Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000) 109
ZOROASTER AND THE THEORY OF FOUR ELEMENTS
th b h , v Un v r t
Intr d t n tr l , nd n th r t p . v r, h d v t d nl t p t th rl r r n ph l ph r h n pt f f r l nt : r, t r, rth, nd f r , r t r nd h r l n. t rpr n l , p rh p , th th ht t h v t r n th th Gr ph l ph r d f f r " r d" l nt b nt. E p d l b t 440 .C., h ld f r n nt A t p l r nt r . Ar t tl ( 84 22 .C. pr nt d f ll ( . dd d t th n pt th t th A rd n t Ar t tl , th pr p rt f b t n r I E b f th t r l rld th r lt f th lt n pr n f rt n f nd n pr tt r, h h h d nl p t nt l x t t l pr p rt . h Ar t t l n t r n nt l pr d b d tr n th r f r n "f r ." f r h d d n t rn d n t th h t d rn n h p nl , b t ll h t ll l nt b t AI EA th t nf rr d p n b d th n b tr t n pt n f t p f pr p rt . In rt n ntr r pr p rt r C ld t pl t n f t t n, " l t ," p ll ld M t f r v r t th "f r n , h tn , dr n , nd l nt ," r, t r, rth, tn , h h b nd f r h h r d t n n t d n f r b n t n : WA E h d fr n n th r dr n nd h t (f r , h t b th r " l t ." In nd t r ( r , t r Figure 1. h f r l nt r pr nt d n l t h l nt, n l t nd ld ( t r , nd ld nd ll h tr nd h t r f h tr b . pr d n t v r th dr n ( rth ( . . th r: n rth, dr n n Ar t tl nd h f ll r b l v d th t ll b t n t r, ld n r, fl d t , nd n f r , h t. n f th r p d f th f r l nt l t t f tt r f r l nt n h n bl . h p nt n nd th ll t d n h t r f h tr b n th r thr h th d f th t l t h h th ( ,2 . Ind d th r n h t r f h tr b p n n. h f r n b r thr h p r bl n d pth nd br th t th t f rt n t n ( , th d f h t r n b t r thr h th h d v t d 0 p t th rl h t r , f ll d d f fl d t , nd n. An th r x pl ft n nt d b th nd f r f r n . r t b t th t d t h th t tt r p d f th f r l Gr ph l ph r , b t d n , n t , , nt th f ll n . If t r n nt n r b 110 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000) jected to fire, it becomes air (vapor) and earth (the dis- fire to be the primary physical substance, from which solved residue remaining). other substances sprung, and into which they merged (5): This legacy of Greek science held sway during the All things are an exchange for Fire, and Fire for all Medieval Renaissance and Early Modern eras in west- things, even as waves for gold and gold for waves. ern Europe; but beginning in the seventeenth century, a The very existence of Fire depends on this strife and number of natural philosophers began to challenge the tension. Aristotelian view of matter. Johann Baptista van Further, he mentions that Heraclitus regarded justice as Helmont (1580-1644) argued that all substances, except the balance or equilibrium that prevailed between con- air, were ultimately derived from water. To demonstrate tending forces. It characterized the "ever living Fire, this he made his quantitative experiment with a small with measures of its kindling, and measures going out." willow tree, an experiment that took five years, and he Justice, therefore, was maintained by identity in differ- concluded that the tree had grown entirely from the water ence and unity in diversity, and in that respect was that he had supplied to it during this long period. His symbolised by Fire. Thus Fire became the crucible, or theory had one great patron, Isaac Newton (1642-1727) rather the principle of constant change, in which oppo- who accepted it and referred to it in the Principia (Lon- sites meet and from which they emerge. don, 1687). Helmont's most significant work was, how- ever, his recognition of the material nature of what he called gas, a generic name that he used for those prod- Or n ucts of chemical reactions that had been previously re- garded as merely spirituous and immaterial. He ex- The origin of the Four Element theory, however, seems plained to chemists that the many familiar and destruc- to be Persian and not Greek. It was the Persian prophet tive explosions that shattered their glass apparatus when Zarathustra (600-583 B.C.) whose name was corrupted they experimented on reactions in sealed or closed ves- by Greek writers to Zoroaster about two centuries be- sels were due to the release of "a wild spirit" or "gas." fore Aristotle. This Zoroastrian concept of four elements In a simple way he observed differences between gas has a different perspective which makes more sense than from various sources but, as he did not isolate any gas, the Aristotalian. According to this prophet, air, water, (7-11). Humans his distinctions were not precise; and he sometimes con- earth, and fire are "sacred" elements fused one gas with another. He had, however, advanced and animals need air to breathe, water to drink, fire to the chemistry of his time by demonstrating that these cook food, and earth to grow plants for their survival. substances were material. Earth, air, and water are to be kept free from defilement. To till the field and raise cattle are parts of one's reli- In 1661 Robert Boyle (1627-1691) published The gious requirements. Rain water when it falls in abun- Sceptical Chymist, a book in which he discussed