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Appendix: The Use of Symbolic Notation in Descriptive Logic

One well-known introductory textbook on normative logic happens to use, as an example, certain propositions from Patristic theology,1 with the implication that Christians would do well to accept the correct- ness of the comparatively little remembered Patripassian . In this case, the point can be adequately stated using the ordinary notation employed in normative predicate logic:2

PATRIPASSIANISM

Px. x is . Qx. x suffered and died on the Cross. a. the Father. b. the Son.

1. ∃∀xyPy() ↔ x = y

2. Pa 3. Pb ∴= 4. ab 5. Qb ∴ 6. Qa In fact, however, Christians in all periods have usually found the idea of the Father’s having suffered and died to be a repugnant one; and the Church of the fourth century was disturbed much less by Patripassianism than by another doctrine, one that can be stated using the same vocabulary:

ARIANISM 1. ∃∀xyPy() ↔ x = y

1 Hodges, Logic, pp. 138, 262. 2 Since normative logicians have not achieved a complete standardization of the notation they use, it is probably worth specifying how I intend the symbols employed in the example sequences to be read. They are as follows: ∃x : ‘There exists some x such that ... ’; ∀x : ‘For all x ... ’; PQ↔ : ‘P if and only if Q’ (i.e., P and Q are either both true or both false); xy= : ‘x equals y’; ∴: ‘therefore’; ¬P : ‘not P’ (i.e., P is false); xy≠ : ‘x does not equal y’; PQ∧ : ‘P and Q’.

155 156 Appendix

2. Pa 3. ¬Qa 4. Qb 5. ∴≠ab 6. ∴¬Pb This, too, has conclusions that some Christians will have found unpal- atable: if the younger Pliny’s informants can be believed, worshipping ‘Christ as God’ was central to Christianity as early as the reign of Trajan.3 The difficulty, as presented, can be resolved – but at the price of another substantial derogation from the faith of the Apostles:

DOCETISM 1. ∃∀xyPy() ↔ x = y

2. Pa 3. Pb ∴= 4. ab ¬ 5. Qa ∴¬ 6. Qb

I do not assert, nor do I even think it especially likely, that this repre- sents an accurate reconstruction of any specific Docetist belief system; it will be recalled that Islam takes a Docetic view of the Crucifixion, holding that Jesus only seemed to die on the Cross (Koran 4.157), without regarding Jesus as the Son of God at all. But the situation is still worse if we try to write out Consubstantialism, the viewpoint that was ultimately accepted as orthodox, in the same form:

CONSUBSTANTIALISM (1)

Px. x is God. Qx. x suffered and died on the Cross. Rxy. x and y are the same person. Sxy. x and y are of the same substance. a. the Father. b. the Son.

1. ∃∀xyPy() ↔ Sxy 2. ∃∃x y() Px ∧ Py ∧¬ Rxy

3 Pliny the Younger, Complete Letters X.96, p. 279. Appendix 157

3. Pa 4. Pb 5. Qb 6. ¬Qa 7. ∴∧¬Sab Rab

This sequence fails entirely, as a descriptive reconstruction of Consubstantialism. The ideas of ‘person’ and ‘substance’ are simply imported as content, rather than arising within the belief system as part of a reasoning process. What we have is not a reconstruction of believers’ actual logic: it is merely a static declaration of an answer, and the meaning of ‘person’ and ‘substance’ within the belief system has not been established. To understand the teaching of the Nicene Fathers correctly, we must return to stating the original problem – and then show, as plausibly as we can, how a sequence like the one given in the last paragraph comes to answer it. Some of the steps, however, are difficult to express using the existing symbolic notation; and it is more convenient to include some propositions in verbal form.

CONSUBSTANTIALISM (2)

Px. x is God. Qx. x suffered and died on the Cross. a. the Father. b. the Son.

1. ∃∀xyPy() ↔ x = y 2. Pa 3. Pb 4. Qb 5. ¬Qa 6. The question ‘ab= ?’ cannot be unequivocally answered. 7. Therefore, there is a difficulty with ‘=’: which means that 8. expressions involving ‘=’ need to be rewritten to avoid the difficulty. = 9. This can be done by distinguishing two kinds of identity, ‘ 1 ’ and = ‘ 2 ’. ∃∀ ↔ = 10. xyPy() x2 y ∃∃ ∧ ∧ ≠ 11. x y() Px Py x1 y 12. Pa 158 Appendix

13. Pb 14. Qb 15. ¬Qa =∧≠ 16. ()()abab21 = = ‘17. ‘17. 1’ and ‘ 2’ can be described using the relations Rxy and Sxy.

Rxy. x and y are the same person. Sxy. x and y are of the same substance.

