J UNE 15, 1960 C@8 AUSTRALIAN MAGAZINE

VoL. XIII, No. 6 Price- TWO SHILLINGS

The Red-necked Stint, a wading bird which breeds in Sibe ria and Alaska, migrates to for our summer, when many may be seen on the sandflats of Bo ta n y Bay, , and along the adjacent Cook's River. (See article, " The Bird H abitats of Botany Bay," on page 173.) *

R e~t i s te red at thC' G t•n eml J>os t OR'ice, Sydney, Cor· t n\nsmission :\s u pcriodiral. THE HYDE PARK, SYDNEY

BOARD OF TRUSTEES PHESlDENT: WALLACE C. WURTH, C.M.G., LL.B., lion. LL.D. CROWN TRUSTEE: F . B. SPENCEH. OFFICIAL THUSTEES: THE HON. THE CHIEF JUSTICE. TTIE llON. THE PRESIDENT OF T ilE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. THE HON. THE CHIEF SECHETARY. THE HON. THE ATTOI\Nl::Y GEN.t:HAL. THE HON. THE THEASUHER. T liE HON. THE Ml lSTEH .FOH PUllLLC WOHKS. THE HON. THE MINISTER FOR EDUCATION. THE AUDITOH-GENEHAL. THE PRESIDENT OF THE MEDICAL ·BOARD. THE SURVEYOR-GENERAL AND CHIEF SURVEYOR. THE C.t\OWN SOLlCITOH. EL ECTIVE TRUSTEES: 0. C. \ ' ICKI!:HY. B.E., 1\ I.I.E. (Aust.). F. L. S. BELL, M.A., F.R.A.I. WALLACE <.:. WURTH, C.~I.C., LL.B. FHANK W. IllLL. PHUF. A. P. ELK J, , M.A., Ph.D. G. A. JOIINSON. F. Mt·DOWEI.L. PHOF. R. L. CROCKER, D.Sc. tt J. N013LE, <.:. 13 .1!:., ~I.S c ., l'h.D. PROF. j . H. A. M c~IILLAN, M.S., D.Sc.Air. E. J. KENNY, :<.J.Amt. 1.1\1.1\1. E. A. J. HYDE.

DIRECfOH: . J. W. EVANS, Sc.D. DEPUTY DIRECfOH : H . 0. FLETCHER, M.Sc. SCIENTIFIC STAFF: Birds, Heptilcs and Amphibians: J. A. KEAST, M.A., M.Sc., Ph.D., Curator; H. G. COGGER, B.Sc. (Gen. Se.), Assistant Curator. Mammals: 13. j. MAR LOW, B.Sc., F.Z.S., Curator. Fishes: G. }>. WHITLEY, F.H.Z.S., Curator. Insects and Arachnids: C. N. SMITHERS, M.Sc., Cumtor; D. K. Mt·ALPI E, M.Sc., Assistant Curator. Molluscs: D. F. McM ICHAEL, M.A., Ph.D., Curator. Crustacea and Coelcnterates: F. A. McNEJLL, Curator. Worms and Echinodcrms: ELIZABETH C. POPE, ~I.Sc., Curntol'. Minerals and Hocks : R. 0. CHALMEHS, A.s:r.C., Curator. Fomls: 11. 0. FLETCIJER, M.Sc., Curator. Anthropolo"y: F. D. McCARTHY, Dip.Anthrop., Curntor. EDITORIAL ASSIST ANT AND PUBLIC EDUCATION OFFICER: RELATIONS OFFICER: l'ATHICIA M. McDO, ALD, B.Sc., Dip.Ed. PETEH COLLlS. EXHIBITION DEPAHTM ENT. ART AND DESIGN SECTION: F. J. llEEMA ' · LIBRARIAN: PREPARATION SECTION: I' I IOTOGRAPHER AND MARY DAVIES. B.Sc., L.A.A. R. D. ~ I ACKAY VISUAL AIDS OFFICER: 1 I. 11 UGTJES. HONORARY SCIENTI F IC ST AFF: Zoologists. E. A. BRIGCS, D.Sc. JOYCE ALLAN, F .R.Z.S. H. LEIGilTON KESTEVEN, D.Sc., M.D. S. J. COPLAND, M.Sc. MELBOURNE WARD, F.R.Z.S., F.Z.S. ELLIS TROUCHTON, F.R.Z.S. TOM IREDALE. A. A. RACEK, Dr. rC'r. nnt. (Brno). A. ]. MAHS IIALL, D.Sc., D.Phil. O rnithologist. Philatelist. K. A. Ill DWOOD, C.F.A.O.U., F.R.Z.S. FRANK W. HILL CONTENTS Page

THE BIRD HABITATS OF BOTANY BAY-Arnold R . M cGill 173

K oALA M ANAGEMENT I N VIcrORIA-1. M cNally 178

DANGEROUS MARINE ANIMALS-Gilbert P. Whitley 182

A R EMARKABLE PARASITE OF T H E LoNG-FINGERED B AT 183

TH E AND RADIATION OF MAMMALS- B . J. Mar/ow 184

THE CORROBOREE FROG 190

TURTLES OF T H E PAST-H . 0. Fletcher 191

MAYFLIES- David K . M eA/pine 196

"T li E VERTEBRATE TREE" 199

CROCODILES AND THEIR Kr N- Harold G. CoNger 200

~--

e The fine study of a Red-necked Stint on our front cover was taken by Arnold R. McGill. sec­ retary of the New South Wales branch of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists' Union. author of the article. "The Bird H abitats of Botany Bay.'' The Red-necked Stint is one of 25 species of wader breeding in eastern Asia which have been recorded from Botany Bay.

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. • c::: • c::. • o ..,• • o • ~

Page 172 The Australian Museum Maga:ine THE AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM MAGAZINE Published Quarterly by the Australian Museum College Street, Sydney Editor: J. 'vV. Evans, Sc.D. Annual Subscription, Posted, 10/-

VoL. XIII. No. 6 JUNE 15, 1960

THE BIRD HABITATS OF BOTA1 VY BAY

By ARNOLD R. McGILL Secretary o ( the New South Wales branch of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists' Union

WHEN Captain first set During the early days of settlement the foot o n Australian soil nearly 200 ·'Botany Swamps" became a favourite years ago he justifiably named his landing rendezvous for the "sporting" fraternity. place Botany Bay. The ornithological No doubt collectors patronized the locality history of the area also began in 1770, for as well . and the many references given in in his M.S. Journal, now in the Mitchell the writings of A . J. North bear testimony Library, [Sir] states :- to its popularity. Species that reached the 'Museum from there, or are mentioned in May I . ". . . The tree over our literature, include the Avocet, Banded heads abounded very much with Stilt and F reckl ed Duck, which have not Loryquets and cocatoos of which been subsequently observed in the Botany we shot several. both these sorts swampland, and the Corncake, which has fl ew in fl ocks of several score only been obtained once since in Australia. together . . . " May 2. " Tupia. a native of the Variety Of Habitats Hawaiian Islands who strayed I have long taken a particular interest in from us in pursuit of Parrots of the birds of Botany Bay, but feel that the which he shot several . . . " bay's real appeal lies in the variety of May 3. " ... I made a small excur­ habi tats suitable for bird life to be found sion in o rder to shoot any thing I there. Because of the nature of the soil. could meet with & found a large rain forest has probably never existed close quantity of Qua il s much to the shores of Botany Bay. but most other resembling our Engli sh ones types of avian habitat- open forest. heath­ [Stubble Quail] of which I might land, mangroves, cultivation, grassland, have killed as many almost as 1 swamps. estuaries, tidal-flats and ocean­ pleased had I given time up to it still persist to varying ex tents. but my business was to k ill variety A 10 mile square. as shown in the and not too many individuals of accompanying map, readily forms a boun­ any one species." dary to the whole area, which extends

June, 1960 Page 173 BAY

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BOTANY "BAY 8AI'lKS

SOLAI'IDeR

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The Botany Bay area. Drawn by Lhe Aulbor. north to Alexandria Canal and Eastlakes be preserved as close fauna ~ n~ ~~ra Water Reserve, south to the limits of reserves, will depend on each spectes ablltty ~oolooware Bay, west to the George's to adapt itself to artificial parks and l a~es, Rtver estuary and east to the Pacific Ocean. wh ich, fortunately, appear to be. requtre­ Some. parts are still sparsely inhabited, m ents of modern subdivision planmng. especmlly on the south side, and have probably changed little by the impact of Nearly 300 species of bi~d s have been settlement. Mangrove swamps, samphire recorded within the geographtcal confines ~f flats and sandy heathland have not in the Botany Bay, even though the whole area JS past proved inviting places for close habi ta­ within the Metropolitan boundary of th~ tion, but modern methods in draining and . To enumerate. a~1 filling- in such localities have changed that deliberate on, all these species would requ•r~ view and the ornithological future of a comprehensive account, so only so~1e tha Botany Bay must cause concern. What are noteworthy or prominent w1ll . be birds will be recorded there in years to mentioned when discussing the vanous come, unless much of this original habitat habitats.