the cri- dance to irrigate the fields is a blessing from God. When teria by which one can decide whether a substance is or it is scarce, famine may result. In a country like Iran is not a chemical element. He concluded that the four (Persia) where earthquakes are frequent, their damage Aristotelian elements and three principles commonly not only causes panic and loss of lives but it can be in- accepted in his time cannot be real chemical elements terpreted as a warning message from an angry God. since they can neither compose nor be extracted from substances. The theory, however, was so influential that Fire, on the other hand, had a more complex sig- even Joseph Black (1728-1799) was still teaching his nificance. It is the symbol of divinity. It is not wor- classes that water was transmutable into earth. shipped as thought by many writers who describe a Zo- roastrian temple (Fig. 2). It is fed daily by the attendant The works of Aristotle and the other Greek phi- priests with pieces of sandalwood. The worshipers come losophers are numerous, and the books commenting on individually at any time they wish. Inside the entrance these works are extensive. Few of these commentary each follower washes the uncovered parts of his body, works, however, trace the influence of the oriental recites a prayer, and then, removing his shoes, proceeds thought in general and the Persian in particular, on the barefooted through the inner hall to the threshold of the philosophy of the Greeks. It also seems that the Theory fire chamber, where he gives the priest his offering of of Four Elements is only a minor contribution by the sandalwood and money and receives in return a handful Greeks as compared to their other philosophical con- of ashes from the sacred urn, which he rubs on his fore- cepts (4). Afnan (5, 6) for example, devotes only a few head and eyelids. Bowing toward the fire, he offers lines to fire. He mentions that Heraclitus considered Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000) 11]
prayers and then retreats slowly backward to his shoes We cannot but marvel at the fact that fire is neces- and returns home. These four elements, therefore, have sary for almost every operation. It takes the sands of nothing to do with the chemical elements. the earth and melts them, now into glass, now into silver, or minium or one or other lead, or some sub- According to Vuibert (12), Magism was the reli- stance useful to the painter or physician. By fire gion of the various Scythic tribes which inhabited the minerals are disintegrated and copper produced: in mountain range of Armenia, Azerbijan, Kurdistan, and fire is iron born and by fire is it subdued: by fire gold Luristan. Its chief objects of worship were air, water, is purified: by fire stones are burned for the binding earth, and fire. It was to these elements, to the actual together of the walls of houses ...Fire is the immea- surable, uncontrollable element, concerning which it material things themselves, that adoration was paid. Fire, is hard to say whether it consumes more or produces as the most subtle and ethereal principle, was held in more. the highest reverence. On fire altars, erected in temples on top of lofty mountains, the sacred flame was ever tr n kept burning. To a large degree, Magism supplanted the original creed of Zoroastrianism. The Magi religion According to Zoroaster there is one god Ahura Mazda was characterized by a belief in a divinely authorized or the "Wise Spirit" and one evil (Ahriman). Fire had priesthood. Its priests seem to have held their office by the "Wise Spirit." The result of this dualistic concep- hereditary succession. They claimed not only a sacred tion of the universe is a continuous warfare going on and mediatorial character, but also supernatural prophetic between the two hostile camps. All creatures, even veg- powers. They ex- etables, belong to one or plained omens, ex- another of these camps. pounded dreams, All dangerous, noxious, and predicted future poisonous animals and events. Their dress plants are evil by their was imposing, their very nature. This war- ceremonial magnifi- fare will go on to the cent, and their influ- end of time when the ence over people and Good triumphs and the kings unbound. Evil is annihilated. Ac- They were not only cording to Zoroaster's the keepers of sacred teachings, a general res- things, the learned of urrection will take place the people, the phi- at the end of the present losophers and ser- world. The good and vants of God, but evil will then be sub- also astrologers. No jected to an ordeal of transaction of impor- fire and molten metal. tance took place r 2. A Zoroasterian priest attending to fire in a temple (11) By this fiery test the evil without or against will be made known by their advice. An unspecified number of these wise men their terrible burning, but the righteous will find the fire came to Bethlehem to worship the newborn Jesus when kindly and the molten metal harmless. The