesis of days the missed on the work documentdo not every appear or Whenabsences formonth every consecutively the worker. do absence became a preventative Thismeasure. ideahistorical has as it is merit practiced other in many neighbouring cultures of the period. But it stillis a transferring this uncleanliness to the workers male their in households, whose was was necessary. One theory thatsuggests male workers were absent because women, when menstruating, believedwere to be both attendance of workersmale who have becausemissed work their orwives daughters are menstruating. There someis speculation from scholars on why this would need to isolate themselves. The other sources contained in administrativean from text Deir el had to leave the community to had the to leave to go a place during calledof "house the women" menstruation. primary primary sources on the social treatment of menstruatingare women fragmented and unclear. sourceOne from Deir el stigma of stigma menstruation is not well understood reason. same for the The main reusable sanitary onnapkins laundry a list,royal there littleis on information the standard practices and symptomatic treatment of menstruation. do know isdo vague. know Beyond believed is what to be of recording the rudimentary menstruation (called or in early miscarriage the term. abortion procedures this from century. During earlier the stages of pregnancy, if a miscarriage occurs, it could be for especiallyan mistaken heavy during flow two procedures, the has two this description andmost benign to very similar is woman in woman earlieran stage pregnancy.of from the from perhapswomb during mid caseextreme described description above, the is as not visceral and suggest a may

The "induce" thatword procedureimplies the done deliberatefor was the removal the of foetus. ancient Egyptian toway describe at a a miscarriage late stage pregnancy of because theof dramatic physical reaction that experiencewomen that in context. woman iswoman experiencing sudden orpain. traumatic I propose this that be themay listed. ground." Here,context the in abortion,of language the seems to suggest the treatment are below, given sometimes with more than one symptom and treatment 52 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

The image is documented inimageTheis Wagner, documented 39 Lloyd, 38 ofAncientMedicine the Egyptians The Kahun28, Papyrus, 37 Kochman isamounttransfused andGreek aHippocrates,thereon greater breath. ofphysician, athescent also usedthis technique. Duringonion.Engorgementhappencan menstruation. pregnancy,moreduringmorecellsand sulphurtheengorged evengets are garliconioncate method.the Itwhenappears clove or that sub 36 Kahun19 Papyrus, Strouhal, 35 abortion. and contraception on focus which issues those particularly health, women's understand to the desire alwaysdemonstrated not have society, contemporary in those including however, cultures other women of concerns and the issues took culture that Egyptian suggests This counterparts. Greek their to relation especiallyin women to scientific approach and systematic a reveals papyri, medical various women. treatment, in the as and treat described support Their midwifery. through retained women that importance revealsthe source This medicalexperts. female by managed exclusively was childbirth of everyaspect that suggesting attendants, female fromchild two her motherreceiving revealsa image one labour, woman in a notshow does the brick Though protection. withchild motherand the provide were to thought that childbirth during used Wands" "Magic found with commonly the similarities share iconography graphics and whileits nature cultic in are decorations Its brick. birth withchildbirth. dealt have may Egyptians how of representational myth is that this suggested have historians Modern women. of inthe community Heqet. and Meskhenet Nephthys, family: the for royal midwives who as act goddesses by three helped ismother in labour the Here, Royaltriplets. theofbirth midwives. upon womendepended pregnancy, like determining concerns, medical minor any for labour; inducing uterus or prolapsed a tasks, repairing like major for werein only called doctors diseases, and problems gynaecological other werepregnant she mouth if woman the to travel would scent garlic onionor the that Physicians Egyptian vagina. intothe uponthe translation) (depending clove garlic anonionor of insertion as the KahunPapyrus in the iswhich described performed, be could wastestthat secondary there a Inaddition, theirbodies. pregnant. was

“ Watterson, Haimov Likeprocedurescarriedbyseveral hasancientEgyptians,out other themoderntherehas beensome attempted testingthat to Robins, The Birth RoyalofChildren,The the An important artifact that may have been used in childbirth is the Abydos the is childbirth usedin have been may that artifact Animportant describes Papyrus in Westcar documented story a mythology, InEgyptian woman thethatfirst a be sign to wasconsidered menstrualcycle missed A The ancient Egyptian society has shown an openness and willingness to willingnessto and openness hasan shown society ancient Egyptian The A companion to ancient companion to Egypt A The Medicine of the Ancient Egyptians, Ancient the of Medicine The - al. et Women in Ancient Egypt inAncient Women 39 Kochman

Women in Ancient Egypt inAncient Women This myth reveals the vital role that midwives played in midwivesmyth childbirth vitalthat played and role This the reveals , “ 38 Reproductive Concepts andReproductiveConcepts Practices,

et al. et

35

, “ This acknowledgement shows that women were educated about about wereeducated women that shows acknowledgement This Reproductive Concepts and Practices,ReproductiveConcepts ” , pp.78 , in Papyrus Westcar, inWestcar, trans.Robins,Kinnaer; also Papyrus , p 521 ,p A Decorated Birth Brick from South Abydos, Abydos, Decorated South from A Birth Brick , p 162.,p ,p.89. - 79.

and so confirmpregnancy. so the and

p 165. p ”

p. 5. p.

- mucosal blood vesselsmucosalblood they cancarry engorged, "scent" o theare  ” ” p. 5. p.

’ s health very seriously. Many Many seriously. very health s pp. 471 pp. Women in Ancient Egypt, inAncient Women 36 - 481

It was thought by by thought was It

37

But, as with manywith as But, ’ s health, shealth,

p.82.

Hai mov re ’ fthe pli- s -

40

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 53

>. >. . . - -

. .

. London: London: . . ed. David ed. David . Brick from Brick from -

https://

496. - s Press, 1991. s Press, History to Our Post to Our History ’ -

The Oxford Encyclopedia The Medical Kahun

Women in Ancient Egypt . ed. Donald Redford. New New ed. Donald. Redford. . London and New York: York: and New London . The Medicine of the Ancient Egyptian Myth:Egyptian A Very Short An Illustrated History of Health of History Health An Illustrated . New York: Oxford University University Oxford York: New . Contraception and Abortion fromand Contraception

Women in Ancient Egypt . Egypt: The American University University American The Egypt: . . . 2016. 26 November Accessed Renaissance to the World the Ancient 1992. Press, University Harvard Cambridge: 1993. Press, Museum British World Geneva: 2nd edition. Systems. Health < 2012. Organization, Health www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK138188/ 2016. 26 November Accessed Introduction 2004. Press, Barbara. Watterson, Hana Vachala, Břetislav Eugen, Stouhal, "Maat." Emily. Teeter, Birth Decorated "A Josef. Wagner, Quirke, Stephan, trans. trans. Stephan, Quirke, M. John Riddle, Gay. Robins, for Guidance Policy and Technical Abortion: Safe J. Roy Shephard, Pinch, Geraldine. Geraldine. Pinch, in in -

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ed. Jodied. O 105. - - Alternative Healing, Alternative Reproductive Reproductive egypt.org/language/ European Journal of of Journal European Clinical Anatomy Clinical The Papryus Westcar The Papryus “ - ” ” 112. ” ” Oxford: Griffin Institute, Institute, Griffin Oxford: The Menstrual Menstrual The - A Concise Dictionary ofA Dictionary Concise

Hysteria, “ Journal of Near Eastern Eastern ofNear Journal Reproductive Concepts and and Concepts Reproductive “ The Papyrus Ebers, The Papyrus “

” story.html#previous Village Life in Ancient Egypt: - An Introduction to Reproduction Reproduction to An Introduction 15. “ - the A of Companion AncientEgypt.