18. ∃∀xyPy() ↔ Sxy 19. ∃∃x y() Px ∧ Py ∧¬ Rxy 20. Pa 21. Pb∧∧¬ Qb Qa 22. Sab∧¬ Rab

The unkind will be likely to regard this sequence as an argument having the form

1. ab= 2. ab≠ 3. ∴‘=’ ≠ ‘=’

But we do, in any case, reason this way all the : confronted by two propositions, neither of which we feel able to deny, but which strike us as contradictory, we find a way of reconciling them. ‘It depends on what the meaning of “is” is.’ It is more interesting to observe that this reconstruction allows us to draw two significant conclusions. Firstly, it would be quite wrong to claim that the Fathers of the Church only developed their doctrines on ‘person’ and ‘substance’ because they were Hellenistic philosophers and these were the terms available to them. It is true (step 17) that the particular terminology was borrowed; but any Christian who wants to believe that there is only one God, and that the Father is God, and the Son is God, and the Son died on the Cross, and the Father did not die on the Cross is already thinking implicitly in terms of two distinct kinds of identity relation. In one way the Father is the same as the Son; in another way they are different; yet there is only one God. Whether or not our intellectual and educa- tional background predisposes us to express the point by talking about πρόσωπον and οὐσία is comparatively inessential; we will in any need to think about God using two distinct kinds of identity, neither confounding the first nor dividing the second. It is interesting in this Appendix 159 connection to note that some analogous disputes appear to have trou- bled nineteenth-century Christadelphianism. Bryan R. Wilson, a writer in the sociological tradition, mentions that the movement experienced asserting, among other things,

that Christ was a mere man; [ ... ] that Christ was not a son of and not a sharer in human mortality [ ... ]; that Christ in the days of his flesh was partly of ‘divine substance’; [ ... ] that Christ was a passive medium with no will of his own.4

Wilson does not go into further detail, and I have not myself had the opportunity for the extensive reading in Christadelphian literature that would be needed before one could venture a reconstruction of what these ideas actually were or meant. In particular, Wilson provides no reference for the phrase ‘divine substance’, although he places it in quotation marks: and he gives his reader no clue as to whether the expression was borrowed from the ecclesiastical tradition, or whether heterodox Christadelphians adopted it for themselves. If it could be demonstrated that Christadelphianism had independently (or semi- independently) replicated some of the same theological debates that occupied the Church in the fourth and fifth centuries, without the participants’ being heavily immersed either in Patristics or in Hellenistic philosophy, that would be an exceptionally important piece of compar- ative evidence. It would do for the study of Patristics what the discovery of life on other planets might do for genetics; but, then, the hope of discovering extraterrestrial life has so far always been disappointed. The matter will only be resolved when some competent descriptive logician feels inspired to start looking through back numbers of The Christadelphian. Secondly, this reconstruction makes it easy to see the nullity of the purported compromise represented by the Homoiousion, the doctrine that the Father and the Son were ‘of like substance’. Even if we do decide to augment our vocabulary with the relation

Txy. x and y are of like substance, we shall still have to decide what to do with it. It is clear from steps 10 and 18 of the reconstruction of Consubstantialism that the Homoousion is here doing the logical work hitherto done by identity in formulating

4 Bryan R. Wilson, Sects and Society, p. 244. 160 Appendix the belief that there is only one God. If the Homoiousion is simply inserted in its place, we have:

THE HOMOIOUSION (1: ‘only a diphthong’)

1. ∃∀xyPy() ↔ Txy 2. ∃∃x y() Px ∧ Py ∧¬ Rxy 3. Pa 4. Pb∧∧¬ Qb Qa 5. Tab∧¬ Rab which differs from steps 18–22 of the Consubstantialism reconstruction only in an insignificant matter of terminology. The ‘like substance’ rela- tion is still functioning as a kind of identity relation; we are still distin- guishing two kinds of identity whenever we talk about God. If, on the other hand, we take the point of ‘like substance’ as being that it cannot be treated as an identity relation, we shall need to fall back on ordinary identity in our expression of monotheism. We will then have:

THE HOMOIOUSION (2: ‘Semi-Arianism’)

1. ∃∀xyPy() ↔ x = y 2. Pa 3. ¬Qa 4. Qb 5. ∴≠ab 6. ∴¬Pb 7. Tab

– which I have labelled ‘Semi-Arianism’, in line with tradition, but which is really pure Arianism. The Homoiousion has simply been tacked on at the end, with no close logical relation to the rest of the argument and, therefore, with no real meaning. It subtracts nothing from Arianism; and it adds only an empty phrase, an inconsequential concession to the language of Nicaea. This point – which appears to have escaped even so astute a student as Gibbon5 – becomes transparent as soon as the relevant arguments are reconstructed in accordance with the technique of descriptive logic.