world's his- they saw his star in the east. They offered him gold, tory is therefore nothing but the story of the contest be- frankincense, and myrrh, the most treasured commodi- tween good and evil which shall endure for 12,000 years, ties at that time. The Magi were also mentioned by divided into four equal periods of 3,000 years. The fi- Herodotus. Incidentally, the word "magic" is derived nal aim of Zoroaster's system is to assure world perfec- from the Magi and is related to superstition. The region tion by the individual's adoption of the right path. where the Magi lived was an ancient metallurgical cen- ter, famous for using fire to melt rocks to produce cop- A curious practice, however, arose in the disposal per, bronze, iron, and gold. of the dead. No bodies could be burned, buried, or thrown into the water, as thereby defilement to the air, Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) wrote the following state- soil, and water would result. They were consigned to ment about fire (13):
2 ll. t. Ch ., O UME 2 , b r 2 (2000
Ar b n r d r n 6 6 A. ., th v rthr th r l n f r t r. d nl f f ll r f th pr ph t r f nd n Ir n, nl n th n nt t f Y z d. M n f ll r p d t b , h r th r n n th r . h f r t h l r t th l n nd th n t nt f th r d b f th r n n t E r p n r n h n, An t l d rr n, h nt t Ind n 4 f r th p rp . On h r t rn n h bl t v t th rld th f r t tr n l t n f th Av t , th r d b f th r tr n . Figure . r f S l n h r r n tr n r bl n b t n r tr n nd d nd Chr t n t . Ah r M zd , th S pr l r th th ttr b t f n pr n , h h pl ll d " r f S l n " r " h ." h r h ll p t n h h th rp r l d n t rn t , nd r t v p r h h h pl thr h th ntr l n l r , h r th r d v r d b v l h " l Sp r t" th th b t f n l nd r h n l t nt Y hv h nd h t r ( . . h r lt n th tr pp n f th r n h d , t th Old n f d n f t t n n th G p l . S Ahr n r pt bl fl h fr th b n f th d d th t n r nd n f S t n. h r r l l p r ll l d t n t n f th l. t th M h, th r rr t n f th d d, nd v r t r h hl v n r t d n nt t . r rl t n l f . r t r r v d h l n th "M n th Gr t ( 4 48 .C. , h r n d fr 2 t 48 t n f th l C n n On ," d d M .C., nd h r r l l f ll r f th n S n . h r r x p r d f r t n n th Av t pr ph t. h Gr nd n r h pr d l th x d n G n nd n l h n p r, b h t th h rd f h nd h r l n. h v M h nd M h n , l Ad nd Ev . h d l d n d b th n r r f r n t h n th xt nt f th bl h t nt rp rt n th d v t t n l t r t r nd b th f t th t l t r p rt dl pr nt r. Sh , , nd ph t r r ll d b th thr v nt d, h rtl ft r th d th f S r t , fr n n n th Av t . S l r t n r t l d t l r n t r t t d r tr n f r t h nd b th t nd h v b n t d d t l n th. h l r r n b r f br f th W r f Sp rt th r n 6 .C. r t r l nt n d b th E pt n l h t (2 0 00 A.. . . Wh l r tr n th n t n l r l n f r , t pr d t Ar n , C pp d , nd th nt r r E t. C b f r t, th n r , nd l t r rx , t rn d t rld n t. h r h d nt E pt nd th n t rd E r p . rx nv d d Gr , nd p rh p nl th d t r f S l pr v nt d r t r f th fr b n j r r l n f th W t rn W rld. In 8 .C. th r n K n C r pt r d b l n . h x l d n th t l nd b b h dn zz r d r tl nd r th z r nt f th r tr n nt l th r n p r f ll nd r Al x nd r th Gr t n 0 .C. h l f th r d b ttr b t d b th f ll r f r t r t th nv n n 0 .C. f Al x nd r, h b rn d th p l l br r t r p l . W th th S n d th n t n l r l n r t r d, nd th pr th d b tr n l r n z d th nl t d p r. h h d f Figure 4. h n pt f f r l nt ll tr t d b th h r r h n xt n p r t th n . Wh n th th l h rt t Cr p j v n d ( 2 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000) 113
Epilogue
The alchemists believed that water, on being heated, was converted at least in part into earth. This was the result of the observation that on boiling water some residue was always formed (from impurities in solution). This problem faced Lavoisier when he was asked to improve the supply of drinking water to Paris. At that time no chemical method for ascertaining the purity of water was available, and the only way was to determine the den- sity of water by hydrometer. After studying all that had been published on the conversion of water into the earth Lavoisier concluded that it was not satisfactory and de- cided that further experiment was necessary. From October 24, 1768 to February 1, 1769 he heated a known mass of water, as pure as could be obtained by repeated Figure 5. The four elements as illustrated in Mylius, distillation, in a weighed sealed glass vessel, the Philosophia Reformata, Frankfurt 1622 (14) alchemist's pelican, in which a liquid could be continu- ously distilled in itself. At the end of this 100-day ex- critics trace these analogies to the influence exerted on periment, the total weight of the unopened vessel and Judiaism by Zoroastrianism during the period of exile, its contents was the same as it was at the beginning. He if not earlier. On the other hand, the contrary view is also advocated. Perhaps also fire in the form of a burn- ing candle and water blessed by the Christian priest are two rituals in the church that may be traced back to the time of Zoroaster.
