Witchcraft, Violence and Everyday Life: an Ethnographic Study of Kinshasa

WITCHCRAFT, VIOLENCE AND EVERYDAY LIFE: AN ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY OF KINSHASA A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY SILVIA DE FAVERI COLLEGE OF BUSINESS, ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, MEDIA AND COMMUNICATIONS DIVISION OF ANTHROPOLOGY BRUNEL UNIVERSITY OCTOBER 2014 Abstract The inhabitants of Kinshasa, who call themselves Kinois, deal with insecurity and violence on a daily basis. Cheating and thefts are commonplace, and pillaging by street gangs and robberies by armed thieves are everyday occurrences. The state infrastructure is so poorly regulated that deaths by accident or medical negligence are also common. This, and much more, contributes to a challenging social milieu within which the Kinois’ best hope is simply to ‘make do’. This thesis, based on extensive fieldwork in Kinshasa, analyses different forms of violence which affect the Kinois on a daily basis. I argue that the Kinois’ concept of violence, mobulu, differs from Western definitions, which define violence as an intrinsically negative and destructive force. Mobulu is for the Kinois a potentially constructive phenomenon, which allows them to build relationships, coping strategies and new social phenomena. Violence is perceived as a transformative force, through which people build meaningful lives in the face of the hardship of everyday life. Broadly speaking, this thesis contributes to the Anthropology of violence which has too often focused on how violence is imposed upon a population, often from a structural level of a state and its institutions. Such an approach fails to account for the nuances of alternate perspectives of what ‘violence’ is, as evidenced in this thesis through the prism of the Kinois term mobulu. The concept of mobulu highlights the creativity of those forced to ‘make do’ on the streets of Kinshasa, to negotiate not only every day physical needs, for food and shelter, but also to navigate the mystical violence of witchcraft. By exploring the coping mechanisms across all sections of society, I analyse how the Kinois not only have built their lives in the wake of the violence of the state, but they have also found means of empowerment within it, using mobulu as a springboard for the development of some social phenomena. Whereas the anthropology of violence has focused mainly on physical and material violence, this thesis also argues that mobulu in Kinshasa is a total social fact that combines state violence with everyday violence, and physical violence with the invisible violence of witchcraft. This thesis seeks to enrich discussions on witchcraft in Kinshasa and in the African context in general, by analysing in depth how the cosmology of Kinshasa has differentiated itself as a result of the politico-economic events of recent decades. As witchcraft and material insecurity go hand in hand, a detailed analysis of the mechanisms of witchcraft is necessary, if we are to grasp the complexity of the concept of mobulu and how material and invisible violence inform each other. i Contents ABSTRACT I CONTENTS II LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES V NOTES ON CURRENCY AND TERMINOLOGY VI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS VII MAP 1. REGIONAL MAP OF THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO IX MAP 2. KINSHASA, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO X - CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 1 SITING MY THESIS IN KINSHASA 3 MOBULU: VIOLENCE AS A CATALYST FOR SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 8 ANTHROPOLOGISTS, STRUCTURAL VIOLENCE AND EVERYDAY VIOLENCE 11 GAP IN THE THEORY: WITCHCRAFT IN EVERYDAY LIFE 18 RUMOURS AND GOSSIP IN LA CITÉ 23 SETTING AND METHODOLOGY: DEALING WITH MOBULU IN MAMAN YEMO 27 THESIS OUTLINE 33 - CHAPTER TWO - CITY OF YOUTH: KINSHASA, MOBULU AND YOUNG PEOPLE’S MOVEMENTS 36 CONTEXTUALISING YOUNG PEOPLE IN AFRICA 39 THEORIZING THE CITY IN AFRICA 42 LEOPOLDVILLE’S DEVELOPMENT AND UNEXPECTED TURMOIL: THE BILLS 44 TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE: THE ÉVOLUÉS AND THE FIRST SAPEURS 49 MOBUTU’S INSTITUTIONALISED THEFT AND ‘MAKING DO’ STRATEGIES 52 ON SAPEURS, KIBILLS AND WITCH-CHILDREN 54 FROM MOBUTU TO JOSEPH KABILA: THE KINOIS AMIDST MOBULU AND WITCHCRAFT 58 CONCLUSION 61 - CHAPTER THREE - ‘MAKING DO’: ECONOMIC INVENTIVENESS IN FACE OF MOBULU 64 AN INTRODUCTION TO INFORMAL ECONOMY 67 LA DÉBROUILLE WITHIN THE PUBLIC SECTOR 71 MAKING DO IN MAMAN YEMO BETWEEN 2010 AND 2011 75 LA COOP: OF SKIMMING MONEY AND COMMISSIONING AGENTS 81 CREDIT MECHANISMS: PAPER CREDIT CARDS AND SHADOW BANKS 86 ii ROTATING CREDIT ASSOCIATIONS: LIKELEMBA AND MOZIKI 87 A SAVING SYSTEM: ‘THROWING THE CARD’ 89 MICRO LENDING THROUGH LOAN SHARKS: BANQUE LAMBERT 89 CONCLUSION 93 - CHAPTER FOUR - KULUNAS: VIOLENCE AND INSECURITY IN THE STREETS OF KINSHASA 95 THE LOCAL CONTEXT OF CRIME 99 THE ORIGINS OF KULUNAS 102 VIOLENCE, BODILY CAPITAL AND MASCULINITY 106 KULUNAS: IN NEED OF MILITARY METAPHORS 110 SECURITY FORCES AND KULUNAS: A PROFITABLE CO-OPERATION 113 MORAL GEOGRAPHIES AND FIGURES OF POWER: THE FOREST AND THE SOLDIER 118 CONCLUSION 122 - CHAPTER FIVE - LA MAGIE: UNDERSTANDING WEALTH THROUGH THE LENSES OF THE OCCULT 124 THE WORLD OF WITCHCRAFT IN KINSHASA: KINDOKI, THE NGANGA AND MAGIE 128 A SUSPICIOUS DEATH: ON LA MAGIE AND DIAMONDS 134 FREEMASONRY AND JAPANESE SPIRITUAL PRACTICES: FROM THE WEST TO AFRICA 138 LA MAGIE, MODERNITY AND PROGRESS 142 THE SIDE EFFECTS OF LA MAGIE 146 A SUSPICIOUS DEATH 2: OF DEATH, MONEY AND A CLIMBER PLANT 147 CONCLUSION 150 - CHAPTER SIX - HOUSEHOLDS IN KINSHASA: BETWEEN FLUIDITY AND RELUCTANT SOLIDARITY 152 FROM THE UNILINEAL FAMILY TO THE COLONIAL INVENTION OF THE NUCLEAR FAMILY 156 THE NOTION OF THE FAMILY IN CONTEMPORARY KINSHASA 159 YOUNG PEOPLE’S FLUIDITY IN THE INFORMAL ECONOMY 160 YOUNG PEOPLE’S FLUIDITY IN MARRIAGE: MODERN FORMS OF ALLIANCE 161 SHORTENED MARRIAGE (MARIAGE RACCOURCI) 164 ‘STAYING TOGETHER’ (YAKA TOVANDA) OR ‘FREE UNION’ (UNION LIBRE) 165 THE MARIO PHENOMENON 168 FROM MODERN ALLIANCES TO MODERN DOMESTIC UNITS: THE EXO-HOUSEHOLD 169 FROM ‘AFRICAN SOLIDARITY’ TO ‘RELUCTANT SOLIDARITY’ 171 iii THE TACTICAL USE OF KINSHIP TERMS 172 JOSEPH AND JULIA: AN EXO-HOUSEHOLD IN EXPANSION 174 CONCLUSION 182 - CHAPTER SEVEN - KINDOKI, THE INVISIBLE VIOLENCE OF WITCHCRAFT 184 WITCH-CHILDREN: INTERMEDIARIES OF WITCHCRAFT 187 VULNERABLE YET DANGEROUS: CONTEXTUALISING WITCH-CHILDREN IN CHILDHOOD STUDIES 191 INTERGENERATION TENSIONS: KINDOKI WITHIN THE FAMILY 199 FROM CARERS TO BREADWINNERS: WOMEN AS LIMINAL, WOMEN AS WITCHES. 