123 (2005): 3 123 (2005): 37 (2013): 128 37 (2013): 66 (2007): 81 66 (2007):

--- , ed. Wilma P. Mankiller, Gwendolyn P. Gwendolyn Mankiller, Wilma ed. ,

49.

-

Kochman, Ronit, Yael Scaiky Yael Ronit, Kochman, - Berman, Adriane. Berman, Adriane. Clinical Anatomy as Practiced by the the by as Practiced Anatomy Clinical - Oxford University Press, 1999. Press, University Oxford (2011): 409 (2011): Songs. Love and Laundry List Mohammadali M. Shoja, R. Shane Tubbs. Tubbs. Shane R. Shoja, M. Mohammadali “ Egyptians. Ancient Accessed 26 November 2016. 26 November Accessed 2010. Publishing Lmt., Blackwell Oxford:

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Frandsen, Paul John. John. Paul Frandsen,

Churchill, Lindsey. Lindsey. Churchill,

Topics: Taboo "Teaching C. Joan Chrisler, trans. Cyril, Bryan, Works Cited Works 54 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

ancestral relationship to the genre. the genre. to relationship ancestral termed be should they reason, this For its development. clearly to important are they genresince apocalyptic ofthe outside texts these leave fittingto isnot It classicalapocalypses. and Mesopotamian between link a textsprovides the seenthrough development out. ruled canbe that coincidence apocalypses true to resemblance such significant a bear the Prophecy and Marduk B, A, However,texts do. Prophesies Dynastic and Uruk, Sulgi, but the apocalyptic, not qualifyas do the Prophecy and Marduk B Aand genre,texts apocalyptic for the works they dictate and theparameters literary of analyses Biblical authoritative on Based Prophecy. Uruk the and Prophecy; theDynastic (Marduk); D and C (Sulgi), A, B, as classically known fourtexts the debate: sparking currently texts ofthe nature apocalyptic the evaluate usedto togetherand brought be to need itself genre the regarding divisive analyses literary Therefore, context. the same within genre an apocalyptic employ and on agree unableto been have scholars decades for prophetic, are works manyMesopotamian that divine answers. required that questions answering apalu raggimu thatthe suggest they since profession, withinthe prophetical hierarchy a reveal the about Writings words. her transmitted usually they since ofArbela, ragamu, is wordprophet for standard the sources, Assyrian setting.IntempleNeo a to restricted was generally that service asa prophecies those then and retell unprompted prophecies wouldreceive who individuals root the Bible. to thatiscomparable way prophecyin a and ofprophets culture a evidence also language Babylonian 7 from the Assurbanipal and Esarhaddon kings the Assyrian to messages divine comprising ofthe 19 middle the Greek. and Aramaic, diviner in Hebrew, or an astrologer imageryof elicits texts, ancient wasthe Bible. in found it before long exist to known was meansit that which itself, Bible in the referenced extra sphere, the public and academia both existedin has long association this While worksthewith Bible. in commonlyassociated Mesopotamia 1500 Apocalyptic Literature in 5 4 3 2 2.2003), calLiterature, 1 Nissinen, Seow, and Nissinen,Seow, Ritner, Chavalas,Mark and Nissinen,Seow, Ritner, William Hallo, Choon Martti Nissinen, Prophetic literature, and its sub its and literature, Prophetic mabu , meaning , 2

Some of the first documents containing prophetic words wereby words found prophetic containing first documents Someofthe

meaning meaning had higher status than the the than status higher had , meaning , “ th The Ancient Near East: Ancient Historical The in Translation Sources AkkadianApocalypses,

century BCE, were excavated at Nineveh. at excavated were centuryBCE,

- Leong Seow, andLeong Seow, Robert Ritner, ‘ to answer, to Prophetsand Near Prophecy EastinAncient the Prophetsand Near Prophecy EastinAncient the “ to shoutto proclaim. or th “

to become crazy or go into a frenzy,intogoa or crazy become to century inthe 18 century ” 1

Israel Exploration JournalIsraelExploration The term Chaldean, which has been found even in in even found haswhich been termChaldean, The ’ which refers to individuals who travelled the land the land travelled who individuals to whichrefers “ 4 proto

The Babylonian word word Babylonian The - Prophetsand Near Prophecy East inAncient the genre of apocalyptic literature, is mostis literature, ofapocalyptic genre mubbu

-

apocalypses, th

” century BCE archives at Mari. Others, Mari. at archives centuryBCE These were evidently devotees of Istar wereevidently devotees of Istar These

. Sources from Mari also use the term the use also from . Sources Mari 16 (1966): 232.(1966): 16 (Malden, MA & Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 169.Blackwell, MA& (Malden, Oxford: 2006), The pattern of literary pattern The ,3. ,2. -

5 ” 100 BCE

raggimu While it is no object of debate of object no it is While to clearly reference their their reference clearly to

- Biblical prophecyis Biblical 3

mubbu Elements of Assyrian and of Elements ” Erin Mandel , from the root root from the , and is used to refer to to refer to is used and

is related to the to isrelated

(Atlanta:Society ofBibli- raggimu

-

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 55

20 (2016): (2016): 20

t necessarily These ’

11 This failure to

” 7

9 s library and library s the ’ 18 (1964): 7. 18 s controversials article

’ and the andUruk the and Dynastic

—

future tense, future the with exception - (1979). In it, Collins defines a(1979). it, In Collins defines literary 14 (1979): 1.