The Four Elements in Art and Alchemy
The concept of four elements survived for at least two thousand years. Seventeenth-century engravings attest to the influence of this theory. For example, the Flem- ish artist Crispijn van de Passe (1564-1637) depicts al- legorical figures in decorative scenes symbolizing the four elements (Fig. 4). Fire (ignis) holds brands and a burning coal. Water (agua) wields a flowing pitcher while behind her a fisherman plies his trade; Earth (terra) carries a cornucopia of the Earth's fruits while a hunter pursues its beasts. Air (aer) strides across the clouds, birds flying around him, the four winds blowing. Fig- ure 5 shows the four elements as illustrated in a 1622 engraving (14). Each element was given a symbol based on a triangle; the alchemists used these symbols until the reform of Lavoisier and Berzelius. Figures 6 and 7 are representations of the elements from Michelspecher's book dated 1654, while Figure 8 shows Roger Bacon pointing to a pair of scales in perfect equilibrium on Figure 6. Engraving dated 1654 from Cabala, which are being weighed water and fire, from a book Speculum artis et matura in alchymica by S. published in 1617 (15). This may be an indirect refer- Michelspecher showing the seven steps leading to the ence to the Zoroastrian faith: the balance between the Phílosopher's Stone, some alchemical symbols, and the good and the evil. four elements ignis, aeris, agua, and terra (15) 114 Bull. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000)
Figure 7. Another engraving from the same book in Figure 6 showing the four elements Feuer, Lufft, Waser, and Erdt (in Old German) and the four properties = hot (heiss), dry (trucken), cold (kalt), and wet (feucht) (15) th n h d th p l n ft r p n n t nd p r n d v f r ll t n v r t r, th t ll d h th nt nt nt n th r v l. S rth h d b n t ll t f r d fr d ff r nt pr h f r d. v r, h f nd th t th ht f th p l f r nt t n, l n t n f l t n , h t n f d, n h d d r d b n nt n rl l t th t . , h v r, nt r t d n th nt t f r ht f th rth bt n d. th r f r n l d d f x d n l d b t n , n t n p bl d ff r n n th t th rth h d b n pr d d b th r v t n th r t lf. f th t r n th l , n t b th nv r n f t r r r n d t r f r b t t th nd nt rth. h r f t d th th r h ld f r nt r r . h th r f phl t n ntr d d n th nd pt d b n f h nt p r r . v nt nth nt r t xpl n t f r t n: b t n h t d b v n l nt, hn M ( . 64 b rn b t nt n th b t bl pr n pl 6 , nd b rt "phl t n" h h l b ( 6 0 t d th r t d n th f r f x t n f d ff r nt nd fl . h th r f r. l t d th t b nd n d, h v r, r lt d n h f l h ndr d r l t r h n l nd bt dl n x n d v r d v n d pt r rd n nd th ph n n n f th n f r t f r, n b t n xpl n d n n r l f ll d b v r n n th nv r pr r v l x d t n pr , nd r l t n h p. h d f th th b n d rn f lt f ll t n h tr . v r, n n r n bl p r t t " rth" t ll n d d r d t d f r. r d n l nt th t It th Én l h b l t nn t be decomposed to St ph n l ( 6 6 simple components nt l h b rv d th t pl nt phr v ( 8 82 n 80 nn n d b rb r thr h th r Figure 8. Roger Bacon (1214-1294) pointing to a pair of l v . nv nt d th scales in perfect equilibrium on which are being weighed th d v r f th l pn t tr h, pl water and fire. From Symbole auneae mensae by M. Maier, l b l tr t lth h 1617 (15) Buil. Hist. Chem., VOLUME 25, Number 2 (2000) 115