Page 174 The Australia11 Museum Magazine Most of the sea-birds that frequent New old Cook's River estuary on a number of South Wales waters have at various times occasions during the next 12 months, but been observed offshore from vantage points for nine years afterwards there were no near Botany Bay, or have been found records of it. Since March, 1953, when it washed up on the beaches. T he three-mile re-appeared, it has been observed in three stretch of is one of the best­ States, and there is little doubt that it has patrolled beaches in Australia for derelict now become established in Australia, as it sea-birds. Off MaJabar Headland there is is in New Zealand, South Africa and South usually a large congregatio n of albatrosses, America. Late in 1959 and again in 1960 petrels, skuas, gannets, gulls and terns feed­ a pair has successfully nested on Moon ing about the sewer outfall. In winter as Island, off the New South Wales coast at the many as 100 G iant Petrels, 500 Wandering entrance to Lake Macquarie. Albatrosses and many of the smaller alba­ trosses (notably the Black-browed species) About 10 species of terns have been may be observed from the cliffs. T he Cape recorded from Botany Bay, the most note­ Petrel, various species of p rions and four or worthy being the Little Tern, a regular five kinds of shearwaters (mutton-birds) migrant that arrives in October and departs pass by on their migration flights. in April. It is the only member of the whole sea-bird group occurring in the area, In Botany Bay the Silver Gull is ubiqui­ numbering about 50 species, which breeds tous, and both the Pacific Gull and within the area's limits. Colonies are Southern Black-backed (Kelp) Gull appear known on the sand dunes behind Boat Har­ irregularly. This last-mentioned species was bour, along part of Cook's River and particu­ first recorded in Australia (at Botany Bay) larly on Kingsford-Smith Aerodrome, where in January, 1943. It was seen around the banding operations have recently been

This week-old Little Tern chick has just been banded as part of a study by ornithologists of !he migra tio ns of this species. The chick was. caught o n open sand on the Masco.t Ae ro d rom~. m the Bota ny Bay a rea. Little T erns, whtch gro w to a length of about 9 m., Jay thetr eggs in slight depressions in open sand. J>h oto.-Author.

June, 1960 Page 175 Mangrove trees (above) fringe the shores of most of southe rn Bota ny Bay. T hey provide excell ent shelter fo r many kinds of birds. including the Mangrove H eron ( right) . Photos.- K. A. Hindwood.

undertaken. T hese o perations may eventu­ a nd he rbage. a nd three small passerine birds a ll.y determine the win ter quarters of the - the R eed Wa rbler. Little Grassbird and Austra lian race of this interesting species. F a nta il-warble r (T a ilor-bird)- enliven such Swampland is an impo rtant ha bi tat, for p laces with ac ti vity and song. the bird-life of such places is freq uently numerous. both in individuals and species. T he Black Swan and various kinds of ducks Fine Songster Still Common (four of wh.ich occur regul a rly and breed in A ro und most of southern Botany Bay, in the district) accept the relative p rotection the wuious inlets there a re sti ll extensive afforded by close settle ment. Different tracts of m a ng ro~es . which. together. with species of hero ns, bitterns. crakes and the adjacent samphire tlats, provid e s u ~ta ble larger water-hens forage among the reeds p laces fo r Ma ngrove Herons. four specres of

Page 176 The A usrra/ian Museum M agazine cormorants, pelicans, egrets. ibis, spoon­ win ter in Botany Bay. Four waders (tbe bills, the White-fronted Chat and such Spur-winged Plover, Banded Plover, Black­ waders as the Golden Plover and Sharp­ fronted Dotterel and Red-capped Dotterel) tailed Sandpiper. Even the stately Jabiru are somewhat resident in the area and breed has recently been observed there. Man­ there. Two kinds of oyster-catchers grove forests provide excell ent shelter for occasionally occur and a fu rther Australian­ many kinds of perching birds, the most breeding species, the White-headed Stilt, conspicuous being the Brown Honeyeater. appears to be re-establishing itself at Botany which, fortunately, is still common in this Bay in small numbers after an apparently area. It is a beautiful songster and gives lengthy absence. life and vitality to such a habitat , so often regarded by the average citizen as waste­ land and the breeding place solely of Habitat Retention Essential snakes and mosquitoes. Botany Bay is about the southern range limit of this No fewer than 25 species of waders breed­ species in the east. ing in eastern Asia have been recorded from Botany Bay. T hese retain their old-wor]d A good deal of heathland occurs on both vernacular names, such as plover, turnstone, the K urnell and La Perouse Peninsulas, but, snipe, curlew, whimbrel, godwit, sand piper, except for the Emu-wren, Yellow-winged tattler, stin t, greenshank and sanderling. Honeyeater, Tawny-crowned Honeyeater Although these reach their max imum and an occasional Heath-wren, this type of numbers in summer. many kinds, such as habitat does not contribute prominently to the Bar-tail ed Godwit, Red-necked Stint, Botany Bay bird-l ife. Curlew Sand piper, Eastern Curlew and at Forest country is practically confined to times the Lesser Knot and Mongolian Dot­ localities south of Botany Bay, such as terel, remain in smaller numbers during the around Woolooware Bay and at K urnell , winter. The Sanderling is an interesting where there are small tracts of a ngophora species which has returned, for the past 20 and eucalypt scrub, dumps of casuarina years to my knowledge, to the reef and and much low banksia growth. T he Little adjacent beach at Boat Harbour, but only Wattle-bird may be consid ered the most in sma11 numbers which have declined conspicuous bird of thi s habitat, but many gradually; in the past three years no more other species are resident there also, and than one or two have been seen. As this numerous others find shelter during migra­ bird is rare anywhere in eastern Australia. tion. In the low undergrowth associated thi s regular migration to Boat Harbour is with forest country the smaller ground­ especially significant. It is hoped these frequenting birds forage, breed and live. visitations by the Sanderling (which only breeds in Arctic regions) will continue and However, Botany Bay is perhaps best known ornithologically as a feeding ground its numbers again increase. for migrant waders, which occur at times in No doubt the numbers of bird species large numbers on tidal flats, shoreline, the known from thi s fascinating area will reef at Boat Ha rbour and the estuaries of increase. However, many of those recorded Cook's and George's R ivers. T he tidal­ must be regarded as purely accidental, while ooze adjacent to the old estuary of Cook's others have disappeared from the district River has long proved an excellent place to where they at one time bred or we.re study the habits, movements and numbers considered common. Others have become of the many types of waders which visit alarmingly rare in recent years. Every ~ u s tralia annually, mainly from their breed­ effort should be made to retain a suitable tng grounds in eastern Asia. One species, portion of each type of habitat in its natural lhe Double-banded Dotterel, nests in New state. so that Botany Bay will still hold its Zealand, a nd good numbers spend the ornithological importance and fascination.

June, 1960 Page 177 J(OALA MANAGEMENT IN VICTORIA

By J . MeNALLY Deputy-Director, Fisheries and Garne Department, Victoria

THIRT Y-FIVE years ago it was widely stated that the (Phascolarctos cinereus), one of Australia's most interesting marsupials and the one with the most public appea l, was doomed to extinction. T his attractive but relatively defenceless animal was at one time numerous and widespread in Victoria. In the late 1800's, however, epid emic diseases destroyed thousands, and the decline was further hastened by shooting for furs and sport. Large numbers were also ~es t royed by bush-fires. Strict legal p rotec­ tiOn was later p rovided, but bush-fires remain a threat. As a result of a combination of destruc­ tive factors the koala disappeared from A young koala. many areas, and it was doubtful if it could P hoto.-Fisheric.s and Game Department, Victoria. survive in Victoria outside special reserves. Fortunately, small colonies remained in E ucalypts are the principal and essential certain localities, where they are still food of , and the Manna Gums fl ourishing. Notable amongst these were (Eucalyptus viminalis) , which they prefer part.s of Gippsland. the Mornington above o ther species, will support only a Pemnsula and the Stony Rises in the certain number of them on the islands. Western District. The koala might be Officers of the F isheries and Game Depart­ restricted to such localities at present if the ment inspect the islands regularly, and, Government had not insti tuted a major re­ when the numbers of koalas are found to establishment programme. be too high, the surplus is removed to selected areas on the mainland. These In the early 1920's the Victo rian Fisheries areas must fulfi l certain requi rements. They and Game Department embarked on a koala must be large and have abundant sui table management programme, which is continu­ food trees; freedom fro m fire-risk, habi tat­ ing. Earlier. koalas had been introduced destruction and alienation are important to Phillip and F rench Islands, in Western features. L ocalities which previously Port Bay, from places on the adjacent supported large numbers of koalas when Victorian mainland. The koalas found the they were widespread and fl ourishing in low coastal Manna G ums on these islands Victoria receive attention. most suitable as food, and their numbers increased rapidly. These island populations have since provided the holding areas for 7,000 Koalas Liberated koalas from which surplus animals are Since the work commenced, approx i­ transported to restock suitable localities on mately 7,000 koalas have been liberated the mainland of Victoria . and more than 50 areas restocked. Major

The Australian M useum Magazine libe~at i on sites are the Mornington Penmsula, the Durdidwarrah Water Reserve, Mount Alexander, the Stony Rises, Mount Col~ State Fores~ and Halls Gap in the Gramptans. Expenmental Red Gum areas are maintained at Goat Island in the Go ulbu~n River at Nagambie, and at Lock Island m the Murray River at Mildura. Fenced sanctuaries. where the public can see koalas at close quarters, are located at Mt. Alexander, Castlemaine, and at Cres­ wi.ck. Koalas a re also supplied to the Melbourne Zoological Gardens and to the Sir Colin MacKenzie Sanctuary at Heales­ ville. Spectacular results have been achieved by the koala restocking activities. However this is only one aspect of the overali management programme, which includes a detailed study of the biology and ecology of Phascolarctos. Basic research is carried out in conjunction with the liberation work, in which there are many problems that can only be tackled on the basis of scientific study. For example, the koala appears to suffer from a variety of diseases, some of which are peculiar to it. Captive koalas often die from dietary upsets resulting from lack of provision of the essential eucalypt species. An investigation of the enzymes involved in the physiology of digestion of eucalypts would help to prevent deaths. The management programme also pro­ vides an opportunity to study the population dynamics of the koala in the field . A population confined to an island can rapidly outgrow its food supply, and French Island over the years has provided an interesting study. On several occasions since the island was first stocked its koala population increased to such an extent that the Manna Gums were defoliated and many died. As a result of this food shortage the koala numbers rapidly declined. T he trees gradu­ ally regenerated and the surviving koalas once more began to thrive and multiply. The great majority of koalas have since A rope noose, on tb.e end of a long pole, is been removed from F rench Island, as it has used to catch koalas. Here. a noose is being become unsuitable as a holding area because placed over a koala's head. The operator pulls of increased settlement and frequent fires. on the rope until the animal either descends tl;le tree or is pulled from it to fall into a The koala is not an easy subject to study catching-sheet held b y four men, as shown in the field. Its arboreal habit often makes on the next page. it inaccessible, and a trained and experi­ enced six-man team is needed to capture Photo.-Commonwcalth News and Information Bureau . animals without harming them. The