Journal ofJournal Studies Cuneiform Collins goes further to the define necessary

” 8 Semeia ” Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum / of Journal fürChristentum Ancient Antikes Christianity Zeitschrift ” texts B,texts A, C, and D Adela Yarbro functionally Collins expands on this

Akkadian Prophecies, Akkadian 10 is derived the from Greek word for revelation, but it is — “ is a is revelatoryof genre literature a narrativewith ’ ” intended to interpret circumstancespresent, earthly in light ’ “ However, totrying refine this idea into a for genre

6 ” in theirin titles and several books almost always included discussion in ’ The texts are all phrased present in Apocalypse

‘ a group textsof marked by distinctive recurring characteristics which The Genre Apocalypse TheReconsidered, Genre Apocalypse Apocalypse Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Morphology of Genre, The Apocalypse: “ 12 ‘ framework, in which a revelation is anmediated otherworldlyby being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality iswhich both it envisagestemporal, as insofar eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world. “ “

The major Mesopotamian texts respectivewhose statuses as apocalypses are Based definition, on this to be defined as apocalyptic a text containmust most The applying challenge in scholarlymost debate on apocalyptic literature to

Akkadian Prophecies Albert Grayson and Lambert, Wilfred Albert Grayson Ibid.,10. Collins, John apocalypse John Collins, Collins, John Ibid., 2. Ibid., 3. Ibid., 9. 11 33. 12 8 9 10 6 7 Nineveh. Kouyunjik library; and copies text of have C been found at both and Assur prophecies, addedwere which todispute the soon after. Textsand A D found were at Assur; six copies text of B were found in Assurbanipal disputed are fourthe texts analyzed by Grayson and Lambert 1964 in as “ legitimate legitimate rathergenre, than a subjective group. definitions definitions theshow strict nature classification the of theof traditional collection texts apocalyptic of also the while classification expanding asfor a evaluation of the supernatural the of theof world andfuture, to influence both understanding the andbehavior the audience the of divineby means of authority. apocalypse apocalypse as a text eschatological salvation. definition with her own more recent take almost a decade later, describing an historical, cosmic, political, or personal eschatological events; otherworldly an source and of a human recipient for the narrative; andprediction the a of future (butof not necessarily all) the afollowing: narrative describing a revelation of needs needs to express cosmic eschatology. apocalyptic of rules literature in as general terms as possible: from the from failure to observe that text not every that expresses eschatologycosmic becan classified apocalypse,as an and reciprocally, that not apocalypticevery text of apocalypticof literature do necessarily not that fit description. classifyaccurately a genre literatureof that seems immediately identifiable stems proclamations regarding the end the of world. Ancient Jewish texts that contain ‘ most commonlymost inused a restricted originating sense the from opening verse of BookThis Revelation. of the classification comemodern has to describe divine language. historical historical context. apocalyptic literature easilycan result a in confusionfuzzy disorganizedof constitute constitute a recognizable and coherent type of writing, which don to have have always been separate nor do have works, to they be based similar on Apocalypse: Theof aMorphology Genre as genre possible necessaryis to define it forcurrent the purpose. Tostart building this generalized definition, a useful authority Johnis Collins categorically categorically different, so generalizing criteria the theof genre as as much Mesopotamian literature thatis texts the being considered predatecan apocalyptic literature by hundreds of Theyears. historical and cultural contexts are 56 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

21 MediterraneanWorld 20 141. Clark,2003), Prophetic,Apocalyptic,andthe The Beginning: Their Relationships 19 18 17 16 15 Jewishof Studies 14 13 eschatology, political includes and beings, involves otherworldly willflee. subjects his and king the will and attack Amorites reign, final bad ofthe end the at until, alternate will then reigns bad and but good willrestored be to the Order region. order Anu gods theInthis prologue, proper. the prophecy to prologue a settingas earthly an in characters mythological mostwell middlethe section, The reigns. and bad good of pattern alternating a and in presented ascontinuous a narrative is theinformation A, text in unlike but, ofkings, thereigns judge and describe sections third and ofthe first portions Thereadable middlesection. asthe series same from the are preserved, well not are as they sections, third the and first whether unclear still it is unfortunately but intosections three is divided B Text apocalypticism. towards literature Eastern in step Near the earliest might be it literature, withapocalyptic in common hasA this text Since literature. in apocalyptic common is kings of fall and rise the discussing of theconcept genre. ofthe apocalyptic framework strict workedintothe cannot be but it in nature, seemprophetic but does mediated not is information since the Collins by as required human a recipient, being to divine a narrative from being transmitted literature ofapocalyptic characteristic cosmiceschatology or political, personal, no there onlyis Not deemedapocalyptic. be to thefor text notallow does variouslength, of ofreigns descriptions thesimple ofthe text, sections readable nature ofthe findssix the text of sections legible all as judged masterofthe land. willnot be he short and be a which in exception isonly one time.There years, phrase, with the sectionEachbegins lines. horizontal by sections into unequal divided is and kings ofdifferent reigns age. messianic a to equivalent is quo, status ofthe continuation infinite for turmoil,allowing of time catastrophic a regionafter stabilitythe to king bringing savior context,a Inthe Mesopotamian Christians. and ancient Jews the of cultures the and cultures Assyrian and Babylonian the between differences the to due cosmiceschatology, than rather eschatology political texts contain thatclarifythese to worthwhile texts. waythe Biblical as the same in purpose propagandistic a served texts that these determine even can historians contexts, historical their estimating By apocalypses. prophecyas Biblical the same and pseudepigraphy, same sometimes the reigns. ofdifferent lengths and locations the declare primarily sentences The omen literature. to similar phraseology that don sentences declarative yetvague ofsimple composed are and text B, of section mythological ofthe Grayson and Lambert, Graysonand Neujar, Matthew Nissinen,Martti 10. Ibid, 10. Ibid, Lambert, Graysonand Hallo, Kaufman,Stephen Hallo, More copies of text B have been found than of any other text discussed here. here. discussed text other any of than have found oftextbeen B copies More describing ofAssur, repetitivephrases A, the isText found at composed “ “ AkkadianApocalypses, AkkadianApocalypses, ”

16

and then goes on to describe major events that took place during that place events major took that describe to goes on then and “

’ (1973): 227. 227. (1973): “ s definition. This text could possibly be characterized as an oracle, as an oracle, characterized be possibly could text This sdefinition. good

PredictingNear Pastthe East: in Ancient the Mantic Mesopotamia, Judah,Historiography inAncient and the Neither Prophecies Nor Apocalypses: AkkadianPropheciesNor Neither TheLiterary Texts, Predictive “

Prediction, Prophecy, and Apocalypse inApocalypseProphecy, Light ofAkkadianNew theTexts,Prediction, and (Providence, RI: BrownRI: (Providence, University, 22. 2012), 15 “ “ AkkadianProphecies, AkkadianProphecies,

” or or

” 242. 242. ” 235. ” “ bad

21 ”

by the author, but not the events themselves. Aof tally themselves. events but the not thebyauthor, This text presents the information as a narrative, narrative, as a information the text presents This ” 11. 11. ” 10. ” ’ t mention omens or laws, but which often use use often which but laws, or mentionomens t

14

Before analyzing each text individually, it is it is individually, text each analyzing Before “ A prince will arise and rule for [N] [N] rulefor willand arise prince A - — Rabu and Enlil discuss the need to return to need the discuss Enlil Rabu and “ bad 13 , ed. Lester L. Grabbe and Robert D. Haak (London: T.(London: &Haak D. Robert T. and ed.Lester L., Grabbe

- but there is also no mentionof a no is also but there

preserved section, presents section, preserved The texts use the same pseudonymity, same pseudonymity, the use texts The ” “ reigns and three three reignsand ” prince will arise but his days will days but his will arise prince 17

Interestingly, the reigns are are the reigns Interestingly, — vaticinium ex eventu ex vaticinium

the most obvious the ” ” Proceedings of the WorldProceedingsthe Congress of in Knowing the End from the Endfrom the Knowing “ good

but the but the 20

” 19 ones.