5 See Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, II, p. 281. Appendix 161

It will be seen, on the basis of this example, that a point in descriptive logic can sometimes be made clearer if it is set out using the symbolic notation that normative logicians have developed. I am not yet able to say how frequently this will prove true. Even in this example, it is not very easy to represent Consubstantialism itself in purely symbolic guise (although I am far from saying it is impossible). I suspect that symbolic notation will indeed prove to have some application in descriptive logic, although it scarcely seems probable that it will become as useful for our purposes as it often is in normative logic: but it will need to be a thoroughly revised and modified version of symbolic notation, adapted to the special needs of descriptive reconstruction. There does not seem any great point in trying to confect such a notation a priori: we do not yet have a sufficiently clear picture of what are in fact the commonest basic steps occurring in belief systems’ logical sequences. As more belief systems are subjected to logical reconstruction and to logical compar- ison, descriptive logicians may find themselves naturally resorting to a more or less standardized set of conventional abbreviations – which, in time, could become the germ from which a symbolic notation may grow. Bibliography

Note – I have not divided the Bibliography into primary and secondary material, because in very many instances a book or article that sets out to analyse, critique, or refute someone else’s belief system will be found to be of interest chiefly as evidence for its author’s own. The reverse, too, can happen: a manifesto or apologia can contain helpful observa- tions about belief systems other than the one it is written to propound. Any attempt to separate primary from secondary literature would thus merely have the effect of often leaving the reader uncertain where to look for a particular reference. Titles of works written in Russian are presented in transliteration, followed by an English translation in brackets. The transliteration scheme employed is the one recommended by the ISO, except that I write kh (instead of the ISO’s outlandish x) for the velar fricative.

ADORNO, Theodor. The Stars Down to Earth: and Other Essays on the Irrational in Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 1994). AFLAK, Michel. Auszüge aus Reden, Erklärungen und Interviews, trans. unsigned (Varese: n.p., 1978). ALBRIGHT, William Foxwell. From the Stone Age to Christianity. Monotheism and the Historical Process (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1957). ALTHUSSER, Louis. Essays on Ideology, trans. unsigned (London and New York: Verso, 1985). ARBERRY, A. J. Classical Persian Literature (London: Allen and Unwin, 1958). ASHE, Geoffrey (ed.). The Quest for Arthur’s Britain (London: Paladin, 1979). ATTAR, Farid-ud-Din. The Conference of the Birds, trans. Afkham Darbandi and Dick Davis (London: Penguin, 1984). AUGUSTINE of Hippo. Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). AXWORTHY, Michael. Iran: Empire of the Mind. A History from Zoroaster to the Present Day (London: Penguin, 2008). BAKHTIN, Mikhail [and/or VOLOŠINOV, Valentin, and MEDVEDEV, Pavel?]. Frejdizm. Formal’nyj metod v literaturovedenii. Marksizm i filosofija jazyka. Stat’i [Freudianism. The Formal Method in Literary Studies. Marxism and the Philosophy of Language. Essays] (Moscow: Labirint, 2000). BAKUNIN, Michael. God and the State, trans. Benjamin Tucker, ed. Paul Avrich (New York: Dover, 1970). BALDICK, Julian. Animal and Shaman. Ancient Religions of Central Asia (London: I. B. Tauris, 2012). BALMER, Randall. Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory. A Journey into the Evangelical Subculture in America (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

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BARRETT, Francis. The Magus, or Celestial Intelligencer; Being a Complete System of Philosophy (Glastonbury: Lost Library, n.d. [facsimile of the 1801 edition]). BARROW, Logie. Independent Spirits. and English Plebeians, 1850–1910 (London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986). BAUVAL, Robert, and GILBERT, Adrian. The Orion Mystery. Unlocking the Secrets of the Pyramids (London: Arrow, n.d.). BAX, E. Belfort. Essays in Socialism. New and Old (London: E. Grant Richards, 1906). BECKWITH, Christopher I. Empires of the Silk Road. A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present (Princeton, NJ, and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2011). BELLOC, Hilaire. The Servile State (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics, 1977). BELTZ, Walter. God and the . Myths of the , trans. Peter Heinegg (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983). BENEDICT, Ruth. Patterns of Culture (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989). BESANT, Annie. (London and Edinburgh: T. C. and E. C. Jack, n.d.). BETTENSON, Henry (ed.). Documents of the Christian Church (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1944). Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, ed. K. Elliger and W. Rudolph (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1997). BLACK, Jonathan [Mark Booth]. The Secret History of the World (London: Quercus, 2010). BLACKER, C. P. Eugenics. Galton and After (London: Duckworth, 1952). BLACKMORE, Susan. The Meme Machine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). BLANCO WHITE, Amber. The New Propaganda (London: Gollancz, 1939). BLASHFORD-SNELL, John. Mysteries. Encounters with the Unexplained (London: The Bodley Head, 1983). BLAVATSKY, Helena P. Isis Unveiled. Secrets of the Ancient Wisdom Tradition. Madame Blavatsky’s First Work, abr. Michael Gomes (Wheaton, IL, and Chennai: Quest, 1997). BLAYE, Edouard de. Franco and the Politics of Spain, trans. Brian Pearce (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976). BLISS, Kathleen. The Future of Religion (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972). BLUMRICH, Josef F. The Spaceships of Ezekiel, trans. unsigned (London: Corgi, 1974). Book of Mormon, The (Manchester: Deseret, 1972). BORGES, Jorge Luis. The Book of Imaginary Beings, trans. Norman Thomas di Giovanni (London: Vintage, 2002). BOROCHOV, Ber. Class Struggle and the Jewish Nation. Selected Essays in Marxist (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction, 1984). BOSANQUET, Bernard. The Essentials of Logic. Being Ten Lectures on Judgment and Inference (London: Macmillan, 1928). BÖSS, Otto. Die Lehre der Eurasier. Ein Beitrag zur russischen Ideengeschichte des 20. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1961). BOUQUET, A. C. Comparative Religion. A Short Account (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964). BRANSTON, Brian. Gods of the North (London: Thames and Hudson, 1980). 164 Bibliography

