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National States and International Science: a Comparative History of International Science Congresses in Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, and Cold War United States

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National States and International Science: a Comparative History of International Science Congresses in Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, and Cold War United States National States and International Science: A Comparative History of International Science Congresses in Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, and Cold War United States Osiris 2005 Doel, Ronald E. Department of History (and Department of Geosciences), Oregon State University Originally published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society and can be found at: http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=osiris Citation: Doel, R. E. (2005). National states and international science; A comparative history of international science congresses in Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, and Cold War United States. Osiris, 20, 49-76. Available from JSTOR website: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3655251 National States and International Science: A ComparativeHistory of International Science Congresses in Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, and Cold WarUnited States Ronald E. Doel, Dieter Hoffmann, and Nikolai Krementsov* ABSTRACT Priorstudies of modem scientificinternationalism have been writtenprimarily from the point of view of scientists, with little regardto the influenceof the state. This studyexamines the state'srole in internationalscientific relations. States sometimes encouragedscientific internationalism;in the mid-twentiethcentury, they often sought to restrictit. The presentstudy examines state involvementin international scientific congresses, the primaryintersection between the national and interna- tional dimensionsof scientists'activities. Here we examine three comparativein- stancesin which such restrictionsaffected scientific internationalism: an attemptto bring an internationalaerodynamics congress to Nazi Germanyin the late 1930s, unsuccessfulefforts by Soviet geneticiststo host the SeventhInternational Genetics Congress in Moscow in 1937, and efforts by U.S. scientists to host international meetingsin 1950s cold warAmerica. These case studieschallenge the classical ide- ology of scientificinternationalism, wherein participation by a nationin a scientist's fame sparesthe scientistconflict betweenadvancing his science and advancingthe interestsof his nation. In the cases we consider, scientists found it difficultto si- multaneouslysupport scientific universalism and elitist practices.Interest in these congressesreached the top levels of the state, and access to patronagebeyond state controlhelped determine their outcomes. INTRODUCTION Internationalism has been a focus of attention for historians of science for many years. They have examined the rapid "rise" of international science in the decades preced- ing World War I, its "disruption" during the war, and its slow "restoration" after the *RonaldE. Doel, Departmentof History,Oregon State University, 306 MilamHall, Corvallis, OR 97331; [email protected] Hoffmann, MPI fur Wissenschaftsgeschichte,Wilhelm- straBe44, D-10117, Berlin, Germany;[email protected]. Nikolai Krementsov,Senior Re- searcher,Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. PetersburgBranch, Russian Acad- emy of Sciences, 5/1 Universityemb., St. Petersburg,Russia, 198036; and Institutefor the Historyand Philosophy of Science and Technology, Universityof Toronto,91 Charles StreetWest, Toronto,ON CanadaM5S 1 K7; [email protected]. 2005 by The History of Science Society. All rightsreserved. 0369-7827/05/2001-0003$10.00 OSIRIS2005, 20: 49-76 49 50 RONALDE. DOEL, DIETERHOFFMANN, AND NIKOLAIKREMENTSOV end of hostilities.' International scientific institutions, research centers, associations, philanthropic support, and prizes (from the International Research Council to the Rockefeller Foundation and the Nobel Prizes) have all come under close scrutiny.2 Previous studies, however, have analyzed international science primarily from the point of view of scientists. The inflammatory German "Appeal to the Civilized World" in 1914, as well as the subsequent decision by French, British, and U.S. scientists to exclude German researchers from international scientific unions following World War I, have received special attention.3 These interconnected episodes have often been viewed as significant breaches in the then-prevailing ideology of republic-of- letters internationalism, perpetuated by scientists themselves, that science was a transnational activity uncontaminated by the sordid realm of politics.4 Much of this literature assumes that international relations constitute an essential feature of "nor- mal" science: in the absence of major disruptions such as world wars, international science persists because scientists actively seek "internationalization." In this study, we