However, However,

18

The The

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 57

22 his Like Like ”

”

28

and 27 ”

human human good - “ to - good “ predicting “ Marduk Marduk speaks

29 friend turn friend onwill The three times s definition:s the

“ ’ 32 Ninurta of Assyria (1243 s predictionss are This historical -

’ 25

Since Nebuchadnezzar I Nebuchadnezzar Since was

Unlike Unlike the other texts this of

33 31 This text offers ample material

34 1150). - 1590),Tikulti -

person narrative by King Sulgi -

” 224. ” 224. ” 222. ” ” 223.

It is unclear Sulgi whether

” ” 8. ” ” 11. Interestingly, places the Marduk visit in would his 26 imposed andbad exile the Babylonia times in that , 170. , 170. - 30 s elevations the Babylonianwithin pantheon and for the ’ s rule andrule s religious reforms. s decree.s The next section describes a time thein shrineswhich Nahhunte of (1155Nahhunte Elam ’ ’ - Akkadian Prophecies, Akkadian Akkadian Prophecies, Akkadian The legible first discuss lines a time in which “ “

23 cities be destroyed,will andreign the theof king Babylonof come will

Prediction, Prophecy, and and Prediction, Prophecy, Apocalypse, Prediction, Prophecy, and and Prediction, Prophecy, Apocalypse, and Prediction, Prophecy, Apocalypse, 24

“ “ “ Historical Sources Translation in Historical Historical Sources Translation in Historical

s return return s Elam,from and the since text eventsmentions prior reign but his to ” reigns.

s is known as textis s D, or Marduk Prophecy. the It is, like Prophecy, Sulgi the ’

” The text of thefourth series first analyzed by Grayson and Lambert the in Text C, third theof the original disputed four texts, comehas to as be known

bad Kaufman, Kaufman, Kaufman, Kaufman, Kaufman, Chavalas, Chavalas, Ibid, 170. Ibid., 225. Ibid., 223. Chavalas, Ibid, 222. and Grayson Lambert, Grayson and Grayson Lambert, Ibid, 11. Ibid, 11. 1207), and Kutir 32 33 34 29 30 31 26 27 28 22 23 24 25 for analysis, it but cannot be included as an apocalypse as it lacks key some components. There a is political eschatology involved the in of mention not after after not it, this text certainly acts on a political agenda supporting Nebuchadnezzar I responsible for Marduk statue from Babylon:from by Mursili I of Hatti (1620 - historical historical chronicles and therefore becan dated.confidently Marduk left Babylon becan connected tothree the times his statue was removed disputed genre, time the described Marduk Prophecythe in can be correlated with a good rise king will who will restore of Marduk cult the to its and glory thereby establish a period the in peaceof land. plenty and accompanied his absence. exiles were under his control. This autobiography is followed a prediction by that in the the in first person. He narrates autobiographyan that discusses both his history as a wanderer suffering a self the others, text this predictsothers, thethe that a king of rise bring and peace,will stability, prosperity toregion, the it but severalhas distinctive elements. 1960’ thought to be connected to Nebuchadnezzar I theof second ofdynasty Isin.

establishment of historical context by thefollowed prediction of events, future a ending timein of salvation founded ascension by the theof savior king. revealed by a to him god, outline the but theof text is precisely one what might describe as classically apocalyptic, satisfying of Collinsmost culminates by predicting the ascension a of leader rebuildwho will all andshrines restore order tocountry. the introduction introduction is followed by a first deeds andgeneral the course Babylonianof history in the second It millennium. unhappy unhappy and there be such disorderwill in andland hunger the people that will and resort sack Babylon. toAssyrians cannibalism will time istime described, byfollowed in a time which the builder of a palace be will to end an by Enlil and Girsu of Lagash bewill rebuilt. illegiblean After section, another “ friend, second of dynasty Isin connectedand likely is toreign the of Nebuchadnezzar I. textLike B, composedit is continuousof narration and alternating Sulgithe Prophecy king for the who narrates the main section. It is ascribed to the gaining gaining andmore the of more necessary conventions. transmission statedthe in definition. If it does in originatefact a datefrom later text than it A, a possibleshows evolution natural toward the apocalyptic genre, information isinformation transferred from deity to asdeity opposed deitythe to 58 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

40 39 38 37 36 35 literature. apocalyptic withhasclassical text the similarity is another apocalypses possible other the and Prophecy Dynastic the between difference main The sealed. kept be book the that theofDaniel end at thecommandment parallels gods ofthe the information its as and status secrecy its concerning thetext chronography. in Mesopotamian itsorigins have might style the that shows strongly and Daniel to similar is fallofempires theand rise like ideas discussing Conceptually, literature. ofapocalyptic evolution in step the key a represents and period Hellenistic inthe sentiment Babylonian insight into significant it gives here, texts other described the than younger significantly colophon. a text is ofthe lastsection The not texts.Babylonian uncommon late idea in theanuninitiated, to revealed must be not that gods ofthe secret a is text preceding that first the states The proper. prophecy ofthe outside sections two remaining are there fourthcolumn, are designated considered empires theand reigns the texts, previous Likein oftherise Seleucids. the mightabout talk preserved, inadequately being fourth, the and ofMacedonia; rise the and fallofPersia the the third, ofPersia; the and rise ofBabylonia fall the second, the Babylonia; theof and rise Assyria fallof the first discusses column The beingdescribed. which are empires withcertainty, near determine, to information isthereenough but style, thegiven traditional in namesare No ofan empire. rise subsequent and fall the whichdescribes ofeach intocolumns, divided prophecyis genre. a as apocalypses theon Mesopotamian morelight shed it to allowing the resemblanceothers, than any of Daniel to far a greater elements bear that distinct texts, it has the other to resemblance significant it bears While Prophecy. here. discussed the any texts of of as anapocalypse mostclassification secure the text this allowing apocalypses, classical some of is reminiscent pseudonymity This lackofrevelation. ofits in favour lieu worksits in pseudonymity its and nature, in eschatological isindisputably It texts. apocalyptic Mesopotamian for exemplar serveas an now can text this in antiquity, itsnot serve purpose it did While pass. to nevercame hisfor reign predicted the and prosperity Neriglissar, by was assassinated Marduk Awelsince purpose intended not complete its did textthis apparently However, II. thefor sonof Nebuchadnezzar propaganda meantpolitical as was this text established it be on,is that from evident to then dynasty is king the said savior of respectively. II, Nebuchadnezzar Eriba to is attributed and ofNabonidus inscriptions gods. rulelike to them allowing will forever, whose last dynasty and Uruk Lamassuto will return who kingson, his and good ofa theby rise followed removalis “ excavations. German during Anu of scholarly library the to belonging Uruk, at found was Uruk Prophecy later. The decade a about group intothe same wereadded such. qualifyas not does Prophecy Marduk the literature, ofapocalyptic characteristic an integral mediator, human a to fromdeity a revelation Without deity. a by in person first Nebuchadnezzar Ibid., 21. 21. Ibid., Grayson, Chavalas, Albert Grayson. Albert Kaufman, Kaufman, bad, The final text belonging to this group of disputed texts is the Dynastic the texts is ofdisputed group this to final belonging text The Prophecies Dynastic and the Uruk texts, fourdisputed ofthe original Outside 36 ”

