~ t a t e of ~ ofua 1952

SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF ATOMIC ENERGY

(A Source Book /or General Use in Colleges)

Volume IV The Iowa Plan for Atomic Energy Education

Issu ed by the D epartment of Public Instruction J essie M. Parker Superintendent Des Moines, Iowa

Published by the State .of Iowa ''The release of atomic energy on a large scale is practical. It is reasonable to anticipate that this new source of energy will cause profound changes in our present way of life." - Quoted from the Copyright 1952 Atomic Energy Act of 1946. by The State of Iowa

"Unless the people have the essential facts about atonuc energy, they cannot act wisely nor can they act democratically."-. -David I Lilienthal, formerly chairman of the Atomic Energy Com.mission. IOWA PLAN FOR ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION FOREWORD

Central Planning Committee About five years ago the Iowa State Department of Public Instruction became impressed with the need for promoting Atomic Energy Education throughout the state. Following a series of Glenn Hohnes, Iowa State Col1ege, Ames, General Chairman conferences, in which responsible educators and laymen shared their views on this problem, Emil C. Miller, Luther College, Decorah plans were made to develop material for use at the elementary, high school, college, and Barton Morgan, Iowa State College, Ames adult education levels. This volume is a resource hook for use with and by college students.

M. J. Nelson, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls Actually, many of the materials in this volume have their origin in the Atomic Energy Day Hew Roberts, State University of Iowa, Iowa City programs which were sponsored by Cornell College and Luther College two or three years L. A. Van Dyke, State University of Iowa, Iowa City ago. Lectures given on these occasions seemed to contain such valuable content that they were rewritten and brought up-to-date for inclusion in this present publication. Additional Jessie M. Parker, State Superintendent of Public Instruction (Ex­ chapters were added as seemed needed to give a well-rounded coverage of the subject. A officio) tho~·ough examination of the newer literature and audio-visual materials was made so that Guy Wagner, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Editor all such references would he especially significant and up-to-date.

As suggested in the Introduction this publication is largely a resource Inanual contannng much of the basic information about atomic energy and its social implications which in­ College Production Committee formed college students ought to know. It is expected that colleges will adapt these materials to their local curriculum patterns; consequently there is little in this volume suggesting spe­ Harley A. Wilhelm, Iowa State College, 'Ames, General Chairman cific ways for teaching about atomic energy. F. E. Brown, Iowa State College, Ames, Sub-Chairman in Science Despite the increase in college enrollment during recent years the college student remains W. E. Dreeszen, Iowa State College, Ames, Science an educationally-privileged citizen. It is reasonable to expect that he will become aware of Joseph B. Gittler, Iowa State College, Ames, Social Studies the"tren1endous importance of nuclear energy in our present-day world. As a college edu­ cated person he should feel an equal measure of responsibility for at least a modest know­ George Glockler, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Science ledge of the science of the atom and its social implications. It is his duty to play the part of Donald Howard, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Sub- an inteHigent citizen in the great task of making atomic energy work for a world at peace. Chairman in Social Studies Emil C. Miller, Luther College, Science JESSIE M. PARKER, Superintendent Hew Roberts, State University of Iowa, Social Studies Iowa State Department of Public Instruction R. A. Rogers, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Science December, 1952 TABLE OF CONTENTS

P age FOREWORD

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER:

I. The Structure of Matter ...... 3

Molecules ...... 3 Atoms ...... 4 Structure of Atoms ...... 5 Nuclear Chan ges- R adioactivity ...... 6 Nuclear Changes - Nuclear R eactions ...... 7 Fission ...... 8

II. Energy- Its Nature and Sources ...... 9

A General Concept of Energy ...... 9 Physical Energy ...... 9 Chemical Ener gy ...... 9 Nuclear Energy ...... 10 Some Comparisons of Magnitude ...... 10 Summary and Conclusion s ...... 11

III. Atomic Fuels ...... 12

Atomic Fission ...... 13 Chain Reactions ...... 14 Critical Mass ...... 15 The First Atom Bomb ...... 15 The Atomic "Pile" ...... 16

IV. Atomic Energy for Power ...... 19

The R elease of Atomic Power ...... 19 The Problem s of Atomic Power ...... 19

V. R adioactive Isotopes in Service ...... 21

The Production of Tracers ...... 22 Isotopes as Sources of Radiation ...... 23 Isotopes as Tracers in Chemistry ...... 25 Isotopes as Tracers in Biology ...... 25 I sotopes as Tracers in Agriculture ... . ·"= ...... • ...... 26 '-

INTRODUCTION VI. Social Trends and Atomic Energy ...... • ...... •. .. . •... . . 28

Technology and Social Change ...... · .. .. · · · · · · · · · · 28 social Implications of Atomic Energy in a World at War ...... · · 28 THE NATURE OF THIS BOOKLET evitably more rigid at th e college level than at others. While colleges are increasingly interested in general edu­ social Implications of Atomic Energy in a World at Peace ...... 29 Unlike the oth er volumes in the Iowa Plan for Atomic cation, their programs and procedures in this area differ Energy Education, the present volume is not a program greatly. It is not possible to design one specific atomic The Lag Between Technology and Social Science ...... 29 of recommended activities but a resource m anual de­ energy program suitable for all colleges. Moreover, the signed to contain many of the basic facts to wh ich in­ continual a ddition of new courses serves to complicate formed' citizens may wish to refer and which a person administration, raises difficulties of accreditation, and VII. Government in the Atomic Age ...... · . · · · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · 31 with a college education may be reasonably expected to sometimes confuses rath er than enligh tens students. The know. present booklet was th erefore designed to be of maximum Popular Fallacies ...... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 31 The harnessing of Atomic Energy is not only a notable use in existing courses at th e college level and at the same time to be a general resource book for workshops ...... 32 scientific achievement; it is also the fundamental social The Atomic Energy Act fact of today. I t h as changed th e strategy of war and and special intensive short courses devoted to the subject. The Atomic Energy Act at Work ...... · · · · · · · · · 33 added urgency to the search for a basis of permanent For the same reason, it was decided that the printed peace. It h as modified th e structure of Government and lecture was th e best form of presentation. For the stu­ Internal F rictions ...... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 34 given rise to revolutionary international plans involving dent who is asked' to read, the published lecture is as national sovereignty. It has increased human well-being International Frictions ...... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 35 valuable a form of information as any other printed through new processes in m edical, agricultural and in­ document. For the lecturer in the social sciences who Education and Government ...... · · · . . · · · · · · · · · · · · 36 dustrial research. In the forseeable future it will modify m ay wish his students to be acquainted with some of the industrial economy and can change the economic geo ­ ...... 37 basic facts of atomic energy before discussing its prob­ Summary and Implications graphy of whole continents.l In short, the release of lems, the existence of authoritative ready-made lectures Atomic Energy h as made more urgent the search for should be of value. The sam e is true for the science solutions to th e existing social problems th at confront lecturer who wish es his students to consider occasionally BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... · . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 39 human society in a scientific age and' has created several th e social implications of scientific endeavor without com­ new problems equally difficult to solve . mitting them to extra courses in th e social studies. Selected Readings on Atomic Energy ...... · · · .. · · · · · · · · · · · · 39 It should be obvious to anyone who lives in the almost Science students and those in allied fields become ac­ Audio-Visual Materials ...... · · .. . · · · · · · · · · · · 41 constant revolutions of the 20th Century that the forces quainted with the scientific facts of atomic energy in released by scientific discovery and harnessed through the course of their normal studies. Some effort should technology impose a major strain on a democratic society. be made to orient these students to the social implica­ APPENDIX ...... 44 Unless citizens understand the nature of these forces. tions of atomic energy in th eir future work. It is particu­ the survival of grass roots democracy is ind'eed debatable larly important that students in the technical fields - the old classical education is not of itself adequate for Experiments in Practical Application ...... 44 become conscious of the impact of technology on society citizen control of the modern state.2 at an early age. The Atomic Age being itself young, well­ In accordance with this view, which is the expressed prepared young people m ay help avert some of the crises philosophy of the Iowa Committee, th e present volume it can generate. This booklet can be used to accomplish is first concerned with the nature of atomic energy. I t that end in the minimum of time. It can be d'one by is not, however, a scientific text book. It confines itself assigned student reading and discussion or by lectures to th e basic unchanging facts of what atomic energy is, based on those herein printed but given by the lecturers how it was discovered, and how it is put to work. These with whom th e students are ah·eady at work.3 In the are set forth logically, simply, and with the minimum social studies, particularly sociology, economics and use .of technical language consistent with absolute accu­ government courses, this booklet can again be used as racy. They are designed as the proper foundation on assigned student reading or by the instructor in prepar­ which to consider th e social and governmental issues ing lectures to explain the nature of atomic energy be­ that conclude the booklet. fore consid'ering the social problems involved. Its use in general couTses in science or social science or in inter­ THE USES OF THIS BOOKLET departmental core couTses is obvious. This volume is presented as a series of authoritative and Intensive workshops and short courses are increasingly up-to-date lectures. In rejecting the idea of writing a ch aracteristic of higher education. According to nation college program, the Production Committee had in mind wide studies made by th e Committee, th e current tenden­ both the peculiar problems of college organization and cy is to study atomic energy through such workshops. the function of this booklet in relation to the others This is particularly true of teacher training institutions, that comprise the Iowa Plan. Because of the professional which have done more about atomic energy education and pre-professional nature of much college work, in­ than any other college group. The present volume pro­ cluding the training of students for the profession of vides adequate content for workshops and short courses scholarship itself, departmentalization of teaching is in- 1 where facts must be quickly acquired before their signifi­ cance can be discussed. 1. Aus tmli a a ffords a good example. The inter ior of th e southern continent is rich in iron but devoid of coal. A semi·dese1·t, there Some colleges have experimented with an intensive day is no possibility of producing hydroelectric power. Australia's devoted entirely to th e subject of atomic energy. In heavy industries are therefore in coastal cities close to coal or hydro-electric power a nd vulner able to t h e enemy in t he event Iowa, two such days have been held, at Cornell College, of war . U ranium ore has now been di scovered and is being mined Mount Vernon and Luther College, Decorah .4 Other col­ in the desert area. ' V" hile commercial manuf actul.·e will 1·emain close to its mark ets and continue to u se coal and hy dro·elech·ic leges, notably the State University of Iowa, have experi­ pow er, it now appea 1·s economically }lO ssible to establish strategic mented with extensive non-credit lecture series for stu-. industri es in the more secure interior by substi tuting uranium f uel f or manufacturing power. • 3. See Ap pend ix 2. rrhe influe nce of technology on govel·nm ental and social change is discu ssed in Chapter s VI a nd VII. 4. See Append ix 2 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION dents, th e lecturers being drawn from the many depart­ As h as been stated, the five volumes of th e Iowa series ments concerned.5 This volume is a suitable resource are functionally related. Volumes II, III and V, con­ ·book for programs of either type. cerned respectively with elem entary, secondary, and adult CHAPTER I education , are fundamentally program designs, the "wh at On all campuses, a great deal of informal educational to do" and th e "how to do it". In addition to its spe­ THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER* activity is continually going on. In including atomic cific use as a resource manual for existing college courses, energy education in such activities, the fifth volume of th e present volume may be considered as a factual re­ the series, which is devoted to Adult Education programs source supplement to the others. of many types, should be used as a companion volume. MOLECULES It is particularly applicable to the great number of stu­ Iowa is unusually well endowed with institutions of high er dent discussion ·societies th at exist on any campus, in­ learning. If each of these institutions, including th e junior The na me "Atomic Energy" has come to mean energy cluding th e churches that students r egularly attend. The colleges, endeavors in its own way to reach its entire produced' by ch anges in the nuclei of atoms, though ordi­ moral problems of the Atomic Age h ave proved of absorb­ studen t body, a nucleus of informed citizens will rapidly nary burning of fuels also involves ch anges in atoms. To ing interest to these students. become available to every community in the ·state. understand either process one must know something of the nature and structure of matter. For The Production Committee 5. See Appendix . Also Chat>ter s VI and VII of Volume V, " I owa C it i ;~,e n s Invf'stigate t he Atom." publi s hed by the I owa State There are m any kinds of m atter . Suppose we con sider Depa r tmen t of Public I ns truction, D es Moines. 1952. Guy Wagner, Editor a few drops of water in a large sealed glass tube at room temperature (see Figure l a ) . The liquid occupies a defi­ nite volume in the lowest part of th e tube. When th e t ube is heated the water seems to be destroyed. At least it becomes invisible as in Figure lb. But when the tube is cooled, the water reappears and fills the same volume as it filled before it was evaporated. Successive evapo­ rations to invisible gas or successive freezing to solid ice d'o not ch ange the amount of the water, or its n ature, permanently. If the tube is kept sealed and the tempera­ ture is brought back to room temperature the water is visible again. Where was the water when the tube looked as if it were empty? When water is h eated, it separates into m any ' very small particles. Each particle is far too small to be seen with the highest power of a microscope, but the return of the liquid water on cooling indicates that th e water did not escape from the tube. There are many other simple evidences that the water remains in th e tube. First, the tube and its contents weigh the same while the water is invisible as they weigh when the water is visible. Second, the pressure in the heated tube becomes greater than the pressure in a similar heated tube which contains no water. Indeed, the pressure due to the parti­ cles of water in a h eated sealed glass tube containing too much water would become great enough to sh atter the tube and cause an explosion. All of th e power of a steam locomotive h auling a long train, of freight C\J,rs up a grade is due to invisible parti­ cles of water vapor exerting pressure against the pistons causing them to move in the cylinders. These small particles are all alike and each one of them is called a MOLECULE. When a lump of sugar dissolves in water and disappears, it migh t seem that the sugar h ad been destroyed . But the water may be evaporated carefully and the sugar left behind will weigh exactly as much as the sugar which was dissolved in the water. While the sugar was in the water and invisible one could de­ tect its presence by its taste and by many other observa­ tions such as the rotation of polarized light, th e rise of the boiling point, and the lowering of the freezing point. The same amount of sugar produces the same effects on all such measurable ch anges in properties, so it is reason­ (a) (b) able to assume that the sm all particles of sugar are like each other in all particulars. Again, these similar smallest Figure 1 particles of sugar are called MOLECULES. The volume of water which can be evaporated in a closed Many such experiments h ave been performed using m an y space, safely, is relatively small. The vapor of water pro­ substances. The results of these experiments show th at duces a pressure of about one atmosphere ( 15 lbs. per square each of some hundreds of thousands of substances can be inch) if confined in a volume 1600 times as large as the separated in particles too small to be seen by a micro­ volume of liquid water. A quart of water contains about scope but yet capable of becoming the original substance 24,000 drops. Then 15 drops (24,000 -;-. 1600) of water in a quart container would produce a pressure of about one atmo­ *Pr epared by F. E . B rown , Iowa State College, a nd George Glock ler, sphere, or the pressure in a quart container would be about State Un iver s ity of Iowa . one pound per square inch for each drop of water evaporated. 4 ATOMI C ENERGY EDUCATION STRUCT URE OF MATTER 5