207 STREET-CHILDREN: VICTIMS AND EXPLOITERS OF HUMANITARIAN AGENCIES 210 CONCLUSION 212 - CHAPTER EIGHT - CONCLUSION 215 CONTEXTUALISING MOBULU, CONTEXTUALISING VIOLENCE 218 KINDOKI AND LA MAGIE AS CATALYSTS OF MOBULU 224 REFERENCES 230 iv List of Maps and Figures Maps Map 1: Regional Map of the Democratic Republic of Congo Map 2: Map of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo Figures Figure 1: A street in our neighbourhood, Maman Yemo Figure 2: The population of Maman Yemo according to region of provenance (2009 census) Figure 3: Street barbershop Figure 4: Stall for recharging mobile phones in case of electricity cuts Figure 5: Food stalls in Maman Yemo Figure 6: Selling bread at the stall of Jacques Kinyongo and Carine Monssengo Figure 7: Figures of success in young people’s imaginary Figure 8: A DVD on “The Illuminati”, Alibaba Production, made in Iraq Figure 9: Gift exchange during a bridewealth ceremony Figure 10: Number of exo-households on a sample of twenty living units in Maman Yemo Figure 11: Kinship terminology in Kinshasa Figure 12: Julia, Joseph and their respective households, August 2008 Figure 13: During the last months of Julia’s pregnancy, December 2008 – March 2009 Figure 14: After Julia’s childbirth, April 2009 Figure 15: After my arrival, January 2010 Figure 16: One year after my departure, June 2012 Figure17: Children as intermediaries of witchcraft accusations between generations and between exo-households. v Notes on currency and terminology Congolese francs (CDF) and US dollars ($) were both used in circulation in Kinshasa, the currency quoted varying according to the amount of money spent. For small everyday purchases such as transport and food, Congolese francs would be used, whilst larger payments were often made in US dollars. The exchange rate at the time of fieldwork was 910 Congolese francs for every $1. Throughout this thesis, mentions of ‘Congo’ specifically refer to the Democratic Republic of Congo, as opposed to the nearby Republic of Congo. Words quoted in the vernacular language of Kinshasa, Lingala, shall be italicised and translated accordingly throughout this text. vi Acknowledgments My research was made possible thanks to the Isambard Doctoral Scholarship by Brunel University. I consider myself extremely lucky to have been assisted by several insightful people before, during and after my fieldwork in Kinshasa. First of all, I am extremely grateful to my supervisors, Nicolas Argenti and Isak Niehaus, for their academic and personal support during this long journey. They both provided invaluable comments and encouraged me enormously through every step of my research. Their different, yet equally valid, approaches to my work have definitely enriched this thesis. I am extremely indebted to both of them. So many people helped me with the research during my fieldwork in Kinshasa. In 2007 I was lucky to be hosted by the Italian Missionaries of La Consolata. In particular, I would like to thank Father Mario Barbero and Father Symphorien Fumwasendji who warmly welcomed me to Kinshasa and put me in contact with those who would later become key participants in my fieldwork. I would also like to thank the Director of ORPER (Œuvre de Reclassement et de Protection des Enfants de la Rue), Alpha Mazenga, for letting me collaborate with the organisation and collect data. The staff were incredibly helpful. I want to thank in particular Guylain Nzuzi, Blaise Mulumba, Frédéric Matadi, Bobette Gendumba, Alain-Pierre Muzongo and the staff of the night-patrol team. Words are not enough to describe how grateful I am towards the couple who hosted me in Kinshasa between 2010 and 2011, Joseph Mutambu and Julia Wembi, and how much I admire them.

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