BabylonianHistorical

during which time Lamassu will be removed from Uruk to Babylon. This This Babylon. to Uruk from willremoved be Lamassu which time during Historicalin Translation Sources “ “ The exile and return of Lamassu to Uruk is also described in the described is also Uruk Lamassuto of return exile and The Prediction, Prophecy, and Apocalypse,Prophecy,Prediction,and Apocalypse,Prophecy,Prediction,and BabylonianHistorical ’

s rise to power and prosperous reign, but this narrative is spoken isspoken narrative but this reign, prosperous and power to srise - LiteraryTexts, - LiteraryTexts , 170. 170. , 35 27. 27.

It predicts the reigns of various unnamed kings, all kings, unnamed theof various reigns predicts It

” 225.” 223. ”

37

(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1975), 21. University1975), (Toronto: of Press, Toronto

Due to the ending of the text in which the the which inthe text the of ending to Due

39

Since the Dynastic Prophecy is is Prophecy Dynastic Since the “ good - Marduk of the Sealands and and ofMardukthe Sealands 40 ” -

iksur, found in 1972 in found iksur, 1972 The rubric at theof at end rubric The or or “ bad.

” Afterthe 38

The The -

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 59 -

’ The

41 apocalypses, and texts A B and - prophecies theirin prophets

D and the D Urukand the Prophecy. -  apocalypses are phylogenetic links to a ex eventu - predictions, a is common characteristic classicalof - in other in a time words, peacewhen and be order will

—

s clears stylistic resemblance to classical apocalypses, ’ apocalypses and true true and apocalypses can apocalypses, in however early we maturity, -

Some Some scholars have questioned just how worthwhile toit is force historical

Ibid, Ibid, 21.

41

their worlds andtheir worlds ours. crucial crucial to our understanding of bothclassical the apocalypses themselves and the peoplemight have they guided transitions the through that changed the nature of the Mardukthe Prophecy, and the true apocalypses Mesopotamia,of the Sulgi, Uruk, and Dynastic Prophecies, are ancestral links toclassical the apocalypses. They are apocalypses apocalypses.true However, it be would just as inappropriate to leave out them of the discussion completely. The proto restored. In the same thatrestored. same way the beIn it inappropriate our own one would of to call evolutionary ancestors human, so too it be would inappropriate to callproto the how collectivehow the anger caused political upheavalby in a leadsregion to people searching for salvation wonder our headed.is where world literature Apocalyptic allows to us understand Mesopotamian apocalypses and proto widely studied genre that has captivated imaginations for centuries, causing to us only insofaronly as are we able connect toand with understand it;bringing by together that texts are similar, learnwe about evolution the of human expression. The seeing seeing the labelling a of landscapevast as Mesopotamia,such and its tribesmany and peoples, as a reduction for our purposes.own scholarly We history view can compare compare and contrast the sociological and political circumstances theof authors. To grouping see of the historical into texts genres as a reduction theis same as ancient literary works termsinto that are relevant to By identifyingus. these texts protoas that bethat true, may the technique remains useful because it allows to bringus texts astexts apocalyptic changes the functional role classificationof a toolfrom of description tocriticalof that categorization sakefor the categorization.of While intotexts our own conventions this in way. Their position argues that labelling especially Daniel,especially shows that all theseof texts fit into evolution the and establishment of apocalyptic thoughtand literature the in ancient Near East. apocalypses is that missing texts from A Dynastic Prophecy to predict,preceded pseudo by times, but the times,author the but Dynastic the of Prophecy appears to realattempt prophecy predictingby the transition Macedonianfrom to Seleucid control. real attemptA The textsMarduk and Sulgi end their 60 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

Neujar, Matthew. Kaufman,Stephen. Hallo,William W. Grayson,Albert WilfredK. and G.Lambert. Grayson,Albert Kirk. Collins,John J. Collins,John J. Chavalas, Mark. Works Cited IsraelExploration Journal Cuneiform Studies “ TorontoPress, 1975. LiteraryTexts Mar.2016. doi:10.1515/zac Christianity Christentum / Journal Ancientof Reconsidered. BiblicalLiterature (1979):14 1 Genre. a MA& Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. Historical Sources Translationin BrownUniversity, 2012. Mediterranean World AncientMesopotamia, Judah, and the AncientNear East: ManticHistoriography in JewishStudies (1973):221 Congress Jewishof Studies Texts. Apocalypse Lightin the of New Akkadian AkkadianProphecies. ” In ”

In Proceedings the World of “ “ . 20: 21 . 20: The Ancient Near East:Ancient The TheGenre Apocalypse Apocalypse:The Morphology of Semeia Predicting Pastthe inthe . Toronto: University .Toronto: of ” “ “ Zeitschrift für Antikes AkkadianApocalypses. Prediction,Prophecy, and BabylonianHistorical

18 (1964):718 - . Missoula: . Society of 40, 2016. 40, Accessed 22

. Providence, RI: . Providence, ” Journal of

-

. World . Union of 228. 16 (1966):23116 - 2016 - - 30. 20.

. . Malden, -

0001.

” -

In - 42.

Nissinen, Martti, Choon Nissinen, Martti. BiblicalLiterature, 2003. AncientNear East K.Ritner. - Lesterby L.Grabbe and Robert D. Haak, 134 Apocalyptic, andTheir Relationships Beginning: the The Prophetic, the PredictiveTexts. Apocalypses:TheAkkadian Literary 148. London: 148. T. & T. Clark, 2003. Prophetsand Prophecy thein “ NeitherProphecies Nor ” . Atlanta: Society .Atlanta: of In - Leong and Seow, Robert Knowing the End from Endthe from Knowing

,edited

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 61

as as

6

In oneIn of

303. Chicago: The The 303. Chicago: 3 -

8 ” eds. Fikri Kulakoglu and Fikrieds. Kulakoglu Cecile

From the WorkshopFrom of the Chicago Loreina Jones Loreina In In ” Karum. Assyrians in Istanbul.Karum. Assyrians F.ed. Ku-

eds. Martha T. Roth et al,Martha eds. Roth 285 T.