June, 1960 Page 179 technique is an old one. but stiJl has not hooked claws. together with a crushing bite been replaced with a better method. A make it a fo rmidable subject. It is not long pole fitted at one end with a noose is vicious by nature-far from it- but fright used by an operato r, on a ladder or an at the unusual treatment causes it to react adjacent li mb of a tree, to catch the koala. defensively. The operators have to take When the noose is placed over the koala's every precaution when handling koalas, and head it is prevented from tightening at least fo ur strong men are needed. completely by a check in the rope. At this stage the operator drops the pole and pulls T ranspo rtation and liberation in the new on the rope. The animal may descend the area are routine and present few problems. tree volunta ri ly, but if it doesn't tension is The koa las a re transported in special maintained on the rope until it releases its crates containing two compartments, in each grip on the tree and drops toward the of which two koalas travel. A standard ground, where its fall is broken by a truck-load is eight crates, containing 32 circular catching-sheet held o ut by four a nima ls. but this varies according to the men. sexes a nd ages of the koalas. The adult ma les are aggressive and two cannot be put Important Information Obtained together in one compartment. Usually a male and female are crated together, or a In the course of collection and liberatio n, fema le with its young. all animals are weighed and measured, and details of condition, breeding state and any In most cases the Manna Gums at the diseases are recorded. This information, liberation sites are very different from the when finally correlated, wi ll make a major low, stunted coastal trees which form the contribution to the knowledge of koala ha bitat o n the holding islands. The biology. mo untain Manna Gums are tall. heavy­ During the weighing and measuring pro­ butted trees. which take some negotiating cedure the koala usually objects strongly. by a nima ls no t used to them. The koalas Its powerful shoulder muscles and 1ong quickly accommodate themselves to the new

This koala refused to descend a tree and was pulled from it. Photo. - Commonwealth cws and Information Bureau.

f'age J 80 The A usrra/ian J\lluseum Magazine forests meet the requirements as regards suitability for koala colonisation, and many of the major Jiberations have been made in these areas.

Fire Danger Although every precaution is taken in advance to see that the fire risk is minimal, there is always the possibility that fi re wi JI destroy stands of timber. For this reason, every effort has been made to select libera­ tion sites in widely scattered areas of the State. so that if fire occurs in one area jt wi ll not ruin the re-establishment plan. As a result of the rapid development of Victoria, Phillip island and French Island are becoming closely settled and the koala habitat is being reduced to such an extent that these islands a re no longer suitable as major holding areas fo r koalas. Other unsettled coastal island s are being investi­ gated to locate new holding areas. China­ man Island, also in Western Port Bay, is already a permanent holding reserve, and the adjacent Quail i sland, whjch was at one time a holding area, may be suitable for replanting and development. The Fisheries and Game Department receives many offers and requests from private individuals, municipal counci ls, etc., A koala being weighed in a bag. All koalas for koalas to be released in small areas caught and li berated are weighed and mea­ where suitable food trees have been estab­ sured, and details of their general condition lished. Quite apart from the difficulties of are recorded. supervision, it is not practicable to accede Photo.-Cornrnonwealth News and Info rmation Bureau . to these requests, as koalas roam wid ely at night and would soon disperse from such environmen t and usuall y lose no time in areas. ascending to the heights- m uch higher than they have ever been befo re. The koala re-establishment programme is one of the most successful animal manage­ Re-establishment is being carried out ment projects undertaken here or elsewhere according to a detailed, long-range plan in in recent years. The status of the koala has whi ch a number o f State organizations are been raised in a relatively short time from co-operating. The di.stribution of Manna the verge of extinctmon to a sound level. It Gums has been investigated with the help may be confidently stated that the future of of the Fo rests Co mmission of V ictoria, and these animals in Victoria is assured and that a list of potential liberation sites has been they wi ll continue to increase under wise prepared. T he p resent policy is that these management. sites should have abundant permanent stands of suitable food trees and la rge areas ~nabling the koalas to spread out from _the Back Numbers of Magazine Wanted hberation points a nd re-populate the s1tes A member of the Museum staff wishes to buy in the course of time. Every effort is made five back copies of The A ustralian Museum M agazine-Nos. I and 5 of Vol. I and Nos. l. to ensure that the selected sites are as free 7 and 10 of Vol. II. Any reader who can make as possible from fire risk a nd are served by these available is asked to ring Mr. Mackay at ·an efficient fire-fighting organization. State ·

June. 1960 Page 181 DANGEROUS -L~A RINE ANIMALS

The hazards of dangero us ma rine c reatures were discussed a t the A ustra lia n Museum by member of the Scientific Sectio n o f the Interna tiona l Conve ntio n o n Life Saving T echnique , held in ydney last March. A special ex hibit of da ngero us sea a nima ls (illustra tcJ a bove) was installed in the public ga lle ries o f th e Museum, a nd will continue unti l the end of J une.

A t the discussio ns, each g ro up of savage or venomo us a nima ls was dealt w ith by a specialist on the Mu cum stafT who showed how the vario us s pecies could be recognised a nd w he re they occurred in nature. Sea-sna kes, sha rks. stingrays. aggressive a nd stinging fis hes. veno mous m olluscs. deadly jell yfishes a nd othe r ha rmful inverte bra tes were conside red. Cases of a tLacks o n. o r harm to, human were descri bed by medical practitio ners who had a ttended vic ti ms. and fi rst-aid a nd medical treatment of injuries were di ·cussed.

A part from members of the M useum stafT , pa rt1c1pant 1n the ympo ium (the fir t of it ki~d held in Sydney) included Surgeon Rear-Admi ral L. Lockwood. R .A.N .. w ho had witne ed a fatalu~ from box-jellyfish tinging; C ommander Ba lle rha m . R.A.N .. who. w hen diving. had had a number of brushes with dangerou marine creatures: M r. J . R. K ing horn. who di cu ed bite from ea- nakcs: Dr. V. M. Copplcson, autho r of .. Sha rk Attack "; M r. N. Gor~hcni n . w ho explained how the number of ~ha 1 ks ofT S}dncy beaches had been red uced by mesh ing: D r. P. K. L. Phlep and D r. R. Endcan. w ho discussed tonefishes: Dr. S. W iener. who has developed to ne fish a nti-venene: O r. J. R . Pacy, wht) has treated catfish a nd stingray injuries. and M r. B. Ewer . who gave a n ac:;ount of para itic wo1m tran-;miltcd through mo ll uscs. Remarka ble s lides of icllyflshc . their tinging mechanism. and the eiTcct~ they cau.e were shown and expl a ined by D rs. K ingston, R . V. Southcott, J. 11. Barncs and T. J. Hansen.

T he speakers have pre pa red illustrated papers and bibliogra phies o n the ir special subject . Thus. m uch o rigina l mate ria l has been added to tha t a lread y broug ht togethc1· fro m cattered published r ecord ~, . a n ~ it i ~ ~ti c ipa t e d that . a u ~efu l ill ustra ted vo.lume w ill. be published by the Po t-gradu.a tc Comm1ttee 111 Mcd1cllle of the U mvers1ty of Sydney, w h1 c h organl7ed the ession under the ausp1cc · of the Post-gradua te Medical Foundatio n.-Gil berl P. Whitley.

PhoJo.- l low:~rd llughc,.

Page 182 The• Australian !vluseum Maga:ine A Remarkable Parasite of the Long-fingered Bat

AMONGST the interesting parasites of female's abdomen is exposed ; this exposure bats arc those of the streblid genus aJso facilitates respiration. Of all the Stre­ Ascodipreron, a genus recorded from bJidae. the females of Ascodipteron show the Queensland, the East Lndies. greatest change of form associated with a and Central Africa. These fl ies are remark­ parasitic life. The fin er details of the life a ble for the cha nge of form undergone by hi story of Ascodipteron have not yet been the female after she has attached herself to worked out. the host. On emergence from the pupal cases both sexes are winged ; the fema le has large label­ Jar teeth , but these are small in the male. After mating. the fema le seeks out a bat (as far as is known only the genus Miniopteris, the long-fingered bat is parasitized) , settles at the base of its ear and makes an incision in the host ti ssues. She gradually works her way more deeply into the tissues at the base of the ear. casts her wings and legs and eventually becomes embedded in the flesh of the bat with o nl y the apex of her abdomen protruding.

Flask-shaped Sac ln this protected situation her abdomen becomes enlarged , eventuall y enveloping her head and thorax. T he female fly thus ends I - J up as a flask-sha ped sac, with the head and thorax well hidden within the enlarged abdo­ men. Such extreme changes or form in a n adult insect a re exceptional. Ascodipteron is beli eved to be larvipar­ ous, the extrusion of the la rva being facili­ tated by the fact that the apex of the

The top picture hows a rem ale A scodipreron fl y. removed rrom a bat, with its head and thorax enveloped by its enla rged abdomen. The knob-like lower end of the fl y is the apex of the abdo men. all that pro trudes when the insect is embedded in the base of a b

Pho tos.- lloward Hughes. P (1 ge 183 June. 1960 THE EVOLUTION AND RADIATION OF MAMMALS

By B. J. MARLOW

M AMMALS, the foss il history of which of one of the additional bones of the lower is fairly well known, evolved from a jaw lodged in a groove on the dentary. The group of reptiles called Synapsids, or marsupials and placentals evolved from an "mammal-like reptiles," which arose during important group, the pantotberes, and are the Permian period about 200 million years now known to have existed together since ago and ftourj shed for 20 million years until their origin in the Cretaceous period of the end of the Triassic period. North America, although it was once At first these animals were rather lizard­ believed that the placentals had been derived like, but as time progressed several features, from the marsupials. These Cretaceous especially in the skull , teeth and limbs, marsupials were allied to the present-day underwent remarkable changes towards the American opossums, while the placentals mammalian condition. The teeth became were remotely related to present-day insecti­ differentiated into groups for different func­ vores, such as shrews and moles. tions, such as incisors, canines and molars, while the body was lifted clear of the ground Evolution of 1\'lammals In South America by the rotation of the limbs beneath it. T he Both the early marsupials and placentals most important changes occurred in the migrated into South America from the north skull, where a secondary palate was formed a nd began to branch out into several distinct and the seven bones of the lower jaw that groups. During the Eocene perjod, when are typica l of the reptiles were reduced to a the main evolution of placentals occurred, single bone, the dentary, which is charac­ South America was isolated from the rest of teristic of mammals. Some of these bones the world and further entry of placentals in the reptilian jaws became incorporated was prevented. T he primitive American into the middle ear of mammals to form the opossums gave rise to two other groups of two extra auditory ossicles which mammals marsupials, the extinct Borhyaenids, which alone possess. were large carnivorous mammals, and the The other characteristics of major import­ Caenolesti.d s, which are small insectivorous ance among mammals are the possession of marsupials similar to the ma rsupial mice of hair and the production of milk, but it is Australia. not known at what stage, in the transition T he main groups of placentals in South from reptile to mammal, these features America were the South American monkeys, appeared. guinea-pig like rodents, true ant-eaters. Living mammals fall into three major sloths and armadillos. [n addition, several groups- or egg-laying mam­ groups of peculi ar hoofed mammals al~o mals, marsupials or pouched mammals, and flourished, but became extinct in the Plets· placentals which retain the embryo for a tocene period, when a land connection was relatively long gestation period. T hese re-established with North America. The three groups developed from a diversity of fossils of some of these animals, particularly primitive mammals which arose during the a giant form call ed Toxodon, were dis­ Mesozoic period and the history of which is covered by Darwin during the voyage of the poorly known because of lack of adequate Beagle. Once the ro ute to the north had fossil material. The monotremes probably been reopened , a complicated movement of evolved from a separate group, the doco­ mammals occurred in both directions. Some donts, which show the interesting retention of the ma rsupials, ant-eaters and rodents

Page 184 T he Australia" Museum Magazine mtgrated no rth. a nd true carnivores, such as p ri mitive features, but rather as fundamental cats, dogs a nd raccoons. and modern hoofed differences in structure which arose when mammals. such as primitive horses, pigs, both groups separated from the basic stock camels a nd deer, entered South America that gave rise to each branch. from the north. O nly two gro ~ ps of terrestrial placentals and three aquattc forms are found in Aus­ Mammals In A ustralia tralia. T hese are rodents and bats on the All the three major groups of mammals one hand , and seals, sea-cows and whales on occur in Australia, but. when compared with the other. other parts of the world, the placentals are poorly represented . The Evolutionary History Of The monotremes, which embrace only the Australian Marsupials platypus and echidnas. are confined to the As in the case of South America, Austra lia Australasian regio n. T hese animals show a was separated from the main land-mass of remarkable combination of primitive and the worl d. Here, too, a great radiation of specia li sed features, but unfo rtunately marsupials occurred, but on this occasion their fossi l record is extremely meagre. They no placentals were present in the early have many reptilian features- such as the stages. T hi s separation took place at the retention of the egg-laying habit and the end of . the Creta~eo.u~ period, when only structure of shoulder gird le, skull and spinal marsuptals and pnmttt ve placentals existed column- which ind icate that they a re the in the world. T he fossil record of marsupials most primi tive of living mammals, but super­ in Australia is tantalisingly poor, the earliest imposed on these are such specialisations as known form being a fossil possum. the beak-like snout. absence of teeth in the Wynyardia, from the Miocene period of adult stage and limbs modifie d for digging. Ta~; m a ni a. The most pri mitive A ustralian marsupials T he route whereby marsupials entered are the dasyurids. a fa mily which contains Australia is still uncertain. It was formerly native cats a nd ma rsu pial mice. T hese suggested that they came down through animals have several features in common south-east Asia before the land-masses with the South American marsupials, and separated. but there are no fossil marsupials are probably the basic stock from which the in Asia to support this theory. T here are other A ustra lian ma rsupia ls evolved . The sorne fossil marsupials from E urope which remaining Australian ma rsupials belong to are allied to the American opossums, but two widely different groups-the bandicoots, there is no definite explanation of how they which have some features in common with arrived there. I t has been shown that the the dasyurids, a nd the la rge super-family the fl ora and fauna of South America, So uth Phalangero id ea, which contains not only the Africa, Australia and New Zealand have phalangers, or Australia n possums, but also many features in common. It has been sug­ the kangaroos and wombats. gested that these regions were once united All marsupials d iffer from the placentals with A ntarctica to form a southern continent in the fo llowing respects: T here is normally known as Gondwanaland and that it was via no true placenta. o r after-birth, for the this continent that the marsupials entered nourishment of the embryo in the uterus, Australia. T he isolation of Australia at the and, in consequence, the gestatio n period is end of the Cretaceous period is probably norma ll y sho rt a nd the foetus is relati vely responsible for the surviva l of both the undeveloped at birth. It crawls into the monotremes and marsupia ls here today. No pouch unaided, becomes a ttached to one of competition was experienced from any the teats and there continues its development placentals until the arrival of rodents from until it has grown sufficien tly to fend for south-east Asia by fortuitous means, which itself. U nlike the placentals, only o ne tooth probably involved raft transportation on in each half of each jaw is repl aced among fl oating debris. the marsupia ls, which th us have virtually During the Pleistocene period many l a n~e only one set of teeth thro ugho ut their li ves. forms of marsupials evolved in Australia. These differences a re no t to be considered as including giant ka nga roos (Palorchestes),

June, 1960 Page 185 • • SI M IL

K.oo.Ja.•

Pa{fe 186 TIre A uwralia11 "JJ us~um \laga:ine ARS

Tasmanian Wolf • Tasmonion Devi• I

June, 1960 Page 187 which were about 9 ft. high, huge wombats fours". Kangaroos probably evolved from such as Diprotodon , which was the size of a the tree-hving possum group, and the tree riunoceros. and a large possum, with huge kangaroos of north Queensland · and New sheari ng teeth , called Thylacoleo. Guinea have become secondarily adapted to an a rboreal Jife. The Convergence Of Marsupials There is no exact counterpart of this niche And Placentais among placentals, since the ruminants have In his book "The Origin of Species", such specialised limbs that none of them Darwin showed that evolution may come have been able to become arboreal. Among about by the selection by the environment of those placentals which are well adapted for changes or mutations which arise fortuitously life in trees are the lemurs, a primitive group in the reproductive cells of animals, since of monkeys, and squirrels ; the marsupials those mutations which are beneficial will be which correspond to these are the cuscuses perpetuated while those that are harmful will and possums of Australia. prevent the animal from surviving to pass on Some arboreal herbivores have become these characters to its offspring. A remark­ highly specialised , and a mong these are the able example of the operation of this natural sloths of South America. These animals, selection .i s seen when a comparison is made which are leaf-eaters, hang from the between the marsupials, which have evolved branches of trees by means of long curved in .isolated areas, and the placentals, which claws on their feet. They are sluggish in arose in other parts of the world. Animals their movements and are relatively defence­ whkh live in similar environments and which less, but are protectively coloured by the have comparable ways of life tend to green algae which grow in grooves on their resemble each other to a remarkable degree, hair. This niche is filled in Australia by the both in external appearance and in the way koala, which is really a taiJless possum, and their bodies function. This similarity in is also a specialised , slow-moving, leaf-eater, unrelated animals is called convergence. with well developed claws used in climbing. Marsupials and placentals provide the best example, as is shown in the illustration. There exist in North Ameri ca, Eurasia and Africa groups of specialised squirre~ s The way in which animals obtain a living, which have a loose membrane along their or the niches that they occupy, may be con­ flanks by means of which they are able to sidered broadly on a basis of diet, and the glide long distances from tree to tree .. In first group are the herbivores (mammals which feed on plants). The earliest herbi­ Australia, too, this adaptation has ansen amoncr the crl ider possums, which have vores were browsers which fed on the leaves 0 habits to the fl ying squirrels. Other and shoots of shrubs and bushes, but with s i mi l a~ small arboreal rodents of the O ld World are the advent of grasses in the Miocene period the dormice, which a re mixed feeders living true grazing mammals were able to evolve. T he placental mammals which fi ll these in shrubs and bushes and which are closely niches today are the deer, antelopes, sheep paralleled by the dormous.e possu~1s of and other ruminants which have special Australia. since they, too, feed on msects modifications in their digestive systems that and blossoms a mong flowering shrubs. An a llow food to be regurgitated after the indi­ extension of this type of niche is that occu· gestible cellulose, with which plant cells are pied by the Australian honey mouse covered, has been broken down by special (Tarsipes), for which there is no . e~act bacteria in the stomach. They are normall y counterpa rt among the placentals, as ~~ JS a fast-running animals, the limbs of which nectar-feeder with a long brush-ti pped have become elongated by raising the body tongue which can be inserted int.o. fl owersf on to the extreme tips of the toes. Among This type of feeding is more remmJ scent o marsupials, the same niche is occupied by certain frui t bats or. a mong birds, of honey­ the kangaroos and wallabies. These have a eaters. simi lar digestive physiology, but only their Yet another pecul iar herbivorous marsu­ hind limbs are elongated and they have a pial without counterpa rt among the pl~ceni bounding gait instead of running on "all tals is the curious pig-footed band Jcoo . e Page 188 The Australian Museum Magnt.lll (Chaeropus _ecaudatus?, w hi ~h is. p ro b~bly re-established with the north during the now extinct m Australia. T h1s a mmal li ved Pleistocene period that placental carnivores in the open pla ins a nd had a remarkable were able to enter. modification of its feet so that. of the An insectivorous diet is merely an exten­ original five toes, only two remained func­ sion of a carnivorous mode of living, and the tional on the forefoot and only one behind. small insect-eating marsupial mice of Aus­ It has been ~ uggested ~ h at t~i s feature w~s tralia correspond to the mouse-like placen­ correlated w1th a runmng ga1t, but there ts tals, the shrews, while some bandicoots little information on the biology of this resemble, both in appearance and habits, species. certain large primitive insectivores in the An importa nt group of burrowing herbi­ West Indies, such as Solenodon. The small vorous placentals are the marmots and hopping marsupial mouse Antechinomys is gophers, large r:odents_ of Nort_h America an extreme example of adaptation in Aus­ and E urasia. wh1ch bmld extenstve warrens tralia. Like so many other plains-living in open grassland or in rocky m_ountainous mammals, its hind limbs are elongated, and regions. The wombats of_ A ustr_alta re~emb l e its way of life is similar to the elephant­ these anima ls not only m thetr hab1ts but shrews of Africa, which have the same also in their outward form a nd in the struc­ modification. tu re of their teeth and skulls. Some remarkable examples of converg­ ence exist a mong the insectivorous placen­ Convergence In Flesh-eaters tals and marsupials. In New G uinea, there Examples of convergence also exist among is a striped possum, Dactylonax palpator, flesh-eating, or carnivorous, ma rsupials and that feeds mainly on the larvae of wood­ placentals. Wild ·~ogs ~ re runn~ng carni­ boring beeUes which it extracts from thei r vores which hunt e1ther smgly or m groups. tunnels by means of a long thin finger on its They are indigenous to a ll pa rts of the world fo re-foot. In M adagascar is a primitive except M adagascar a nd A_ustralasia, for the monkey called the Aye-Aye, which has a dinoo here was probably mtroduced by the simila r modification of its hand and which abo~ i gines. The rare thylac.ine, o r Tasman­ fee-ds in the same manner. The convergence ian wolf. which formerly existed on the between these two animals is to be fo und mainland, fi ll s this niche among Australian more in Lheir habi ts than in their external marsupia ls. its similarity to the dogs being a ppeara nce. remarkable. T he most extraordinary example of con­ Another important group of ground-li vi ng vergence, both in appearance and habits, placental carnivores a re certain weasels, such exists between two burrowing insectivorous as the badgers a nd wolverines which are mammals. These a re the placental golden found in North America a nd E urasia. A moles of South Africa and the marsupial similar way of life is shown by the Tasman­ mole of Central Australia. Both animals ian devil. have tubula r bodies, short erect fu r, reduced No marsupial in Australia has converged eyes and external ears and enlarged digging towards the cats ; those ma rsupials known as fore-feet. T hey dig shallow burrows in tiger cats and native cats a re more compar­ sandy soil and feed on various invertebrates. able with the a rboreal ma rtens and other especially earthworms and insects. Although weasels. ] n South America, however, some these anima ls are not closely related, they of the large extinct Borhyaenids became very have come to resemble each other to a cat-li ke- to such a n extent that a sabre­ remarkable degree because of the operation toothed ma rsupial, Thylacosmilus, a rose of natural selection on a similar mode of which was a close parall el of the placental li fe in compa rable environments. sabre-toothed cats of North America. One Niches U nfilled By Marsupials of the main reasons for the survival of mar­ supials in South America would appear to Although marsupials have radiated widely, be th at they played the role of ca rni~

June, 1960 Page L89 which lives in rivers and feeds on fresh­ water crustacea and the larvae of aquatic CORROBOREE FROG insects. There is no marsupial in Australia which lives in this manner, and here this niche is fill ed by two indigenous non­ ma rsupials, the platypus and the water rat. No herbivorous aquatic marsupials exist which would fill the niche occupied by beavers o r musk rats, and in Australia this positi on is filled by an indigeno us rodent. the swamp rat (Rattus lutreolus). J n general, Australian rodents seem to have fill ed most of the niches normally occupjed by this group in other parts of the world, and th ese again show convergence. The Australi an hopping mice (Notomys) a re simila r in both appearance and habits to the kangaroo mice of No rth America and the jerboas of the Old Wo rld, altho ugh they are not closely related. Similarly. no marsupial has evolved the power of true ftight, which, among mammals, is restricted to the bats. These animals are well represented here, since water barriers present no obstacle to their dispersal. This is also true of marine mamma ls such as seals, sea-cows a nd whales. all of which are represented in Thirty live Corroboree Frogs (Pseudopluyne corroboree), one of which is illustrated aboH'. Austra lia, but the way of life of which has were displayed at the Australian Museum laM not been copied by marsupials. January. Thi was the first time that Corroborc11 This remarkable convergence towards the Frogs had ever been exhibited at the Mu cum. These frogs. which have so far been fou nd form and ha bits of placentals which has only in the Australian Alps. inhabit regions 4.001) occurred among the marsupials during their ft. a.nd m ~ re above sea-level. They average only isolatio n in South America and A ustralasia an. tn ch 10 length. and a re black wi th yell ow is one of the most im portant pieces of stnpes. The ir name comes from the re emblanl.'c their colour-pattern bears to the way in which evidence to suppo rt Darwin's theory that some Aborig 10es painted themselve for corro· evolutio n has come about by the inftuence bo rees. of natural selection o perating on chance The specimens displayed were collected ~I mutations which ari se in tbe heredity of Mount Kosciusko by Mr. R. Cox. of Croydo!1 Park. Sydney. who gave them to the Mu eum Jiving organi sms. T welve of them were later sent to Profe- or (Illustration by B. P. Bertram.] J . M oore. of the American Museum of Natural His tory. New York. It was P rofessor Moore \\ho. wh ile ~orking in Australia in 1953. first de cribcd the _ \orr~boree Frog from a single pre erwd Corals spectmen 10 the Australia n M useum· collection. Following a coral-collecting trip to Lord Howe There arc many interestino features about :h ~ Island, D r. D. Squires. of the American Museum life-hi. to ry of the Co rrob ore~ F roo for it ,.,hok of Natural History, New York, recently spent a way of life is adapted to living i "n high alpine week examining the Australian Museum's exten­ areas covered by snow for part of the year. sive collection of corals from that locality. Dr. An account of the Corroboree Froe will b~ Squires intends to publish his research o n the found in a n illustra ted booklet.. ··The 'Frogs uf little-known coral fauna of the island. the New Sc.>uth Wales ... by H a ro ld G. Coggcr. to l0cation of the most sm.Jtherly of cora l reefs. be publl.shcd b~ the Museum s hortly. This hand· This publication should be of great value to book will constst of two sections· one will d~al Australian marine zoologists. Dr. Squires is an with the general. bio logy of the ' frog of New associate of Professor John W . Well s, of Cornell Soul ~ W~ l es ..w hile the other will be a guide to University, U.S.A., a world authority on the true, the tdenttficalton of a ll the species which h:we or reef-building, coral growths. been recorded from this State.

Page 190 The A ustralitm !vfuseum Magazine Broken pieces of the complete shell of an extinct horned turtle, Meiolania, being taken from a cliff base at Ned's Beach. L ord H owe Island. a few months ago. This remarkable find was made by Mr. R ay Missen (centre), a meteorological officer o n the island. With him are Mr. J. Whistler ( left) , of the Lord H owe Island Board, and Mr. 1. Kirby, a local resident. Pho to.- Eii zabeth C. Pope. Turtles of the Past

By H. 0. FLETCHER

TURTLES form a most interesting and has the longest-known geological history it remarkable group of reptiles, not only has undergone only slight evolutionary from a palaeontological point of view but changes since its inception. T he exact also as one of the most peculiar and JSO­ origin of turtles is uncertain, as there is no lated groups of vertebrate animals. trace of any transitional forms prior to The earli est k nown turtles lived and Triassic times and their early line of ~ourished about 180 million years ago dur­ ancestry is therefore main ly a matter of mg the latter part of the Triassic geological speculation. It is generally considered that per_iod. They a ppear s uddenly in the geo­ they were derived from the cotylosaurs, a logJ_ca l record as well-preserved fossi ls in group of p rimitive reptiles and the basal vanous parts of E urope, and even in these stock from which other reptilian groups so-called primitive fo rms their skeletal arose. The specia lized nature of the first structure and general appearance are practi­ known turtles indicates that it is almost cally identical with the turtles we know so certainly jn the late Palaeozoic period that weJJ today. ln fact. as o ne author has we must look for forerunners of the group. stated , " ...we re they now li ving they wo~Jd attract no special attentio n from the Box-like Armour ordmary observer and but little fro m the The earli est Triassic turtles possessed natura list". the. extraord!nary, but most effecti ve. pro­ The Order Chelonia of th(! Class Reptili a. tecttve box-like armour so characteristic of to which turtles and to rto ises belo ng, is the living turtles. The shell is readily di visible most characteri stic a nd na rrowly-defined into two parts- an upper, or dorsal, known group among the reptiles, and a ltho ugh it as the carapace, and a Jower. or ventral,

June, 1960 Page 191 ~all ed the plastron. The bony plates of the group has survived through a long pe . cara pace are formed mainly by a flattening of geological time to th~ present day flO

The shell of Meio­ lania before it wa shattered whi le being removed from the cliff base. Photo. - Fli1abcth C. Pope.

Page 192 The A ustralicm Museum Magazine through Tertiary times and became extinct in the Pleistocene period, only some thousa nds of years ago. The oldest form Museum Director's of the Meiolaniidae is Niolami.a, recorded from rocks of doubtful Cretaceous or Overseas Tour Eocene age in Patagonia. A slightly smaller form from Eocene rocks in Argen­ Dr. J. W. Evans. Director of the Austra­ lia n Museum, wbo has been awarded a tina was described in 1937 as Crossochelys. UNESCO Fellowship to study No trace of Meiolaniids was found in overseas. left Sydney on March 29 for Honolulu. accompanied by Mrs. Evans. post-Eocene Tertiary rocks until their After visiting several centres in tbe United appearance in supposed Pliocene deposits States Dr. and Mrs. E vans will travel to in a deep-lead at Gulgong. New South Europe where they will visit museums 1n Wales. The form of horned turtle in these the United Kingdom. Sweden. Holland. Switzerland and France. They will also deposits is known as Meiolania. It has also attend the International Entomological been collected from Pleistocene sediments Congress in Vienna in August and, before a.t Coolah, New South Wales, the Darling returning to Sydney early in October, will spend a month in Tokyo, where Dr. Evaos Downs. Queensland, and Lord Howe Island will be the Australian representative at a and Walpole Island , about 100 miles south­ UNESCO-sponsored Museums Conference. east of New Caledonia. The early discovered fossil remains of the various genera of the Meiolaniidae were terrestrial turtle and that the limb bones mainly fragmentary, and the Family has were adapted for progression on land. been placed by a uthors in both the other suborders of the Chelonia, the Pleurodira Important Find and the Cryptodira. A former Director of Several months ago Mr. Ray Missen. an the Australian M useum, the late Charles officer of the Meteorological Station on Lord Anderson, after an examination of fairly Howe Island, while searching for the fossil good fossil material, considered that it remains of Meiolania discovered what presented several noteworthy features which appeared to be a complete carapace and linked it with the Amphichelydia. He stated plastron partly projecting from a soft, sandy that ir was a "relict" form of the suborder deposit of Pleistocene a!!e near the base of which, after becoming extinct in other parts a cliff at Ned's Beach. After partial excava­ of the world, found its last home in several tion it was obvious that the specimen was a continents of the southern hemisphere. complete shell, with limb-bones, of Meio­ Horned turtles were unable to withdraw lania. their heads or necks within the shelter of the Realising the importance of this find , Mr. carapace in either a vertical or a horizontal M issen and Miss Elizabeth Pope, a Curator plane as is the case in the Pleurodira and the at the Australian Museum, who happened to Cryptodira. Their limbs resembled those of be on the island , began the task of complet­ river and marsh turtles, and it was generally ing the excavation of the shell and trying to considered that in all probability Meiolania remove it. A series of photographs was was a strong swimmer even though it Jacked taken while the large specimen was gradually the special adaptations found in most turtles being uncovered and before the final attempt which have achi eved a marine existence. at its removal. Unfortunately, storm waves Some authors, however, are of the opinion which had reached the base of the cliff the that it lived almost entirely on land . although night before had softened the sa nd stone they think it may have inhabited estua ries or matrix. When the base on which the shell have been shore-Jiving and could make rested (and it was of considerable thickness) short sea journeys. was raised it collapsed and completely In 1930. Dr. Anderson described some shattered the specimen. The innumerable fossil limb-bones of M eiolania from Lord small fragments are being forwarded to the Howe Island. H e said the structure of the Museum by Mr. Missen, and it is hoped that skeleton and its heavily-armoured condition in tim e they can be put together so that th e strongly indicated that it was essentiaUy a shell will be restored to its original shape.

June, 1960 P(lge 191 Ned's Beach, Lord Howc Island, where the Meiofania shell was found.

Photo. - Elizabeth C. Pope.

Any information that will be derived from virtually restricted to the southern hemi­ this importa nt discovery will be due solely sphere, being distributed in South America, to the enthusiasm of Mr. Missen, who not Southern India, Africa, Madagascar, New only discovered the specimen but devoted Guinea and Australia. much time to its excavation. The subo rde r Cryptodira includes most of The horned turtles of the Family Meio­ the living tortoises a nd turtles. The tortoises laniidae have frequently been used as one of which a re not known to have occurred the lines of evidence of a southern, more-or­ earlier than the Eocene period have well­ less direct, land connection between South developed feet and claws and a re still a America a nd the Australian continent. The flourishing group in most continents. value of this evidence depends almost entirely on whether these turtles were essentially terrestrial creatures or whether Giant Turtles they were equally at home in the sea and I t is genera lly considered that turtles even moderately good swimmers. It would during Triassic and J urassic times led an appear from the specimen at Lord H owe amphibious existence, but by the beginning Island that the shell was not heavily of the Cretaceous period certain groups had armoured and, in fact, it was comparatively rapidly become a dapted to a life which was thin and flattened. This would indica te that completely m a rine ; their swimming ability t he turtl e was perhaps a fairly good had increased a nd they were successfully swimmer, even though its limb-bones do not established as sea-living creatures. In the support this suggestion. early Tertiary period marine turtles bad The two rema ining suborders of the increased considerably and, as one would Chelonia, the Pleurodira and the Cryptodira, expect, certa in evolutionary changes bad were flourishing groups and were well esta b· taken place with their change from an lished at the end of the Cretaceous geologica l amphibio us mode of life. Some of the early period. In the Pleurodira the head and neck marine c ryptodires, such as Archelon and were bent latera lly in a horizonta l plane a nd Protostega, which inhabited the Cretaceous came to rest under a n eave-like extension of seas, a ttained great size and were at least 12 the shell structure when the turtle wished to ft. in length a nd weighed about three tons. protect itself. On the other ha nd, turtles of Inc rease in size sometimes accompanies a the Cryptodira withdrew their head s into the c ha nge of enviro nme nt. This happened with protection of the shell by an S-shaped curva­ ma rine turtles, but because of the buoyancy ture of the neck in a vertical plane. of the water, added weight is not a 'hand icap. Fossil remains of turtles of the Pleurodira On the othe r hand, however, there were are rare in Tertia ry sediments, and very few also evolutionary c ha nges which lessened forms a re still li ving. The existing forms are weight a nd reduced bone t issue and the bonY

Page 194 The Australinn Museum Maga zine A present-day " luth .. or " leather-back·· turtle. These may reach a length of 8 ft. and a weight of about 1,150 lb., but their ancestral forms were much Larger.

plates of the shell armour. The shell itself ceous rocks at Sylvania Station, 20 miles also became oenerall y more ft attem~d as an west of Hughenden, Queensland. This turtle aid in sw imm~g. The proximal bones of t ~1 e is represented by portions of the left limbs developed into short and powerful shoulder girdle, incomplete limb-bones and bones while the digits became elongated part of a plastron. These remains were and broadened to form swimming flippers. described in 191 5 by H. Longman, at one These changes a re the most noteworthy in time Director of the Queensland Museum, as the evolution of turtles. T hey took place Cratochelone berneyi, and from the bone earl y in the geological _histo ry of the group, proportions the turtle was estimated to have and si nce Cretaceous t1mes there have been been at least 12ft. in length. It is possible ~itt l e or no major structural modifications. that in the future further fossil remains of An Upper Cretaceous genus known as thi s interesting giant marine turtle wi ll be Che/one is represented in present-day seas found and more information gained by the G reen or Edible Turtle (Chelone regarding its structural features and pbylo­ mydas), and it is an excell ent example of the geny. oeneral conservatism of the group through a A small marine turtle, less than Ut. in foog period of geological history. length, has also been collected from Lower The li ving " luth.. or " leather-back" turtle Cretaceous rocks on the Flinders River, may attain a total length of at least 8~t. Queensland. This turtle is known only from and a weight of a bout l , l501bs., but 1ts an anterior portion of a carapace and ancestral forms of the early a nd middle plastron. It was described by Professor Tertiary were much larger. This marine Owen in 1882 as Notochelys costata, but has turtle's shell-armour has always been so since been referred to the genus Notoch­ much reduced in its bony elements that it e/one. has been suggested it is the most primitive group of turtles. Fossil evidence does not support this, however, as rema ins of "leather-backs" a re not found in any of the Norwegian Scientist's Visit Mesozoic rocks. Mr. I. Vigeland, a Norwegian scientist visiting Many of the marine turtles are fast and Australia to do research into growths of marine invertebrat·es which foul ship hulls, has spent powerful swimmers, though one might much time studying at the A ustralian Museum. expect that their general shape and the oar­ T he Museum has extensive coll ections of a par­ like movements of their limbs would make ticular group, the Bryozoa. which are especially them awkward. prominent among fouling organisms. Mr. Vige­ land comes from the Zoological Museum of Oslo Queensland Find and th-e Biological Station of Espegrend, Bergen. His visit to Australia was sponsored by the The fossil remains of a n early type of giant C.S.l.R.O. Division of Fisheries and Ocean­ marine turtle were found in Lower Creta- ography.

June, 1960 Page 195 A typical mayfly (mat­ ure male), showing the lengthened forelegs characteristic of the males of certain species. Slightly enlarged. After Comstock.

Mayflies

By DAYID K. McALPINE

M A YFLIES are not familiar to most aquatic life, and can swim and crawl active. people, as they do not generally occur ly. T he larvae of most species are somewhat in gardens nor do they interfere with crops like sil verfish in appearance, with a pair of of any kind. T hey are, nevertheless, quite long fil a mentous antennae and three pairs of common in suitable environments, such as tail filaments, as in the adults. Along each stream margins, and are intensely interest­ side of the abdomen is a series of leaf-like ing insects. They constitute one of the gills which are waved almost continuously. major groups or orders of insects, Epheme­ Thus, a current of water is constantly pass­ roptera. ing over them. It has been proved that, while in some kinds the gills definitely have A typical mayfly is a slender, delicately a respiratory function, there are species in built insect with large, transparent fore­ which no more oxygen is absorbed through wings, much shorter hindwings and two or the gill surface than through the rest of the three long filaments on the tail end. This body surface. In the latter case the gills insect may be found clinging to reeds or probably aid respiration by maintaining a fo liage overhanging a stream during the heat current of water over the body surface. of the day. At dusk or when the sky is overcast male mayfl ies may be seen fl ying T he larvae live in a variety of different in swarms over the water. T heir flight is habitats, but are confined to fresh and weak and they do not progress very notice­ usually clean water. The majority are to ably in the air, but tend to hover or move be found in running water, but during up and down. T heir wings are clea rJ y not droughts, when small creeks cease flowing, adapted for swift forward flight, nor can they may survive in stagnant pools. even they hover as efficiently as hover-fli es and when the water is discoloured by decaying hawk-moths. leaves. Some species habitually live in swamps, and I have seen larvae in pools When a female mayfly approaches the which were strongly discoloured with a per­ swarming males pairing takes place immedi­ manent suspension of yellow clay. There ately. Some kinds of mayflies have to lay are larvae which burrow into ri ver beds and their eggs within a very short time, as they may only be obtained by dredging. M?st only live an hour or two in the winged larvae are vegetable feeders, many obtain­ sta~e. Others live for a few days, or even ing microscopic p la nts from the detritus or weeks, and several hundred eggs are laid sludge on the creek bed. over a Longer period. As the larva grows it sheds its cuticle. or skin, periodically, as this part is incapable Leaf-like Gills of growth. Mayflies moult their skin more freq uently than do other insects; one species The eggs fall into the water, where they does so at least 23 times. In the early stages may adhere to stones. weed or other sub­ the wing buds appear as projecting l o~es merged objects. The larvae or nymphs on the thorax. which increase in size wtth which hatch from the eggs lead a wholl y each moult.

The Australian Museum Magazine After the larva has attained its full size vertically over the body or spread flat, the it ]eaves the water and crawls on to a stone former being the normal resting position. or the stem of a water p lant. H ere the insect emerges from the la rval skin and the wings Among the earliest known fossil insects are fully expanded. Though it can now fly there was abundance of such forms, as evi­ a short distance it has not yet reached the denced by thei r invariably stiffly spread adult state. T he wings are dull a nd almost wings. At present the vast majority of opaque. and the mature body colour and winged insects (wing-flexing insects) habitu­ structure a re not fully developed . The ally fold their wings along their bodies when insect at this stage is called a subimago. at rest, and o nly the mayflies and dragon­ The subimago. which is quiescent if undis­ fli es (non-wing-flexing insects) cannot do so. turbed. rema ins clinging to a bank or some Mayfli es have been found as very ancient foliage until ready to cast its final skin. The fossils, though they are not as ancient as subimaginal stage may last from a few the more highly evolved cockroaches. minutes to 24 hours, after which the final Mayfli es are not the only insects which moult occurs a nd the mature insect, or take no food after reaching maturity. They imago, fli es off. The entire li fe cycle may a re. however, the onl y insects which fill their take one to three years, depending on the entire gut with air so that it increases their species. Most of this time is occupied in buoyancy in flight. Air is taken in through the aquatic larval state. the mouth, and the stomach is converted Mayflies a re unique a mong insects in hav­ into a kind of storage balloon. ing two fully winged stages. All other insects have no furthe r moult after attain­ Undiscovered Species ing the fl ying stage. lt has been suggested that these two stages are cha racteristic of Many kinds of Australian mayflies are the most ancient winged insects, and have now known, but most of these are from the been retained only in mayflies among south-east of the continent. Though the present-day insects. Another ancient trait number of species is undoubtedly greatest of mayflies is their inability to fold the wi ngs on the well-watered east coast there must be along the body. The wings can only be held many yet to be discovered in Australia.

The larvae of three kinds of mayflies : a free-swimm ing form (left) , a rock-dwelling form (centre) , with two gil ls more highly magnified, a nd a burrowing fo rm. All much e nlarged. A fter Tillyard.

J1me, 1960 Page 197 The only claim of mayflies to economic importance is the fact that both adults and larvae are eaten in large numbers by fresh­ water fishes, especially trout. Many of the "flies" used by fishermen are replicas of mayflies. Where rivers have been stocked with introduced trout many of the mayfly species seem doomed to extinction, for they cannot breed quickly enough to make up for the ravages of the fish. It is probable, therefore, that many species will be extinct before they are made known to science.

Because such a short time is passed as a winged insect it is much easier to find may­ fly larvae than adults. The adults of a species may all emerge within a few days . of each other at a certain time of the year, so that only by visiting the habitat on the l right date will they be seen. Consequently, there are numerous kinds only known from the larvae.

Undoubtedly the most interesting may­ Larva (above) and female subimago (below) flies of which the adult makes a very fl eet­ of an aberrant mayfly, Prosopistoma africa­ ing appearance are those of the genus num (East Africa) . Length of larva a quarter Prosopistoma, which occurs in E urope, of an inch, of subimago a seventh of an inch. Africa, Madagascar and the East Indies. The larva is of very peculiar shape. T he After Gillics. thorax is enlarged into a shield-l ike cara­ pace which covers the whole of the insect, except the head and the tip of the abdomen, and encloses the gills in a branchial cham­ ber. The appearance is, indeed, most unlike other mayfly larvae. It is not surprising. therefore, that its true nature was not at first realised, for when first discovered in France in 1762 it was thought to belong to the Crustacea, that large group of animals which indudes the crabs, shrimps, crayfish and their allies. Even as late as 1833, when Latrielle bestowed on it the name Prosopis­ toma, it was still thought to be a branchio­ pod crustacean.

Though later in the nineteenth century it was rediscovered and recognized as a may­ fly larva the winged form had still not been seen, and some thought that it reproduced and died in the aquatic phase. Vayssiere. in 1881, was abl e to discount this idea when he reared two female subimagos in captivity and exoressed the ooinion that this might be the finztl stage of the species, as the speci­ mens died in a short time without further rage 198 The Australian Museum Magazine change. Vayssiere was criticized by some and dies as a subimago. Furthermo re the for his assumption. while others completely legs of the female subimago are so p~o rl y overlooked hi s wo rk. developed as to be useless and to prevent it Quite recently M. T. G illies. wo rking with settling again after emergence. Ad-ults were an African species. o nce aga in reared the only seen in the 45 minutes immediately winged forms. publi shing his work in 1954. follo wi ng dawn, and it is assumed that this Gillies showed that the wo rk of Vayssiere is the fu ll life-span of the post-larval stages. was substantiall y accurate. The male reaches [t is no wonder that they had not been the im ago stage while the female reproduces encountered before by collectors.

''THE VERTEBRATE TREE"

c-. . i- .. . .: :J.. • ...... ~ ...... lor :_ --~ .. ·.

lfiYIA!IUS Wlfl{ 81tCK80fVES

A unique new exhibit, " The Vertebrate Tree,'' has been installed at the head of the main stairway of the A ustra lia n Museum, facing the entrance. Constructed of welded steel, it shows the inter-rela ti onships of the main groups of an imals with backbone and the geolo­ gical periods at which pa rticular evolutionary developments took place. T he figures of anima ls are silhouetted against a background of translucent fib reglass, behind which 60 fluo rescent tubes provide the lighting. T he exhibit is part o ( the Museum's commemoration of the centena ry o f the publication of Charles D arw in's book. •· The Origin of Species:· and is complem entary to a previo usly completed exhibit, " These Are lnvertebrates," which shows the inter-rela ti o nships of Lh e main groups of animals without backbones. Pho to.-Howard Hughes.

June. 1960 Page 199 The Fresh-water Crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni). a small species which inhabits the rivers and lagoons of northern Austra lia.

Crocodiles And Their /(in

By HAROLD C. COGCER

CROCODILES belong to an ancient repti- One of the perennial questions asked of lian order, the Crocodilia, the members the Museum is " What is the difference of which first occurred in the J urassic between a crocodil e and an alligator, and period, about 150,000,000 years ago. Many are there any alligators in Australia?" of these early crocodilians were quite unlike T he answer to the first part of this modern forms. being enormous creatures question is that there are a number of rather which walked upright on their hind legs. specialized structural differences between an Modern members of the order, however, alligator a nd a crocodile, one of the most are generally divided into four groups­ obvious (but not the most important) being crocodiles, alligators, caimans and gavials. that in the latter the fourth tooth in the Crocodiles may be distinguished by their lower jaw fits into a notch in the upper jaw moderately long, tapering, rather triangular­ and is still visible when the mouth is closed. shaped snouts. T hey occur in Africa and In alligators, however, the fourth tooth fits: Madagascar and through I ndia and Ma laysia into a socket and is rarely visible when the to northern Australia; t h e re~ are also mouth is closed. several species in tropical South America, with only one species reaching the southern No Alligators In Australia United States. The second part of the question is often True alligators are blunt-nosed forms confused by the fact that Australian croco­ which occur only in the south-eastern corner dile hunte rs refer to the estuarine or sea­ of the United States and in China. going crocodile (Crocodyl us porosus) as a Caimans. which are relatively blunt-nosed " 'gator", to distinguish it from the smaller forms similar to alligators, are fo und only fresh-water crocodile (Crocodylus john­ in South America. Gavials, on the other stmu'). This is, of course, erroneous. for hand, have very long slender snouts, and they a re both true crocodil es and the only occur only in India and Malaya. crocodilians found in Australia.

Page 200 The A ustra/ian Museum M aeazine- Heads or thl.! two species of crocodiles found in Australia. Ldl: the F resh-water C rocodile (Crocodylus johns1011i), which g rows to about 8 tl. tn length. R t ~ l11: the L::stuarinc C rocodile (C. porosus), beli eved to reach 30 ft.

('. porosus, as its common names would fi ve fingers which are webbed only at their imply. is found la rgely in estua rine waters. base. The hind limb, however, has only and commo nly ta kes to the open sea. lt is four toes. usually with extensive webbing wid ely distributed fro m India to Southern between them. China. Ma laysia. New Guinea and no rthern The a mo unt of webbing is largely corre­ Austra li a. C. johnstoni is fo und o nly in the la ted with function. In swimming. the fore ri vers of no rthe rn Austra lia. limbs a re folded back along the body to A ltho ugh there a re some structura l provide minimum resistance to the body's d ifferences between the various kinds of motion through the water, and urnder such crocodilians. they a ll possess a number of conditio ns webbing would be of little value. features in cornmo n. Their skin is very ln rapid movement through the water the thick a nd leathery. and is strengthened o n hind limbs are similarly placed. and the th e back by a series of clo e-set bony plates motive power is o btained from the swishing termed "osteoderms... These bones are of the large, compressed , muscular tail. situated just below the surface of the skin, H owever. when a crocodilian is quietly and a rc to a large extent responsible for the fl oating the webbed. rather duck-1 ike hind well-known abili ty of crocodilia ns to d efl ect feet a re moved slowly. and by "treading a JX)werful blow o r bullet. Simila rly, the water" in this way the animal can remain soft er underside of a c rocodilian i partly in the same spot fo r a lo ng time. From protected by a seri es of gastralia. o r this it can be seen that the webbing o n the "abdominal ribs ... which are no t a ttached to hind feet i, a di tinct ad vaJJtage. Another the main ~ke l c t on . point is that in the breeding season the As nntc..:d earlie r. the fo rm of the snout female use her fo refeet to excavate a nest­ va ries considerably. However. the jaw a re ing chamber. a nd it can be appreciated that invariably equipped with num e ro~1 s stro ng. delicate webbing would be quickly rendered sharp teeth ' hi eh a re used o nly for grasp­ u ele s in such a process if the feet were ing their prc . a nd no t fo r che\ ing. as the extensi ely webbed. rood is :'i\~' u ll m ed whole. The ·e tee(h a re ~o n s tn n tl _ replaced. Valves In Nostrils T he limbs. tho ugh relatively sho rt. a re The nostrils are on the upper urface of a thick-set. powerful and equipped ,, ith sma ll mound on the ti p of the nour. Small strong claws. T ~1icnll_ . the fore limb ha flaps of ti ue in them act a valves to close

lt/11(', l960 Page 201 off the respiratory passages when the croco­ the breeding season. They occur in both dilian is submerged. So that the animal can sexes. One pair is situated on the throat open its jaws under water to feed witho ut one on the inner side of each of the Jowe; ta king water into its throat, there is a fold jaws. T heir secretions empty into a pocket of tissue on the upper surface of the base o r sac (for storage) , which in turn reaches of the tongue which meets a similar fold on the exterior by a slit-like o pening on the the palate and closes off the mouth from the outside of the throat. Another pair of respiratory passages. As a further adapta­ glands is situated inside the vent, and is tion to breathing with the mouth open, the not visible from the o utside. The secretions bones on the roof of the mo uth form a com­ from these gla nds a re apparently important plete secondary palate, as in mammals, . so in sex recognitio n and locatio n. that the passage from the nostrils enters the [nternally there a re a number of features throat behind the level of the two folds of of particular interest from the evolutionary ti ssue. In this way a crocodilian is able to point of view. These include the complete lie in the wa ter with only the tip of its snout divison of the ventricle of the heart (with above the surface, at the same time leaving its resulta nt effects on the circulation of the its jaws open in readiness to take its p rey. blood), the high development of the lungs. Although the animals can catch their food and a no n-muscular " diaphragm" which under water. they almost invariably hold separates the tho racic from the abdominal their heads above the surface when cavity. This " dia phragm" is continuous swallowing it. with a diaphragmatic muscle, wh ich When fl oating with only the tips of their apparently assists in respiration. snouts o r the tops of their bodies above the surface they are often mistaken for floating logs. Female Lays 70 Eggs Another important fea ture of crocodilians In Austra lia the breeding season extends is the presence of scent glands. wh!ch fro m October to December, the females achieve their greatest develo pment dunng coming asho re at this time to lay their eggs

Some c haracteristics of crocodiles: I. Scent glands o n the th roat. 2. The forefoot, showing the five toes wi thout webbing. 3. The hind foot , with the fo ur toes extensively webbed. 4. The longitudinal vent, unique among present-day reptiles. 5. The folds of tissue which seal off the respiratory passages from the mouth when the c rocodile is submerged.

Paxe 202 The A IIStralian M11seum tvt agazine in a shallow ho le scraped o ut by their fore­ which comes to the water's edge to drink or feet in the soft earth of a river bank. Here bathe. Once caught. an animal is dragged the female lays 70 or more eggs (in the case into the water and held beneath the surface of the estuarine crocodile). each about 3ins. until it drowns, when it can be eaten at long. and then covers them with soil and leisure. ]eaves. It has been reported that in certain foreign species the femal~ remains in the Man-Killers vicinity of the nest, guardmg the eggs until they hatch. This is not known to occur in Although few crocodiles are considered a menace to man, there are two species either of the Australian species, however, which merit attention in this regard. Per­ the females taking no further interest in the haps the most notorious is the Estuarine eggs once they are laid. The eggs ~re incu­ C rocodile, large specimens of which have bated by the warmth of the trop1cal sun, been known to kill and eat both adults and together with that produced by the decay­ children. The African Crocodile (Croco­ ing vegetable matter scraped back into the dylus nifoticus) is also a species which has nest by the female. a nasty man-eating record. Some writers The eggs usually take between five and have suggested that individ ual crocodiles, eight weeks to hatch, the young cutting once they have learned that humans are their way out of the leathery, parchment­ relatively defenceless prey, become invete­ like shell with a special "egg-tooth" on the rate man-eaters. Certainly. there are enough tip of the snout. T his tooth is lost soon authentic records of both successful and after bi rth. The young burrow through the unsuccessful man-eating attempts by Austra­ nest to the surface. a nd immediately make lia's C. porosus to cause it to be treated for the water. The newly-hatched young of with the greatest caution. C. porosus are about 11 ins. in length. Despite many reports to the contrary, the Most of the young crocodiles fall prey to alligator is a relatively docile and sl uggish a va riety of animals, such as the larger fish. creature, although, like the crocodil es, it lizards. birds and mammals. T hey are often can show an amazing turn of speed either eaten by larger specimens of their own kind. when threatened or pursuing its p rey. It Adult crocodiles. however, have few becomes very tame in captivity. and even in enemies other than man. who hunts them its native haunts is not generally considered for their skin, which makes a tough and a menace, for it has rarely been known to decorati ve leather. fn ma ny countries both attack a man. crocodiles and their eggs are prized as food Crocodil es, however, are the very essence by the natives. of savagery and viciousness. this tempera­ ment being usually exhibited by young and . A l t ~ ough crocodiles spend most of their t1me m the water. they often emerge on to adult alike. a nd even in specimens whi ch the banks of streams a nd inlets and on have been long in captivity. to sandbars, to bask in the sun. If dist~rbed, they quickly make fo r the water Crocodiles' Size a_gam, and. despite their massiveness, can The si7e of crocodilians varies consider­ hft thei r bodies well off the ground and ably. Most crocodil es and the American move away rapidly. a lligator seldom reach a length of more than Most species feed la rgely on fis h, but also 15 ft. The Indian Gavial (Gavialis gange­ ~at a wide variety of other animals, includ­ ticus) is believed to attain a length of nearly mg frogs. tortoises. lizards, snakes, birds 30 ft; fortunately this species is rather timid and mammals. and feeds almost entirely on fish. The Crocodil es usually catch such prey as African C rocodile and the Madagascar wate.r birds by remaining submerged and Crocodile (C. robustus) are both believed mo.v•ng stealthily to a point below the bird. to grow to about 25 ft. in length, whil e the ~ h1 ch , unaware of the crocodile's presence, Estuarine C rocodile has been recorded as 1 ~ ~uickly seized in the powerful jaws. reaching mo re than 30 ft. ~.•mtlarly. by lying submerged the crocodile . ln the Americas. the largest crocodilian •s able to grasp any anima l (including man) tS the Black Caiman (C'aiman niger) of

June. 1960 Page 203 tropical South America ; this spec1es 500 years. Unfort':'nate.ly, it is difficult to probably grows to nearly 20 ft. in length. obtam a n authenttc figure, for little is T he Fresh-water Crocodile of northern known concerning either absolute age or Australia has a maximum size of about 8 growth rates. However, in captivity it has ft. been found that newly-born alligators (7 ins. in length) reach sexual maturity and a It should be mentioned, however, that the length of more than five feet within five sizes recorded in this article are generally years, so it appears that growth (at least in based on records made during the last the early years) may be more rapid than century; because of activities of skin-hunters was previously believed. Nevertheless, once and others, it is most unlikely that such a size of about lOft. is attained annual enormous specimens could survive and be growth is usually very small. For this found today. reason, most writers consider that crocodiles The age to which crocodiles li ve has been probably achieve an age of 50-100 years, a subject of some contention. Some earli er but perhaps one should not rule out the writers have blandly stated that crocodiles possibility that very large specimens may be commonly live to a ripe old age of more than close to 200 years of age. 1,000 years. Others, more conservative, say [Photos by the author]

Origin of Museum's Whale Skeleton

The skeleton of a whale which h as been seen the m ammal as "fish royal," and won the resul­ by so many visitors to the Australian Museum tant ch ancery suit after citing a similar case in over the years has an interesting history. The J677, in which the then lord of the manor bad whale, 35 ft. long and weighing more than four been awarded the prize. T h e C urator of th ~ tons, was found stranded in shallow water off Australian Museum, D r. E. P. Ramsay, who was Foulness, Essex, England, on November 2, 1883, in England at the time, bought the whale from by two b~·ot h ers , Harry and Waiter P age, who Sir H~nr y. Reporting o n it to the Trustees of were fishing for sprat. I t took the brothers and the Museum, he w rote : " ... . one from the many helpers two days to haul it ashore at South­ coast of England, belonging to the extremely rare end-on-Sea with h arpoons and ropes. The brothers species known as Rudolphi's Wha le (Balaenoptera exhibited the whale to the public in a field at the back of a hotel. and were doing very w~ ll finan­ corealis ) , of which I had the good fortune to cially when the lord of the manor, Sir H enry s·.ecure a spec1men in the flesh before leaving Mildmay, heard about it. He promptly claimed London .. .."

Japanese Visit Museum Check-list of Fishes When the M.V. Koyo Maru, a training and Mr. Richard Slack-Smith. of the Fisheries and research ship of the Shimonoseki Coll ege of Game Department, Melbourne, visited the Aus­ Fisheries, Japan. was in Sydney last D ecember, t ralian Museum in January to ins pect specimens Captain Minami, Professor Isao Matsui, inter­ of freshwater ns hes. H e is a lso preparing a preters and 72 cadets visited the Australian check-list of the coral fishes of H eron Island, Museum and were shown the collections. Queensland.

Pagz 204 T h e Australian Museum Magazine