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9/11 Truth, 48–49, 85–86, 87–88, 89, Arnold, Kenneth, 140–141, 141n. 10, 90, 121 142 art, 4, 6–8, 65, 104, 108, 114, 138, see a priori assumptions, 9, 11–12, 39, also film; literature 78–79, 152, 161 assimilation of belief systems, 17–21, terminology, 5–6, 50–52, 75, see also empathy; re-enactment of 139–140, 153–154 beliefs; syncretism see also truth value; value assumptions, see a priori assumptions judgements astrology, 80–81, 130, 130n. 12, see Adamski, George, 142–143 also alternative historiography affect, context-specific, 61–65, atheism, 2, 147–148, see also Dawkins, 133–135, 140n. 9 Richard descriptive logic, 3, 54–55, 83–85, Attar (Persian poet), 105 122–124 evidence, 55–60, 65–71 Baathism, 151, see also Hussein, narratives, 71–77 Saddam; nationalism world views, 3, 8, 103–107, 110–114 Bakhtin, M., 109n. 7 see also empathy Balfour, Arthur J., 62 Aflak, Michel, 151, see also Barrow, Logie, 124 nationalism Barry, Canon William, 71–73 African religion, 51, 51n. 33 ‘Basis of socialism, The’ (G.B. Shaw), afterlife, 116–117, 147–148, see also 42 Bauval, Robert, 119–122, 122n. 13 Albania, 2 Bernard Shaw, George, 42, 44 aliens (extraterrestrial), 2, 140–143, Besant, Annie, 43–44, 90n. 14, see also 145–146 Theosophy alternative historiography, 119–124, Bible, The, 11, 65–66, 66n. 27, 67, 71, see also astrology 92, 101, 138, see also Christianity; alternative remedies, 123 ; Nag Hammadi Althusser, Louis, 5–6 manuscripts; theology Analects (Confucius), 153 Bland, Hubert, 44 angels, 2, 9, 137, 149 Blavatsky, Madame Helena Petrovna, animal rights, 30–31 11–12, see also Theosophy anti-capitalism, see Marxism; Bosanquet, Bernard, 52 reactionary anti-capitalism ‘Bowmen, The’ (A. Machen), 149 anti-Semitism, 89, 90, see also Briggs, Katharine, 148, 148n. 21 Judaism; Nazism Britain, 30, 87, 112, 130, see also Antony of Padua, St, 127 Fabianism; Spectator, The apocalyptic, Jewish, 102, see also British Israelism, 84–85 Sabbatai Tzvi Brooke, Fulke Greville, 1st Baron, Aquinas, St Thomas, 68–69, 69n. 39 115–116 archaeology, 84, 138, see also Brown, T.E., 28 Egypt Buddhism, 11–12, 35–36, 50, 56