examine the state's role in international scientific relations. In in- vestigating how states shape the practice of science, we focus on international con- gresses, since they are the most explicit intersection between the "national" and "in- terational" dimensions of scientists' activities. Scientists from various countries negotiate the locations, program contents, and accompanying exhibitions of the con- gresses. At the same time, they provide avenues for host country scientists to advance local agendas and to enhance the visibility of their disciplines in the eyes of domestic patrons (hence the often fierce competition among national communities for the chance to host the congresses). Specifically, we examine attempts to host an international congress in applied me- chanics in Germany in the 1930s and early 1940s, an international genetics confer- ence in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, and an international astronomical congress in the United States in the 1950s. In the German case, a proposed 1942 meeting of the See, e.g., Seigfried Grundmann,"Zum Boykott der deutschen Wissenschaft nach dem ersten Weltkrieg,"Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der TechnischenUniversitat Dresden 14 (1965): 799-906; Daniel J. Kevles, "IntoHostile PoliticalCamps: The Reorganizationof InternationalScience in World War I," Isis 62 (1970): 47-60; Brigitte Schroeder-Gudehus,"Pas de Locarno pour la science: La cooperation scientifique internationaleet la politique etrangere des Etats pendant l'entre-deux- guerres,"Relations Internationales46 (1986): 173-94; and ElisabethT. Crawford,"Internationalism in Science as a Casualtyof the FirstWorld War," Social Science Information27 (1988): 163-201. 2 For an entryto this literature,see Paul Forman,"Scientific Internationalism and the WeimarPhysi- cists: The Ideology and Its Manipulationin Germanyafter World War I," Isis 64 (1973): 151-80; Wolf- gang Biedermann,"Zur Finanzierung der Instituteder Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaftzur Forderung der WissenschaftenMitte der 20er bis zur Mitte der 40er Jahredes 20. Jahrhunderts,"in Wissenschaft und Innovation: WissenschaftsforschungJahrbuch 2001, ed. Heinrich Parthey and Gunther Spur (Berlin, 2002); GeorgeW. Gray,Education on an InternationalScale: A History of the International EducationBoard, 1923-1938 (Westport,1978); and RobertM. Friedman,The Politics of Excellence: Behind the Nobel Prize in Science (New York,2001). 3 See, e.g., StefanL. Wolff, "Physicistsin the 'Kriegder Geister':Wilhelm Wien's 'Proclamation,"' Historical Studiesin the Physical and Biological Sciences 33 (2003): 337-68; andJurgen von Ungern- Sternbergand Wolfgang von Ungern-Sternberg,DerAufruf "Andie Kulturwelt!"Das Manifestder 93 und die Anfinge der Kriegspropagandaim Ersten Weltkrieg(Stuttgart, 1996). 4 ToreFrangsmyr, ed., Solomon's House Revisited:The Organizationand Institutionalizationof Sci- ence (Canton, Mass., 1990); Elisabeth T. Crawford,Nationalism and Internationalismin Science, 1880-1939: Four Studies of the Nobel Population (New York, 1992); Elisabeth T. Crawford,Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sorlin, eds., Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of InternationalScientific Practice (Dordrecht,1992); ReinhardSiegmund-Schultze, Rockefeller and the Internationalizationof Mathematicsbetween the WorldWars (Basel, 2001); and FrankGreenaway, Science International:A History of the InternationalCouncil of Scientific Unions (Cambridge,1996). NATIONALSTATES AND INTERNATIONALSCIENCE 51 InternationalCongress for Pure and Applied Mechanics (ICPAM),sought by the leader of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft(KWG) Institute for AeronauticsRe- search,was rejectedby foreign colleagues because the National Socialist state for- bade the attendanceof Germanand foreignJews. In the Soviet case, the government canceled the scheduled 1937 Seventh InternationalGenetics Congress in Moscow becausePolitburo leaders doubted the congresswould provide the anticipatedpropa- ganda windfall.Finally, in the U.S. case, the state sought to preventscientists from "unrecognizedregimes" (particularly Communist China) from attendinga scheduled meetingof the InternationalAstronomical Union in Californiain 1961. In each case, we explore the continuousnegotiations over the issues of these congresses between the scientistsof the host countryand theirstate patrons on the one hand,and between the scientistsand their foreign colleagues on the other. Despite the differencesin time periodsand scientificdisciplines, all of these case studies shareone significanttrait: the overridinginfluence of the state as patron.5In the 1930s, the Germanand Soviet states were the primarypatrons for science within those nations.By the 1950s, the samehad become true forAmerican science. All three cases demonstratehow the influenceof state patronageundermines the classic for- mulationof the ideology of scientificinternationalism-that "theparticipation of the nationin the scientist'sfame sparesthe scientist
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