he failed to decompose alumina, the earth obtained from . . r n , h l v n W rld, M M lll n, clay. Charles Martin Hall (1863-1914) and Paul Héroult Y r , 26, 2 (1863-1914) finally decomposed this earth in 1886 by 0. . . , M n . l n, M M ll n, nd n 0, passing an electric current in a molten solution of alu- 42 62. mina in cryolite. . . W t r , p nd C t f th W rld , W t A , nn, G n v , , 2 24. The concept of four elements (air, water, earth, and 2. A. . . b rt, An nt t r , hn M rph & C ., fire) consistently mentioned in history of chemistry lt r , M , 8 , 60 6 . books as due to Greek philosophers, is shown to have a . l n , t r t r , rv rd Un v r t r , C much older origin and a different meaning. About two br d , MA, 2. 4. . E. pp, M tt r, f S n br r , In rp centuries before Aristotle, the Persian philosopher r t d, Y r , 6 . Zoroaster described these four elements as "sacred," i.e., . A. l , Al h . h G ld n Art, Gr In essential for the survival of all living beings and there- t rn t n l, , (tr n l t d fr It l n . fore should be venerated and kept free from any con- tamination. As useful as the concept of the four ele- rth r d n ments was to the Ancients, these material entities have A. W. W. n, r t r, h r ph t f An nt Ir n, nothing to do with the modern concept of "chemical el- C l b Un v r t r , Y r , 8 . ements". While lost in the mists of time, this theoreti- . . M lt n, E rl r tr n , C n t bl , nd n, cal construct remained central to our understanding of . . . C. vr , r tr n tr n f t r f , the material world and chemical change to the seven- C l b Un v r t r , Y r , 2 . teenth century. It is recommended that authors of chem- É. E. rtzf ld, r t r nd W rld, r n t n Un v r istry textbooks or history of chemistry books, when t r , r n t n, , 4 . mentioning the Theory of Four Elements, should stress .C. hn r, h n nd l ht f r tr n , its Persian origin and should mention it as the "Theory W d nf ld & l n, nd n, 6 . of the Four S r d Elements," as it has nothing to do M. , A t r f r tr n , É. . r ll, d n, with h l elements. This will eliminate confusion h th rl nd , , 2 v l. to the reader and also provide a philosophical concept W.W. M l ndr , Ed., An Intr d t n t An nt Ir n n that is related to our modern views regarding the envi- l n, Un v r t f M nn t r , M nn p l , MI, ronment. 8 . M. , Éd., xt l S r f r th St d f r tr n , rn & bl , t , , 84.
E E E CES A O ES A OU E AU O . . . rt n t n, A t r f Ch tr , M ll n, nd n, 0, l. . Fathi Habashi is Professor of Extractive Metallurgy at 2. . W. M ll r, C pr h n v r t n In r n nd h r t l Ch tr , n n , nd n, 2 , l. Laval University in Quebec City, Canada G1K 7P4. He , 2 . holds a B.Sc. degree in Chemical Engineering from the , É. . l rd, Al h , A. l n , University of Cairo, a Dr. techn. Degree in Inorganic r nd rth, M ddl x, UK, . Chemical Technology from Vienna, and Dr. Sc. h n r 4. M. . W t, E rl Gr h l ph nd th Or nt, from Saint Petersburg Mining Institute. He was Cl r nd n r , Oxf rd, . guest professor at a number of foreign universities and . . M. Afn n, r t r Infl n n An x r , th consultant to the United Nations Development Program. Gr r d n , nd S r t , h l ph l br r , He is the author of r n pl f Éxtr t v M t ll r Y r , 6 . in 4 volumes, of which the first two were translated in 6. . M. Afn n, r t r Infl n n Gr h ht, h l ph l br r , Y r , 6 , 6 . Russian and Chinese and the American Chemical Soci- . A. . . nd . C. C rt ll , "Av t ," n C th ety audiocourse M t ll r l Ch tr and edited the l En l p d , h Én l p d r , Y r , four-volume ndb f Extr t v M t ll r . 0 , l. 2, 6. 8. An n , h En l p d A r n , A r n C rp r t n, Y r , Ch , 48, l. 2 , 2 4.