183 184 Index

Bulwer-Lytton, E.G., 149 Confucianism, 35–36, 153 Burton, Sir Richard, 86 Conscience of a conservative, The (B. Goldwater), 25–26 Cabrerets (France), 138 conservatism, 25–26, 30, 61–63, 84, Caelica (F. Greville), 115–116 see also capitalism capitalism, 46–47, 71–72, 104, conspiracy theories, 85–87, see also 110–113, 118, see also negative esotericism conservatism Construction of a church (painting, N. Carlyle, Thomas, 72–75 Chernikov), 114 Catholic encyclopaedic dictionary, The, conversion, see persuasion 13–16 Cottingley fairy photographs, 6–8 Catholicism, 7, 13–14, 16, 61, 112, see criminal masterminds, 86–87, see also also Antony of Padua, St; Aquinas, negative esotericism St Thomas critical theory, 63–65 Caudwell, Christopher, 20–21, 108n. Croce, Benedetto, 27 6, 144–145 Crowley, Aleister, 149 cave paintings, 138 Cuba, 17, 17nn. 10, 11, 56 Celto-Berberism, 84–85 Cybele, 7–8 Cha, Victor, 59 Chernikov, Nikolai, 114 Dabu, Dastur K.S., 38n. 14 Chesterton, G.K., 62n. 17, 122–123 Daqiqi (Persian poet), 55 China, 23–25, 145, see also Buddhism; Darwin, Charles, 31, see also natural Confucianism selection Christadelphianism, 159 David-Neel, Alexandra, 147–148 Christianity, 6, 16, 35, 71, 114, 130 Dawkins, Richard, 32–35, 35n. 5, 36, doctrines, 8, 51, 113, 116–117 55, 82–83, see also atheism see also Bible, The; Gnosticism; Dawn and twilight of Zoroastrianism monasticism; theology (R.C. Zaehner), 38–39 see also particular denominations democracy, 124, 154 Church of Scientology, 91 ‘Democratic ideals’ (W. Barry), 71–72 CIA, 85, 97–98 Deng Xiaoping, 23–25 class (social), 46–47, 71–72, 104, descriptive logic, 30–32, 36, 52–53, 108, 109–112, 145, see also false 107, 151 consciousness comparative method, 80–83, 87–88, ‘Class consciousness’ (G. Lukács), 97, 102 109–110 conflicting belief systems, 42–47, Collingwood, R.G., 26–27, 140, 140n. 55–56, 80–81, 117–118, 123–124, 9 155–160 myths, 74, 91–92, 112 commitment to propositions, 8, primary and subsidiary doctrine, 31–32, 42–48, 54–55, 59–60, 104, 32–35, 37–42, 47–50, 54–55, see also affect; descriptive logic, 104, 109 superstitions, 127–128, primary and subsidiary doctrine 129–130 comparative method, 80–102, 151 see also commitment to Conference of the birds, The (Attar), 105 propositions; notation; conflict between belief systems, affect, terminology 55, 63–65 Dictionary of fairies, A (K. Briggs), 148, descriptive logic, 10, 31–32, 42–48, 148n. 21 81, 117–124 doctrine, see propositions see also persuasion dreams, 77–79 Index 185 dualism (religious), 36–42, 52–53, see fascism, 50–51, 76–77, see also also Gnosticism nationalism Dugin, Aleksandr, 11, see also Russian Father Christmas, 149 opposition ‘Fear the Teletubbies!’ (V. Plotnikov), Dulles, Allen W., 97–98, see also CIA 22–23 Dunne, J. W., 60, 60n. 14, 77–79 feelings, see affect Džemalˈ, Gejdar, 97, see also Russian Fefelov, Andrej, 101 opposition fetishism, 51n. 33, see also Frazer, Sir James; magic economics, 42–47, 71–72, 81, fiction, 141–149, see also literature; 104–105, 108, see also historical sincerity; spoofs; truth value materialism; marginal utility film, 77 –79, 98, 141–142 Egypt, 11, 93, 119–124, see also FitzGerald, Edward, 55 prehistory Fitzhugh, George, 111 Eliade, Mircea, 75 Fjodorov, N. F., 99–100 emotions, see affect Flying saucers (C.G. Jung), 141 empathy, 13–29, 70, see also flying saucers, 2, 140–143, 145–146 re-enactment of beliefs Fort, Charles, 120 enabling arguments, see persuasion Fortean times (magazine), 120 End of history and the last man, The (F. Fourier, Charles, 84, 84n. 4 Fukuyama), 62–63 Frazer, Sir James, 7–8, 7n. 10, 129, England for all (H.M. Hyndman), 45, 129n. 9, see also fetishism; magic 45n. 30 French Communist Party, 19–20 esotericism, 85–102, 150–151 French Revolution, The (T. Carlyle), 72–75 ESP (extrasensory ), 59–60, Freud, Sigmund, 31, 83, 128 77–79 Fu-Manchu stories (S. Rohmer), 86–87 Essentials of logic, The (B. Bosanquet), Fukuyama, Francis, 62–63 52 Further studies in a dying culture (C. Evagrius of Pontus, 139 Caudwell), 20–21 Evans-Pritchard, Sir E.E., 16–17 evidence for beliefs, lack of, 89, 140, Garner, James Finn, 21–22 150–151 Gathas (Zoroastrian hymns), 36–42, non-verbal, 6–8, 60, 65 37n. 8,10, 52–53 Evidence for the supernatural, The (I.L. Geoffrey of Monmouth, 85 Tuckett), 124 Germany’s revolution of destruction (H. evil, problem of, 41–42, 52–53, 88–89, Rauschning), 76n. 63 98–100 gestures, 59, 60, 84, 118, see also Experiment with time, An (J.W. Dunne), slogans 60, 60n. 14, 77–79 ghosts, 145–148, see also afterlife; (ESP), 59–60, resurrection of the body 77–79 Ghostwritten (D. Mitchell), 4 Gilbert, Adrian, 119, 122, 122n. 13 Fabian essays in socialism, 42 Gnosticism, 92–96, 102, see also Fabianism, 42–47, 81, 109 Christianity; dualism fairies, 6–8, 145, 148, 148n. 21 Gnosticism and early Christianity (R.M. false consciousness (Marxist Grant), 102 psychology), 83, see also class gods, 51–52, 137–138, see also (social) religion; theology Farid-ud-Din Attar (Persian poet), 105 see also particular religions 186 Index

Golden bough, The (J. Frazer), 7–8, 7n. images, see art 10, 129, 129n. 9 Impossible state, The (V. Cha), 59 Goldwater, Barry, 25–26 Independent spirits (L. Barrow), 124 Grant, R. M., 102 ‘Industry under socialism’ (A. Besant), ‘Gratitude to the unknown 43–44 instructors’ (W. B. Yeats), 90 Introductory lectures on psychoanalysis Graves, Robert, 84n. 6, 106 (S. Freud), 31 Greek religion, 51–52, 126, 137, 143, Islam and capitalism (M. Rodinson), 144, see also Cybele; Roman 114 religion Islam, doctrines, 51, 114, 117n. 3, Greville, Fulke, 1st Baron Brooke, 130, 156 115–116 and other belief systems, 19–20, Gyurcsány Ferenc (Hungarian 35, 55 politician), 92 Israel, 17–18, 17n. 11, 84–85, 102, see also anti-Semitism; Judaism hallucination, 8–9, 139, 148 Hancock, Graham, 119–121 Jesus Christ, 20–21, 68–69, 155–161, Hegelianism, 113 see also Christianity heresies, 68, 155–160, see also Jevons, William Stanley, 42, 45, see Gnosticism; theology also economics; marginal Herodotus, 149 utility Hildegard of Bingen, 8–9, 139 Jubilate agno (C. Smart), 100 Hinduism, 51–52, 56, 107 Juche (N. Korean belief system), historical materialism, 104–114, 140, 56–59, 84 145, 154, see also Marxism; origins Judaism, 35, 51, 102, 138, see also of belief systems anti-Semitism; Bible, The; Israel; historiography, alternative, 119–124, Sabbatai Tzvi see also astrology Jung, C. G., 80, 141 history, 71–77, 96–102, see also myths hoaxes, 21–23, 63–65, 116, see also Kabbalah, see Scholem, Gershom fiction; sincerity; truth value Kara-Murza, S. G., 21–22 Hodges, Wilfrid, 155, 155n. 1 Keeper of genesis (G. Hancock & R. Hollywood, 141–142, see also film Bauval), 120, 121 Hume, David, 15–16 Kennedy, John F., 85, 87 Humphreys, Christmas, 11–12 Khaldûn, Ibn, 15 Hussein, Saddam, 101, see also Khayyám, Omar, 55 Baathism Kim Jong Il, 56–58 hymns, 36–42, 37nn. 8, 10, 65–71, see Kittredge, George Lynam, 128, also prayers 128n. 7 Hyndman, H. M., 45 Korea, 56–59, 84

Ibn Khaldûn, 15 language, 22n. 23, 131–133, 144n. Idea of history, The (R.G. Collingwood), 16, 151, see also descriptive logic; 26 literature Idea of the holy, The (R. Otto), 146–147 Lascaux (France), 138 ideology, 2–3, 5–6, see also historical Lewis, C.S., 10–11 materialism; particular ideologies lies, see hoaxes; negative esotericism; Illusion and reality (C. Caudwell), sincerity; truth value 144–145 Limonov, Èduard, 117 Index 187 literature, 4, 6, 98, 108–109, see Mohammed (M. Rodinson), 18–20 also art; fiction; film; language; monasticism, 139 particular authors or documents moon landings, 87, 91–92 Loch Ness monster, 123, 123n. 16, Mountain people, The (C.M. Turnbull), 131, 148n. 22 152 logic, 32, 53, 154n. 2, see also Muggletonianism, 14, 14n. 4 descriptive logic; notation Muqqadimah, The (Ibn Khaldûn), 15 Logic (W. Hodges), 155, 155n. 1 music, 7–8, 65, see also art; hymns luck, 129–130, 134 mysteries, see alternative Lukács, Georg, 109–110 historiography; astrology; dreams; ESP; flying saucers; supernatural, Machen, Arthur, 149 the; superstitions magic, 128–129, 140n. 9, 153, see also mystery religions, 7–8, 90–91, 143, fetishism; Frazer, Sir James see also occultism; Theosophy; Magic mountain, The (T. Mann), 4, 112 Western esoteric tradition magpies, 132–133 ‘Mystical Stalinism’ (A. Sergeev), 99 Man who was Thursday, The (G.K. myths, 74–77, 91–92, 92–102, 144, Chesterton), 62n. 17 144n. 16, 145, 149 Mann, Thomas, 4, 112 marginal utility (economics), 42, Nag Hammadi manuscripts, 93–94, 44–47, 45n. 30, 81–82, 109, see 94nn. 19, 21, 94–95, 95nn. 22, also economics 23, 96 martyrdom, see Perpetua; suicide narratives, 71–77, 91–92, see also bombers fiction; myths Marx, Karl, 5, 16, see also Marxism (Jewish mystic), 100 Marxism, as belief system, 17–21, National Bolshevik Party, 117 23–25, 45–47, 50, 77, 83 nationalism, 50–51, 112–113, see also as theoretical tool, 3, 5, 16, 83, Baathism; fascism 108–110, 114 natural selection, 32–36, see also see also Barrow, Logie; Caudwell, Darwin, Charles Christopher; class; historical Nazism, 76–77, see also fascism; materialism nationalism Marxism and the philosophy of language Neel, Alexandra David-, 147–148 (V.N. Vološinov & M. Bakhtin), negative esotericism, 87–102, 91n. 15 109, 109n. 7 , 120–121 materialism, see atheism; historical New frontiers of the mind (J.B. Rhine), materialism 59–60 Maya end times, The (P. Mercier), 120 Nineteenth century, The (journal), memes, 32–35, 35n. 5 71–72 mental illness, 1–2, 4, 8–9, 139, 143, non-verbal evidence, 6–8, 60, 65 148, see also hallucination North Korea, 56–59, 84 Mercier, Patricia, 120 notation, 31–32, 53, 56n. 5, 154, Message of Zarathushtra (D.K.S. Dabu), 154n. 2, 155–161, see also 38n. 14 descriptive logic Methodism, 65–71 numinous, the, 146–147, 152, see also Milgram, Stanley, 152 supernatural, the Mind at the end of its tether (H.G. Wells), 105–106 Obedience to authority (S. Milgram), Mitchell, David, 4 152 188 Index

Objective Room (C.S. Lewis), 10–11 persuasion, 4, 48–49, 88, 92–96, occultism, 149, see also New Age; 106–107 Western esoteric tradition Phaedo (Plato), 153 Omar Khayyám, 55 Philokalia, The (Evagrius of Pontus et ‘On being hoaxed’ (B. Robbins), 63–64 al.), 139 On carrying forward the Juche idea (Kim philosophical logic, 32, 53, 154n. 2, Jong Il), 56–58 see also descriptive logic; notation ‘On exercising all-round dictatorship philosophy, 6, 153, see also Bosanquet, over the bourgeoisie’ (Zhang Bernard; Hegelianism; Hume, Chunqiao), 23–25 David ‘On the general program of work Philosophy of the common cause (N.F. for the whole party and whole Fjodorov), 99–100 nation’ (Deng Xiaoping), 23–25 Plato, 153 ‘On the origin of the world’, 93–96, Plotnikov, V., 22–23 94nn. 19, 21, 95nn. 22, 23 of affect, 61–63, 110 organizations, 152–154 Politically correct bedtime stories (J. F. origins of belief systems, 36–42, Garner), 21–22 98–100, 102, 106–107, politicians, 23–26, 92, see also 138–149, see also historical particular politicians materialism polytheism, 51–52, 137–138 Origins of religion, The (S. Freud), 128 positive esotericism, 89–91, 90n. 14 Orion mystery, The (R. Bauval & A. , 63–65 Gilbert), 119, 122n. 13 prayers, 128, 129, see also hymns Orpheus, 143, see also Greek religion; prehistory, 27, 84–85, 138, see also mystery religions; myths Egypt; non-verbal evidence Orthodoxy (G.K. Chesterton), 122–123 primitive thought, 140, 144 other minds, 15, 15n. 5, see also Principles of art (R.G. Collingwood), solipsism 140, 140n. 9 Otto, Rudolf, 1, 146–147, 152 problem of evil, 41–42, 52–53, 88–89, ‘Outlook, The’ (H. Bland), 44 98–100 Prokhanov, Aleksandr, 23, 101, 101n. paganism, see fetishism; Greek 36, see also Russian opposition religion; magic; polytheism; proposed beings, 137–149, see also Roman religion fairies; ghosts; gods; UFOs Painchaud, Louis, 93, 94 propositions, 3, 6–8, 30–32, see also Pange, lingua, gloriosi (Aquinas), 68–69, descriptive logic; truth value 69n. 39 psychic research, 59–60, 77–79 Papua New Guinea, 144n. 16 psychology, 80–81, 83, see also affect; Parra, Nicanor, 78–79 Freud, Sigmund; hallucination; Partie communiste française (PCF), Jung, C.G.; mental illness; 19–20 sincerity Patterns in comparative religion (M. Pu Songling, 145 Eliade), 75 PCF (Partie communiste française), racism, 89, 90, 140, see also fascism; 19–20 nationalism; Nazism Perpetua (early Christian martyr), 60, Rauschning, Hermann, 76, 76n. 63 84 reactionary anti-capitalism, 71–72, Persian literature, 55, 105, see also 110–113, see also Carlyle, Thomas; Zoroastrianism Russian opposition Index 189 re-enactment of beliefs, 26–28, 32, see spoofs, 21–23, 63–65, 116, see also also descriptive logic; empathy fiction; sincerity; truth value religion, 1–3, 32–36, 51–52, 97, Stalin, Joseph, 85, 99–102, 117–118 152–154, see also hymns; prayers Stalin (L. Trotsky), 152, 152n. 2 see also particular religions ‘Stalin – here and now!’ (A. Fefelov), resistance (Freudian psychology), 83 101 resurrection of the body, 116–117, see Stonehenge, 84 also afterlife; ghosts Stow, Randolph, 146 Rhine, J.B., 59–60 suicide bombers, 8, see also 9/11 Truth rituals, 5, 127–128, 149 supernatural, the, 126, 137, 142, Robbins, Bruce, 63–65 see also fairies; ghosts; gods; Rodinson, Maxime, 18–20, 114 numinous, the; proposed beings; Rohmer, Sax (A.S. Ward), 86–87 UFOs Roman Catholicism, 7, 13–14, 16, 61, superstition, 10, 125–135 112, see also Antony of Padua, St; symbols, see notation Aquinas, St Thomas (Jungian psychology), Roman religion, 115–116, see also 80–81 Cybele; Greek religion syncretism, 11–12, 120–121, 138, see Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám (tr. E. also assimilation FitzGerald), 55 Ruskin, John, 111–112 Teletubbies, 22–23 Russian opposition, post-Soviet, 11, Temple, Robert, 119, 122, 122n. 13 22–23, 97–102, 117–118 terminology, 75, 125–128, 137 external labels, 2–3, 5–6, 50–52, Sabbatai Tzvi (Jewish mystic), 9, 100 85–86, 153–154 Santa Claus, 149 That hideous strength (C.S. Lewis), 10, Savonarola, Girolamo, 107 10n. 14 Scholem, Gershom, 1, 9, 100n. 35 theology, 36–42, 68–69, 155–161, see science, 3, 4, 15, 36, 52–53, 136, see also Christianity also astrology; natural selection; Théorie de l’unité universelle (C. psychic research; psychology Fourier), 84, 84n. 4 Scientology, Church of, 91 Theosophy, 11–12, 90, see also Besant, Sects and society (B.R. Wilson), 159 Annie; Blavatsky, Madame; Sergeev, Aleksandr, 99 mystery religions; Western Shaw, George Bernard, 42, 44 esoteric tradition Siegfried (R. Wagner), 64 Theses on Feuerbach (K. Marx), 16 Simon Iff stories, The (A. Crowley), 149 Tikkun (journal), 63 sincerity, 1–2, 4, 92, 115–116, see also Tillich, Paul, 6 negative esotericism; truth value Times, The, 62 Sirius mystery, The (R. Temple), 122 ‘Transition to social democracy, The’ slogans, 59, 84, 117–118, see also (G.B. Shaw), 44 gestures ‘Trap, The’ (N. Parra), 78–79 Smart, Christopher, 100 Treatise of human nature, A (D. Hume), Social text (journal), 63–65 15–16 Sokal, Alan, 63–64 Trotsky, Leon, 152, 152n. 2 solipsism, 13–15, 27–28, see also truth value, 9–10, 53, 83, 123, 155n. empathy; re-enactment of beliefs 2, see also negative esotericism; Sovetskaja Rossija (newspaper), 22–23 sincerity; value judgements Spectator, The (magazine), 61–62, 84 Tuckett, Ivor L., 124 190 Index