when they are again collected into particles large enough in a Webster Unabridged Diction ary and th at all of these to be visible. Each of the known s ubstances is composed are spelled out by different arrangements of 26 English H H of very sm all similar particles called MOLECULES of letters, by analogy h e can understand' how 90 kinds of that substance. atoms co uld be arranged in thousands of patterns. Each pattern would vary in number and/ or kind of atoms, "-/ No 0 ATOMS 0 + These molecules are not th e sm allest par ticles. If water is subjected to the action of a direct electrical curren t No/ "'H (Figure 2), an invisible colorless gas appears at each BECOME +~ of the two electrodes. The gas freed at the positively H H No H H charged electrode occupies about 800 times th e volume of th e water which disappeared and it weighs eigh t­ ninth s as much . The gas freed at the negatively ch arged "-/ No electrode fills 1600 times the volume of th e liquid water 0 0 but weighs only one-ninth as much . When th e two gases + ""'/ are mixed together, th e water does not reappear. If th e two gases are ignited after being mixed, an explosion occurs, or th ey may be brough t together chemist says, No H + H "Water is a compound composed of hydrogen and oxygen." No"' / Further investigation shows th at treatment of water with a metal like sodium (Figure 3) can remove h alf of th e "'o/ 0 h ydrogen from water and form a compound of h ydro­ gen , oxygen , and sodium. Furth er treatment with a metal like zinc removes th e rem ainder of the hydrogen. The compound remaining is composed of sodium, oxygen , and ® zinc. Wh enever oxygen is removed from water, all of Figu r e 3 th e oxygen is removed from any molecule when ever an y T h e very a c tive metal sodium (Na) d isplaces o ne-half of t h e hyd rogen from eac h m olecule oxygen is removed. This would seem to prove th at each of water with which it reacts. The su bstances forme d are free hyd r o gen ( H 2) , and sodium molecule of water con tains one indivisible par ticle of h yd r oxide o r lye. Zinc ( Zn) r eacts wit h the s odiu m hyd r oxide and d isplaces the other oxygen an d two indivisible particles of h ydrogen. In half of the hy d r o ~en . ch emical sh orth and we express this by t.he formula H ,O. This means that th ere are two individual par ticles of would have different properties, and would be a m olecule activity produces ligh t, h eat, conductivity of th e air sur­ hydrogen Dalton, th e second, th e ELECTRONS which are around it som ewh at founder of the modern atom ic th eory, 2300 years later. as planets are distributed a round' th e sun in th e solar A molecule of water is composed of two atoms of h ydro­ system . gen and one atom of oxygen. A molecule of h ydrogen is composed of two atoms of h ydrogen and a molecule of Atoms are h eld together in molecules by forces arising oxygen is composed of two atoms of oxygen. If one wrote F igu re 4 from loss, or gain, or sh aring of electrons. The electrons a shorth and expression of wh at h appens wh en h ydrogen farth est from the nucleus are especially active in form­ burns or explodes by union with oxygen , it migh t be only on e kind of atoms are called elements. In 1950 , 98 elements had been discovered or prepar ed. ing bon ds between atoms. The en ergy accompanying H, + O, + H, becomes HOH + HOH or 2H, + O, = 2H,O. chemical ch anges is due to th e rearrangemen t of these It is even known th at th e two h ydrogen atoms and the STRUCTURE OF ATOMS bonding electrons. Then , th e energy of burning fuel is oxygen atom are not in a str aigh t line in th e water also "atomic energy" as is a ll ener gy arising from any molecul e but would appear as shown in Figure 4, if we The preparation of indivisible particles seems to be a ch emical reaction. The electrons arrange th em selves in could see a molecule of water. Figure 2 contradiction and it is. Atoms are not indivisible. They sh ells, th e capacity of which increases with distan ce from can be separated into pieces. Pieces can be a dded to When water is de composed b y p assing a direc t c u r r e nt of th e nucleus. Each elemen t h as atoms with a different A study of all of the substances known in 1930 indi­ atoms in such a way th at a n ew kind of atom is formed. number of electrons, and consequently a different ar­ cated th at they could be separated into, or m ade up ele ct ricity thr ough it, o ne c ubic inch of liqu id w a t er p r o­ d u ces a lm o st a cu b ic foot of hyd r ogen a nd o ne-h a lf of a But th ese are recen t discoveries. Until about 1900 a toms rangement of electrons, and different possibilities of from, about 90 kinds of ATOMS though more than 300,000 cu bic foot of oxygen. Two molecu les of water (2 H 20 ) be­ were believed to be indivisible. In 1896 the phenom enon gaining, losing, and sh aring electrons. This is what substances h ad been investigated . This may seem in­ com e t w o molecules of h yd r o gen ( 2 H,) and one m olecule called r adioactivity was discover ed. Natural radioactivity makes each element different from oth er elem ents. The credible. But if one remembers that 600,000 entries appear of o xygen ( 0 .). is an activity of some particular natural elemen ts. Their elements are formed so th at all numbers of electrons STRUCTURE OF MATTER 7 6 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION radiations appear. One radiation , th e alpha particle, is heavy nuclei that the process of alpha particle emission from on e to 98 are found in regular succession in the Loss, or gain, or sh aring of the external electrons leads to th e nucleus of a helium atom which is ejected with a occurs and it is almost completely restricted to this region. shells of electrons which surround nuclei of atoms now ch anges in the numbers, or kinds, or arrangements of velocity as great as 18,000 miles per second, about one­ Beta particle emission and th e other pro ce~ses m entioned known. A great deal of force is n ecessar y to hold 98 unch an ged nuclei of atoms in molecules. These ch anges tenth t he speed of light. The a lpha particle carries a above also occur in th ese elements. mdependent n egative ch arges of electricity in any system­ are called chemical ch anges. Changes in which whole positive ch arge of two. As soon as its velocity is de­ atic arrangement. Moreover all unmodified a toms are molecules are separated from each oth er are called physi­ The source of power or energy for the radiations is con­ creased by collisions sufficiently to permit electrons to version of m ass to energy. Einstein inferred from th eo ­ neutral, and complete molecules of all substances are cal chan ges. Some examples of physical ch anges are: adhere to it, two electrons are picked up and th e alpha neutral. Neutrality of atoms and molecules requires a makmg sawdust , grinding corn meal, a tomizing per­ retical considerations t h at the energy equivalent of m ass particle h as become a h elium atom. A second radiation is expressed by th e equation E = mc2 in which th e supply of positive electricity from which positive p arti­ fumery, dissolvm g sugar in water or evaporating gaso­ called a beta particle, is an electron . The electron h a~ cles can be taken . These particles must exactly neutra lize lme. Physical ch anges pruduce no new kinds of molecules energy, E, is expressed in ergs, the mass', m is expressed a mass 1/ 7532 th at of an alpha particle and carries one in grams ( 454 grams = 1 pound) , and c is th e velocity any number of electrons from 1 to 98 . and, th erefore, no new substances. Chemical ch a nges are ch arge of negative electricity. The third radiation, the more profound th an physical ch anges. Chemical ch anges of light in centimeters per second, which is 3 X 1010 or A particle which weighs 1838 times as much as an elec­ gamma r ay, is a wave similar to light waves but the 30 ,000 ,000,000 . That is, wh en one gram of matter is con ­ produce new kinds of molecules but do not produce any wave length of a gamma r ay is about 1/100 ,000 th at of a tron, and has a positive charge exactly as great as th e new kinds of atoms. T here are ch anges more fundam ental verted into energy, t he energy produced is 3 X 1010 negative ch arge on the electron, h as been found. This wave of visible ligh t. The energy with which t h ese radi­ squared (3 X 1010) 2 or 9 X 1020 ergs. A kilowatt hour is th an ch emical ch ange. They are called nuclear ch anges ations leave th e nuclei of radioactive atoms indicates p article is called a PROTON. and are of two types: radioactivity and nuclear reactions. 3.6 X 1 01 ~ ergs, so one gram (one 45 4th of a oound) of some unstable condition or some source of power within matter will produce (9 X 1020) -:- (3 .6 X 10 13)- or 2.5 X A third particle with almost the same weigh t as the In these ch anges new kinds of atoms are produced . th e nuclei of such atoms. 10 7 , or 25,000,000 kilowatt hours of energy, if it disappears proton but bearing n o electrical ch arge has also been The stability of a nucleus is found to depend on th e as matter and is converted into energy. At one cent per found. This last particle is called a NEUTRON. From NUCLEAR CHANGES- RADIOACTIVITY kilowatt hour, this energy would cost $250 ,000 . these three particles, neutral atoms of all known weigh ts number of protons and th e ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus. The lightest nucleus, th at of ordinary and properties can be formed. It seems th at a neutron The amount of energy associated with a ch ange is some NUCLEAR CHANGES- NUCLEAR REACTIONS (or n eutrons) is r equired in any nucleus containing more mdiCatJOn of th e profundity of the ch ange. A gram of hydrogen , is just one proton. Its isotope, h eavy h ydrogen than one proton .. This is to be expected, for two ch arges most substances may be powdered by an amount of or deuterium, has one neutron and one proton in its When protons and neutrons are packed togeth er in nuclei, of positiVe electn c1ty should repel each oth er . energy corresponding to only a few calories. When a nucleus. With oth er light nuclei, those containing up to a small fraction of their m ass disappears and energy gram of a combustible substance burns (a chemical re­ 20 protons, th at is, t hrough th e element calcium, th e corresponding to the loss of mass appears. For instance The sm all h eavy nucleus of an atom is composed of pro­ ~ct wn J much more heat is involved. If a gram of carbon stabJe varieties or isotopes h ave almost t he same number . I t he m ass of a proton is 1.00758 avograms tin, h as 10 stable isotopes an d' t h e other 54 r ange from At one cent per kilowatt hour, t his would cost $7560 . h ydrogen and heavy hydrogen ar e two different nuclear is only h alf gone. forms or "isotopes" of the same element. The combi­ two to nine. Beside these st able nuclei each element Nuclei which contain about 25 protons and 26 or 27 nation of deuterium with oxygen forms h eavy water . Na tural r adioactivity consists in the change of atoms like h as others, and in most cases m any others, that are not neutrons in each nucleus h ave lost th e most m ass per Figure 5 shows models of some a toms as chemists and those of na turally found radium into oth er atoms like stable because they contain an unsuitable ratio of n eu­ proton and neutron combined . These nuclei released more physicists portray them. Uranium, the heaviest natural radon, also found wherever radium is found. These trons to protons. energy per unit m ass wh en formed, h ave less energy per atom found in fairly large quantities, h as an atomic ch anges t ake place spontaneously at rates which are not If th ere are too many neutrons the unstable or radio­ unit m ass left in them and are more stable than most number 92 a nd an atomic weight of 238 . The nucleus of affected by heat , pressure, or any other conditions avail­ active isotope transforms itself into a stable on e by the other nuclei. In th eory, heavier nuclei could separate into each of its atoms contains 92 protons, and 146 neutrons. able in 1900. The change occurs in the nucleus, the emission of a beta particle. W e can think of this pro­ lighter pieces, evolve energy and become more stable Ninety-two electrons are arranged in sh ells around each very dense and very small central part of the a tom. As ce~s.- as t he c·onversion of a neut ron into a proton plus by approaching a weight of about 50 avograms. Also in nucleus to form a neutral a tom of uranium. a result of what h appens in the nucleus, three kind's of an electron inside the nucleus and the sudden ejection theory, light nuclei could combine into h eavier nuclei of th at electron as a beta particle. The nucleus which evolve energy and become more stable by approaching remains after th e process h as one more proton and one this sam e weigh t in each nucleus. less n eutron th an the original nucleus and is usually About the time this was appreciated, scientists were seek­ stable. In some cases, however , a number of such pro­ ing methods for ch anging the ratio of neutrons and pro­ cesses are necessary before a stable nucleus is reached. tons in the nuclei. fhe reverse process, conversion of a oroton into a n eu­ It was found that positive particles such as the proton, trons, also occurs inside nuclei when- there are too f ew th e deuteron positron , which is ejected from th e nucleus; cyclotrons. P articles with ve loci t~es and en ergies as great or the nucleus may pull in an electron from th e outer as t hese could overcome the repulsion of the positive part of the atom which then combines with a proton charge and enter the nucleus. If the nucleus was to form a neutron inside th e nucleus. Both of these stable before the positive particle entered, it was (A) (B) (C) types of radioactive processes are common. likely to be unstable afterward. If unstable, it might break into pieces immediately or it might decompose over a Figure 5 As was stated previously, none of th e nuclei containing more than 83 protons are stable. Elements h aving 84 period of time· as naturally radioactive atoms decompose. (A) Hydrogen, One proton and one electron. to 98 protons are known only in radioactive forms. Of Artificial decomposition of a toms can also be brought th ese, uranium with 92 proton s thorium with 90 protons, and plutoni­ um with 94 protons are of great interest in th e develop­ these l·adiations many of the stable nuclei were converted (A) and (B) are isotopes. ment of atomic energy, as we sh all see. It is in these into n ew unstable nuclei. (C) Helium. Two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus and two electrons in the shell. 8 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION

The decomposition of th e n ew nuclei produced two new medium weigh t and sever al neutrons and gamma rays particles. First, th e positron, a par ticle weighing th e are radiated . In most fissions th ere is a ligh ter nucleus CHAPTER II same as an electron and carrying an equal ch arge of weighing 85 to 105 avograms and a h eavier one weighing electricity but with a positive instead of n egative electri­ 130 to 150. Fission into two nuclei of equal or almost cal ch arge. Second, th e n eutron which h as been m entioned equal weight, about 117 avograms, occurs less frequently ENERGY- ITS NATURE AND SOURCES * as a constituent of the nucleus. It weighs very n early but does occur, as does splitting into nuclei as far apart the same as a proton or a h ydrogen atom but h as no as 72 and 162. These n ew nuclei fty a part with t rem endous electrical ch ar ge. The neutron can both pass through energies, far high er even th an are found' in oth er nuclear th e cloud of electrons which surrounds a nucleus and reactions we h ave mentioned. However, th ey ar e soon A GENERAL CONCEPT OF ENERGY Electrical energy, for th e most part , is the energy of also enter a nucleus without encountering the defl ection slowed down , they pick up electrons to becom e n eutral This section is designed to impar t to non-science students ch arged particles in motion. Work h as been don e by some or repulsion due to electrical ch arges of the same kind. atoms, and the net result is th at the m aterial t hr ough some fundamental ideas which will enable th em to agency in separating positive and n egative ch arges Nuclei ar e just as unstable wh en th e proportions of th e which th ey h ave passed h as been h e at e d to high appreciate th e meaning of th e general concept of energy against forces which tend to hold th em togeth er , in neutrons are t oo large as wh en th e proportions, are too temperatures. and to compare th e various kinds of en ergy as to their consequence of which energy h as been acquired by th e small. I t was soon discovered th at the production and form and m agnitude. separated charges. When an electrical circuit is com­ introduction of n eutrons into nuclei was a very . fruitful However , they are not yet normal atoms. These new pleted, this energy exhibits itself in th e form of an meth od for producing new isotopes. In a few year s, at nuclei h ave too m any neutrons and too few protons. One part of the task of ch emists and physicists is to electrical current . Light , X-rays, radio waves, and even least 500 such isotopes h ave been produced by introducing This situation is rem edied by th e conversion of n eutrons investigate and try to understand th e r ealm of nature sound waves, though different from the oth ers, are ph ysi­ n eutrons or accelerated protons, deuterons, h elium nuclei, to protons in th e process of beta particle emission , as and inanimate matter . The work of ch emists h as been cal energies transferred from one place to anoth er by or electrons into nuclei. These n ew kinds of atoms in­ mentioned earlier. These beta par ticles are often ac­ pretty largely concerned with m atter itself its forms means of th e motion of a special confi guration known as a clude nuclei containing 43, 61 and 85 protons (which companied by gamma rays, a nd these processes give and structure, how and why elem ents combin'e, wh at r e­ wave form , but wh atever th e particular kind of energy are not found in nature) and a ll numbers of protons atomic energy some of its trem endous radiation h azard. actions are possible, and so on. However, in doing th ese they all h ave the capacity for doing work. Now Jet us from 93 to 98 inclusive. This adds n ine elem ents, not Immediately after the fission of some uranium-235 the things th e ch emist must also be concerned with energy. h asten on to a brief discussion of ch emical en ergy. previo usly known , to th e ch emist's list. radiation begins, but it rapidly diminish es. Som e of it Most of th e questions which th e physicist asks about CHEMICAL ENERGY lasts hours, less for days, a nd still Jess for years. nature can be classifi ed broadly under th e heading of FISSION It is th e extra neutrons produced in fission which m ake energy but h e of n ecessity must a lso be concerned with In some sucii process as starting a fire by r ubbing to­ m atter. gether two pieces of dry wo od, primitive man learned Building n ew kinds of ch emical elements is not the possible th e utilization of th e fission reaction and its most interesting new development arising from th e study how to liberate and to use for his own purposes, the extraordinarily large energy as a source of power . These of th ese new elements and th eir beh aviors. Not only do What is the meaning of this widely used concept of energy from ch emical tr ansformations. Centuries later neutrons en ter nuclei, produce instability, and cause neutrons enable us to set up ch ains of fission processes, energy? It is both compreh ensive and fundamental which man discovered certain ch emical combinations whose disruption of th ese nuclei, but some disruptions produce each fi ssion step producing neutrons which in turn pro­ ma:y, be why it seems a little difficult to define adequately. transformation resulted in a more rapid evolution of duce fi ssion. Later ch apters will discuss th e different neutrons wh en th ey occur . For instance, when a n eutron Let us start by linking en ergy with th e ability to do energy in th e form of h eat. Then h e learned h ow to enters th e nucleus of th e isotope of uranium which weighs types of ch ain reactions in th eir applications as explo­ work; for example, to overcome resisting forces through­ h arness this energy to serve his purposes, som e useful, 235 avograms, th e nucleus decomposes into two nuclei of sives and as controlled sources of power and of neutrons. out some distance, or to raise or lower weigh ts from some destructive. He also discovered that certain ch emi­ some point to some other point , or to ch ange th e m otion cal transformations occurred so rapidly that th e trans­ of objects. Changing th e state of matter from solid to formation was a lmost instan taneous and resulted in such NOTES liquid or from liquid to gaseous states, illuminating enormous local pressures th at th e walls of the enclosure objects and th ence exciting th e optic nerves, vibrating were ripped t o pieces. These high explosives h ave found elastic bodies and th ence exciting th e a uditory n erves, th eir application both in peaceful pursuits, such as min­ and a whole host of oth er common occurrences are ing and roadbuilding, and in th e prosecution of wartime manifestations of energy. objectives. Much of th e history of human civilization is intimately r elated to and, in large measure based upon, Heat and electrical energy a re forms of energy because m an's utilization of th e energy liberated from ch emical they can do work. Coal, oil, and gasoline contain en ergy transformations. because, wh en made to r eact chemically with oxygen under proper conditions, th ey produce the h eat ener gy Every ch emical ch ange is accompanied by an energy th at will do the work. It is energy that moves oth erwise ch ange. A molecule of a given substance at a given inanimate matter . Energy m akes all the ceaseless activity temperature possesses a definite amount of ch emical of this old world possible. Modern civilization depend's energy by virtue of its structure. When ever a ch emical for its continued existence upon the availability and use reaction takes place, the n ew molecules of the product.s of tremendous amounts of ener gy in forms th at will suit which are formed also possess an amount of ch emical the special needs of the user. For th at reason, th e p eoples energy which may be greater or may be less th an th at of th e world are becoming more a nd more energy of the atoms or molecules fr om which they are "formed. conscious. If the en ergy of the products is greater th an th at of reactants, en ergy must be absorbed from some external PHYSICAL ENERGY source wh en the reaction takes place. On th e oth er hand, if the products possess Jess en ergy than th e reactants, The kinds of energy with which we are concerned may be the excess energy is liberated by the reaction. It is only classified as physical, ch emical, and atomic- more with the latter kind · of ch emical ch ange th at we a re properly nuclear energies. Physical ener gy should not concerned h ere. be contused with muscular or mental energy. It refers to energies which h ave their origin and existence in some For th e ben efi t of those who are unfamiliar with the physical ch aracteristic, rath er th an by virtue of some ch emical processes, let us r ecall some common, well­ chemical ch ange involving th e combination or dissocia­ known examples. When h eated to a sufficiently high tion of atoms or molecules or by any ch ange in th e temperature, th e surface atoms of carbon in a piece of nucleus of th e atom. For example, mechanical energy is coal begin to unite with oxygen atoms from th e sur­ en ergy possessed by matter , either matter in large chunks, rounding air. As a r esult of th e reaction, ener gy in the or smaller particles of matter , by virtue of th eir motion form of h eat is liberated- more energy than was ex­ or because of th eir position. The heat energy of a body pended in promoting th e reaction , so th at there is a net is simply th e combined en ergy of the molecules of th at gain in available en ergy. However, since the r eactions body by reason of their random , non-directed motion. take place only at the surface, the process is compar ative­ ly slow. We h ave essentially the same process in the *Prepared by K A. Roger s, I ow a State T eacher s College. cylinder of an internal combustion engine except th at 10 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION ENERGY - ITS NATURE AND SOURCES 11

1 pound of gasoline Cheat he has developed new methods of utilizing already known it is a much speedier one since the finely vaporized small change in the energy possessed by the electrons material has a much larger surface contact with the of combustion 20 ,000 stockpiles of energy and has sought new sources, as yet m the outer structure of the atom. So now let us turn BTU/ lb) has ...... 5.52 KW-HR unknown and untapped. To those ends he has harnessed air with which it is mixed. The rapid union of oxygen our attention to that tiny little core or heart of the atom atoms with carbon atoms and with hydrogen atoms to pound of TNT C% heat the physical and chemical properties of matter so as to which. we call the nucleus. Energy from the nucleus may of comb. of coal) 1 has provide his requirements for energy up to the present form carbon dioxide ( CO ~) and water vapor (H,O), come m several ways: respectively, liberates in a very short time the large only ...... 44 KW-HR time. However, the thTeat of depletion of many souTces amount of energy involved in these chemical trans­ (A) One way is known as the radioactive process. Spon­ 1 pound of U-235 or Pu-239 of energy, coupled with an increased demand for both formations. taneous disintegration of the nucleus occurs with in fission process yields civil and military purposes, has stimulated reseaTch to the the expulsion of high speed alpha particles helium U % efficiency) 2 .. ... 11 ,400,000.00 KW-HR end that a n ew source of energy has been discoveTed' which Some chemical transformations, once started, proceed nuclei, or very high speed electrons called beta 1 pound of hydrogen con­ dwarfs into insignificance all previously known sources. with such rapidity that the reaction is classified as an particles, often accompanied by puls~s or photons verted t o h e l i u m As shown by the foregoing table, the energy available in explosion rather than burning. This is due to the fact of radiant energy called gamma rays. yields3 ...... 85 ,352,000 .00 KW-HR the nuclei of atoms is millions of times greater than can that the various kinds of atoms necessary for these re­ be obtained by older means from equal masses of matter. actions are already present within the same molecule CB) A second way is in the fission process. The bom­ SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS If, as appears probable, the efficiency of extraction of and all that is needed is a sufficient mechanical or ther­ bardment of and penetration into a nucleus by some From nature man must extract the energy necessary to energy through nuclear fission and/ or fusion can be suf­ mal or other disturbance to bring certain atoms in the particle, such as a neutron, result in the splitting perform the ever-expanding tasks of a mechanized and ficiently increased, man will have at his disposal an al­ molecule into close proximity to other atoms in the mole­ of the nucleus into two fragments of approxim ately industrialized world economy. As civilization has evolved, most unlimited supply of energy. We may well believe cule with which they have ·a very strong tendency to equal masses. Initially, the two fragments are highly with Norman Cousins that "The human community today unite. Owing to the strong attraction between these unstable and further disintegrate with the ejection 1. But t he explosion takes place in a very shor t time so th e is at one of those rare pivotal points in history. A wrong atomic pairs, a readjustment takes place immediately of a ~umber of high speed neutrons and electrons. power produced by t he T X'r i ~ e n ormou sly g reater . turning now could mean that nothing on the earth will and the complex molecule breaks up into many parts Most 1mportant of all-when the masses of all the 2. Atom for atom nearl y 50,000,000 times th at for coal. E nough become cheaper than human life, foT nothing will be with the liberation of a large excess of energy. Thus, fragments are added up and compared with the mass e n er gy from 1 J)O und to Tun a 1 00 w att bu lb co ntinuous ly for more easily expended or dispensed with. But a proper 13,000 year s. nitroglycerine and TNT d'o not go off under ordinary of the original nucleus and bombarding particle, it is turning now could mark the beginning of a vast upward conditions but will explode when one produces a sufficient­ found that some m ass has disappeared. What has :1 . The y ield per atom is n't a s g r eat as [or U·235 but i t takes so surge in human history, infusing life with enriched pur­ numy more hyd1 ogen atom s to make a pound. E nough e nergy to ly strong disturbance of their molecular structures either become of it? Careful measurement of experimental run n 1 h.p. motor co nti nuously fo r nhout 13.000 years. pose and meaning. " by heating or by subjection to a powerful mechanical results reveal unmistakable evidence that this lost impact. The important thing to remember about an mass was converted into energy according to the explosive is the rapidity with which the reaction takes now famous Einstein equation, E = mc2. In this place as compared with the ordinary burning process. equation E is the energy in ergs, m is the mass in grams, and c is the velocity of light in centimeters As has been indicated before, in most instances chemical per sec. (3 X 1010) . Theory, confirmed by experi­ energy is liberated only after one has first supplied some ment, indicates that the heavier elements, in gene­ energy to start the transformation taking place. When a ral, are the most susceptible to this kind of process. NOTES system possesses a stockpile of energy which can be set free only by the expenditure of a certain small amount (C) A third way is the fusion process, in which a of energy, it is generally spoken of as being in a number of nuclei of small mass are brought to­ metastable state. Such a situation is analogous to a rock gether, under suitable conditions, to form a heavier which reposes in the saddle back of two mountain peaks nucleus. Again there is a loss of mass which is which rise majestically on the two sides of a narrow converted into an equivalent amount of energy. island in the ocean. Some energy must be expended Strangely enough, the greatest production of energy in doing the work of lifting the stone up and over one takes place through the fusion of the nuclei of the of the peaks after which it makes available a great deal lightest of all elements-hydrogen-into a heavier of energy as it plummets down the mountain side and nucleus such as helium. Hence, fission of the heavi­ goes to the bottom of the sea. Most chemical compounds est nuclei into lighter ones and the fusion of the are analogous to the stone on the bottom of the ocean lightest nuclei into heavier ones are both productive bed, i.e., they are already near the state of stable equi­ of great amounts of energy, librium and there is little opportunity for obtaining energy from them because they have a lready given up SOME COMPARISONS OF MAGNITUDE nearly all of the energy which it is possible for them Now, briefly, let us try to make some comparisons be­ to develop. So, in looking about for chemicals from which tween the energies involved for a few sample cases­ to secure chemical energy, only a small fraction of the physical, chemical, and nuclear. Most of you are ac­ matter at hand is found suitable. Our fuels such as oil quainted with the kilowatt-hour as a unit of electrical and coal and gas are good possibilities. Most other energy, You know that an ordinary home with the usual materials occurring naturally are already near their stable number of home appliances, such as toasters, irons, re­ states and are comparatively useless as potential sources frigerators, radios, washers, mixers, electric clocks, of energy. Even coal and oil can hardly be considered electric ranges, etc., may require 250-300 kilowatt hours as common, natural minerals because of the peculiar per month. Whether you know the exact meaning of the conditions under which they were· formed in past geo­ kilowatt hour isn't important. The comparison of the logic ages. At the rapidly increasing rate at which the number of such units of energy is important. In each limited supply of these substances is be:ng used' up we instance one pound of substance is used to make the are faced with the problem of finding a substitute for comparison easy. these sources of energy when the deposits of coal· and oil are exhausted. Within the past decade, approximately, 1 pound of any body with researches have revealed to m ankind a new and un­ 100 feet to fall has .000037 KW-HR measured source of energy. This source lies deep in the 1 pound t r a v e 1 i n g 100 interior of the atom in that tiniest of tiny specks-the feet/ sec. has ...... 0000588 KW-HR atomic nucleus. 1 pound of w a t e r when formed from H, and 0 2 releases ...... NUCLEAR ENERGY 2.00 KW-HR 1 pound of coal Cheat of The energies so far considered have involved either no c o m bust i on 12,000 change at all in individual atoms or at most a relatively BTU/ lb.) has ...... 3.52 KW-HR AT OMI C FUELS 13

CHAPTER III and rapid development of all phases of atomic energy concentrated atomic fuel. Consideration of the processes for the ben efit of all m ankind can be realized. for obtaining Pu-239 and U-233 will be deferred until later in this section. Let us consider the U-235 we h ave Suppose we start with normal uranium and look at some just concentrated in the discussion of atomic fi ssion, ATOMIC FUELS* of the phenomena and processes associated with obtain­ ch ain r eactions, and other topics. Pu-239 and U-233 ing and using U-235 as a fuel for atomic bombs. Although could equally well be used in place of th e U -235 in this it and th e other fuels have important uses oth er than discussion. in bombs, the nuclear reactions a re all essentially the same and the method of obtaining a concentrated fuel is In gener al there are two classes of fuels for atomic diluted with about 99 .3 per cen t of uranium 238 . The ATOMIC FISSION energy. One type is made up of h eavy atoms like those uranium 238 cannot be used directly as an atomic fuel, the sam e regardless of the intended use of th at fuel. The of uranium 235. Energy is released when th ese atoms but under proper conditions in an a tomic furnace or U-235 can be separated from U-238 only by physical The fundamental process on wh ich the "A" bomb operates are split in to two smaller atoms r oughly equal in size. generator uranium 238 can be converted to plutonium methods th at depend on the slight differen ce in the is fission of th e atoms of th e fuel. The black and' white The oth er type consists of light we igh t atoms, such as 23 9 which is a very poten t atomic fuel. The first half weigh ts of their atoms. The large r atio of approximately spheres in th e large clusters in Figure 7 r epresent n eu­ hydrogen and lithium, which through some m ech anism dozen or so atomic bombs h ave been fired with either 140 atoms of U-23 8 to each atorri of U-235 in th e natural trons and protons that m ake up the nucleus of a U-235 may be m ade to combine with one a nother to form new uranium 235 or plutonium as th e fuel. The uranium 23 3 uranium ore also complicates the process for producing atom. The 92 electrons that normally circulate around atoms. In both cases a loss in m ass is experienced and atomic fuel is made from thorium by a reaction that can high purity U-235. the nucleus of the atom are not represented in this dia­ consequently energy is produced. The fuels consider ed take place in an atomic furnace. The thorium is, in a gram. The figure shows a free n eutron approaching th e The most successful method for large scale concentr ation here are the h eavy atom fuels that were used in atomic way th en , like uranium 238 ; n either is an atomic fuel U-235 nucleus, and subsequen t steps in th e fission pro­ of th e U -235 to date employs the gaseous diffusion bombs during the last few days of World Wa r II. Dis­ but both can be converted in an atomic furnace to oth er cess. This neutron passes into the nucleus which then process. The normal uranium is used in th e form of a cussion of the light atom fuels is not a oart of this elements which are atomic fuels. splits or fi ssio ns into two new but smaller nuclei and a ch apter. volatile compound. The molecules of th e gaseous com­ number of free neutrons. When a large number of U -235 So it may be seen that two elements, uranium and pound differ in weigh t depending on wheth er the uranium atoms undergo fission, th e products will include a large Uranium 235 , plutonium 239 and uranium 233 are the thorium, whose ores occur in widely scattered ar eas atom th at is a part of th e molecule is U-235 or the variety of atoms, since the nuclei of U-235 atoms can split potential atomic fuels for use in atomic bombs, atomic contain all the necessary materials for making fuels for h eavier U-238 . On th e average ligh ter weigh t gas mole­ in a number of ways and give different sized fragm ents. power plants and atomic fuel gener ators. These fuels are atomic bombs. Control of these two elements throughout cules move faster th an h eavier gas molecules at the Most of th ese fi ssion products are unstable (radioactive) not found in nature in a form readily adaptable for use the world seems to be essential to the safety of civilization. same temperature. Essen tially, th en , th e separation de­ atoms. In addition to th e fission product atoms, note that in atomic bombs. The source material for uranium 235 It will be seen later that the atomic fuels offer ma ny )) pends on th e molecules containing U -235 outrunning th e three neutrons are shown set free h ere. The number of and for plutonium is normal uranium which contains valuable assets such as useful power, tools for tracer heavier molecules through a long series of barriers. The neutrons set free when an atom fissions varies from only about seven tenths of one per cent of uranium 235 studies in science, and the treatment and diagnosis of result is a concen tration of the desired product at th e fi ssion to fission, but for th e sake of simplification of disease. But some sure way of obtaining international con­ h ead of th e gas stream. ¥igure 6 shows a photogra ph of the discussion, we will consider three free neutrons for "' P r epa •·ed by I-Ia rl ey A. \\'ilh elm. Iowa Stnte College. trol of atomic fuels must be enforced before th e full the plant at Oak Ridge, T ennessee, wh ere this is done. each fission. The building is equivalent to 3 or 4 stories in h eigh t and has a roof area of 60 acres. It is in this building th at If we could collect and accurately weigh all th e p articles th e U-235's are outrunning the U-238's. The U-235 is resulting from th e fission and compare this weigh t with then collected and converted to a form for use as a that of the one neutron plus the U-235 atom th at re-

Figure 6

A tomic Energy P la n t At O ak R id ge, Tennessee (Co u1·tesy Atomic E nergy Commission) F igure 7 - The Fissioning of Uraniu m 2:!5 ·-

14 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION ATOMIC FUELS -15

reaction, radiant energy in the form of gamma rays, Figure 8. A neutron will have to travel through many, light, and heat are released from each of the billions of many atoms before it collides with a nucleus and we get trillions of atoms that undergo fission. The cumulative a repetition of the fission process. heat radiated is sufficient to start fires and cause severe If the piece of atomic fuel is relatively small there is burns at some distance from the exploding bomb before a good probability that the neutron will pass out of the the full effect of the damaging explosion wave gets there. fuel entirely and be lost from the chain reaction. If the The gamma rays travel with the speed of light, are very penetrating and can severely damage living organisms. amount or shape of the atomic fuel is such that the neutrons get out of the fuel too easily and do not cause CRITICAL MASS sufficient new fissions then the chain reaction will die. Figure 8 was oversimplified in order to present the main Such a fuel assembly is said to be "sub-critical." In order ideas connected with the chain reaction. Let us get closer to get the neutrons produced by fission to cause other to a true picture of what we have and what may go on atoms to fission and obtain an expanding chain reaction, insid'e a solid piece of U-235 metal. There are certain the size and shape of the atomic fuel must be such conditions of size and shape necessary in order to get that we will get on the average more than one additional a chain reaction to propagate throughout the atomic atom to split for each atom that has split. This fuel as­ fuel. sembly is said to be "super-critical." An assembly in which fission by continuous chain reaction is proceeding First of all let us take a closer look at the atom of at a constant rate is said to be at "critical." Figure 9 uranium. Atoms are so small that it would take about ten represents a method by which a system of atomic fuel billion billion uranium atoms to make a solid piece of can be kept sub-critical and therefore stable and' then uranium metal the size of the head of a common pin. readily converted to a super-critical condition with a In spite of the small size of atoms the scientist knows resulting atomic explosion. In the fi gure (A) and (B) much more about their inside structure than is known represent two separate hemispheres of atomic fuel such as about the inside of the earth. Let us suppose that a U-235. These pieces are each sub-critical because there is piece of uranium could be expanded up to such a size so much surface through which neutrons can escape (indi­ that the outer electron orbits of its atoms would be a cated by arrows) from each piece that should a chain half mile in diameter and the nuclei, where the fission reaction start it would soon die due to loss of too many process must take place, are correspondingly expanded. neutrons without causing fissions. If these two sub-criti­ One single atom would then have a cross section of cal pieces are suddenly brought together (C), then part aoout 120 acres and its nucleus, where the mass is con­ of the loss is checked because neutrons now fiow between centrated, would be about the size of a baseball at the the two pieces and although there is still some loss of center of this half mile diameter sphere. Suppose we neutrons at the surface of the sphere the combination imagine our position to be at one of these nuclei where we makes it possible to increase the amount of fission in see the start of a chain reaction. The baseball is split each generation, giving a super-critical assembly and an and two or three neutrons, about the size of a marble explosion. on this expanded scale, are shot out in random directions. The next closest nucleus would have to be a half mile THE FIRST ATOM BOMB away in the center of the next atom. The chances of a marble hitting a baseball at a distance of Y, mile would In July of 1945 an assembly of atomic fuel was mounted FP= FISSION PRODUCTS be oractically nil, especially when there is no tendency on a high steel tower out in the desert area of Alamo­ for - the marble to be aimed in any specific direction. gordo, New Mexico. When all observers and their instrU: The neutrons produced by fi ssion are not then going to ments were ready, the fuel was made super-critical and N=NEUTRON hit the nuclei of the neighboring atoms as sketched in the explosion followed. /cENERGY Figure 8- Chain Reaction acted in the first place, we would find that 0.1 % of the Figw-e 8. It is seen here that starting with one free mass (weight) has disappeared. It is this loss in mass neutron at the left we have an increasing number of that gives rise to the large amount of energy associated free neutrons as the expanding chain reaction continues with the atomic bomb where billions of trillions of atoms to the right. In the diagram two neutrons are shown (A) (B) may fi ssion in a very very small fraction of a second. being utilized in the reaction. The other free neutron pro­ Einstein's equation, E = mc2, gives a quantitative relation­ duced by fission as shown in Figure 7 is assumed h ere to ship between a loss in mass (m ) and the energy (E) be lost from the piece of uranium or tied up by some realized, where (c) represents the velocity of light, which side reaction. is 3 X 1010 centimeters radioactive decay of the fission products after fission product atoms that are intensely radioactive. We the process also carries a part. have a large number of free neutrons because the expand­ ing chain ran out of fuel. These neutrons are very pene­ CHAIN REACTIONS trating and they radiate or travel from the center of If the neutrons produced by this fission process are used the explosion with very high velocities. Plants, animals, to fission new U-235 atoms and this continues on and and many inert materials exposed to intense neutron on we have a chain reaction shown diagramatically in radiation are affected. During the progress of the chain Figure 9 16 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION ATOMIC FUELS 17

assembled in the pile. Addition of one neutron to a capture of the neutrons in a pile, and rods containing U-238 atom changes it to U-239 which is unstable (radio­ either of these can be moved in and out of the pile and active) and Np-239 is formed from the U-239. The Np-239 positioned in the pile to allow the chain reaction to is likewise unstable and it decays to Pu-239 which is operate at the desired level of reaction. If a pile is fairly stable to radioactive decay. Briefly then, as operating at a constant level it can be speeded' up to a indicated in the figure, Pu-239 is formed from U-238 higher level by merely backing the control rods (C) of some time after the U-238 picks up a neutron in such Figure 13 farther out of the pile. After the latter has an atomic pile. The plutonium being a di:trerent chemical reached the higher level, the rod is replaced at its original element can then be separated chemically fl·om the un­ position to hold that level of O!)eration. The operating changed uranium and the fission products. The Pu-239 level can be decreased to a new lower level or the pile can then be concentrated and made to serve as an atomic completely shut down by merely pushing the control rods fuel in the same manner as U-235 . farther in the pile. In order to start a pile that has been completely shut down, it is only necessary to adjust the A reactor or pile in which plutonium is produced is repre­ position of the control rods; there are always a few free sented in Figure 13 . There are essentially five main com­ neutrons available to start the chain reaction again. ponents in the pile. First, it must have an atomic fuel. In this case the fuel is U-235 which is introduced as a In operating a pile to produce Pu-239 it is very desirable small part of the tons of normal uranium in the pile. to have it operate at as high a power level as possible

Figure 10 (E) Figure 10 shows a photograph made just one fortieth of Figure 11 a second after the explosion was set o:tr. At this time I the fission process was completed. Intense gamma rays, ~ radioactivity was left on the ships and within the im­ heat rays, neutrons, and an intense light flash had been mediate area of the explosion. sent out. The radioactive fission products which may ~ ~ (A) be considered as the ashes from the burnt atom fuel 0 Oc c were in the vapor sta te and were still within the explosion THE ATOMIC "PILE" 0 ~ envelope. The steel tower was also almost completely While the a~ount of concentrated atomic fuel necessary (f) vaporized at this time. Force of the explosion which fol­ for an atom1c bomb can be measured in pounds it is pos­ 00 lowed was quite e:trective for a number of miles around. Sible to get a continuous chain reaction to take place in (B) 0 v the U-235 of normal uranium if we properly assemble (C) - Figure 11 is a photograph of the same test explosion 15 tons of this d'ilute material. The first such assembly was - ==-=.::.::::) ) seconds after the bomb was fired. Here the mushroom of set up under the West Stands of Stagg Field at the Uni­ .. Jt ~I ~o t gases, including the highly radioactive fission products, versity of Chicago and operated on December 2 1942 1s well formed. In this case most of the fission products This chain reacting assembly was called a " pil~ " and were taken high in the atmosphere and were well scat­ w1th the many variations possible such terms as a nuclear :/ ~ tered as they passed over the midwest. Only in special reactor, atomic furnace, a tomic generator, breeder pile, (D ) • cases were these radioactive materials detected later. power Plle, etc., are used to denote assemblies that are Figure 13 the same or ha ve essen tially the same features. The The underwater bomb test at Bikini after the close of principal use of the atomic pile has been the generation th e war introduced a few new points of inter est in of Pu-239 from U-238. The reaction by which this change The uranium is usually in the form of metal rods which in order to speed up the rate of production. However, the connection with atomic explosions. First the radioactive takes place 1s shown sch ematically in Figure 12. Across must be sealed in thin walled aluminum cans to protect higher rates of operation mean higher rates of fission ash es from the explosion were mixed with steam and th e top of this figure the U -235 chain reaction is repre­ them from oxidation as they heat up when the pile is in of U-235 which mean greater amounts of heat generated. water and consequently a good sh are came back down sented, but instead of th e expanding ch ain of Figure 8 operation. At (A) such a canned uranium rod is repre­ Cooling the pile is, then, the fourth matter for conside­ over the ships and surface of the lagoon . Another im­ only one neutron is utilized per fission to produce a n ew sented as being introduced into the pile. ration in connection with pile operation. The pile may portan t factor h ere is the r adioactivity gen erated in the be air cooled if the level of operation is only moderate, fission ; th erefore, the fission process takes place at a Second, a moderator must be used to slow down the salt of the sea water. Residual free neutrons from the constant level of activity. The extra neutron in -each case but fO!· the rate of plutonium production desired in the explosion caused sodium atoms of the salt to change to neutrons given o:tr by U-235 fission so that the chain Hanford Plants it is necessary to use water as a coolant. is picked up by one of the many U-238 a toms associated reaction can continue efficiently. Slow neutrons are much a radioactive isotope of sodium. Consequen tly much with th e U-235 atoms in the tons of normal uranium The pipes (D) and (E) in the figure represent the carriers more e:trective in causing U-235 nuclei to fission than are of the cooling water or air which keep the temperature fast ones in the presence of the large amount of U-238. of the pile at a sufficiently low value to eliminate heat The moderator is usually a material having light weight damage to the elements of the pile. atoms which the neutrons can hit and thereby lose part of their motion. A number of collisions must occur between When a pile is in operation many neutrons and gamma a neutron and other atoms before the neutron is slowed rays are emitted and pass out through its surfaces. Due down sufficiently. Carbon in the form of graphite is a to the damaging e:trects of these radiations to living fairly good moderator material and in the figure it is tissues it is essential that the pile be properly shielded indicated by the large block (B) having regularly spaced to protect the operators. The shield, the fifth essential holes for the fuel rods. part of the pile, may be made of concrete about five feet in thickness. This shield (F ) completely encloses the pile The third point to be considered in connection with Figure when it is in operation. Zigzag ports or removable panels 13 is the means for controlling the reaction, because if in the shield a:trord access to the pile through this shield. the chain reaction were allowed to continue to expand the pile would burn itself up or possibly explode in a After a charge of uranium has been in the pile long reaction similar to, but much less violent than, an atomic enough to convert the !)roper amount of U-238 to Pu-239 , bomb. It so happens that atoms of some materials have then the canned rods are discharged from the pile a very strong ability to capture free neutrons and hold and chemical treatments remove the unchanged uranium them. If such a material in the form of rods is placed and fission products and concentrate the atomic fuel, in a pile it can completely stop the chain reaction by Pu-239. The fission products, or ashes from the atomic capturing the neutrons and thus making them unavail­ fuel, are extremely radioactive and complicate these Figure 1.2 able to the fuel in sufficient amounts to propagate the chemical treatments by making it necessary to carry out chain. Bol"On and cadmium are e:trective materials for the processing by remote control behind' heavy shields. 18 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION

By int roducing thorium which is 100% Th-232 into a retically possible. It is interesting to speculate th at th e pile, U-233, th e other of the three atomic fuels, can be energy from such a breeder pile be employed to generate CHAPTER IV produced. A n eutron is capt ured by Th-232 , forming Th- power for use as electricity. In such a case we might 233 which is very unstable (radioactive) and' decays burn atomic fuel to get electric power and end up with ATOMIC ENERGY FOR POWER* to Pa -233, which still undergoes further r adioactive de­ more new atomic fuel t h an we burned. Atomic bombs cay to give U-233. The mech anism of this conversion can also be m ade with either Pu-239 or U-233, the products THE RELEASE OF ATOMIC POWER parallels that for converting U -238 to Pu-239 as in Figure of breeder piles; therefore, an atomic power plant could with stand. The temperature of th e initial fission particles 12. Following sufficient exposure in th e pile t he thorium po ~ s ibl y produce atomic fuel and be a potentia l munitions A simple explanation of wh at atomic energy is and how is, of course, enormous. A gas, each of whose particles is removed and given a chemical treatment to separate plant. It seems quite necessary then that all atomic it is obtained m ay h elp in th e understanding . of its re­ on th e average h as one electron volt of energy, is at a and concentr ate the U-233. installations throughout th e world be under strict in­ lationship to t h e electric power which we now use in our temperature of approxima tely 10,000 degrees K elvin, or spectior, and control of a responsible organization with homes a nd factories. The energy which is commonly absolute temperature. Since th e energy is distributed If we refer back to Figure 7 we note that three neutrons powers international in scope to enforce a dequate referred to as "atomic energy" is in fact more correctly approximately equally to fragm ents, the initia l particles were liberated when only one was used in causing the measures for th e best interests of all m ankind. referred to as nuclear energy since it comes from the in a fi ssion reaction form a gas h aving a temper ature of fission. However, in th e discussions connected with Figure nucleus of the atom rather than from the various possible approximately 1012 degrees K elvin. This temperat ure is 12 we utilize only two of these n eutrons and according So far in th e discussion we h ave consider ed U -235 as the associations of atoms which are involved in ch emical of course, quickly degraded by radiation a nd co nduc t io~ to this figure we would get only one Pu-239 atom for driving fuel, but now that we have Pu-239 ; and' U -233 energy a nd from which we now get the power which so th ac th e amount of h eat it represents is spread out each a tom of U-235 burned up. If we consider that the these can conceivably be utilized in place of U-235 to lightens our daily tasks at home, on the farm, and in throug-h th e inert m aterial surrounding the r eaction. third neutron of Figure 7 is made available for the pro­ set up the controlled ch ain r eaction for producing t he the factory. The whole equipment is raised to a temperature which cess of Figure 12, then we should get t wo Pu-239 atoms extra free neutrons to convert all the uran ium and all d'epends on the ratio of the mass of th e fi ssion fragments for each U -235 burned or we would be producing twice th e thorium into atomic fuels. Nature supplied us with The aspect of nuclear or atomic energy which makes to the total mass of th e reactor. In addition to the as much atomic fuel as we bur n . Possibly t his 100% g~Un only a sm all amount of atomic fuel, .7 % U-235 in normal it interesting and exciting is the enormous amount of regular fission fragments, a controlled nuclear r eactor in fuel cannot be realized in practice but a pile so con­ uranium, with which to start this fuel generating pro­ energy th at can be obtained from a small quantity of gives off a copious supply of escaping n eutrons. Enormous structed as to produce more fuel than it burns is called gram . We are either fortunate or unfort unate th at this ma tter . An easy way to understand this is to compare quantities of gamma rays are also produced, both from a breeder pile. Earlier in th e discussion of Figure 7 it small a mount of U-235 was included in the m ake up of a well-known ch emical en ergy-producing reaction with the fission and from the decay of radioactive fi ssion was pointed out that the number of neutrons set free uranium. Only the future can determine whether m an a nuclear energy-producing r eaction. These r eactions fragments. per fission is a variable but an average number of any­ will eventually use the resulting atomic energy for his can be compared best by comparing the energy involved thing greater th an t wo would m ake a breeder gain theo- benefi t or his destruction. in a single nuclear or atomic process and t hen by in­ PROBLEMS OF ATOMIC POWER ferring from this energy t h e energy involved in the re­ The foregoing discussion of th e fission process indicates actions of appreciable quan tities of matter . A molecule that severe engineering difficulties· must be solved before NOTES of TNT furnish es a good example of chemical en ergy nuclear energy can be used for the generation of electri­ fo P· comparison with the nucleus of U-235. The TNT cal power . From th e standpoint of t he power engineer, molecule h as a molecular weight of 227 m ass units which nuclear ~ n e r gy 1s merely a source of h eat although it is approximately the same as the 235 mass units in the 1s a possible source of extremely high temperature. Al­ uranium nucleus. Also, the r eaction involving eith er of though high temperature m akes possible a high th eoreti­ these particles requires the addition of no m ass such as cal thermodynamic efficiency, the temperature which can that of th e oxygen necessary for the burning of coal. be used in a practical m achine is actually limited by the When a TNT molecule explodes, giving off its en ergy, strength of its structural m aterials at high temperatures. it splits into various pieces just as t he U-235 splits or A considera tion of known structural m aterials lead's to fissions. This similarity m akes the comparison appropria te. the conclusion that th e usable tempera tures in connection with nuclear power will probably be no greater t h an those On the molecular scale it is useful and' customar y for now used with chemical fuels. The fission reaction will physicists to measure energy in electron volts. This unit ther efore, h ave to be diluted with sufficient inert m a teriai of energy is the amount of energy which an electron to bring th e reaction temperature within t his r an ge. receives wh en acceler ated through the potential of one vo lt . In terms of the energy units more commonly used When this problem is solved, we are faced with an even in physics, an electron volt is equal to 1.6 X 10 ·1 2 er gs. more serious one, nam ely, th at of disposing of th e stray An , exploding TNT molecule releases in th e form of rad~atwn s (neutrons and gamma rays) which are de­ kinetic en ergy of its fragments approximately 4 electron structive to all living matter and from which the operat­ volts of energy. This amount of energy is roughly of t h e mg personnel and th e surrounding countryside must be order of m agnitude of th e amount of energy per mole­ shielded. Both the n eutrons and gamma rays from nuclear cule released in m any fa miliar ch emical r eactions. On fission are extremely penetr ating. So f ar the only effec­ the other h and, fission of a U-235 nucleus gives to its frag­ tive shield known is the m ere mass of intervening ma­ ments an energy approaching 200 million electron volts. terial. An adequate shield for a sm all nuclear engine Thus, th e ratio of energy r eleased per unit mass bet ween must weigh many tons indeed. For this and other reasons U-235 and TNT is approxima tely 50 million to one. Then , th e use of nuclear power for the propulsion of commercial 50 million pounds of TNT, or 25 thousand' tons of T'NT, are aircraf t, automobiles or locomotives does not appear equivalent to one pound of U -235 in availa ble energy feasible w1th our presen t knowledge. F or stationary power con tent. It is this tremendous r atio which m akes atomic plan ts and for ships and submarines the mass of shield­ energy so attractive. ing required will not be so great a problem . However th ere is an additional problem that is serious in all th ese' cases. We h ave known now for some years th at the energy of That is th e problem which corresponds to getting rid plutonium and of U-235 and oth er uranium isotoues can of th e ash es and smoke in an ordinary power plant using be released gradually at controlled rates in an - atomic ch em1 cal fuels. Unfortunately t he ash es and smoke from pile as well as instantaneously in an atomic bomb. This a nuclear engine will contain fission products which are energy, of course, takes th e form of heat, par ticularly radioactive substances. Anyone who is f amiliar with the after it h as been d'egraded by contact wit h a sufficien t history of radioactivity will know how serious r adium quantity of inert matter. The atomic energy so r eleased poisoning is and th ereby h ave a clue to th e undesirability can be utilized at almost any temperature which th e of perm itting radioactive m aterials to escape into the air structural materials required to hold it together can or into soil and water.

*Pr epar ed by Winfield W. Salis bu ry, fo n ne rly of Collins Radio Co., These ' are only a few of th e more obvious problems in Cedar Rnpids connection with utilization of nuclear energy for power 20 ATOMI C ENERGY EDUCATION

production. They indicate th e great engineering diffi­ be cautious and not expect too much too soon . A proper culties involved and th at such peaceful uses of nuclear perspective will permit us to keep up th e long continued energy m ay be a long way off. The viewpoint h ere pre­ effort n ecessary to produce in our society the nuclear CHAPTER V sented seems a p essimistic one. However , the possibilities revolution which should logically follow th e discovery of of nuclear energy are enormous and are probably worth atomic fission and add to th e benefits of th e industria l RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES IN SERVICE* th e effort required to bring them under control. One must revolution. The benefi ts of a tomic energy through its production of Such a machine must be designed so th at th ere is some useful power are still a long way off, but there is one fl exibility in its operation- some excess of neutrons which NOTES type of benefi t which is being realized at th e presen t can be produced in adcfition to those which are n eeded for time. This is the research tool, r adioactive tracers, a by­ stable operation- in order to start the reactor . These product of the operation of n eutron reactors or piles. excess neutrons are usually absorbed by a control rod which can in part be replaced by elements which one *Prepared h y A. F . Voigt, Iowa State Co ll ege desires to m ake radioactive. +o YIELDS .+"'-/' + nJ p32 + 0 15 r

YIELDS •

14.3 DAYS

YIELDS

I + o" + r

YIELDS

5000 YEARS

Figure 14. Formation and decay of p s2 and C14 RADIOACTI VE ISOTOPES ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION 23 22 are illustrated in (1 ) and (2) of Figure 14 and th e for­ atoms can be prepared at a concentration as high as tute for radium at a cost which is a sm all per cent of THE PRODUCTION OF TRACERS mation and decay of Cl4 are shown in ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) of could be desired. In addition to p 32 and C L4, tritium or the cost of r adium. th is same fi gure. H3, S ~5, and Ca4 5 are prepared by such methods. You Most of th e r adioactive isotopes sold by th e Atomic will remember , from the foregoing discussion, that wh en The prim ary advantage of artificial r adioactive m aterials Energy commission are made in this way. The most The disadvantage of this m ethod is th at th e new atoms uranium splits in the fission process, th e atoms it forms over r adium, however, is th at m any common elem en ts common nuclear reaction used is one m wh1ch. a n ~ u tron are mixed with a vastly larger number of th e "parent" are not stable but are highly r adioactive. Why, you may may be m ade r adioactive. These may, in the form of a is absorbed by a stable atom making 1t r adwact1ve as ones. The two kinds are ch emically iden tical and cannot ask, are th ese not used for tracer experiments? The simple compound or in a complex molecule, be taken up well as h eavier by one atomic weight unit. High energy be separated without going to prohibitive expen se. For answer is th at not many of th e elements represen ted in to a greater extent by tumorous tissue than they are by gamma radiation is given off at th e instant of ~orm.at wn some uses these concentrations are adequa.te but for th e fi ssion products are of much interest to biologists, norm al tissue. As one example of this, we all know th at of the new nucleus, but wh at rem ams r_n ay s1t a10und others th ey are not. It would be very desirable to h ave since they occur seldom if ever in plants and animals. the thyroid gland collects iodine from th e blood stream for years before it undergoes its radwact1ve ~ ec_ay. E ~ch a method for producing r adioisotopes in wh ich th e new There is one exception ; one of the best-sellers in the and uses it to m ake thyroxine, a ver y important body radioactive substance h as its own ch aracten st1c penod atoms would be ch emically different from th eir parents. isotope line is !131 which h as an eigh t day h alf-life. regulating hormone. If th e thyr oid is too active or not for decay which cannot be changed by an ~, c hem1 c~l such methods, using th e nuclear reactors, ex1st, for a This is separated by a chemical method from the oth er active enough the body's rate of metabolism is not proper ­ process. This period is usually measured by 1ts h alf-hfe , very few of th e important m aterials. Thus the P_32 and fi ssion products and uranium and can be prepared in ly adjusted and serious conditions m ay result. While the time r equired for one h alf of the amount you h ave Cl4 mentioned above can also be m ade by reactwns m highly concentrated form. physicians are us ually able to diagnose these conditions to decay. This value does not depend at all on how much which sulfur and nitrogen are irradiated with n eutrons, in conventional ways, there do exist other conditions which you h ave. The h alf-lives of different isotopes _ r ~n ge from If as illustrated in Figure 15. Now we h ave our isotopes m ade but we do not h ave are similar enough so that mistakes can be m ade. less than a millionth of a second to ten b1lllon years: them at the laboratory in a form in which they can be sodium iodide containing radioactive iodine is fed' to or but only those whose h alf-lives are from about an hom Now th e atom is phosphorus and its paren t is_ sulfur. used. Many of the materials are shipped to research injected int o such a patient, the rate and extent of up­ to a thousand years are of much Use in tracer r esearch . 32 This pair can readily be separated so that the radwact1ve laboratories without ch emical separation but others ar e take of th e iodide by the thyroid can be determined by a As typical examples, the formation and decay of P taken through separations before being sent. In any case Geiger counter outside the throat . It can readily and they h ave to be h andled for shipment. Handling is done accurately be told whether the uptake is too little, normal, with long tongs and by remote control; chemical oper­ or too much, and correct treatment can be given . This ations ar e done on the other side of concrete walls by can be done with an amount of radioactivity which is too observing the process with mirrors and periscopes. little to affect th e thyroid' gland by its r adiations. Radioactive materials can , if properly packed, be shipped It is a lso possible to treat over active thyroids using this by railway or air express. They are usually put into a same principle by feeding a large enough amount of lead container weighing 20 to 300 pounds for such ship­ radioactivity to produce a definite destructive effect on ment. If the h alf-life is sh ort, air express is used and th e thyroid. Since the iodine is so much more con­ + the is'otope can be delivered in less th an 24 hours after centrated in the thyroid than anywhere else in the body, 0 YIELDS • ' it is removed from the pile. no such destructive effect is noticed outsi<;ie the th yroid. + Though it is not given for ordinary over active th yroids After reaching its destination special tools and equip­ there are growths or tumors of the thyroid which are ment often h ave to be used wh en working with a r adio­ sufficiently serious to justify the use of this r adical • active substance, at least until a sm ajl part of it can be treatment, in which th e dose of radiation given in the taken out for use and th e rest put into storage. Good so called "atomic cocktail" m ay be enough to completely • ventilation is especially important. Inhaling the dust or destroy the thyroid gland. p32 H• fumes migh t introduce some of the highly toxic material Ther e are similar diagnostic and th erapeutic uses of 532 + into the body wh ere in some cases it m ay rem ain for n' I these by-products of atomic energy in which oth er ele­ + 15 years gi ving off its toxic radiation. If the active m aterial ments a r e used and in some cases made a part of a com­ 16 0 is on the laboratory bench it can be left there at nigh t, plex compound which is selectively absorbed by undesir­ but if it h as gotten into your body it will be irradiating able tissue. Of course this is a worthwhile goal of re­ you 24 hours a day until it is excreted or has decayed . search- to find such a compound which is 100% taken up by cancerous tumors in which all th e radiation from ISOTOPES AS SOURCES OF RADIATION the compound is absorbed . The side effects caused by the action of the r adiation on well tissue would th en be The uses of radioactive materials can be divided into two unimportant a nd larger doses could be given which would quite distinct categories. In one the biological effect of ensure sufficient irradiation of the cancerous tissue t o the r adiations is studied or used', and in the oth er th e destroy it. At present this is still a goal but it does not system is studied as it would be in the absence of any appear to be an unattainable one . radiation. It is apparent th at studies of the first type use YIELDS + much larger amounts of radioactive materials than do Another type of research in which the effect of radia­ + 0 ~ • those of th e second type. tion on living matter is being studied was brough t a bout as a result of rumors that plants in Hiroshima were For m any years radiation from X-ray machines and growing much more luxuriantly than in the surrounding from r adium h as been used to treat patients with cancer , countryside after August 6, 1945. It appeared to some a type of treatmen t th at is somewh at h azardous and is people th at the r adiation might be h aving beneficial effect • only justified because the cancer if unch ecked would' be on plant growth . It is well known that at high levels of I c'4 H' Nl4 + I fataL The basis of the treatment is that the cancer radiation , plan t growth can be retarded', stopped or th e + n 6 cells are more easily dam aged or destroyed by radiation plant can be killed as the dose is increased. On the other 1 0 than a re normal ones and by carefully controlling th e h and at low levels there is no effect . Whether or not amount of radiation the cancer can be removed without there is a region between those extremes in which bene­ from nitrogen injuring th e body too much . One disadvantage is th at ficial effect is observed is the question these investiga­ Figure 15. Formation of p 32 from Sulphur, and CH this proper level of radi ation is h ard to find ; another tions wish to answer. To date no positive results h ave th at over-dosages of radiation, while they migh t not been observed. Any claims by ch arlatans that th ey h ave produce an immediate effect, m ay in th emselves induce on th e m arket a "radioactive fertilizer " which will in­ additional cancerous growth s. R adioactive isotopes fit crease your corn yield are pure bunk. into this picture in several ways. Some common and in­ expensive material such as cobalt metal m ay be put into It was f

with X-rays or gamma rays from radium. Since the In the field of metallurgy we are interested in the nature radiations from these by-product materials have similar of materials and their behavior at high temperatures. effect, it is logical that study of this phenomenon should Under such conditions materials behave somewhat dif­ be emphasized now that the radioactive materials are ferently than they do at ordinary temperatures. For readily available and their use is widespread. Also, a part example, if a metal which melts at a high temperature of the overall defense program in an atomic age is to is heated not quite hot enough to melt it, we find that know all that can be known about the effects of penetrat­ the atoms do not stay in one place but migrate slowly ing radiation on living matter in order to reduce as much through the other atoms or "diffuse." With radioactive as possible any harmful effects. Since the life cycle of tracers we are now able to determine the rate of this smaller organisms and plants is so much shorter than diffusion of a metal in itself and since the method is so that of large animals and man, most of these studies sensitive, the process can be observed even if it is very are done on plants (corn is a frequent choice) or insects. slow. The chemical reactions which produce our steel, Drosophila melanogaster, the tiny fruit fly , is famous in aluminum and other metals are also being studied using the scientific world for its use in increasing knowledge tracei·s to follow the course of some material through of the laws of genetics and the frequency of genetic the various steps. change which has r esulted from its use in experiments of this kind". ISOTOPES AS TRACERS IN BIOLOGY Most of th e genetic changes or mutations which are It is in the field of biology that most of the research induced by radiation are not beneficial to the organism, using tracers is being done. This is so because the bio­ so there is small hope that improved strains of corn or logical problems are so complex that a new tool like hogs will be produced directly as a result of the use of tracers fills a definite need here more than in any other radiation. However, an increase in our knowledge of the field. rate of change and the character of mutations will in the long run lead to advancement in our techniques of pro­ One of the simplest kinds of experiments, in principle duction of hybrid plants and livestock that could make at least, is determining the location of a particular ele­ our present methods look primitive. ment or compound in a plant or animal. In many cases this can be done with a highly pictorial technique known ISOTOPES AS TRACERS IN CHEMISTRY as radioautography. Using this technique a plant, for ' example, takes its own picture with the radiations th at Of grea.ter interest in the fields of chemistry, metallurgy it emits because it has taken up radioactive material. and the various branches of biology, are the studies in Thus a tomato plant fed phosphorus-32 as a part of which the amount of radioactive material is too small phosphate fertilizer grew the leaf which when laid on to affect the system and its normal behavior can be a photographic film for 12 hours exposed the picture studied using tracers. shown in Figure 18. In this picture the outline of the Figure 16. ABOVE: Pulling an isotope stringer from the atomic pile In chemistry, tracers have been used to determine the leaf and the location of the phosphorus within it can course of reactions and their mechanisms. A particular easily be seen. This same technique can be carried into Figure 17. BELOW: Putting a can of radioisotopes in a lead shipping container microscopic studies and radioactive material can be lo­ (Courtesy United States Army) type of process which cannot be studied without tracers is the exchange of the same kind of atoms between vari­ cated even within a single cell as shown in Figure 19 . ous fo rms. Examples of this exchange process are such Here we see both the cellular structure of the thyroid reactions as gland of an animal and small black dots due to radiation Cl - Cl* + Cl- Cl - Cl + Cl *- from iodine-131 which was taken up by the gland while it was in the animal. in which th e * designates the radioactive chlorine atoms. Cl - Cl is chlorine Cas chlorine gas) and the Cl- is the One of the most important of the problems in which chloride ion, the form of chloride found in ordinary salt , research is being pushed is the general subject of enzyme sodium chloride. The above process takes place very controlled proce ~ ses. This covers a tremendous area ex­ rapictly in water solution. The process below does not tending in to zoology, physiology, bacteriology, botany take place at an appreciable rate. and other fields. One of the most important of these H H processes is photosynthesis, the sunlight-induced" reaction Cl - Cl*+ HC - Cl ~ Cl - Cl + HC - Cl * which is the primary producer of all our food . This is H H a very complicated process whereby energy from the sun is stored as chemical energy in carbohydrates. It takes In this case the chlorine in the compound is bound place by means of a series of chemical reactions in which tightly to a carbon atom. If such exchange takes place, the simple compounds, carbon dioxide and water, are it indicates that the chlorine is held by a bond from converted into the complex carbohydrates plus oxygen. which it can break loose, while a lack of exchange shows The n ature of the steps in this process has been a deep that it cannot and is thus held by a more permanent dark mystery though it has been studied by many brilli­ bond. Information about the type of bond can thus be ant scientists. With the advent of the tracer technique obtained by these tracer experiments. Other chemical considerable progress h as been made toward an under­ applications exist in the use of tracers to determine the standing of these steps and the behavior of the carbon, presence of extremely small amounts of elements in particularly, through photosynthesis. solutions of very slightly soluble substances. Many m a­ terials which are ordinarily considered insoluble are Other enzymic reactions are those in which the carbo­ actually soluble but the amount dissolved cannot be hydrates are in turn converted into fats and proteins detected by ordinary means. Tracers in some cases pro­ in the plant and animal body. Then other enzymes con­ vide a method for determining these small amounts trol the storage of th e food substances in the body and that is more sensitive than any other. The behavior at their break down or metabolism by reactions in which the surfaces of solids in liquids or gases, the distribution the reverse of photosynthesis takes place-they are of substances between insoluble liquids like oil and water, caused to react with oxygen yielding carbon dioxide and are topics in which our knowledge is being increased water. Diseases, for instance diabetes, may result when by the application of tracers. these reactions do not occur properly and it is the hope 26 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES 27

ISOTOPES AS TRACERS IN AGRICULTURE However , before h e can obtain radioacti e material from radiation levels as he is working. He must also legally th e AEC, either directly or through any firm or institu­ accept the r esponsibility for t h e m aterial .and its h andling The examples above are a part of more or less pure or tion which itself obtained th e isotopes from th e AEC, and guarantee that it will be used with complete safety funaamental scietlce, but th ere are also applications to th e applican t must show t raining and capability in h and­ to himself, his co-workers and his community. . I t is obvi­ th e part of science that deals with direct improvemen t ling the m aterial. He must h ave adequate instruments ous th Kt to do this a person must be connected with an of our daily living, in oth er words with applied science. for m aking the m easurements and for monitoring the instit uti.on which h as a reasonable budget for r esearch . As an example of t his applications to agricult ure migh t be cited . One of th e largest scale programs is one which h as been and is being sponsored by the United States NOTES Department of Agricult ure in collaboration with m any of the state experiment stations, including th e Agricultural Experiment Station at Ames. In this program the up­ take of phosph ate fertilizer by various crops under a variety of conditions is being investigated. A la.rge part of th e phosphate fertilizer a dded yearly to the soil by th e farmers of America is essen tially lost, since it does not appear in th e crop. Consequently, it is of great im­ portance to know in wh at form such fertilizer should be applied and how and when it should be added to th e soil for each crop and in each of t he multitudinous varieties of soil which occur in this country. This resear ch program h as set out to obtain this information. Phosphate from th e fertilizer is made distinguish able from phosphate from th e soil by m aking th e former radioactive. It is then a simple m atter to determine under a given set of conditions what fraction of the phosphate in the grown plant came from t h e fertilizer and wh at from th e soil. Hence the conditions giving the best r eturn can be ch osen and used by th e f armers. Other soil-research using phosphate and oth er fertilizer components is also being done wi th t he inten t of de­ Figure 18. Radioautograph of Tomato Leaf Containing termining wh at chemical reactions fix fertilizer in soil Radioactive Phosphorus. and in some cases render it unavailable to th e plant. Such topics as th e exch ange of potassium and calcium of being able to alleviate such diseases that is one of th e between the soil particles ana solution migh t be stimuli of the physiological ch emist. mentioned. Another example could be drawn from the nutritional This discussion should not be concluded without saying beh avior of proteins. These complex and extrem ely large something about obtaining radioisotopes. The Atomic molecules are made up of small units, known as amino Energy Commission through its Isotopes Divisi.on m akes acids. The animal body is able to manufacture or syn­ t hese available at almost nominal cost to qualified re­ th esize some of these amino acids from other food stuffs, search agencies. In fact>, for research on th e problem of but others must be present in its food. The beh avior in cancer , the only ch arge is that for h andling and shipping. the body of those amino acids which a re essential to the diet is again a problem of considerable biochemical interest. One of th e great drawbacks to research with complicated substances is that the radioactive m aterial (most fre­ quently carbon- 14 ) must be put into the complex mole­ cule before the behavior of the latter can be studied. This is in m any cases a m ajor research problem in itself and it h as been a deterrent to work of this sort. Progress is being- m ade, however, and many biologically important tagged compounds can be bough t , at a price which seems rath er high except that the alternative, synth esizing th em yourself, could be even more expensive. Another procedure which is being used is to grow plants or organisms in an atmosphere of radioactive co,. The various substances in the plant will then contain radioactive carbon. Iso­ lation of these substances can be done using standard methods. If a plant which is th e source of a m edicinal drug is so grown, the drug which can be separated will be tagged and its behavior in an animal can be studied. Biological methods of tagging h ave been used for more complex systems as well. R ed blood corpuscles h ave been Figure 19. Photomicrograph of a Tissue Section-Radio­ tagged with radioactive iron or phosphorus and their autograph Preparation: Thyroid tissue containing radio­ subsequent behavior in the body h as been studied . Even active iodine was mounted on a photographic plate. After mosquitoes h ave been tagged in order to follow the exposure, the photographic image was developed and the distance of th eir migration from an original ·Starting tissue was stained. This co.mbination was enlarged by point. photomicrography for this picture. (x350). SOCIAL TRENDS 2·9

SOCIAL IMPLICAT•IONS OF ATOMIC ENERGY based on sh ared values and goals. It h as been argued CHAPTER Vl IN A WORLD AT PEACE that people would grow more like each oth er wh en their Now, let us suppose that the threat of war was r emoved. cultures were diffused through the m edium of new t ech­ SOCIAL TRENDS AND ATOMIC ENERGY* What ch anges or t rends may we then expect in our society nological developments. Unfortunately, this point of view as a result of the discovery of atomic energy? Once again can no longer be h eld with sanguinity. There is much evidence to show that these n ew inventions h ave not led TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL CHANGE paring for war or to meet war, to concentrate on t hose we wo uld find that the specific social trends already ex1sten t would be given further impetus since m any of to greater homogeneity among the peoples of th e world applied aspects of science conducive to the efficien t (except perhaps in a few instances of material cult ure) It is obvious th at society as a complex of social relation­ participation in war. This is frequently accompa nied by t hese trends are a result of technological and scientific ships n ever stands still; it is in a perennial state of flux. knowledge. nor h ave th ey led to any noticeable abatement of m is­ a neglect of those fertile and at the moment unusable understandings, hatr eds, and antagonisms. Then , too, we The alter ations in th e n ature, content, and structure of fi elds of investigation that might be classed as science If atomic science contributes to medicine and to th e frequently find that greater contact among peoples m ay social groups and institutions, a nd in the relationships for scien ce's sake which calls for absolutely free inquiry; among m en , groups, and institutions, during a sequence cures of various diseases-and it appears th at it will­ w1den th e area of possible conflicts which did n ot arise th at constitutes that kind of intellectual activity which of time is called social ch ange. interesting effects on population trends may be expected. wh en the contact was negligible. Without modern mili­ may not h ave any forseeable application but without tary weapons, and modern transportation, it would be Social ch ange must be thought of as a continuous pro­ which , paradoxically enough , applied' technology is well The United States which contains between 6 and 7 per questionable wh ether we in t he United States would be cess. This does not mean th at the rate of social ch ange nigh impossible. Note the improbability of an atomic bomb cent of the world's population shows some interesting so perturbed a bout the problems of Asia and Eastern is a lways the same. There were periods in which social without an Einstein theory ; aviation with out a theory growth trends. While our population h as shown a numeri­ Europe. Frequency and intimacy of contacts can become ch ange appears to h ave been quite slow. In cont rast to of gravity; and so on. Many p eople believe th at it would cal growth from decade to decade, since 1860, ever y th e basis of conflict as well as h armony. I t becomes a geological or biological change, however , social t rans­ only h ave been a m atter of years for Germany under decade h as shown a smaller increase than the preceding c ~ · uci a l problem for social science to determine th e pre­ formations of ten occur wit h am azing celerity. Hitler to dry up at th e scientific source because h er one. The cessation of European immigration to the u. s. Cise circumstances th at lead to th e one or the other. entire concentration was on applied science which it after World War I h elped contribute to a sh arp declin e There are many theories which attempt to explain th e would tend to be in a warring military cult ure. As th e m the rate of growth . In addition to immigration, popu­ If atomic science should lead to mobile power m achinery, causes of social change. Since the 17th century, however , poet puts it: "It is much less wh at we do th an wh at latwn grows by the f actor of n a tural increase. This con­ m terestmg trends may develop in the furt h ering of t he no factor h as loomed as potent in creating social ch ange It we think, which fi ts us for the future." Or as some of sists of excess births over death s during a given period urban t rend. is trite to refer to the trend of urbaniza­ as th e advan cement in science and technology. Techno­ you h ave frequently h eard : Amen can birth rates still exceed death rates so that tion and suburbanization in the U. S. The urban trend logical innovations h ave invoked r evolutionar y ch an ges is real and unceasing. Urbanization, however cannot "Back of t he beating ha mmer the American population will continue to grow. If m edi­ in m an 's mode of life. cine t hrough atomic science will lower the death rate be limited to actual residence in cities. If habits, dress By which the steel is wrough t, political thinking and commercialized r ecreation are s i g ~ One of th e most significant technological inventions of Back of th e workshop's clamor still fur ther and if the birth rate does not decline correspondingly, we can expect a continuation of the nificant, urbanization is spreading to resident rural people recent times-an invention without the accompanying The seeker m ay find t he t hough t." at a very r apid pace. Styles in Vogue do not differ too development of social controls- is, of course, t he discovery tr e n ~ . of growing population. greatly from those in the Montgomery Ward catalogue. of atomic energy. Let us think of t h e social implications The increase in centralization of n ational governmental ' In addition to th e trend of population growth the bulk The general urban trend has led to interesting theories of atomic en ergy in two frameworks; th at is, in terms power in a world preparing for war and with th e threat about the responsibility in the formation of a unique of war or th e t hreat of war, and secondly in term s of of atomic bomb attacks is very likely. This is a trend that of Americans are, on the average, get ting to b ~ an older people. The proportion of older persons in our popula ­ type of person resulting from the more rapid tempo, peace. h as been going on for som e time but it received tre­ the greater density of population, the anonymity of its mendous impetus during t h e last war and h as grown twn 1s much greater than it was years ago. In 1850, 5 It is quite obvious even to those who h ave not given per cent of the population in th e U. S. was over 60 years social r elations, the greater mobility of its people, its too much t hough t to the problem that the atomic bomb bigger and more embracing than ever . Witness f or ex­ specialization, and its commercialized living. ample th e number of controls set up in t he last months of age : in 1940 the figure reach ed 10 per cent . One h as increased t h e destructive power of m an tremendously. by th e federal government with comparatively little ob­ estimate places th e proportion over 60 by 1980 at 20 per American farming h as always been , on the wh ole, highly But t h e atomic bomb should not be thought of as t he cent, or 4 times the 1850 figure. basic cause, but only as a symptom of the crises which jection from any source. Two decades ago it would un­ mechanized. This mech anization h as gone forward doubtedly h ave aroused much greater public opposition . confront civilization today. The crux of the world crises This change m ay be said to be due largely to two factors. steadily. Atomic energy should reenforce t his trend. The increase in th e use of th e m achine on the f arm, as well lies in th e acceler ated growth of destructive weapons These may be necessary steps to meet the social, economic, First, th e curtailment of immigrants to t he u. s. caused without the simultaneous growth of social instit utions fewer persons in the younger age category since the as th e adven t, in general, of n ew technologies such as and defense problems of a technological civilization. It radio, television, and th e motion picture h as truly broken capable of controlling th e use of this destructive power. may be r ather difficult to reverse this trend of admini­ bulk of th e immigrants were in this age category. Second­ This acceleration in the power to kill and devastate is ly, the average expectancy of life h as increased . Whereas down th e barrier of isolation in rural life. Consolidated strative centralization of federal power until th e use schools h ave replaced t he one-room school h ouse; the part of the general rapid' growth of technological and of th e atomic bomb in warfare is outlawed. I t is now th e expectancy of life at birth for males was only 35 ma terial culture. Now let us turn to the social implications years .. at th e close of the R evolutionary War . it was 55 town church h as grown at th e expense of the open­ quite evident that preparation for war is quite like war country church ; farmers' organizations h ave made in­ of technological advancement which include th e advance­ itself in th e expansion of t h e functions of government years in 1920, 59 years in 1930, 63 years in 1940, a nd ment of atomic energy within t he framework of th e about 67 years today. The expectancy of life of fem ales roads into th e heretofore almost comolete individualism and the encroachment on individual liberties which seems of the f armer . I t is likely t h at we sh all see more of t hese threat of war. to be a necessity in a n ation engaged in warfar e. follows t h e same course, except that fem ales live 2 or 3 years longer. If atomic science aids in the prolongation trends in t h e rural areas. SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF ATOMIC ENERGY One furth er trend that some writers, like W. F . Ogburn, of life we can surely expect an ever larger proportion of These are some of th e m ajor social trends th at are IN A WORLD AT WA;R forsee in th e threat of war in an atomic age is th e our population to be of older age. obviously connected with technology and so with atomic necessit y for the decentralization of our large cities. technology. I h ave tried to give you some picture of th e The first implication will be t h e continuation of a trend The implications of an aging population are numerous. This is a tremendous task . It h as been estim ated that nature of social ch ange; wh at m akes for social ch ange; th at . is already going on- that is, a greater and greater It certainly affects our economic institutions. On t h e restriction on the diffusion of scientific knowledge be­ the monetary cost would be close to 300 billion dollars th e role of technology in social change; th e r ole of if all cities were reduced to a population of 50 ,000 . There whole businesses that serve older people will be increased. atomic technology in a society preparing for war , and tween countries and even within countries, in the fear A great proportion of our population will be in need of that vital secrets of war m ay be revealed. If it is true are 200 cities with a population greater th an 50 ,000 in some of t he implications of a tomic technology for a the United States. The problem of who was to move and financial h elp. R ecreation and leisure time activities will society a t peace. and we h ave t remendous evidence that it is, that th ~ probably adjust to the older age pat tern. Adult education to where would be difficult. It is probable if this ever life blood of culture growth amoi,lg any people depends will be given much impetus. To th e degr ee th at ther e is on the free passage, communication and exch ange of became n ecessary that factories with their workers and THE LAG BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY a correlation between age and conservatism, the u. s . AND SOCIAL SCIENCE ideas and t hings among these people, th en it follows workers' families would be moved out first and those will tend to be more conservative. ~ h at at least one source of this growth will disappear . engaged in servicing the workers would follow afterwards. I h ave suggested also th at one of th e most crucial One n eed but ponder th e diversity of the cultural origin Technology and cheap power h ave greatly increased problem s of the atomic age consists of the lag in our that made even the atomic bomb possible-Einstein, There would be a tremendous ch ange in t h e military mobility and communication between peoples. The availa­ culture between the velocity of inventions of destruction Fermi, Curie, Urey, Chadwick, Niels Bohr, Oppenheimer manpower needs with a consequent effect on many bility and use of cheap atomic power would greatly and t he slowness of social inventions for the cont rol of and m any others-to understand the significance of social institutions. Marriages might be delayed or h as­ reenforce this trend. An interesting point might be called t hese instruments of destruction. As a result, a multitude this point . tened ; education on the college level would be much to your attention in t his connection. Many people h ave of nostrums and schools of thought are seeking to solve aff ected and vocational choices of young m en and wo­ Secondly, there is always a tendency in a country pre- long held that with this greater contact and communi­ t his dilemma. Sometimes this problem h as led to an ex­ men might be directed into those areas where m anpower cation there would inevitably come greater understanding treme skepticism , fatalism, and hopelessness about man's which would ush er in a peaceful and prosperous world ability to cope with the atomic crises. In other qua rters *Prepared by Joseph B. Gittler , Iowa State College was needed to further defense effort. 30 AT OMIC ENERGY EDUCATION it h as led to an attack on wh at is frequently called science. Science does not give us the aims and value scientism. This argument is based on a hatred for science ; systems of human relations. We must look elsewhere CHAPTER VII it sees it as a diabolical evil of mysterious origin th at for th ese . h as befallen mankind. It is, I think, needless to pomt our hope must lie in th e social sciences which only t.oo out that th e greatness and the limitations of science ar e GOVERNMENT IN THE ATOMIC AGE * slowly are trying to throw ligh t upon m an's crucial inseparable. It is the greatness of modern science t ~ at It problems in dealing with man. Philosophy and religiO n, recognizes its own limitations. We cannot ask of science It h as been said that government is merely the legalizing, should devise adequate controls for the forces released that which it is incapable of giving. making use of th e knowledge of th e sciences, both na tw-al codifying and regulating of customs already establish ed; by technology) has been presented in the previous and social, may provide some more forceful dynamic In the law always follows the social fact. If this wer e true ch apter. It is now said that atomic en ergy, precisely That modern science, like all things, contains its own h elping man to bridge th e gap between the great potential of modern society, as it possibly is of primitive so­ because it is so disproportionately more powerful than sh are of corruption ; th at men of science only too often usefulness of atomic power and the abyss of destructiOn cieties, there need be no fear for the continued stability all preceding forces used by man, will increase this fail to live up to their own standards ; that science c~n that lies with in it. Certain it is th at wh at men h ave of democratic institutions in the atomic age. The peoples disparity so r apidly as to be beyond the control of the be used for violent and criminal ends; that man :-vill been able to create, men ough t to be able to control. would accommodate their way of life to the new force, slow machinery of democracy. It is as though mankind plunder, abuse and kill-all this is no argument agamst as they h ave to telephones and railroads, and the laws moved from the horse and buggy to the one hundred would ultimately reflect the state of accommodation. eigh ty horsepower automobile in, say, one day. Such a The wishes and the established procedures of the peoples revolution in transportation would create a traffic prob­ NOTES would h ave dictated the n ature of the laws. lem so great that immediate, cen tr alized and absolute control of all highways would seem to be an inescapable It has also been said, notably by Dr. Samuel Johnson, necessity. The philosopher Thomas Hobbes, whose 17th t hat all peoples ultimately h ave the sort of government century English homeland was in a state of civil war, they want ; if a significan t number of people r eally argued that free people would ultimately contr act with desire ch ange, then ch ange will inevitably occur. It h as each other to create a dictatorial government merely been argued, with plausible historical support, th at the because such would insure that man could live safely fascist government of Italy, the Nazi government of along side man. Were h e alive today, Hobbes might G ermany, the communist governments of Russia and serio.usly advance the apparently fantastic suggestion China attained power with the sanction of their peoples, that for the sake of physical safety free Americans not because they were elected in the American manner must contr act to abolish Congress and vest all govern­ but because inadequate popular support was given to mental authority in th e Chairman of th e Atomic Energy opposing forces. At the level of common conversation this Commission! was the remark, less frequen t today, that the Russian government suited the Russians, the Nazi governmen t But there is another side to this coin! Against this ex­ the Germans, a nd that neither was of any concern of, treme or alarmist view, it may be argued that in America or constituted any threat to, the institutions of free our increasin g awareness of the problem and t he grow­ peoples. ing volume of research· in th e social sciences is an ade­ quate safeguard. It can certainly be pointed out th at the The con temporary status of television offers a good American system of government was sufficiently fl exible example of both theories of government . The movemen t to design legislation for th e control of the n ew forces of popular demand from radio and movies to television within two years of their first public a ppearance in the is faster th an the provision of channels by the Feder al shape of an atom bomb. So long as a freely elected govern­ Communications Commission. But this does n ot consti­ men t is able to design legislation sui-table to the tech­ tute a dictation by governmen t to the people; it is a nological facts of our age, it may be believed th at demo­ problem of electronics and of economic justice. The cratic institutions are operating to express th e will of ch annels will be provided as quickly as possible and the the people and that individual freedom is in no danger governmental regulations will follow the social fact of from government. public demand. This was the first princiole explained above. In the United States, n ation-wide access to tele­ Between elections, however, it sometimes becomes n eces­ vision will be achieved by assigning ch annels to privately­ sary to make laws for the control of some technological owned stations and corporations which will produce th eir factor which may not h ave been in existence at th e time own programs. In England it will be achieved' through of the election, and which h as not yet found its place in the British Broadcasting Commission , a public agency the h abitual life of the people. Thus a government, which will both control the cha nnels and produce the which is th eoretically elected to carry out th e public programs. In neither country will there be any signifi­ will, may be obligated to educate its constituen ts to the cant demand for a change in the system of control. This support of legislation resulting from technological neces­ was the second principle. sities. In a technological age, government of th e p!:!ople, for th ~ people, and by th e people's representatives may POPULAR FALLACIES sometimes prove remote from the grass roots democr acy which is our tradition. How applicable ar e these comfortable and widely h eld theories of government in the atomic age? Is there a It should' be carefully noted th at such actions are usually danger in accepting them today without most careful taken of necessity. When modern science makes it possible examination? to rain high explosives from th e air on American soil, it may be necessary to declare war on the enemy with ­ The disparity between the speed of technological in ­ out waiting to consult th e people. But a series of such ven tiveness and that of social inven tiveness (which crises may result in a series of' such actions an cf possibly in the complete stagnation of effective democratic govern­ *Prepared b y H ew Roberts, State U n iversity of Iowa ment. The latter was the case in Ita ly and Germany. E ditor' s Not e: A number of the issues presented in this chapter are Both n ations were unable to maintain, through constitu­ con tro,·er sia l. T hough the examp les are often hypothetical the prob· !ems are r eal. It is not the intent of t he Production Commit tee to tional procedures, a satisfactory control over technolo­ promote any particular side of these issues. T he object of this gies hopelessly str ained by modern mech anized war. chapter i s to involv·e students, with the guidance of their instructors, in di scussion s typ ical of those that have ah·eady reached the public When the King of Italy telephoned for Mussolini, wh en since the passing of the Atomic Energy Act. It is n ot expected or Presiden t Hindenburg sent for Hitler, their actions were desired that students give blanket acceptance to any g iven point of view. constitutional and were taken at the advice of a great 32 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION GOVERNMENT IN THE ATOMIC AGE 33 many earnest and honest citizens who believed th at the seemed proper that this power should be held in trust for wh erein oth er n ations h ave developed atomic weapons, conceived, this research is carried on with an am azing only solution of th e continuing crisis lay in the concen­ th e whole people. Thus th e government was enjoined' to it is obvious th at military applications of atomic energy amount of freedom. trating of power in the h ands of one person who appeared nationalize atomic operations (because security is abso­ are of vital importance. To th e student who r efl ects for to h ave answers and the capacity to_ achieve them . lutely necessary) and, at the same time, to preserve a nd a moment on the complexity of modern war , it will also Many college personnel do research which is of potential stimula te free research. In a n ation whose citizens h ad be obvi ous th at military applications of atomic energy interest to th e Atomic Energy Commission. The r esearch Thus it would appear that th e popular statements with benefited from the exploita tion of steam, oil and electricity cannot be studied in isolation from high str ategy, tactics, projects m ay be roughly classified' into three groups. which this chapter opens and which appear to hold true by private enterprise, atomic energy was to be exploited logistics and other m atters that are th e proper concern First would be wha t we m ay call "free" research in for technological advances such as television, are of by government as a trust for the people. In a n ation of the Departm ent of Defense and th e fi ghting forces. which th e scientist simply pursues his own interest in very doubtful validity in the Atomic Age. Free elections skeptical about governmental enterprise and critical of To insure such continuous cooperation, th e Military Liai­ his own way under no obligation to anyone -save the col­ do not guarantee th at governmen t by the people will be nationalization in foreign powers, an enormous industrial son Committee was establish ed'. This very important com­ lege which employs him and to th e high ethical standards a reality and governmental action is certainly no longer undertaking was set up as a n ationalized monopoly. mittee has, in th e American tr adition, a civilian ch air ­ of scientists. Second is contractual r esearch in which a merely the legalizing a nd the codifying of public actions man appointed by the President with the advice and departmen t or college may receive finan cial assistan ce already sanctioned by custom. Nor is th ere any guar antee When we turn to the provisions of the Act, we find a consen t of th e Senate. It is oth erwise composed of r epre­ from th e Atomic Energy Commission to carry on, in that peoples will always h ave the governments they good example of the political genius of th e American sentatives of the Dep artments of Army, Navy and Air th e college laboratories, research of interest to both the want or deserve. people in compromising between apparent con tr adictions. Force design ated by th e r espective secretaries of those college and the Commission. A local example of the It is a typical system of ch ecks and balances. It creates Departm ents. It h as its offices in th e h eadquarters of latter m ay be found in th e Medical Laboratories of the It seems important, therefore, to consider th e govern­ a fi ve m an Atomic Energy Commission appointed by the th e Atomic Energy Commission and is in constant con­ State University of Iowa. The third type is also con­ mental m achinery we have as the result of the discovery Presiden t but subject to th e approval of th e Senate. The tact with th e Commission staff on "all atomic en er gy tractual but is usually referred to as progr ammatic* . In of atomic energy and wh eth er th at machinery can work members are all civilians and devote their entire time matters which the Committee deems to relate to military this case a college which already carries on th e other toward th e preservation of democr acy in this n ew techno­ to problems of the developmen t of atomic energy. Public applications, including th e developmen t, manufacture, two types of r esearch m ay contract with the Atomic logical era. In th e field of atomic endeavor, th er e are ownership is guaranteed by a governmental m onopoly of use and storage of bombs, the allocation of fissionable Energy Commission to do certain specific resear ch which already certain limitations upon freedom of choice of atomic inventions, patents, facilities and r aw materials material for military r esearch , and the control of in­ the Commission wants done and' which m ay extend employment and of the conditions of employm ent . With used to produce atomic en ergy. In addition to th e com­ formatwn relating to the m anufacture or utilization of beyond th e usual college program. If large sums of respect to atomic operations there are restrictions upon missioners, th e General Manager , who is th e chief execu­ atomic weapons."* As the r elations between Commission money are involved in this type of research, some of it th e investment of free capital and the function of private tive officer, is also appointed by the President subject to and Committee involve in some m easure th e defense of may be expended to acquire facilities without which it enterprise. Limitations on freedom of speech and publica­ approval of th e Senate. Thus, through appointm ents m ade the United States, a provision was m ade for the settle­ would be impossible to carry out the programmatic re­ tion, and therefore even of thought, are not inconceivable. by their elected president and confirmed by their elected ment of a m ajor dispute, should such occur. The Com­ search . A local example of th e latter is th e Ames La bora­ representatives, the public h as theoretical control over mittee was empower ed to refer the m atter to the Secre­ tory of th e Atomic Energy Commission at Iowa State Yet in th eory the entire atomic energy enterprise is College. public. Speaking at Bowdoin College in 1949, Mr. Sumner the policies and managem ent of its enterprise. tary of Defense, who might in t urn seek the final decision T. Pike of th e Atomic Energy Commission referred to of th e President. This provision also we should m ark Not only h as the public a th eoretical control over th e Some scientists work exclusively in programmatic re­ th e Atomic Energy Act in th ese words: "This act indeed well. 'As will be seen in a h ypothetical case to be con­ personnel which h ead its enterprise, but also provision search . Many more work in two or three of the types is an experiment in government. It puts the citizens of sidered later in this ch apter , its use could r esult in an is made for a Congressional watchdog on th e activities simultaneously. A few, who at one time worked exclusively the United States, through th eir gove!"nment, in com­ anomalous and pro b a b 1 y unforeseen governmen tal of these people, a shareholders' committee, as it wer e, on government projects, have r eturned to the so-called plete ch arge and ownership of one of the most complex, impasse. to watch th e board of m an agement. This is th e Joint free research because they a re more interested in pro­ diverse, -exciting and difficult enterprises which th e world Congressional Committee on Atomic Energy, composed With legislation on the statute book so carefully de­ jects that lie outside the scope of the government's pro­ has ever seen." of nine m embers of the Senate and nine of th e House of signed to safeguard the public interest, it m ay be though t gram and that m ay r equire a far freer time sch edule; or because they h ave a college man 's desire to teach In wh at ways does the citizen direct this experiment in Representatives. It is also stipulated th at not more that the common m an can safely forget all about his th an five m embers from eith er house sh all be of any vast public enterprise and leave its entire operation to and to h elp train th e scientists of the future. And there government? In eff ect, th e Atomic Energy Act which are some scien tists who h ave ethical or moral r easons was signed by President Truman on August 1, 1946, one par ty. The Atomic Energy Commission is obliged those immediately responsible under the Act. At least by th e Act to keep . the Joint Congressional Committee some m embers of the public, however , are directly in­ for not wishing to be connected with research basic to a nationalized th e control of atomic energy. The vexing military program. questions which h ave since caused some dissatisfaction fully and' currently informed of its activities . The Com­ volved in th e enterprise, for practically all of atomic are concerned with the relative efficiency of government mittee h as its own staff which h as complete access to production and research is actually carried out by private It will be seen that th is progr am of research is consistent and private enterprise; with wheth er nationalization the Commission's offices a nd to th e operating plan ts or semi-private firms a nd organizations under contr act with th e views of th e eleven senators who laid down the actually does result in popular control; and with the through out th e nation. The Committee is en joined to with th e Commission. Where and on what democratic principles under which the At omic Ener gy Act was de­ possibility th at those factors which insure at least some make continuing studies of th e activities of th e Commis­ principles is the line to be drawn between wh at is signed . These principles ins ure th at research in military public control may pr ove actually damaging to th e opera­ sion and to report from time to time to the Sen ate and necessarily governmen tal and wh at is legitimately private problems can be conducted with efficiency and security enterpr ise? More than ninety per cent of those employed tion of th e enterprise. th e House by bill or otherwise its recommendations with under a system that at the same time encourages the respect to m atters within its jurisdiction. Let us m ark in atomic energy projects are not employees of th e Com­ maximum of free research. Whichever type of r esearch well th a t last phrase: within its jurisdiction. mission or of any government agency. Shall the sam e THE ATOMIC ENERGY ACT a college en gages in, it is n ecessarily subject t o certain security provisions and loyalty checks apply to the scien­ restrictions, real and imaginary. The men doing the A great deal of study, thinking and debate went into th e The next problem was t o insure that th is public corpo­ tist employee in General Electric Corporation's contractual research must be competent. College 111en , of course, Atomic Energy Act. In October , 1945 , a special committee ration h ad access to th e best brains of th e n ation just work in atomic en ergy as apply to th e stenogr apher in are not employed by the commission but by their re­ of 11 sen ators commenced "to m ake a full, complete and as any private corporation seeks to obtain th e services the AEC Offices a t Oak Ridge? Here are further deep spective colleges. The equipment provided must m eet continuing study and investigation with respect to prob­ of the most skilled or learned people, not necessarily by problems of principle, administration and common living the Commission's r equirements for the safety of those lems relating to the development, use and control of employing th em full time. The act therefore created a which must give us pause. working with radioactive m aterials. This equipmen t is atomic en ergy." The principles resulting from th eir de­ General Advisory Committee consisting of nine members again th e property of the college and is installed by it. liberations seem at times contradictory. appointed by the President for six year terms. The person­ THE ATOMIC ENERGY ACT AT WORK Thus the college is "free" in its choice of p ersonnel, nel of the Committee is distinguished an d varied. I t is The college student may realize the complexity of th ese equipment, and research projects but must meet certain The recommendation that the enterprise should be a drawn from academic institutions such as Harvard Uni­ national one was based first on the need for an effective problems by considering only the one which is n earest requirem ents of competence and safety which a re just versity, from specialized institutes such as th at for to him, the question of free r esearch. One of the four as necessary and' advisable as traffi c ligh ts at an inter­ security program. Apart from the military -significance advanced study at Princeton, and from private enter­ of atomic weapons and the need for secrecy in their statutory divisions of the Atomic Energy Commission is section. But because m any of the m aterials which a re prise in fi elds of engineering and electronics such as th e responsible for physical research and one for biological used in atomic research are under the control of the development, it was felt th at the dangerous materials United Fruit Company and th e Bell Telephone Labora­ used in atomic energy and the facilities for their m anu­ and m edical research . A great deal of this r esearch is Commission it may be seen as h aving an indirect juris­ tories. This Committee m eets as a whole, bi-monthly, diction over the personnel, equipment and r esearch facture must be under strict governmental control. Second, carried on by colleges. In accordance with the r ecom­ but individual members and sub-committees are in con­ programs of th e free institutions of learning. The writer the initial expenditures, without hope of immediate profit, stant contact with both administrative and' fi eld prob­ mendations of the 11 senators who first designed the framework within which th e Atomic Energy Ac£ was knows of no case where this indirect control has been were seen to be so great that only the government could lems faced by the Commission. exercised by the Commission. This theoretical jurisdiction afford the capital outlay. Third, it was recommended that scientific research be stimulated and encouraged but With the public assured of control over its enterprise *Major Activities in the Atomic Energy P r ogram, January-June, 1952, U nited States Atomic Ener gy Co mmission, \ ¥ashington, D. C., *Progratumatic r esearch is r esearch directed toward the s olut~on above a ll that it remain essentially free. Fourth, with the and access to the most skilled advice, there remained pp. 53·54. of :-1 sn ecific problem. su ch as the d evelopment of an a lloy which full potential of the new power only partially explored, it the problem of national defense. In a disunited world would be used as a structural par t in a submarine r eactor. i,

34 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION GOVERNMENT IN THE ATOMIC AGE 35 constitutes an imaginary restriction and the studen t m ay it and the Joint Congressiona l Committee over any legis­ production is carried out by private concerns under con­ We are back in the original apparent conflict of prin­ wonder why it is raised in this chapter. It is of th e n ature lation the latter proposed in con tradiction of the Com­ tract with th e Atomic Energy Commission; indeed, the ciples laid down by the eleven senators who provided of democratic freedom that imagin ary restrictions some­ mission's plans. The matter would pr obably be referred Commission works entirely through contractors. As the the fram ework within which the Atomic Energy Act was times becom e real issues of government. The running to the Gen eral Advisory Committee. If this Committee major contracting party and in particular as the sole designed, th e c-o:::1flict between governmental control for controversy over federal aid to education is a very perti­ could not convince the Joint Congressional Committee security and· the maximum of free research and effort nent example. Even the opinions of people not engaged of th e danger that limiting r esearch might limit pro­ source of fissiona ble material, the Commission has even more poten tial control over private enterprise than it necessary for progress. The relationship of this problem in research or professionally conn ected with education gress and th erefore our lead in an atomic weapons to the thesis of the previous chapter and the a bove may becom e forces in the sh aping of governmen tal race, it could ch oose to take the issues out into public has over college research. This is because the inter est of private enterprise in atomic energy is in industrial power illustrations can be best understood if we step outside policy wh en such issues are considered. discussion, for its members are not governmen t servants ourselves and our national boundaries. and can act as any other citizens may act when their which must use considerable quantities of fi ssion able materials while college research seldom involves any.* Let us take a hypothetical example. Suppose th at the conscience moves them to seek access to th e public. At INTERNATIONAL FRICTIONS present su ccessful policy of th e Atomic Energy Commis­ this stage, the Military Liaison Committee might feel Does this control by the Atomic Energy Commission over sion should be considered hazardous to national welfare that i ues of security were involved, a nd refer the Within America, the raw m aterials of atomic energy research with and production of fissionable m aterials are legally owned by th e Atomic Energy Commission. because one or two of the thousands of scientists in­ matter to the President through th e Secretary of De­ s low down the efficiency of the total national effort? volved in atomic research were found to hold subversive feme. Despite all th e checks and balances of our demo·­ Originally, however, many of these materials do not The former chairman of th e Atomic Energy Commission, belong to the Commission or to any other American political opinions. Assume that this fear, aired in press, cratic m achinery for controlling atomic energy, the "final" David Lilienth al, h as stated th at it does. Does it interfere radio and th e usual letters to congre>:smen , should result d"ecision would thus be arbitrarily made. But in fact it agency but to the foreign n ations from which we buy with the traditional rights of private enterprise in Ameri­ th em . Our chief sources of uranium are Belgium Canada and Australia. All of these are th ese issues? A distinguished educator th inks not . Ob­ small sovereign nations. Czechoslovakia, in whose bounda­ only in laboratories directly controlled by th e Commis­ time of appeal to him, he cannot limit the legislative serving this possibility of uninformed legislation, a mem­ sion . Several things of vital concern to college students sovereignty of Congress, any member of which could ries lie the richest uranium mines of Europe, is also a ber of th e General Advisory Committee discussed in small nation but is no longer sovereign. Independent states and faculty could result. The program of college research still initiate legislation which migh t ultimately be passed public th e advisability of establishing a committee of could be closed out completely. This would commit th e even over a Presidential veto. If the legislation were may sell uranium ore to whom they choose, but the Soviet scientists, engineers and informed laymen to which all satellite states may supply the Soviets alone. The uranium nation to vast capital expenditure to duplicate all th e indeed unwise, the I)roduct of fear or misunderstanding, proposed legislation concerning atomic energy should laboratories and equipment th at at present exist on the proper democratic procedure of congressional legis­ mines of Czechoslovakia were in large part the reason be automatically referred. Committees with advisory behind th e allegedly altruistic desire of the Russian s to college campuses. It would also slow down th e r ate of lative sovereignty would, ironically, h ave results detri­ power- only are common in democratic government. The productive research because it would exclude many bril­ mental to th e national welfare. This is a h ypoth etical "liberate" Czech oslovakia. This type of liberation is of suggested committee, however, was to h ave something course m erely another name for imperialist conquest and liant scien tists who do not h appen to be connected with case but a real possibility. Something like it h as occurred. close to veto power! programmatic research and who would automatically monopoly of sources of raw materials. In a free democracy, th e final arbiter of policy should lose access to the fi nancial support and m aterials th ey This appears to be an example of how freedom might To insure America's supply of uranium ores, the sovereign need. Some of th ese men migh t h ave to be drafted in be th e people. Here th e general thesis of th e previous be lost in trying to save it. The proposal, rising exclusively chapter can be concentrated in a concrete example which rights of the small nations that are rich in these ores some way or another, as t hey usually are in dictator­ , out of the unequal deveJ.opment of physical and social must either be guaran teed by us or some other form of ships. Alternatively only t hose colleges engaged in pro­ demonstrates clearly the potential weakness of popular science, bears an accidental resemblance to the actual government faced with problems of atomic technology. internation al control must be establish ed. The League grammatic research would be allowed to work in t h e field practice of government in Soviet Russia. Russia has an of Nations and the United Nations are both founded on of atomic energy. Apart from research , this would be detri­ Radioactive isotopes for research purposes are exported elected Congress which is authorizetl to initiate legisla­ to foreign n ations by the Atomic Energy Commission the pre-atomic age conception of the free association mental to th e teaching program of the far greater num­ tion. It also has a central committee, th e former Politburo, of sovereign states. It will be seen that atomic technology ber of colleges which have no programmatic research . as well as being m ade available to research agencies in who ~e members are not publicly elected. This committee America. In 1948 it was discovered that one of th e h as already created serious doubts about th e success of Interference with the teaching program might even tually represents the present leaders of communist doctrine. international organizations founded on this philosophy. result in an insufficien t number of trained scientists to nations receiving radioactive isotopes from Oak Ridge All legislation proposed by the presidium of the elected carry on th e required research. was Norway, which has a short common frontier with Congress must be referred to .the committee of thirteen Once again American political genius produced a plan Russia. A voice of alarm was raised in Congress and which will judge of its appropriateness in terms of for government at the international level which it was Still another possibility is the extension of govern­ for some time th ere was the threat of legislation to communist doctrine. It would be much the sam e if we thought would really meet the scientific and technical mental security regulations, oaths or supervision to apply prevent the export of radioactive isotopes. A debate in were to oblige Congress to refer all legislation touching facts of atomic energy. The proposal, commonly known to scientists and students en gaged of their own choice Congress inevitably reaches the public through press and upon religion to the College of Cardinals or some other as the Acheson-Lilienthal Report or simply as the Baruch in nuclear research in independent laboratories and col­ radio. The most common expression of public opinion, body of church governors. To Americans the suggestion Plan, was ultimately presented to the United Nations by leges. If such occurred, it migh t create an invidious through the channel of letters to the press, appeared to is absurd. To Americans, however, the wisdom of all Bernard Baruch in 1946. It is unnecessary for the student distinction between scientists engaged in nuclear re­ favor th e discontinuation of all exports from the atomic legislation pertaining to atomic energy is vital. Shall to know all its provisions but three of them illustrate search and scientists engaged on other projects, both project. As the student who has read the scientific we h ave a committee of thirteen for atomic energy laws? the importance of taking the facts of technology into groups being members of the same department or college. ch apters in this volume knows, the debate was irrelevant The educator's suggestion was not acted upon and should account when thinking about practical designs for effec­ It would certarnly seem to create a distinction between and th e alarm unnecessary, for the United States h as tive government. The report proposed: the scientist and the non-scientist for whom no such no monopoly on the manufacture of radioactive isotopes, perhaps not be taken seriously, though it was seriously special regulations would exist. Even where no person even on t his continent, nor is an atomic pile necessary offered. Meanwhile the problem remains. How shall it 1. That there should be developed an interna tional suffers any actual disability, such distinctions m ay create to their production. The electorate was apparently un­ be resolved without limiting the sovereignty or restricting authority to serve as a world-wide inspection tensions . They involve rights and t raditions such as the aware of the scientific ingredients of the problem and t he debates of the sovereign legislative organ of United system, to operate the atomic energy plants of undefined but strong tradition called academic freedom. therefore incapable of instructing its representatives. States government? the world, and engage in world wide research. They involve individual interpretation of these rights Were the latter capable of informing the electorate? 2. That this authority should be giYen title to all and traditions. They m ay generate emotional reactions Obviously, our representatives can hardly be expected *1'he problem of coll eg e r esearc h in r e la t ion to g ove rn me ntal ope rn · uranium and thorium mines and should carry on m ilitating against dispassionate consideration of the re­ to h ave quick and sure knowledge of all of the diversified tions s u ch a s t h e atomic cn e t·gy p r oject h as bee n discussed in t h is lationship of individual to government in work of n ational ch apte t· b ecause it is close to t h e e nvi ronme nt t he s tude nt knows all dangerous operations under an international problems with which they are constantly being faced. b est. Though a small proble m in the national scene, it does co n tain monopoly, much as the Atomic Energy Commis­ importance-another illustration of th e imaginary r e­ A member of th e Commission thought at the time that the e le me n ts of large r p t·ob lems that have been and may again be stricti::m becoming a real problem in a democratic nation l)Ubli cly discussed. Typica l questio ns are : . S hould the atomi c p roject sion of the United States has title to the nation's th ere were perhaps few r epresentatives whose edu­ he und er military or civili an contr ol 1 ' Vhat moral issues a r e in ­ supply of fissionable materials and operates of which respects the individual personality. cational experiences h ad prepared them to resolve this .._,olved in the use of atomic w enpon s and what is the p la ce of moral i s ~ u es in na tio na l policy and s trategy 1 I s internationa l co ntrol its own authority the major plants for its primary problem in which science and technics were a vital po s~ i b l e o r d esirable : iC so, what s ho uld be its nature and how products. INTERNAL FRICTIONS ingredient. can it b e a c hi e v e d ~ \ Vhat proble ms are in,·olved in the control and restric·tion of scie ntific information ~ I s it possib le to d elimit sa tis· 3. That fissionable materials which are properly Before any of these results were felt at the college level fa c toril y t he functions of coll eg es, p ri vate i ndustry and gove rnme nt "denatured", so that they would be useless for there could h ave occurred at th e governmental level a Thus a brief glance at that apparently most dispassionate in researc h and produ c tio n ~ ' Vhen atomi c powe r is produced for of activities, pure scientific research, automatically in­ comme r cial u se who s ha ll own or control the m eans of 1noduc tion weapons but usable for power, should be leased situation sufficiently obscure as to be unnoticed by the .nnd dis tdbutio;1 ~ S hou ld d e moc t·atic w est e rn nations coope ntte in by this international authority for the use of public, yet so involved as to expose a possible complete volves the thoughtful student in major governmental a tomic e n e rgy r esearch o r preserve com pl e te secrecy one fron ~ ;Inot h e l' ? and political problems. How much more aggravated might Di scu ss ion of s uc h ques t ions may h elp s tud.e nts a.pp r ec tate more national authorities in any country, just as radio­ malfunction of our existing democratic machinery. Re­ clea rl v the r espon sibilit ies of dem.oc ratic citize ns hip in a t echnologi­ active isotopes are now released by the Atomic search policy being a matter for the Atomic Energy this become in connection with private enterprise other cal age. Both ·scien ce a nd s ocial scie n ce ins t ru c tors s h ould a ssist JO; tude ntR in preliminary reading ::wd pla nning, for t he purpose of the ~Energy Commission to any competent research Commission, there would" naturally be a dispute between th an college endeavour! Not only research but much discussio n is not to air ooinio ns but to und e rs tand issu es and t he knowledge r equired fo r int e lli ge nt so lution o{ t h e m. workers in hospitals. l

GOVERNMENT IN THE ATOMIC AGE 37 36 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION

It will be seen that this proposal is truly revolutionary dent with problems of international government or of :first years of the new experiment in government: " ... nology, the growth of indirect government and for it offers to transfer voluntarilY an element of Ameri­ bilateral national agreements whose clauses will involve The most dangerous fact in the atomic energy field the ultimate potential breakdown of representa­ can sovereignty to an international body not exclusively an: understanding of the nature of American security in since 1946 has been the . .. inclination of nearly all our tive government owing to the technological igno­ political leaders . .. to look upon national security as rance of the constituents. controlled by American citizens. It is also truly in the the Atomic Age. Let us again take a concrete example. The press speculations concerning the British atomic a simplicity, not as a tough and delicate complexity American tradition by which the individual states resigned 6. Problems of personal adjustment to technologi­ some of their sovereignty to the federal authority in re­ weapon which was tested in great secrecy in the Indian that it is. Hence the tendency to identify Security com­ Ocean were couched in the usual alarming language. pletely with Secrecy." Less th an three years later he was cal reality such as the continued co-existence of turn for the security thus guaranteed. Finally, it is truly both government and private enterprise, th e wise in accordance with the actualities of the atomic age. The British weapon was "better"; it was "more power­ able to write: "No perfection now, to be sure, but a much, much better understanding. Events have helped toward or unwise adherence to tradition, the understand­ If the sources of uranium were the sole property of a ful"; it was "the H-Bomb" . These statements mean little except that there appeared to be differences between the this. But the real force, to which events have contributed, ing of scientific development as a conditioning world organization, any nation seeking to "liberate" element in social and political life ana the indi­ British weapon and ours. If so, it would be expedient to has been the dissipation of th at . . . smog of ignorance." another for th e sake of its uranium ore would be auto­ vidual responsibility (especially ~f leaders) for matically engaging the world. know of the differences in order to judge of the effective­ ness of either weapon. With this in mind, no less a person It is important to maintain the improvement, for it continued educational endeavor outside the ac­ A counter proposal was offered by the Russians later in than General Omar Bradley has suggested that abso-­ represents the adjustment of government to reality which cepted vocational work. is vital if free institutions are to survive. If there were the same year. As eventually modified, the Russian plan lute secrecy even in the production of weapons may be no improvement, if the social lag discussed in the previous Possibly all these problems are summed up in the last accepted the idea of a world authority but did not give detrimental to security in the long run. group. Let us conclude by asking what are the implica­ it title to uranium ore or to th e ownership of atomic chapter were to increase instead of decrease, it is logi­ cal to suppose that representative government in an tions for college students as members of the educationally plants throughout th e world and conceded it the right As we have seen in a glance at the complicated nature privileged. of inspection only once per month. We are not here of the relationship of college research to the Atomic age of advanced technology may ultimately result in concerned with the sincerity of the Russian proposal but Energy Commission, the problem of secrecy is not a governmental action inimical to national security. This The most obvious, yet often the most neglected is the only with its suitability as a form of government in the simple one. It involves on the one hand adequate access is a sobering thought. If it were ever to occur in our importance of acquiring adequate pertinent kn~wledge country, Congressional authority might be abrogated or Atomic Age. The student who understands atomic science to information for the development of atomic energy properly integrated and thought through. This may re~ at least temporarily suspended. History affords ample can see the weakness of the Russian plan at once. As enterprises, both civil and military, and on the other quire a definite act of will; it is not easy for a student the actual quantity of fissionable material required to an assurance that information of potential use to an evidence that the most freedom loving peoples will willing­ to devote time to the acquisition of knowledge which make a bomb is physically small, nations whose plants enemy or possible enemy is subject to proper security ly concentrate extraordinary powers in the hands of does not further his immediate professional training or were inspected only once a month could easily conceal measures. executive government for the duration of any major appeal to his natural interests. Democracy in the Atomic quantities of fissionable products secretly used in prepa­ crisis. H the crisis were to continue indefinitely, -so would' Age will need not only trained leaders but a nucleus of executive government. The student need only explore rations for war. This would be as true for the United This places an enormous responsibility on government. ib.formed voters in every community. College graduates States as for Russia; in fact, th e Russian plan would In any country, the first function of government is the the contemporary history of Europe to find evidence of could well be the sort of citizens who, in addition to this phenomenon. leave the world pretty much as it is today .. For neither protection of the nation. Protection involves the continual exercising their professional functions, become known improvement of the means of defense and th e preserva­ in their communities as having the special knowledge Britain Russia nor the United States, the three nations SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS which have atomic weapons, knows the exact nature of tion of secrecy concerning them . When the improve­ which citizens of less education may wish to have readily the weapons of the other, or their quantity of stored ment of th e means of defense is inseparable from the Each of the existing and projected problems of govern­ available as the occasion arises. as:Ivancement of scientific knowledge, the ultimate security material. ment briefly reviewed in this chapter is worthy of more of the nation depends upon a balance between secrecy -detailed exploration and discussion. For convenience, A student who m akes this definite act of will auto­ Russia's many distinguished scientists would understand and scientific achievement. Decisions of this nature can­ they are here grouped and summarized: matically views college education as a dichotomy; expo­ the inadequacies of the Russian Plan, but they have no not be divorced from opinions, often formed with little sure to education ( 1) for personal success and (2) for direct or indirect voice in government and certainly no knowledge of relevant facts. Should absolute secrecy be 1. Problems within government, such as the proper constructive free citizenship. The latter phrase is not a appeal to public opinion. We might conclude that the observed, even at the risk of slowing progress? Should operation of the agencies created by the Atomic cliche when examined in the light of the former. Educa­ Russian political leaders, if sincere, did not understand we have absolute faith in the capacity of America to Energy Act, questions of jurisdiction and' de­ tion for personal success involves more than class atten­ the physical forces about which they offered plans. The retain scientific and technical leadership, and therefore centralization of au t h o r i t y, and continuing dance; it involves learning how to continue to acquire nature of a foreign government in the Atomic Age has pay little attention to secrecy? From the range of evaluation. knowledge, and select from it factors relevant to situa­ therefore become a concern not only of its citizens but opinions that lie between these extremes, enormous pres­ tions that will occur in post-graduate business or pro­ of ourselves. Nations may ultimately get the government sures are brought to bear upon the personnel in positions 2. Problems between government and non-govern­ fessional life. The intellectual content of citizenship they want or deserve, but do they get the government of governmental responsibility whose ultimate decisions ment agencies, such as th e proper limits of requires the same sort of growth in educational skill. we want or deserve? One wonders what the learned and must be the right ones for America, irrespective of this government action and private enterprise, the The student today is finishing his formal education in oracular Dr. Johnson would say today.* or that pressure. amount of regulation of the latter, the distribu­ the dawn of the Atomic Age. To remain an intellig·ent tion of materials and the right use of contractual as well as a good citizen in the future, he must achieve EDUCATION AND GOVERNMENT It wo uld appear th at not only the President, but those power. self-direction in the continuing acquisition and selection who support or oppose his policies in Congress, must of knowledge relevant to his life as citizen governing, as As we have seen , it is possible for our democratic politi­ 3. Problems between government and persons, such understand the technical realities of the world in which distinct from his life as citizen earning. The thinking cal system to produce unsuitable legislation if the politi­ as trade unionists in governmental agencies, se­ we live. The adult citizenry of America, whether govern­ curity provisions for persons not in government student will see that this dichotomy of intellectual ac­ cal leaders do not understand contemporary technology ing or governed, had little knowledge of or interest in tivity is not a matter of ch oice but of necessity. The and if the electorate is incapable of intelligently advising employ, availability to the nation of its best atomic technology and its implications in 1944. In 1946, Jeffersonian concept of free society does not divorce with them on these matters. How are they to be informed brains and the political and emotional reactions when the Atomic Energy Act was passed, there had of people in relation to government. the responsibilities of getting a living from those of and when? Michael Amrine, an eminent atomic energy been a sharp realization of its implications in war and maintaining the freedom to get a living as one wishes. educator, stated in a series of newspaper articles that international diplomacy, but little dissemination of the 4. Problems of security, which include elements of President Truman was not briefed on the atomic bomb sort of knowledge needed to make judgments concerning the above problems and also larger issues such The student who thus conducts his college life will be until three weeks after h e took office. This is surprising its proper control. What appears to be the situation today? as access to scientific data both from within and adjusting himself emotionally as well as intellectually if true, but consider the situation in any political cam­ without the national boundaries, the delimitation to life in the Atomic Age. He will be aware of the neces­ paign. The candidates h ave probably been briefed but Two quotations from a former member of the Atomic of military secrecy between ourselves and our sity of social chang·es to meet technological changes. He little, if at all, on the latest atomic development, yet Energy Commission, Mr. W. W. Waymack, serve to allies, the continued sovereign independence of will be prepared to experiment, ·and competent to evalu­ they may offer for public ch oice a wide range of policies indicate th e improvement taking place and to remind small states rich in uranium, and collective ate or at least to support evaluation. What sort of re­ concerning its control. the reader that the relationship between education and security. search into government will the Atomic Age, itself a democracy in America is real, practical and of continu­ product of scientific research, m ake it necessary for him As the person constitutionally responsible for our foreign 5. General problems of political theory such as the to support? Here is the answer as given by W. W . Way­ ing importance. An Iowan, a former editor with a keen qualifications of political leaders, the relation of policy, the atomic age will confront each successive presi- perception of the importance of atomic energy educa­ mack, the distinguished Iowan who, when a member of tion at all levels and through all media, Mr. Waymack foreign governments to the common man in the Atomic Energy Commission, did so much to en­ *No better example of the impact of technology on social organiza· America, the possible voluntary surrender of ele­ tion exists than the problem of the relation of domestic events in did' much to encourage and assist the committee which courage his fellow Iowans to undertake the work which one nation to domestic even ts in another. In an age of jet planes developed the Iowa Plan for Atomic Energy Education. ments of national sovereignty, the limitation of has beco]lle the Iowa Plan for Atomic Energy Education. and atoJnic weapons a revolution in a foreig n country may have a the internal sovereignty of legislative bodies by different significance for Americans than it. did i.n the days of cl.ipper Early in 1950 he bluntly called the writer's attention to ships and cannon balls .. An advanced d1 sc u ~s 10n abou t. the Inter­ the sort of difficulty that occurred on occasions in the special committees or agencies of atomic tech- After his retirement from the Commission, Mr. Waymack national control of atom1 c energy can be built upon tlus problem. 38 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION continued his refl ections on th e educational implica­ consider this statement from such an experienced c1v1c BIBLIOGRAPHY tions of the atomic ener gy project. Optimistic about th e leader. Moral attitudes often govern th e extent and dili­ continued improvement of t he governmental operation, gence wi th which men pursue understanding beyond the correction of mistakes "in our clumsy and ch aotic the immediate requirem en ts of getting a living. Moral SELECTED READINGS ON ATOMIC ENERGY* and sometimes brutal American way," h e felt th at t he at titudes distinguish the conscientious citize n 's exami­ national experience, full of lessons, successes and f ailures, nation of governmental problems and his cont ribution Below is a list of selected r eadings on all asoects of on all phases of atomic energy, especially the Govern­ is already large enough to m erit a study of th e total to policy from the irresponsible citizen 's idle criticism atomic en ergy. These books are recommended as being m en t 's program in this fi eld. Prepared by t h e U. S. performance as well as the functions of the individual of government. suitable for the general college student. This list should Atomic Energy Commission. components. If there h ave been weaknesses and failures, be supplemented by r eference to th e various current what h ave they been? Why did they happen? How can Is it righ t t o examine and discuss the problems, th e m agazines, most of which carry articles from time to time 6. Applied Nuclear Physics. By E. C. Pollard and W . L. they be permanently corrected ? In a free n ation with achievem en ts, th e f ailures and the issues involved in on recent developments in the atomic energy field. Con­ Davidson. New York, Wiley, 1951. 352 p . free government in th e Atomic Age? Is inquiry into a system of ch anging government, how can th ey be sult the Education Index or th e Reader's Guide to A text for the serious student who wish es to go more avoided in the future? government a function of education? Mr. W aym ack Periodical Literature for titles. would probably say yes. For t hose who believe th at th e deeply into the scientific aspects of the atom. He was quick to perceive t h at the greatest mistake th at insepar ability of freedom and education is a reality and The U. S. Government Printing Office has for sale, at 7. Atomic Energy and the Hydrogen Bomb. By Ger ald a n ation or its government m ay make is essentially a a low price, many good publications on atomic en ergy, not a r hetorical phrase, th e concluding words of one of W e~dt . New York, McBride, 1950. 192 p. moral one, "the fundam ental m istake of failing to per­ his letters h ave a certain timelessn ess: " It seems to me including various pamphlets and booklets on civil de­ ceive responsibility, failing to measure it adequately, that th is kind of inquiry simply h as to be made. I t seems fense. These are available from th e Superintendent of . An account of th e principles of atomic energy, in­ failing to try to rise to it." College students m ay well to me that it is the imperative of practical education." Documents. Ask for their free price list of publications cluding hydrogen bombs. relating to atomic energy and civil defense. 8. Atomic Energy in War and Peace. By Burr W . Ley­ Compreh ensive bibliographies on a tomic energy are avail­ son. New York, Dutton, 1951. 217 p . NOTES able free from the U. S. Office of Education and from t h e U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. The latter will also A book describing the operation and eff ects of th e send reprints, copies of speeches, and other useful m a ­ atomic bomb, with a ch apter on defense measures ; terial on atomic energy upon request. Write to th e Edu­ th e h ydrogen bomb ; the production of fissionable cational Services Division, U . S. Atomic Energy Com­ m aterials; a nd atomic en ergy research. mission , Washington, D. C. 9. It's Your Atomic Age. By Lester del Rey. New York, 1. A General Account of the Development of Methods Abelard Press, 1951. 226 p . of Using Atomic Energy for Military Purposes Under An explanation in simple, ever yday terms of th e the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940- meaning of atomic energy to the average p erson : 45. By H . D. Smyth. Washington , D. C. , U. S. Govern­ the nature, development, and uses of atomic en ergy; m ent Printing Office, 1945. 182 p . t he physiological effects of radiation; th e atomic This is the famous Smyth R eport-th e authoritative and hydrogen bombs and' their military and political and official account of the development of atomic significance. energy by the U. S. Government dur ing World 10 . Dawn Over Zero. By Willia m L. Laurence. New York, War II. Knopf, 1946. 274 p . 2. Atomics for the Millions. By Maxwell Leigh Eidinoff The dram atic story of the developmen t of t he atomic and Hym an Ruchlis. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1947. bomb by th e science reporter of The New York 281 p . Times, who was the only n ewspaperman to witn ess A simplifi ed presentation tracing th e development th e first atomic test explosion and th e bombing of of th e atom from early Greek theory to present Nagasaki. application. Many excellent diagrams h elp m ake th e 11. Early Tales of the Atomic Age. By Daniel Lang. text clear . New York, Doubleday, 1948. 223 p. 3. Explaining the Atom. By Selig Hecht. New York, Thirteen stories about t he people and places of a Viking, 1947. 205 p . strange n ew era, explaining not the bomb, but the A classic volume explaining atomic energy in simple m en who m ade it. language-what an a tom is, how man learned to 12. Hiroshima. By John Hersey. New York, Knopf, 1946. split it, and why it produces energy wh en split . The 117 p . (Publish ed also in paper-bound edition by book does not contain m an y diagrams, but th e Bantam Books, New York.) explan ations are unusually clear and almost story­ like. An a ccount of wh at h appened to six survivors of th e blast of th e first atom bomb to be dropped on 4. The Atom at Work. By J acob Sacks. New York, a city. Excellent litera ture as well as a gripping story. Ronald Press, 1951. 327 p . 13 . The Effects of Atomic Weapons. Prep ared under the A non-technical book on the scientific aspects of direction of t he Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory th e a tom, isotopes and r adioactivity, with special for and in cooperation with the U. S . Departm en t of emphasis on the constructive side of atomic energy. Defense and the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. Extensive discussion of the applications of atomic Wash ington, D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office, en ergy in the fields of biology, medicine, agriculture, 1950. 456 p . and industry. This is the most complete and authoritative account 5. Sourcebook on Atomic Energy. By Samuel Glass­ of wh at h appens in an atomic explosion and' what ston e. New York, Van Nostr and, 1950. 546 p . th e effects are. Somewh at technical in p arts but most of th e book can be understood by th e general reader. This book contains extensive descriptjve m aterial 14. Must We Hide? By R. E . Lapp. Cambridge, Mass., *Prepa red b: Emil l\1iller , Luther College. Addison -Wesley Press, 1949. 182 p . 40 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION BIBLIOGRAPHY 41

da tion for Nuclear Scien ce, Inc., 956 East 58th St., results of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Considers th e results of th e J apanese bombing and Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 1950. 128 p . Chicago 37, Ill. translates th ese effects to American cities. It points Many close-up shots th at show th e effect of th e out which of our cities are most vulnerable and A collection of original memoranda, State papers, bl ast and radiation on buildings and m aterials are reports., speeches, and articles, giving th e stor y of A m agazine for science and public affairs. Publish ed included'. The opening and closing scenes are of wh at defenses may be prepared against possible monthly by a group of atomic scien tists. Contains future attacks. internation al control up to th e time wh en th e Ameri­ th e Alamogordo ezplosion and ,are likewise im­ can monopoly of atomic weapons was known to authoritative articles on all phases of atomic energy, pressive. Black and white film. (20 min. Army 15. How to Survive an Atomic Bomb. By Rich ard Ger­ h ave ended', and work on the development of th e with special emphasis on its social implications. Signal Corps, Cen tral Film Library, F t. Sheridan, stel!. Washington, Combat Forces Press, 1950. 150 p . h ydrogen bomb was announced. Editorial commen­ Illinois) (Publish ed also in p aper-bound edition by Bantam tary serves to connect t h e various t hreads of the AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS* Books, New York.) stor y. OPERATION CROSSROADS: An official Navy film The fi eld of atomic energy and its implications is well (in full color ) of the two Bikini test explosions What h appens when a bomb strikes, and wh at th e 22. Modern Arms and Free Men. By Vann evar Bush . illustrated with audio-visual aids. Their cover age in­ an d th e preliminary preparations. The photography individual can do for his own protection. Written New York, Simon and Schuster, 1949. 273 p . cludes historical backgrounds, t h e Manhattan Project, is excellent , the scenes of th e explosions awe-inspir­ in question and answer form . eff ects of bombing, peace-time uses, moral and political ing. (27 minutes. Department of th e Navy, W ashing­ An examination of how modern science and th e issues and an increasing number of good technical films ton , D. C.) 16 . Atomic Energy, Double-Edged Sword of Science. By democratic process are ,aff ecting the nature of war . especially designed for college teaching. A choice of aids R. Will Burnett. Columbus, Ohio, Chas. Merrill Co. , Technical and militar y estimates and assessments is nat urally governed by th eir function in course work ONE WORLD OR NONE: Produced under t h e aus­ 1950. 32 p . of th e t wo World Wars and t he period between them , or general studies. Certain technical films, for example, pices of t he Nation al Committee on Atomic Informa­ tion to appeal to the widest possible a udien ce and A science-social science study unit. Prepared for the in terms · of t he role th at applied science played in should be shown only to science studen ts. Their chief figh ting the wars and in affecting militar y t hinking. value is to give the student ·a vicarious experience of th e to impress the individual with th e crucial n ature North Centr al Association of Colleges and Secondary of th e problem. Using special animation techniques Schools. work going forward in specialized n ational laboratories 23. Economic Aspects of Atomic Power. Ed'. by Sam H . and r esearch projects th at h e is not able t o visit. Oth er as well as action shots, it impressively conveys th e 17 . The Atomic Era-Can It Bring Peace a.nd Abund­ Schurr and J acob Marsch ak. Princeton , N. J ., Prince ­ technical films should be specifically reserved for students basic facts that there can be no real secrets; th at ance? Ed. by Freda Kirchwey. New York, McBride, ton University Press, 1950. 285 p . in the social studies and humanities. They are expressly the atomic bomb is a unique weapon th at can not 1950. 176 p . A compreh ensive explor atory study of t he economic designed to give non-scientists an essential understanding be compared to any previous weapon ; th at th ere can of the physical forces whose control rem ains one of th e be no adequate defense; and that a system of inter­ An account of t he complex problems confronting the feasibility of atomic power , undertaken by t h e Cowles Commission for Research in Economics. m ajor unsolved social problems of today. national control must be achieved . Narration by world as a result of the development of atomic R aymond Swing. (9 minutes. Film Publish ers, Inc. energy. The papers included' in this collection were 24 . Atomic Power, An Economic and Social Analysis. Non-technical films m ay h ave a wider audience. The 25 Broad St ., New York 4, N. Y.) presented at The Nation Associates' confer ence, and By Walter Isard and Vincent Whitney. New York, scientist and th e social scientist h ave equally a vested h ave been amplified and organized to present a Blakiston, 1952. 235 p . inte;t:est in th e satisfactory solution of social problems. Films of Historical Background. m an y-sided discussion. , Moral questions rising from atomic energy are at least ATOMIC POWER: A popular treatment of th e P rovides and interprets some of th e data needed as pertinent to the physics student as to th e young fundam entals of nuclear physics and t he events 18. Readings for the Atomic Age. Ed. by M. D . Hoffm an. for intelligent consideration of t he problem of inter­ theologian, and possibly f ar more personal. But th e use New York, Globe Book Co. , 1950 . 406 p . leading to the wartime American production pro­ national control, and evaluates th e possibility of of th ese films will again be governed by th e teach ing gram. Included are re-enactments by th e scientists I ncludes selections from Modern Arms and Free Men, the use of atomic power in industry. situation. A lecturer in th e social studies or humanities themselves of important meetings and experiments. may prefer to raise problems by lectures and assigned by V. Bush ; Set Your ·Clock at U235, by N. Corwin; 25 . Federal Information Controls in Peacetime. C.omp. Excellent background m aterial. Black and white Modern Man Is Obsolete, by N. Cousins; The Real reading while a science teach er may choose films to film. ClO minutes. March of Time, New York) by R. E. Summers. New York, H. W . Wilson Co., 1949. bring h is science studen ts as quickly as possible to the Problem Is in the Hearts of Men, by A. Einstein; 301 p . (The Reference Sh elf, Vol. 20, No. 6.) The Bomb That Fell on America, by H . Hagedorn ; point of intelligent social discussion. THE BEGINNING OR THE END : The professional­ Basic issues and implications involved in th e policy ly produced story, at times very moving, of how Dawn Over Zero, by W . L. Laurence ; Science and Certain films, such as documentaries of the effects of atom of secrecy concerning atomic energy and r elated' America became aware that h er enemies were Man 's Fate and th e UN Universal Decla t·ation of bombing, h ave no specific teaching value. Their use is as Human Rights, by David E. Lilienth al. m at ters. working on atomic weapons and th e dram atic a challenge, especially to t hose stud"ents, now t h e pre­ events which followed. The best film on th e Man ­ 19. The H-Bomb. Introduction by Albert Einstein , com­ 26. This I Do Believe. By David E . Lilienth al. New York, ponderant group on all campuses, for whom World W ar h a ttan P roject yet produced . (28 minutes. T eaching mentary by George Fielding Eliot. New York, Didier, Harper, 1949 . 208 p. II was not a personal experien ce. Such films should be Films Custodians, 25 W . 43rd, New York, N. Y.) 1950. 175 p . used sparingly and always in conjunction with oth er The author's concept of th e essentials of democracy aids,' lectures or readings designed to give him factual INSIDE THE ATOM: A documentar y showing th e A collection of papers on th e th eory of th e H-bomb, and th e r easons for his f aith in those precepts knowledge for his thinking and discussion . The student various ph ases of research work at the Chalk River its military value and political aspects, and scien tists based on 20 years' experience as an American public wh o is emotionally stirred and then denied access to Atomic Energy Plant in Ontario, Canada. The h and­ and t he H-bomb. Contributors are: Stewart Alsop , servant. Three ch apters are devoted to th e atomic m aterials for thought and expression will r apidly with­ ling and uses of r adioactive isotopes are portrayed. Atomic Energy Commission , Robert F . Bach er, Han­ en ergy enterprise and how this "new force" can be draw himself permanently from the verv issues in which The a udience is taken right inside one of the son W . Baldwin , Hans Bethe, David E . Lilienthal, used to strengthen democracy. a college seeks to stimulate his inter est. biggest atomic energy plants on this cont inent . W alter Lippman , Brien McMahon, Hans Morgenth au , (1 2 minutes. National Film Board, Ottawa, Ca n a da.) Leo Szilard, Editors of Time, Harold Urey, Rich ard 27. Opportunities in Atomic Energy. By K . D . H artzell. The annotated list which follows is a MINIMUM list of K . Winslow, University of Chicago Round T able. New York, Grosset and Dunlap, 1951. 143 p . suggested audio-visual aids for varied college use. In Science Films for Social Studies Courses. A vocational guidan ce m anual outlining wh at atomic Iowa, no college need provide itself with a costly perma­ ATOMIC ENERGY: A pure science film, wit h no 20. The Control of Atomic Energy; a Study of Its Social, energy is, the American program for atomic energy nent li brar y of audio-visual aids. Two such film libraries political references, designed solely as an intro­ Economic, and Political Implica tions. By J . R . New­ development and th e principal types of personnel specifically designated to serve the state are the Bureeu duction to atomic principles, including fission and m an and B. S. Miller. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1948. .engaged in and required for its developmen t. of Audio-Visual Ai ds at the State University of Iowa, ch ain r eactions. 00 minutes. Encyclopaedia Britan­ 434 p . Iowa City, and th e Audio-Visual Aids Service at Iowa n ica, Wilmette, Illinois) 28. Semiannual Reports of the U. S. Atomic Energy State College, Ames. Because the other volumes of th e A clear an alysis of th e import and wide power a nd Commission to the Congress of the United States. Iowa Plan are extensively used in th e public schools, THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Explains the princi­ scope of the Atomic Energy Commission. Some of W ashington, D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office, colleges can work cooperatively with the local school ples of thought employed by all scientists and th e subjects discussed are : organization and structure beginning 1947. board and the local library to h elp provide, without dupli­ illustrates their utilization in everyday living. Not of t h e Commission , production and own ership of cation, a good selection of audio-visual aids usable at strictly an atomic energy film, it is of importance fissionable m aterial, radio-active by-products, patents These official reports describe the Commission ·s pro­ all levels of educational activity. because the major social problems of the Atomic and inventions, research , military application, in­ gress and purposes. Beginning with t he Fourth , each Age rise from the h arnessing of natural forces dustrial and commercial uses, and control of in­ report is devoted primarily to some phase of the Films of Introductory Challenge. t hrough scientific method. 02 minutes. Encyclo­ form ation. Commission's extensive progr am of developing atomic paedia Britannica, Wilmette, Illinois) ener gy in all its aspects. TALE OF TWO CITIES : Presents th e destructive 21. Minutes to Midnight; the International Control of REPORT ON THE ATOM: 'Ihe fut ure applications Atomic Energy. Ed. by Eugene Habinowitch . Chicago, 29 . Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Education al Faun- of atomic energy In a world at peace. The m ajor 42 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION BIBLIOGRAPHY 43

emphasis is on the present program for h arnessing conceptions about the h andling, cost, dosage, and York). R ecording·s of value are THE ATOM BOMB group can present a "living" audio-visual aid. "E = th e atom for research in industry, agricult ure and alleged dangers of radioactive isotope diagnosis and and PEACETIME USES OF ATOMIC ENERGY mc2, " a play written by a former Iowan, Shallie m edicine. Interior scenes in the various Atomic therapy. 02 minutes. Encyclopaedia Britannica, (Lewellen 's Club Productions, 8 S. Michigan Ave., Energy Commission laboratories are depicted, af­ Wilmette, Illinois.) Chicago 3, Illinois) Flan agan, is obtainable from Samuel Fren ch , Inc. fording the student some impressions of the size 25 W . 45th, New York. College drama students m ay and complexity of the Commission's research pro­ THE ATOM AND AGRICULTURE : Tells t h e im­ Plays. be encouraged to write t h eir own playlets, as has gram. There is a speech by Mr. Lilienthal on th e portant story of the use of radioactive tr acers with It should not be forgotten th at the college dram a been done in Wisconsin 's Idea Theatre. dangers of excess secr ecy. (19 minutes. March of phosphate fertilizers ; t h e effect of t h e fertilizers Time, New York.) on a variety of crops grown under a variety of conditions. Depicts other experiments with plants, ATOMIC RADIATION: Explains the fundamentals soils, and animals. (12 minutes. Encyclopoedia Bri­ NOTES of atomic radiation. Describes how man h as been tannica, Wilmette, Illinois.) able to reproduce in th e laboratory some of th e natural forms of radiation. Explains the use of Social Problem s and Implications for All Students. alpha, beta, gamma rays and neutron particles in THE HIROSHIMA MEDICAL CASES : An un­ radioisotope research. ( 12 minutes. Encyclopoed"ia emotion al J apanese film which is an excellent open ­ Britannica, Wilmette, Illinois) ing for both moral and political discussion. (From the Army, Fort Riley, K an sas.) MATTER AND ENERGY : Explains the forms of matter, physical and ch emical ch ange and nuclear ONE WORLD OR NONE : Described above. Intro­ fission. (11 minutes. Coronet Film Productions, duces the problem of international con trol as a Chicago, Illinois.) physical n ecessity. Science Films for Science and Technical Courses. THE ATOM BOMB - RIGHT OR WRONG? De­ sign ed for church or college ch apel use by a col­ ATOM SMASHERS: Describes how physical scien­ lege pastor and with his commentary, but profes­ tists are developing machines and techniques for sionally produced. Introduces the problems of the production and use of nuclear radiation in m any national and international control as a moral n eces­ beneficial fields. Calls attention to the importance sity. (19 minutes. F ederal Council of Churches of of accelerators-particularly the cyclotron-and Christ in America and RKO P ath e) their contribution as tools of nuclear research. Il­ lustrates how the products of "atom smashing" are THE BEGINNING OR THE END: Described' above. identified, and demonstrates protective measures R aises the social problems of government activity, taken against th e dangers inherent in this research. finance, security, civilian-military cooperation, and (12 minutes. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wilmette, joint international activity. Illinois) Il\TFLATION : Without specific reference to atomic THE ATOM AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE : Deals energy, shows the effects of war or defense crises pr incipally with the biological effects of high energy on the national economy. C17 minutes. Encyclopaedia radiations. Explains how we are learning to utilize Britannica Films, Wilmette, Illinois.) the good effects of these radiations on organisms as well as to guard against their harmful effects. CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION: Points out the different types of high energy radia­ There is no better example of th ese problems than tion and explains th eir varied eff ects on organisms, th e m achinery for bot h centralizing control and making clear that th e effects are essentially the decentralizing research and production of atomic sam e, regardless of the type involved. 02 minutes. energy. (20 minutes. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wilmette, Illinois.) Wilmette, Illinois.) CARBON FOURTEEN: Explains the use of r adio­ WORLD BALANCE OF POWER: Not specifically active carbon (carbon 14 ) as a means of dating his­ concerned with atomic energy, but raising a prob­ lem that is more vital in the Atomic Age than toric and orehistoric objects. Tells the story of h alf­ ever before. (20 minutes. Encyclopaedia Britan­ life in understandable terms. Illustrates the cl~ar , nica, Wilmette, Illinois.) role of carbon 14 in tracing t he vital processes of growth and decay in living things. Shows how carbon DUCK AND COVER : The strange public apathy to­ 14 is permitting an approach to a solution of the rid­ ward civil defense is a major social problem. Iowa's dle of photosynthesis and how it has an important State University was the first college in America bearing on observational methods in life sciences. to accept the ch allenge of apathy and offer work (12 minutes. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Wilmette, in civil defense for atomic war. All colleges should Illinois) accept some leadership. This is one of m any films obtainable from th e Iowa Office of Civil Defense, Applications of Atomic Energy for All Students. Des Moines. THE ATOM AND INDUSTRY: Reveals how r adio­ active isotopes are providing new techniques of Film Strips and Recordings. m easurement and quality control in a wide variety of For college classes d"evoted to discussion, a film industries. Indicates how the radiation symbol is be­ strip or a recording is sometimes more useful th an coming a common sight in factories and' laboratories a film as it can be interrupted at t h e leader's and how workers ar e learning to h andle radioactive convenience. Film strips that can safely be recom­ materials safely. (12 minutes. Encyclopaedia Britan­ mended as not too elementary for college students nica, Wilmette, Illinois.) are: ATOMIC ENERGY (New York Times School Service, Times Square, New York), THE ATOM THE ATOM AND MEDICINE: Describes the in­ AT WORK (Society of Visual Education, Chicago, creasingly important role of r adioactive isotopes in Illinois) and WORLD CONTROL OF ATOMIC hospitals, clinics, a nd docto.rs' offices. Clarifies mis- ENERGY (Film Publishers, 25 Broad Street, New '-

APPENDIX 45

APPENDIX 2. The Impact of Secrecy on t h e Develop­ test administered to all Cornell College students one m ent of Science- Arthur Roberts, State week before the program was presented. The test dealt University of Iowa, and panel of Cor nell first with exact knowledge of the sort of facts tha t would EXPERIMENTS IN PRACTICAL APPLICATION* students. eventually be presented in the program , a nd second with 3. Controls : Domestic and International­ attitudes to atomic energy and its problems. One month Emil C'. Miller , Luther College, a nd panel after the program , both tests were administered a second As was th e case with each section of the Iowa Plan , t he incorpora ted in existing general or special courses, or pre­ of Cornell Students. time to all studen ts during their regular class hours. College Production Committee conducted a series of sented as a workshop. The subjective evaluation was conducted by Cornell Col­ practical tests of its m aterial during t he course of its 3:35- 4 :20 Concluding Summarization, Prof. Hew Ro­ lege faculty in a series of discussions with the students deliberations. These included incorporating the m aterial ONE-DAY WORKSHOPS berts and George Glash een , W ashington , wh o h ad attended the program . The material thus col­ into an existing college course, presenting a gen er al By invitation of President Russell D . Cole of Cornell D.C., Assistan t Director of Educational lected was discussed and digested by a representa tive of course open to all studen ts, conducting an intensive one­ College, Mount Vernon , Iowa , th e Production Committee Services of t h e U. S. Atomic Energy the Production Committee, Dr. Donald F . Howard of day workshop involving t h e Committee members as f acul­ was able to experiment with th e presentation and evalu­ Commission. Iowa State Teachers College; a representative of the ty, an d observing a second one-day workshop patterned ation of a n intensive one-day study for all students in host institution, Dr. J ames Ennis; and a representative on th e Iowa model but without the direct par ticipation a liberal arts college. Atomic Energy Day was planned THE EXHIBITS of a college which migh t be interested in the Cornell of th e Commit tee. Brief notes on th ese experiments by a joint committee drawn from th e Production Com­ Exhibit materials to be explained in informal discussion day as a model, Dr. Emil C. Miller of Luther College, follow . mittee and th e faculty of Cornell College. This committee by our guests, Cornell college faculty m embers and Cor ­ Decorah . Their deliberations resulted in a subsequent INCORPORATION IN A COLLEGE COURSE also disch arged the preliminary work of collecting and nell students. Exhibits and discussion leaders are as Atomic Energy Day at Luther College, Decorah , Iowa. arranging exhibits, planning and rehearsing st uden t follows : A group of civil engineering students in th e State Uni­ This final tr y-out is most important for it was t h e inde­ panels and conducting preliminary tests. All c l a~s activi­ versity of Iowa was used. Four two-hour sessions of a pendent test of the Production Committee's model ties of th e college were suspended on the day of presenta­ F . E. Brown, Iowa State College program . regular weekly seminar were set aside and t he content tion and the entire student body attended th e program , The Hydrogen Bomb of each session planned by students and faculty on th e which was presented exactly on t he following sch ed ul e~ Using almost exclusively its own faculty and resources, basis of m anuscript material supplied by the Production J. B. Culbertson, Cornell College Luther College produced a progr am which differ ed in Committee. The basic scientific facts were already known Isotopes, Isobars, Chain R eactions MORNING minor but important respects from th e Cornell pr ogram. to t he students so th e four sessions dealt with problems Because the differences r epresent th e necessar y adjust­ Dr. F . E. Brown , Iowa State College, Cha irman George Glockler , State University of Iowa of research and security, war and peace, economic and The Atom a nd R adioactivity ments wh en a college oper ates without the direct assist·­ social ch ange and democratic philosophy in the Atomic 8: 45- 8:55 Atomic Energy- Russel D . Cole, President ance of th e Iowa Committee, the program is here printed : Age. Each session began with a brief lecture a dapted from Cor nell College Robert A. Rogers, Iowa State Teachers College Tuesday evening, P ebr uary 20 the m anuscript supplied by th e Production Committee and 8: 55- 9 :25 The Atom and R adioactivity- George Gleck­ Energy (Physical, Chemical and Nuclear) followed by open discussion. The students appeared to ler, State University of Iowa 8:00 o'clock, Introductory Remarks, Prof. H ew Ro­ find t h e social impact of atomic technology a new and Winfield W. Salisbury, Collins R adio Compan y berts, Professor of Education, University exciting fi eld of though t. In every case th e seminar lasted 9:25- 9: 40 Energy-Physical, Chemical and Nuclear­ Cyclot ron T ype Accelera tors (A model cyclotron will of Iowa; and Prof. Emil Miller , Head of longer th an th e prescribed time. Finally, t he studen ts Robert A. Rogers, Iowa State Teachers be present and used ) . Departmen t of Physics, Luther College. involved requested th at " at least two more sessions" be College C. D. Starr, Cornell College Visual Aids, including the official Navy devoted to the furth er consideration of social implica­ Methods for Obtaining Pure Fissionable Materia ls film of the Bikini Bomb Tests in color. tions. The Production Committee concluded th at it is 9 :40-10 :10 Atomic F uels, Chain Reactions a nd t he quite possible to orien t science and technical students Atom Bomb- Harley A. Wilhelm, Ames Adolf F. Voigt, Institute for Atomic R esearch , Iowa State Wednesday, February 21 Laboratory, United States Atomic Energy toward th e social problems of th e Atomic Age through College 10 :00-11:30, Basic Information Lectures : existing courses and seminars in th e departm en ts con­ Commission and Institute for Atomic Re­ The Energy of Mass and The Energy of t h e Sun; search , Iowa State College "What Is the Atom ?"-Prof. Arnold cerned an d with a minimum of added work for f aculty Interconversion of Energy Matth ees members. 10 :10-11 :00 Discussion gr oups and exhibits (see list Harley A. Wilhelm, Institute for Atomic Research, Iowa "How the Atom Bomb Works"-Prof. Emil Miller A LECTURE COURSE IN THE below.) State College Metallurgy "Non-militar y Uses of Atomic Energy" GENERAL EDUCATION P ROGRAM 11 :10-11 :3 0 Power from Atomic Energy- Winfield W . - Prof. George Knudson Two experimental campus courses open to all students Salisbury, Collins R adio Co. Collins R adio Company 11 :30- 1:20, Films and EXhibits. Continuous show­ wer e conducted for the Production Committee by th e Radia tion and Counters and Detectors State University of Iowa and planned in consultation 11 :3 0-12 :00 R adioactive Isotopes in Service- Adolph F . ing of ten excellent films on a ll phases Voigt, Ames Laboratory, United States Radioactive Sand from Alamogordo with its Student Council. They consisted of twen ty-two One Milligr am of R adium of Atomic Energy. Exhibits include the lecture-discussions presented' in th e evening by a faculty Atomic Energy Commission and' Institute for famed Lif·e Magazine E'xhibit . drawn fr om Physics, Chemistry, Bio-Chemistry, Medi­ Atomic R esearch , Iowa State College Iowa State College and Ames Laboratory, United States cine, Engineering, Sociology, Economics, Political Scien ce, Atomic Energy Commission 1:30-2 :20 , Address: "The Social Significance of 12:15- 1 :30 Exhibits will be shown and expla ined by Atomic Energy", Prof. Hew Roberts Education and Journalism . Two m ajor difficulties ap­ assist an ts Large Rods of Uranium and Thorium peared. The first was a lack of coherence in th e lecture Samples of R are Metals 2:30- 3 :30 , Discussion Groups: progr am . It proved impossible with so large an inter­ LUNCHEON A Portable R adiation Counter departmental faculty to plan the course as an effective Ores of Uranium and Thorium 1. "The A t o m B o m b-R i g h t or unit and to ensure th at the unity was preserved through­ CAt lunch eon faculty wer e scattered among student tables) Compounds of Uranium, Thorium and Rar e Elements Wrong?" Prof. Gerhard Belgum, out th ~ presentation, which would h ave meant con tinual Use of Tracers in Agricultural R esearch Modera tor, and Student Panel. faculty meetings. Without relief from r egular depart ­ AFTERNOON Ra dia tion Counters and Detectors 2. "Atomi c Energy Development­ m ental duties, f aculty could not or would not fin :;!. ade­ Prof. Hew Roberts, The State University of Iowa, State University of Iowa Public or Private?" Prof. David' T. quate planning time. The second problem was accredita­ Chairman Nelson, Modera tor, and Student A Model of a Van de Graaff Machine tion. To design assigned reading and an examination Panel. for th e course was not practicable and therefore it was 1:30- 2 :10 Atomic Energy and Social Trends- J oseph Uranium Compounds offered on a non-credit basis. The average student B. Git tler, Iowa State College Radiation Counters and Detectors 3. "Atomic Politics : Is International Control of Atomic Energy Possible? " carries th e maximum permitted credit schedule and 2 :1 0- 2:25 Summar y, H ew Roberts, Chairman Cornell College finds it undesirable to devote his entire spare time to a Prof. Frank Barth , Moderator, and Mousetrap Bomb- A Model Cha in R eaction Student Panel. single non-credit activity. Accordingly, the size of the 2: 35- 3 :25 Discussion groups, carried on simultan e­ A unique feature of Atomic Energy Day at Cornell Col­ ously: student audience tended to decline. The Production Com­ lege was a subjective and objective evaluation, carried 4. "The S ecurit y Problem : S ecrecy mit tee believes th at t h ese problems are probably common vs. Scientific Preedom in a Democ­ 1. The Moral Aspects of t he Atomic Prob­ out by a committee and an independent examining to all colleges and that th e m aterial is th erefore better ag·ency.l The objective evalua tion consisted of a double racy". Prof. S h e r m a n Haslett, lem-Miron A. Morrill, Cornell College, Moderator, and Student Panel.

*Prepared by H ew Rober ts, Univer sity of I owa. and panel of Cornell students. 1. gxa min ntions Sen ·iccs1 S tate U ni versity of I owa 46 ATOMIC ENERGY EDUCATION

3:40- 4:00, Summary Reports from Discussion (cl Greater use was made of audio-visual aids. Groups. (dl The discussion and report sess ion s were 4 :00- 4:30, Concluding Address, "Education in the extended. Atomic Age", Prof. Hew Roberts. 4:30- 7:00 , Films and Exhibits. (e) Continuity was emphasized by using a single The reader may note that: speaker for opening, transition, and conclusion . (a) The introductory session was h eld the evening before the program, giving students a less concentrated Observers felt that, because of its homogeneity, the Lu­ experience and permitting the visiting lecturer to familiar­ ther Day was in some ways more acceptable to students ize himself with faculty, students and program , and ad­ th an t h e Cornell Day. The Production Committee con­ just his work to theirs. cluded that any Iowa college is able to arrange a work­ (b) Longer but fewer lectures made adequate use shop program on th e basis of th e material now available of th e smaller faculty. in this volume.

NOTES

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