Ishara, a living in woman Assur, - 23 September, 23 2013, September, - . New York: But the Butletters the do usshow the family

Suen: (1993 Suen: Kultepe - 1, 2 clear, small and elegant. 203. “ Out of of theOut thousands of letters found at , 05. Cecile Cecile Michel believes it bethat may

s Prologue Kultepe Kenesh Kultepe s Prologue 5 7 ’

286. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut Voor Het Nabije Oosten, NederlandsNabije 277. 2001, Instituut Voor 286.Het Leiden: -

Determination in Old Old in Determination Anatolia - In ahum son of Iddinof son ahum Veenhof Anniversary R. Voume: Veenhofto Klaas Studies Presented on the Occasion - ” In In ”

Another document Another the in archive provides evidence that Kultepe International Kultepe Meeting 19 Kultepe

st 4 133. Published in conjunction with the exhibition in The Hagia Irene Museum December The Museum 29, the Hagia Irene to exhibition conjunction with 2010 in 133.in Published - During the Old period,Assyrian a group traders of who were , ed. W.H. van Soldt et al, van 275 Soldt , W.H. ed.

homes and businesses in Kanesh contain personal the

Affect and Emotion. Affect and ’

“ Kanesh: A Colony Kanesh: Bronze in Merchant Age Anatolia Women in the Family of the Family Women Ali in Women of Assur and Kanis. Assur Women of Sisterly Advice on an Endangered an Letter.on Old an Assyrian Sisterly Advice Marriage in “ “ “ Proceedings of the 1 Proceedings FifthBirthday

93. Turnhout Belgium: Brepols, 89. 2015, 93. Turnhout Belgium: - - In In Kanesh: A ColonyKanesh: Bronze Merchant in Age Anatolia Kanesh: A ColonyKanesh: Bronze Merchant in Age Anatolia, ”

Archaeologists overlast the century have recovered archives tabletsof whole Old Assyria

Ibid., 291. Ibid., Larsen, T. Mogens Larsen, Cecile. Michel, Michel, Cecile. Michel, Larsen, R. K. Veenhof, related and issues emotionmore than those that strictly refer to business

Larsen, Mogens T. Mogens Larsen, Michel, 85 Michel, of his Sixty 8 archive). 6 7 Assyrian Dictionary, Volume 2: Studies Presented 2:Dictionary, to Volume Assyrian Presented Studies Robert 2004, Biggs, June 4, D. of Chicago, Institute the of University 293. 2007, Oriental 5 lakoglu and S. Kangal, 124 and S.lakoglu Kangal, 28,March 130. 2011, 3 4 Cambridge University Press, University 2015, Cambridge 202. 2 Michel observesMichel the that symbols are 1 possible to determine that a woman letterswrote the by examining the written symbols themselves. theIn letters known to be by a written woman named Tarisa, they are they inwritten a colloquial tone. - are also matters.They as grammatically correctnot by as those written men Kanesh, only a small percentage by were written Scholarswomen. have concluded they that indeedwere by sincewomen written they include both family and to her husband. didSalimma indeed to return Assur. these archives,these there a is letter by Ummi written in pleadswhich she with her Salimmasister younger in Kanesh to return to Assur generations a of andfamily, that permitted has scholars to develop a of timeline events that happened in both their business dealings and family lives. left behindleft the in ruins Kanesh.of These archives sometimes cover many wills andwills andmarriage divorce contracts. which these lettersmakes extremelyan valuable resource. To aboutout thefind ofwomen Kanesh, however, scholars also must look to other sources, such as obligations obligations of and men women this in period, as detailed as well aspects the of of lives the inwomen Assur applythat to their might contemporaries Kanesh, in vast vast ofmajority these letters are the from inwomen Assur, aboutinformation the inwomen Kanesh somewhatis limited. us anus intoinsight lives the theof royal thesewomen, tablets aresource a unique insight of for scholarsmodern lives the ofinto ordinary However,women. as the wives in wives Assur. Unlike the tablets found inruins the thepalacesof royal that give of the traders the of correspondence family of members, especially between the traders and their fend These fend themselves. tradersfor in took also second Kanesh with whom wives they had second families. Many theof tablets that have been thefound in remains area in the area the in Anatolian region. The traders set up a second home there they where resided years, andfor many as theira result families, behind left in Assur, had to originally from Assur founded over a colony 1000 inaway Kanesh,kilometers an Assyria Assyria Literacy and Self and Literacy On Wives, Husbands, and Letters: Female Female Letters: and Husbands, Wives, On 62 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

Mark W.MarkChavalas, 205 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 women purpose. thisfor used been had cloth in difference that the shequips and theirchildren, clothe has who to one isthe she himthat reminds sheangrily Also, reduction. size the requested who thewas one he that claims but she small, Pusu husband, her that states Lamassi womannamed a letter, Inone husbands. from their received they instructions from the get women could the exasperated how show letters Some of the of thisthe production cloth. to cloth,numerous better lettersrefer moreor for demand discuss to the other each to write would theirhusbands and women inSince Anatolia. goods other for trade would husbands thatcloth their women the into insights best ofthe wesome find that Kanesh in husbands their womenand theirhusbands family. as theirconnection therecipient call startsto sender while the businessmen; in hisdaughter himselfand between created being theon connection daughter families both strengthen would families that between alliances mostlyas business marriagecontracts. in numerous seen be can provision with.This have to children slavetakea girl or her divorce either could husband the task, fail this wereto at she If continue. could lineage wife thewas him. after waslook to one no there wasand alone he wife,since his be and immediately himside his to to come girl promised the demandsthat hewhich man in a by sent letter a seen in canbe obligation This husband. her wife foremost,a First and Assur. him in comingto her on restrictions no be should there cites Salimma Ummi sister, to fromsister letter mentioned the previously Similarly,in wifehisresides. where Assur to her not take must he Anatolia, in hison travels withhim her may whilehetake that, stipulates Suhkana womannamed Anatolian Assur Assyriantrader the between marriagecontract A samecity. the ofbigamy, appearance prevent the in wives Kanesh. only first and takenhavetheir may families, Anatolian ofthe the sons as generations in later changed women. local with the relations developed Kanesh the meant wife, rule.this bendingof a to led Assur in wives their from being away withhusbands in arouse Kanesh that thesituation but monogamous, marriageswereusually Duringperiod, this

Michel, Larsen, Michel,Cecile. Larsen, 124 Ibid., Michel, Veenhof, 125. Ibid., Michel, Larsen, - law: the tone and structure of the letter emphasizes their connection as connection their emphasizes of the letter structure and law:tone the The The theirlocation. on depending different roles slightly had wives different The amtum ” Affect and Emotion Affect Women of Assur and Assur Kanis of Women Kanesh: A Merchant Colony in Bronze Age Anatolia,208. Age Merchantin Bronze Colony Kanesh: A Anatolia Age Merchantin Bronze Colony Kanesh: A Women of Assur and Assur Kanis of Women and Assur Kanis, of Women “ while the new wife in Kanesh was called the was called Kanesh wife in newwhile the - Sisterly Advice on anon Endangered Advice Marriage Sisterly inLetter an Assyrian Old ’

