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Spaces of Insecurity : Human Agency in Violent Conflicts in Kenya Witsenburg, K.; Zaal, A.F.M

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Spaces of Insecurity : Human Agency in Violent Conflicts in Kenya Witsenburg, K.; Zaal, A.F.M Spaces of insecurity : human agency in violent conflicts in Kenya Witsenburg, K.; Zaal, A.F.M. Citation Witsenburg, K., & Zaal, A. F. M. (2012). Spaces of insecurity : human agency in violent conflicts in Kenya. African Studies Centre, Leiden. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/20295 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) License: Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/20295 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). Spaces of insecurity African Studies Centre African Studies Collection, vol. 45 Spaces of insecurity Human agency in violent conflicts in Kenya Karen Witsenburg & Fred Zaal (editors) Published by: African Studies Centre P.O. Box 9555 2300 RB Leiden The Netherlands [email protected] www.ascleiden.nl Cover design: Heike Slingerland Cover photo: Marsabit, Ola Daba. Refugees in 2007, from the ethnic clashes between Gabra and Borana after the Turbi Massacre, 2005 (Photo: Karen Witsenburg) Printed by Ipskamp Drukkers, Enschede ISSN: 1876-018X ISBN: 978-90-5448-120-1 © Karen Witsenburg & Fred Zaal, 2012 Prologue As I was not involved in the production of this book, I felt honoured when Karen Witsenburg asked me to write a prologue for it. She said she would like me to write one, even if I were too busy to read all of it beforehand. But I felt uncom- fortable with the idea of writing some ritual laudatory remarks about something I had not really read, and so I asked her to send me the whole manuscript. I was immediately captured and read all of it. Often, collected volumes are criticised as being weakly integrated ‘bookbinders’ syntheses’, but this one is a very good book. Being a scientist (although only a social one) with an analytical mind frame, I wanted to find out why I found this book to be good; and, being a stubborn, pe- destrian empiricist, I immediately started counting things. The following num- bers are based on the unfinished draft of the book that I had at my disposal. How many theoretical frameworks are there? Just one! All of the authors ex- amine conditions of security and insecurity in a mosaic of ethnic groups influ- enced by national, regional and global factors. How many epistemologies are employed? Also just one. All authors are mod- erate constructivists. That is, they are realists who take social constructs and their consequences seriously. They expect social constructs to change in response to social forces affecting them but not to change ad hoc and overnight. The authors seem to share this realist or pragmatic mind-set with the pastoralists on whom they are working. Material incentives and disincentives of warlike action play a major role in this volume. Although many anthropologists would rather be cruci- fied than to admit that they have been influenced by rational choice theories, such an influence is clearly present in this book. How many overlapping themes link the single contributions, apart from the general one of insecurity? Prominent themes which are taken up by more than one author and which serve to establish a sort of dialogue among the chapters, include the effects of resource scarcity and resource abundance on the frequency of conflicts and the level of their escalation, the effects of the presence of arms and of unbalanced disarmament, and the workings of cross-cutting ties and dou- ble affiliations. Next, I counted and analysed co-authorship, which is, perhaps, inspired by the now ubiquitous bibliographic analyses of what people like us are doing. Of the ten contributions, two have two authors and one has three. Of these co-authors, one also has an individual contribution, and three others figure as co-authors of more than one chapter. Author credits take the form of permutations of a finite set of names. Taken together, then, the authors of the chapters in this volume are not individuals working alone and celebrating their originality but members of a team of people, who, in addressing a number of issues, divide the labour amongst themselves and complement each other in various ways. Evidence of the close integration of the volume can also be found in the refer- ences. One contribution has ten references to other contributors to this volume, one has nine, others six, four, and three respectively (not even counting citations of other chapters in the volume, which do not show up in the list of references). This is indeed an intensive conversation. Contributors also share some of their reading background. The classical monograph by Peristiany and the more recent one by Bollig are cited in more than one contribution, and some of my own find- ings are taken up by seven contributors. I cannot deny that this flatters me. But the point is, of course, that the authors share a framework of discussion, not that I am part of this framework. To reiterate, this is a good book. I claim, further, to have been able to show why it is a good book, perhaps with the effect of showing others how to proceed with their work, if they strive for similar achievements. What remains to be said is that I wish this book a wide circulation, both in the academic world and in that of politicians, local leaders and peace workers. To solve a problem one needs to understand it, and this book is a significant contribution to the understanding of insecurity. Günther Schlee Halle/Saale, September 2012 Contents Prologue v Maps, figures, tables and photos ix Acknowledgements x 1. SPACES OF INSECURITY 1 Karen Witsenburg & Fred Zaal 2. THE ETHNICIZATION OF TERRITORY: IDENTITY AND SPACE AMONG THE NANDI IN TURBO DIVISION 20 Alice J.C. Kurgat 3. REVENGE, ETHNICITY AND CATTLE RAIDING IN NORTH-WESTERN KENYA 48 Dave Eaton 4. INBETWEEN CATTLE RAIDS AND PEACE MEETINGS: VOICES FROM THE KENYA/UGANDAN BORDER REGION 63 Friederike Mieth 5. IDENTITY STRATEGIES OF THE WESTERN POKOT; EXPLORING THE MEANING OF LIVESTOCK RAIDING 88 Kim C.M. de Vries 6. ETHNIC TENSIONS IN HARSH ENVIRONMENTS: THE GABRA PASTORALISTS AND THEIR NEIGHBOURS IN NORTHERN KENYA 120 Karen Witsenburg 7. NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONFLICTS: THEORETICAL FLAWS AND EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM NORTHERN KENYA 141 Wario R. Adano, Ton Dietz & Karen Witsenburg 8. CONFLICTS BETWEEN PASTORALISTS AND FARMERS IN TANA RIVER DISTRICT 167 Pilly Martin vii 9. RESOURCE CONFLICT, GOVERNANCE AND ETHNICITY. LOITA FOREST AND THE FIGHT FOR EXCLUSION 194 Fred Zaal & Wario R. Adano 10. PRECOLONIAL MODELS OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN SOME AFRICAN SOCIETIES 210 Joshua J. Akong’a List of authors 235 viii Maps, figures, tables and photos Maps 4.1 Map showing the area around Kenan 65 5.1 West-Pokot District 92 7.1 Marsabit Mountain and its surrounding areas 144 8.1 Map showing location of study area 170 9.1 Location of Narok District and Loita Forest in Kenya 198 Figures 2.1 Perception of land ownership and access in Turbo 36 6.1 Human population trends in Marsabit District and Marsabit Mountain 121 6.2 Seasonal fluctuations in rainfall and killings, Marsabit District, 2004-2008 124 7.1 Absolute number of armed incidents, people killed, and rainfall figures 154 9.1 Population growth and exponential best-fit trend line in Narok District, 1948-2010 199 9.2 Annual rainfall and three-year moving average trend line in Narok District 200 Tables 6.1 Violence in Marsabit Distruict, 2002-2008 123 7.1 Human population and TLU measures in Marsabit District 148 7.2 Relation coefficient for rain, armed incidents and killings in Marsabit District 155 7.3 Average number of killings in dry, average or wet years 155 7.4 Average number of incidents and deaths in drought and other years 156 7.5 Mean number of incidents and deaths in drought years and years following droughts 156 8.1 Summary of conflict incidents reported in the media 176 8.2 Population of displaced people in Garsen Division, Tana River District 176 Photos 8.1 A burnt house at Tarasaa village 178 8.2 An abandoned manyatta 178 8.3 Abandoned farms overgrown with weeds 178 8.4 Youths wounded in the lower Tana Ngao village 179 8.5 A schoolboy from Golbanti village killed by raiders 179 ix Acknowledgements This publication would not have been possible without the support of a great many people and institutions to whom we are greatly indebted. Part of the field- work for Chapter 6 was made possible by research grants from NWO-Rubicon Award and Max Planck Institute in Halle. We thank Guenther Schlee for all his support and intellectual inspiration. The Department of Geography at the Univer- sity of Amsterdam funded the conference for the book in Nairobi, where the foundation for the book was established. We thank Gert van der Meer and Ton Dietz for their support. Dick Foeken and Mieke Zwart from the African Studies Centre were invaluable for the finalisation of this publication. A great thanks to you all. x 1 Spaces of insecurity Karen Witsenburg & Fred Zaal “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences” (W.I. Thomas & D.S. Thomas 1928) Introduction The question why people use violence against each other in certain situations is interesting and urgent. This book is the outcome of a seminar held in Nairobi in 2007 where we questioned the rationale behind conflicts in rural Kenya. At the time, most contributions were characterized by the concern that many main- stream explanations of violent conflicts do not suffice in understanding the prob- lems between ethnic groups in the modern Kenyan state. Not much later, the elections in Kenya were held, and violence broke out, to the shock of a great many people.
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