Turnbull, Colin M., 152 Western esoteric tradition, 90, 90n. Tzvi, Sabbatai (Jewish mystic), 9, 14, 149, see also mystery religions; 100 Theosophy White goddess, The (R. Graves), 84n. UFOs, 2, 140–143, 145–146 6, 106 UFOs in America, 141n. 10, 143 Wilson, Bryan R., 159 UK, 30, 87, 112, 130, see also Wilson, Colin, 142–143 Fabianism; Spectator, The Wisdom, John, 15n. 5 ‘Untitled writing, The’, 93–94, Witchcraft in old and New England (G.L. 94nn. 19, 21, 94–95, 95nn. 22, Kittredge), 128, 128n. 7 23, 96 With mystics and magicians in Tibet (A. USA, 17, 56, 96–97, 145, see also 9/11 David-Neel), 147–148 Truth; CIA; Kennedy, John F.; World famous UFOs (C. Wilson), UFOs 142–143 world views, 3, 8, 103–107, 110–114, value judgements, 6, 8–12, 30–31, 140, 154 50–52, 85, 125; see also a priori assumptions; truth value Yeats, W.B., 90 Visitants (R. Stow), 146 Vološinov, V.N., 109, 109n. 7 Zaehner, R.C., 38–39 Zanoni (E.G. Bulwer-Lytton), Wagner, Richard, 64 149 War of the worlds, The (H.G. Wells), Zarathushtra, 36–37, 37n. 8, 38–42, 142 107 Ward, Arthur Sarsfield (Sax Rohmer), Zhang Chunqiao, 23–25 86–87 Zionism, 17–18, see also anti- Wells, H.G., 105–106, 142 Semitism; Israel; Judaism Wesley, Charles, 65–71 Zoroastrianism, 36–42, 52–53, 55, 107, Wesley, John, 69–70 see also Persian literature