5. slave ’ assutum s role in textile production in textile srole ’

economic ties. For example, in a letter in which a father is arranging hiswhichin fatheris example, a letterarranging For a in ties. economic s marriage to the addressee marriageto s

“ ’ may have arisen when the first generation of traders arriving inarriving oftraders generation first when the arisen have may AkkadianTexts s lives. Their main role in the family businesses was to produce the produce to was in thebusinesses family mainrole Their slives. ’ - s job to provide the husband with male heirs so that the family family that the heirsso withmale thehusband provide to sjob girl ’ - ’ 212. Routledge: 212. 130. 2014, London, s husbands local business partners. It is in the correspondence between these these between correspondence isinIt the partners. business local

wives in Assur not only raised their children but also acted as acted also but theirchildren onlyAssurraised not wives in ” , 282 , - but came to denote denote to but came ken, complained that the pieces of cloth she sent were too weretoo sent she ofcloth pieces that the ken,complained 9 -

- 3. One

Women in Letters: Old inWomenAssyrian Kanis. Letters:

. 125. . , 128. , 131. ’ s comment that, since Salimma was not his s commentSalimma since that, ’ ’

s wife in Assur was referred to as the as the to was referred Assur wifein s s role in whichever location was to provide a homea for provide was to location whichever in srole 17

16

Marriages during this period can be seen canbe period this during Marriages

was to arrange for the transportation of their oftheir thefor transportation wasarrange to

’

s son, the father places the most emphasis most emphasis the places father sson,the , 250. , “ assutum second wife. second

” amtum In Women in the Ancient Near East: AEast:inWomen NearSourcebook,ed. In Ancient the

and and , 293. , 10 amtum amtum

”

This dynamic may have dynamic This , marrying into local local marryinginto , These relationships with relationships These “ brother,

, whichoriginally , could not reside in the not reside could 13

14, 15 14, assutum - ” ’ malik and an malikand s future father future s emphasizing emphasizing 18 Secondly, it Secondly, amtum

Part ofthe Part - 11

Ishara or or

To To “

first wife, 12

-

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 63

ken ken - - But

24 s sisters ’

23

taklaku in Kanesh. taklaku

taklaku - taklaku insistedtaklaku that - 21 - family. topicfamily. A that ’ s responsibilitys to was ’ In the archive of archive the In Assur

woman, woman, as a girl who young 20 ” ili. In her letter, which is letter, her In ili. which - s debtss andthe save family home ’

.

92. 207. 206 - Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes des 86 fur(1996), 48. die Kunde Zeitschrift Wiener

consecrated , 90 “

Suen s outstandings debts. Assur - ’ Even at a Even distance, a father retained legal , 211.

25 and with thatand authority with came certain responsibilities

26

19 ahum son ahum son of Iddin 126. 129. -

s s Plaint in an Letter. Old Assyrian , 285. ’ Kubi writes to Kubi she Innaya, expresses husband the her writes direness of Women in Kanis, Old Women Letters: Assyrian Women in Kanis, Old Women Letters: Assyrian -

- - 27 A Woman With With their husbands away from home for on years end, the in women

22 Women of Kanis, Assur and Akkadian Texts Women of the Family in Ali Women of Kanis, Assur and Akkadian Texts A Colony Bronze Merchant in Age Anatolia Affect Emotion and

Along Along runningwith the business,family textile the ofwomen Assur were These letters thatshow the doingwomen theirwere best to protect their Along Along producingwith cloth for family business,the women had to maintain

Michel, Michel, Larsen, Michel, Michel, Michel, Biggs, Robert D. Larsen, Michel, Michel, Ibid., 206.

25 26 27 22 23 24 19 20 21 her her husband to return so that he fulfill can duty to his his daughter and give her to godthe Assur. and with thatand authority with came certain responsibilities. In her letter, begs Lamassi own to payments.money make authority over his children, says that says that onlynot he neglected to jewellery butleave the that tookhe off all with valuables.their of Therefore, had no she money for food had and toshe use her her her financial situation admonishingwhile her husband for his role the in inmatter: response claimto thathis hadhe jewellery that left she could for sell food, she which the oflack made evenmoney an bigger concern for these oneIn women. Taram that letter ensure that ensure that andhis wife children properlywere fed, housed and clothed. with fathers inaway Kanesh for years, this responsibilitymany to fell mothers, responsible for raising their children. Part of a husband especially especially the with threat of seizure her of textiles and her home. Assur were Assur vulnerablewere to debt collectors, businessmenbe they or representatives city. the of A woman was much easier to pressure for money her husband,without she she been thrownhas andout livingis now outside, begsand she tohim caretake her. of Imdilum archive a by Imdilum written woman named Sat addressed tonamed a man Anali have been who may her brother, states she that who who towished the claim homes to settle outstanding debts. Unfortunately, in some cases didwomen thrown get of out their homes, as seen in a letter thefound in homes, on behalf theirof husbands, sons, and fathers, and ruin those from from was was given togod the andAssur, therefore never had to marry. women, it appearswomen, Tarisa that independent,was totally eventually moving to Kanesh herself. She may have been a it was it imperative thatwas she do possibleeverything tothe save it but home, would that seem Tarisa he felt not contributing was enough to the Unlikeeffort. other Therefore, Tarisa it was daily was in contact who the with people who were demanding payment for her father in in TarisaAssur. resided Assur andin ran the family textile business there, production transportation and organising the of goods to Assur Tarisa her attemptsabout to pay off their father done and needed for the beams shemoney ordered. theretaklaku, are a number are letters of that by written Assur running of running business the and the household. one In letter, a tomother her writes that,son an in toattempt damage ward off to the shehome, had brickworknew appears incorrespondence the regularly concern the is that women had over not having enough It money. was to difficult enough have to ensure smooththe family the home, which usually belonged to their husbands from from her that sell.can he that she that has had problems peoplefinding to transport cloththe and that she has done her best to ensureeach that caravan leaving for Kanesh contains clothsome textiles to husbandstheir in Kanesh. anotherIn letter, Lamassi advises Pusu 64 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations

36 35 34 33 32 31 30 78 2002, Oosten, 29 28 well. as families oftheir members male the on veryweredependent still they end the that in remembered must it be families, their for the best wanted who only businesswomen wereclearlystrong how they Despite womenled. Anatolian Assyrian and both that lives precarious sometimes the intogive insight related, withpatrilineage. own her contact herwith refers lack to offor help and her sisterwoman thispleads her.In letter, a woman but the Kanesh Kanesh, thein help family to all. at getinheritance any Assur to families in ofthe rely goodwill to have the on would Kanesh families in The there. settled be to estate his for Assur to back sent would be belongings and ofhisall documents will. occurred, writinga If this before die to happened husbands worse if their even would become theirsituation wives,and Assur the marriages. Anatolian their from with Assurthe children to returning fathers instances of recorded other are withhim. Assur to back daughter Pilah settlement divorce of Inmarriage. painful one the example, herthat from resulted children the of theseen treatment in be could inferiority social her and secondary, return there. would probability, all in husbands, husbands knewoftheir doubt no women in Kanesh The Assur. wifein ofthe from that husband. her for completed had she that transactions thebusiness Assur to fromSasahsusar letter one contains thebeer. prepare oxento and strawbuy and to her reminding duties, agricultural her to in regards Sisahsusar wasinstruct to ofthe letters focus other The debtors. ofthe badly some by treated be wife to his allowing for Assur jail. thrown in debtors ofthe having measurethe even prescribingstrong debts, and the outstanding others collect to moreregularbasis. a on husbands sawtheir women these Assur wives in the unlike home,but wives at second their leaving even base, home as their usingKanesh Anatolia furtherinto travelled Assyriantraders these Oncein Kanesh, partners. withhisbusiness and Assur Assyriantrader theirchildren. and husbands, their themselves, for food involved in be producing to expected husbands withtheir helpingout for childrenand their raising for responsible were women these counterparts, Assur Liketheir different. weresomewhat lives their though even strong as just womenas the ofKanesh, The many levels. womenon the as families theraise and thehomes,

Larsen, Michel, Larsen, Michel, Larsen, Michel, 108 Ibid., Larsen, Mogens T. Larsen, The documents found in the archives at Kanesh, both personal and business business and personal both Kanesh, at archives in found the documents The than situation financial precarious more evenwere in an wives Kanesh The different earlier, mentioned as was, in Kanesh wife ofthe position social The Assur the from In letters preserve familythebusinesses, Assurrun to women in left that the isclear It - Istar and his and Istar Kanesh: A Merchant Colony in Bronze Age Anatolia, Age Merchantin Bronze Colony Kanesh: A Anatolia, Age Merchantin Bronze Colony Kanesh: A Anatolia, Age Merchantin Bronze Colony Kanesh: A and Emotion Affect Women of Assur and Assur Kanis of Women and Assur Kanis of Women and Assur Kanis of Women - 9. If the businesses that were run by the male members of their families oftheir malemembers the by were run that businesses Ifthe

’ - 83. wives and families back in Assur and that at some point their point some that and at Assur in back families wives and

The Assur The

— , 285. , amtum

- not only for their futures, but for the futures of their children oftheirchildren futures the but for theirfutures, for not only nada Archive nada 28

-

nada nada , 132. , 132. , 131. , In the letters, Assur the letters, In 35

34 wife Wala wife

In one case, not only was the Assur family unwilling unwilling family Assur was the not only case, one In

: (OldAssyrian : Archives, volume Voor Instituut Nederlands Leiden: Nabije1). Het — - nada archive, we have the correspondences of the of correspondences have wethe archive, nada

both with his Anatolian withAnatolian his both ’ businesses, but in different ways. They were also werealso ways.They different in but businesses, 32, 33 32, 36

-

wala states that Pilah states wala This was not an isolated incident, as there incident,as there wasnot an isolated This 250. 252. 252 assutum .

- - nada chastises his business partners partners business his chastises nada nada repeatedly instructs Sisahsusar Sisahsusar instructs repeatedly nada - nada in which she catalogues all of of all catalogues she whichin nada 31

wives had to be very strong be to had wives

The The ’ s own family refused to help help to familyrefused sown amtum amtum amtum - Istar will taketheir Istar - willed, independent independent willed, 29

wife waswife

wives, had to be be wives,to had

wife Sisahsusar, wifeSisahsusar, The archive also The 30

Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations 65

- June 4,

In In 00781412 ” - 133. 133. -

https://

ouvertes.fr/halshs - Sisterly Advice on an Advice Sisterly “ From the WorkshopFrom of the s Prologue Kultepe Kenesh Kenesh Kultepe s Prologue ’ In In ” Women of Assur and Kanis. Assur of Women . “ Anatolia F. by edited in Istanbul, Assyrians Karum. 124 Kangal, and S. Kulakoglu the exhibition with in conjunction Published 29, December Museum Irene Hagia in The 2011. 28, March 2010 to halshs.archives 2016). 20, October (accessed Assyrian Old inan Marriage Endangered Letter. 2: Volume Dictionary, Assyrian Chicago Biggs, D. to Robert Presented Studies 285 al., et Roth T. Martha by 2004, edited the of Institute Oriental The Chicago: 303. 2007. Chicago, of University

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ahum 23 - st - Women in Women in Women In In Leiden: 286.

- — ” 212. Routledge: Routledge: 212. In Veenhof In - ” s Plaint in an Old Old inan s Plaint ’ 93. Turnhout Belgium: Belgium: 93. Turnhout Fifth Birthday, edited Birthday, Fifth - - Wiener Zeitschrift fur die die fur Zeitschrift Wiener ” nada Archive: (Old Assyrian (Old Assyrian nada Archive: -

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Suen: (1993 Kultepe (1993 Suen: “ Akkadian Texts Akkadian - “ In Proceedings of the 1 the of Proceedings In

” Women in the Family of of Ali Family in the Women Affect and Emotion. Affect The Assur The . “ . “ .

son of Iddin son of International Meeting Kultepe 19 Kultepe Meeting International Kulakoglu Fikri by edited 2013, September, 85 Michel, Cecile and 2015. Brepols, London, 2014. London, archive). Letters: Old Assyrian Kanis. Assyrian Old Letters: Sourcebook A East: Near the Ancient 205 Chavalas, Mark W. by Occasion of his Sixty his of Occasion 275 al., et van Soldt W.H. by Nabije Het Voor Instituut Nederlands 2001. Oosten, Anniversary Volume: Studies Volume: Anniversary the on R. Veenhof to Klaas Presented Archives, volume 1). Leiden: 1). Leiden: volume Archives, Nabije Het Voor Instituut Nederlands 2002. Oosten, in Bronze Age Anatolia. New York: York: New Anatolia. Age inBronze 2015. Press, University Cambridge Assyrian Letter. Assyrian 47 86 (1996): Morgenlandes des Kunde

Beyond giving insightus into daily lives,their one of the most important

———

Michel, Cecile. Cecile. Michel, ———

———

Larsen, Mogens T. Kanesh: A Merchant Colony Colony Merchant A Kanesh: T. Mogens Larsen,

D. Robert Biggs, Works Cited Works financial of theirmanagement homes and family businesses. counterparts, they literate.were Not only ablewere to but read also and they write numericallywere literate, which see in we how they responsiblewere for the things things that these documents usshow about these that,is women their like royal arrive at doorthe and demand repayment as soon as the men died, could which the put andwomen outchildren on the street. futures. Iffutures. not, then the officials city and others who owed were money, would food and to keep homes. their their If husbands and fathers made thatsure their wills properlywere made thenout they and their children would have secure went went then theywell, could be assured there that would be toenough buy money 66 Undergraduate Journal of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations