The Medieval Cardinal Virtues in Tolkien’s The Hobbit

BA Thesis Anne Sieberichs Student Number: 1271233 Online Culture: Art, Media and Society / Global Communication / Digital Media Department of Culture Studies School of Humanities and Digital Sciences Date: July 2020 Supervisor: Dr. Inge van der Ven Second Reader: Dr. Sander Bax ‘There is a lot more in him than you guess, and a deal more than he has any idea of himself.’1

1 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 19.

2 Table of contents 1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………. 4 1.1 Method………………………………………………………………………………… 5 1.2 Previous Research on Tolkien………………………………………………………….7 1.3 Tolkien’s Opus and The Hobbit………………………………………………………. 8 2.0 A Short History of Cardinal Virtues in the Middle Ages………………………………………9 3.0 Medieval Cardinal Virtues in Tolkien’s opus………………………………………………….11 3.1 Christianity and Tolkien……………………………………………………………….11 3.2 Prudence: ‘For even the very wise cannot see all ends.’2……………………………...12 3.2.1 Gandalf the prudent in The Hobbit………………………………………….15 3.3 Justice: ‘There is more in you of good than you know, child of the kindly West.’ 3….17 3.3.1 the case of Justice through the Arkenstone in The Hobbit………………….18 3.4 Fortitude: ‘But I expect they had lots of chances, like us, of turning back, only they didn’t.’4…………………………………………………………………………………….21 3.4.1. Fortitude: A case study of Bilbo’s Fortitude in The Hobbit………………… 24 3.5 Temperance: ‘If more of us valued food and cheer and song above hoarded gold, it would be a merrier world.’5………………………………………………………………. 27 3.5.1 Humble Characters of The Hobbit…………………………………………. 28 4.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………...31 5.0 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………….... 34 6.0 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………35

2 J.R.R Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2014), 61. 3J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 263. 4 J.R.R Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2014), 729. 5J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 263.

3 1.0 Introduction

“There is more in you of good than you know, child of the kindly West. Some courage and some wisdom, blended in measure. If more of us valued food and cheer and song above hoarded gold, it would be a merrier world.” 6

In modern fantasy literature, the recurrent theme is often the hero going on a quest of good against evil. To battle this ethical fight, one can make an appeal on justice, fortitude, prudence and temperance as shown through Tolkien’s quote in The Hobbit. John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was not only the writer of the high fantasy works such as Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit but also an academic in English literature and culture. In his fictional novels, he created a new fantasy world, called ‘Arda’ or ‘Middle- Earth’, which is inhabited by various species such as Elves, Dwarfs, Men, Orcs and Hobbits. With his successes of incorporating the fantasy genre in his works, the Oxford Companion to English Literature has called him ‘the greatest influence within the fantasy genre.’7 Tolkien’s writing created renewed popularity for the fantasy genre. At the same time, his works are also heavily influenced by medieval narratives. In them, medieval ethic is an important recurrent theme. Prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance formed the antique cardinal virtues, 8 which became Christianized during the Middle Ages. This thesis will examine to what extent the medieval, cardinal virtues influence the narrative of Tolkien’s The Hobbit. The comparison between the Middle Ages and Tolkien can be explained by the influences of the medieval romances that can be found on several levels in Tolkien’s oeuvre. On the character level we have one of Tolkien’s main characters in The Hobbit, Gandalf, connecting to many sources of mythologies of many nations, such as Merlin of the Britons, Odin of the Norsemen and Hermes of the Greeks. Literary criticist David Day suggests that Gandalf is an archetypal character who takes on the form of a wandering old man in a grey cloak carrying a staff. Gandalf is highly comparable to these mythological figures as he also serves as a guide to the hero helping the hero to win against impossible odds while using supernatural powers.9 This intermingling of Tolkien’s and historical characters and narratives can be explained by the metaphor of soup-making, presented by Tolkien in his essay ‘On Fairies’. He mentions the following on the topic:

6 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (London: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 263. 7 Dinah Birch, The Oxford Companion to English Literature, seventh edition (United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2009), 360. 8 Mayke de Jong, Epitaph for an Era: Politics and Rhetoric in the Carolingian World (The Netherlands: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 106. 9 David Day, A dictionary of Sources of Tolkien (United Kingdom: Octopus Publishing Group, 2019), 156.

4 ‘Speaking of the history of stories and especially of fairy-stories we may say that the Pot of Soup, the Cauldron of Story, has always been boiling, and to it have continually been added new bits, dainty and undainty.’ 10

The comparison between Gandalf and Merlin of the Britons is therefore not an odd one. Cardinal virtues, originating from the Antique period, played a big part during the Middle Ages in the formation of morals and ethics and also made their entrance in medieval narratives. For instance, the Arthurian legends carry a narrative of the struggle of good against evil in an enchanted world. However, they also carry a narrative of the religious or the spiritual quest for the Holy Grail.11 As the cardinal virtues are more connected to this religious struggle of the own moral self, these are considered highly relevant in the quest of medieval ethics. Moreover, King Arthur himself struggles with these virtues, as he is presented as a noble and courageous man, though he is also prey to very human fits of anger, jealousy and lust.12 These similarities make it interesting how these cardinal, medieval ethics also come forward in this ‘twentieth-century medieval romance’ of Tolkien’s Middle Earth. Literature that does not have a specific religious subject can still carry a religious message to some extent. It is therefore informative to analyze whether Tolkien’s opus has an underlying religious or moral message which we take for granted due to a Christianized culture.

1.1. Method To examine the cardinal virtues in Tolkien’s The Hobbit, this thesis will use the method of new historicism. This method is based ‘on the parallel reading of literary and non-literary texts, usually of the same historical period.’13 This method entails that the creation of a single author is not solely a fictional account, but also a social product ‘that is inextricably bound to the patchwork ‘mastertext’ of the culture that produced it.’14 The movement was primarily developed by English professor Stephen Greenblatt, who argues that one can conduct analyses of literary texts in certain historical moments.15 Neema Parvini in her book Shakespeare and Contemporary Theory gives an interesting overview what the method assumes: 1. That there is no ‘human essence’ and that every expressive act is embedded in a network of material practices in a particular time and place.

10 J.R.R Tolkien, “On Fairies,” in The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays (UK: HarerCollinsPublishers, 2006), 125. 11 David Carr, “Spiritual, Moral and Heroic Virtue: Aristotelian Character in the Arthurian and Grail narratives,” in Journal of Beliefs & Values, Vol. 24, No.1, 2003, 18. 12 Ibid., 19. 13 Peter Barry, Beginning theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory, second edition (United Kingdom: Manchester University Press, 2002), 173. 14 Neema Parvini, Shakespeare and Contemporary Theory: New Historicism and Cultural Materialism (United Kingdom: Bloomsbury, 2012), 91. 15 Ibid., 91.

5 2. That culture has the structural properties of a text and can therefore be analysed in the same way as a text. 3. That literary texts are inextricably bound to this cultural text through a network of other texts and discourses, all of which are open to the same form of analysis. 4. That power will always seek to contain dissidence and that this drive for containment must be overcome if genuine subversion is to be achieved. 5. That it is possible to produce ‘counter-histories’, that is, histories that explore what is only glimpsed or ignored in dominant historical accounts, through an engagement with the ‘real’ lived experiences of people, as documented by anecdotes.16

As we compare The Hobbit from 1937 with medieval ethics, the historical period will not be equal for the literary and non-literary texts. The use of this method is still justified by the fact that Tolkien’s Middle Earth oeuvre contains many resemblances to the medieval romances. This will be the connecting factor in conducting the new historicist method. In this sense, we will get insights in to what extent Tolkien’s The Hobbit could be considered medieval influenced due to his education, but also whether Christian, medieval influences are implemented within the work. Tolkien also explained in his essay ‘Sir Gawain and the Green Knight’ how this fourteenth-century chivalric romance fits the ‘good fairy story’17, which connects it to Tolkien’s opus:

‘There is indeed no better medium for moral teaching than the good fairy story […]. As the author of Sir Gawain, it would seem, perceived; or felt instinctively, rather than consciously: for being a man of the fourteenth century, a serious, didactic, encyclopaedic, not to say pedantic century, he inherited ‘faerie’, rather than turned deliberately to it.’18

Additionally, Tolkien has agreed on the fact that these stories – and other stories – pick and mix aspects of the past, as we have described the ‘soup making’ metaphor of Tolkien. The comparison will therefore be the methodological approach, rather than an addition to my research question. Due to the fact that the new historicist method compares historical sources with narratives from that historical

16 Ibid., 92. 17 J.R.R Tolkien, “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,” The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2006), 73. Important to note is what Tolkien precisely means when he mentions a ‘fairy story’ or ‘faerie’, as it does not entail the classical fairy story as known by many. He gives it the definition of a ‘real deep-rooted tale, told as a tale, and not a thinly disguised moral allegory.’ He argues that ‘stories about fairies’ is a too narrow definition. He writes: ‘stories about Fairy, that is Faërie, the realm or state in which fairies have their being.’ (113) Herefore, we can say that Faërie is a place and this place involves magical creatures such as ‘elves and fays.’ He continues with mentioning that stories about ‘fairies’ are rather rare, but also not as interesting. Though, ‘most good ‘fairy-stories’ are about the aventures of men in the Perilous Realm or upon its shadowy marches.’ (113) We can thus conclude that tales about fairies, or elves in that sense, are just a small part of the content. 18 Ibid., 73.

6 period, the comparison of medieval romance and Tolkien is needed. This thesis will mainly look at academic work written on the subject of cardinal virtues and Tolkien’s The Hobbit. However, in comparing the cardinal virtues with The Hobbit, we will also briefly look at The Lord of the Rings, to provide further context or to show how the specific cardinal virtue also applies in other fictional work by Tolkien. The fact that his Middle-Earth oeuvre all takes place in the same world and the interconnected nature of these works, make this comparison also relevant. Nevertheless, the emphasis of the thesis will be put on the Hobbit, due to the scope of the thesis. Important to note is that new historicism refuses to 'privilege' the literary text over a historical 'background’. Therefore, the literary and non-literary texts are equal and complement each other.19 In doing so, the thesis will discuss the four cardinal virtues separately and will examine how each cardinal virtue comes forward in the characters of Tolkien’s The Hobbit. The difference in time (Late Middle Ages and 1937) makes it even more interesting to see whether the medieval values are still present after centuries. And therefore, whether the medieval ethical values are still present in fantasy culture of the 20th century.

1.2 Previous research on Tolkien Considerable research has been done on the medievalism of Tolkien. Jane Chance wrote in her book Tolkien the Medievalist how Tolkien’s medieval literary education, as well as the movements of his day has influenced his work.20 There are numerous of comparative works devoted to the mythical, literary and linguistic and historical influences in Tolkien’s oeuvre.21 As we are more concerned with the medieval, historical aspect of his work, there are a number of relevant papers dedicated to this subject. For instance, Judy Ann Ford and Robin Anne Reid have compared The Lord of the Rings with early medieval concepts of kingship, they argue that ‘many medieval elements of The Lord of the Rings have been analyzed by scholars, especially Tolkien’s use of literary, linguistic, and mythological sources, but little attention has been paid to his incorporation of early medieval concepts of kingship.’22 In analyzing this, they also incorporated the work of film director Peter Jackson, who directed the cinematic version of The Lord of the Rings from 2001 until 2003. Although a lot of research is directed toward these mythological, linguistic and literary sources, there is little to be found on medieval ethics in Tolkien’s work. However, Brian Rosebury’s Revenge and Moral Judgement in Tolkien does focus on these specific elements of ethics. Namely, how revenge and moral judgement goes hand in hand, but also in what manner they come forward in Tolkien’s work. Additionally, Linda

19 Peter Barry, Beginning theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory, second edition (United Kingdom: Manchester University Press, 2002), 173. 20 Jane Chance, Tolkien the Medievalist (United Kingdom: Routledge, 2003), 1-284. 21 Most of the research done on Tolkien can be found in ‘Tolkien Studies: An Annual Scholarly Review’, Volumes I-X, in which many disciplinary fields come forward, such as linguistic, historical and comparative literature. 22 Judy Anne Ford & Robin Anne Reid, “Councils and Kings: Aragorn’s Journey Towards Kingship in J.R.R Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings and Peter Jackson’s The Lord of the Rings,” in Tolkien Studies: An Annual Scholarly Review, Volume VI, 2009, 71.

7 Greenwood has devoted her research to love in Tolkien’s work and how it motivates faith. According to Linda Greenwood, Tolkien ‘takes elements of ancient Northern literature and pictures of the Christian myth and interweaves them to create something relevant to modern reality.’23 As these papers hint to a behavioral nature, such as revenge, moral judgement and love, nothing has yet specifically been written on medieval ethics or cardinal virtues.

1.3 Tolkien’s Opus and The Hobbit Tolkien has written several novels that take place in the fictional Middle Earth. During his life, he published The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. After his passing, his son edited his other works, such as The Silmarillion and the associated text of The Silmarillion: The Children of Húrin, Beren and Luthièn, and the Fall of Gondolin. They contain elements of myths, legends and fairytales.24 All novels have this element of good versus evil, wherein these godlike creatures produce a significant part. However, in The Hobbit, this does not play a significant part for the narrative. A description of the narrative of The Hobbit will follow for the sake of contextual information of this thesis. The Hobbit was written in 1937, entailed as a children’s novel. The narrative tells the story of a Hobbit going on an adventure: Bilbo Baggins.25 The adventure surrounds itself around the dwarfs of Erebor, who lost their kingdom due to a powerful dragon, Smaug. Whereas the main goal of the story is to regain this kingdom, many sub-adventures happen during their journey to Erebor. First of all, the fellowship is imprisoned by three trolls, taken by goblins and hunted by spiders. They reside in Rivendell, and the house of a skin-changer Beorn. Eventually, they arrive in the Elven city in Mirkwood, where Elven King Thranduil reigns. They are imprisoned by the Elves, taken for thieves. When Bilbo eventually thinks of a plan to escape, they arrive in the human city of Lake-Town, which is ruled by an egocentric master. After this break, they are arriving at Erebor and try to think of plans of taking the Lonely Mountain, as it is also called, back from Smaug. Bilbo was hired for these tasks, as he was described a ‘burglar’, and encounters the dragon several times. Due to the dragon’s proud nature, he is able to fool the dragon and angers him. As a consequence, the dragon leaves Erebor, destroying the nearby located Lake-Town. Here, we first encounter the bowman Bard. He takes down the dragon and tries to restore his old city Dale, for the inhabitants of Lake Town, who now lost their city. Due to the help Lake-Town has offered Bilbo and the dwarves, Bard tries to bargain of a part of the treasure. Thorin’s pride takes over, as he does not want to part with a single piece of gold. Eventually a battle commences, due to the richness of the kingdom and other parties who want a share of the value of the kingdom. Bard and Thranduil want a part for the ruin the dragon has brought upon their kingdoms and the necromancer wants to obtain the kingdom due to its strategic location. In the

23 Linda Greenwood, “Love: ‘The Gift of Death’,” in Tolkien Studies: An Annual Scholarly Review, Volume II, 2005, 171. 24 Stuart D. Lee, a Companion to J.R.R Tolkien (United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2014), 79. 25 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011).

8 end, the dwarves, elves and humans are reconciled as they battle against the army of the necromancer. However, this comes at a great loss, when a part of the fellowship dies in battle. When everything is over, the battle is lost by the army of the necromancer, Bilbo returns home to find out his inventory is up for sale. His great adventures do not matter any longer, he returns without honor or glory, but solely with his own Hobbitness.

2.0 A Short History of Cardinal Virtues in the Middle Ages Dr. I.P. Bejczy wrote about the cardinal virtues in his Cardinal Virtues in the Middle Ages: A Study in Moral Thought from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century, while also sketching out a Medieval history of cardinal virtues. As mentioned by Bejczy: ‘The scheme of the four cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance; their order may vary) counts among the most celebrated philosophical concepts that the Latin Middle Ages borrowed from the ancient world.’26 The naming of these virtues was coined by Christian authors, as classical authors considered these virtues to be developed through human making processes such as study and practice. They were successfully Christianized by attempts of Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine, who redefined the virtues as divine gifts.27 When looking into the high and late Middle Ages, which this thesis is concerned with, an important development occurred with twelfth century Parisian masters; they integrated Aristotle in the virtues, especially his concept of virtue as habitus. Habitus is a concept that explains something – in this case, the cardinal virtues - that is gradually acquired from a young age. This will eventually form as a habit, providing internal harmony and resulting in individuals to act according to this habitus, in accordance with their moral insights.28 As this was a very new insight into the virtues, later theologians and philosophers questioned the infused moral virtues. In the fourteenth century however, the Augustinian order criticized this theory, saying that virtue and morality is only existent because of the assistance of God.29 As debates went on, the majority believed the origins and ends lied in God. Interesting is the fact that virtue co-exists with evil, as they guide men in the permanent struggle against his evil inclinations. According to Bejczy, medieval authors believed that virtue is not only the realization of the innate goodness of the human soul. Additionally, virtue serves as a victory over the

26 István P. Bejczy, Cardinal Virtues in the Middle Ages: A study in Moral Thought from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century (The Netherlands: BRILL, 2011), 1. 27 Ibid., 4-28. Ambrose of Milan (340-397) gave a Christian turn to Cicero’s teaching on the values, also coining the term virtutes cardinales. Jerome (347/48-419/20) added a new important dimension to the Christianization of the cardinal virtues. He did not only interpret them in biblical terms but conceived them as belonging to the divine essence. ‘In his view, humans live in virtue in as far as they live in Christ and will fully enjoy the virtues in the afterlife, when God will communicate his essence to the blessed.’ (22) Lastly Augustine (354-430), connected it with Christianity in the sense that virtue becomes crucial because of the intimate connection with Christian love. They are motivated by the love of God and make it possible to fully enjoy this love in the afterlife. 28 Ibid., 224. 29 Ibid., 5-6.

9 defects attached to human nature after the Fall. 30 This questions the standing point of Aristotle, who perceived virtue as a habitus formed by the repetition of exercising the virtues, while being an inborn human ability. Though, in the thirteenth century it is discussed by philosophers and theologians that the virtues can lose and gain strength, but they are remained intact as learned behaviors. In this way, Aristotelian and Christian notions are merged together. The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries have several hundreds of Latin treatises on virtues and vices, of which only a handful are devoted to the cardinal virtues. 31 One of the influential treatises written in this period is the Quaestiones disputatae de virtutibus cardinalibus by Thomas Aquinas. He discusses the connection, equality and survival in heaven of the cardinal virtues. When looking at the work by Thomas Aquinas, his Secunda secundae, part of the Summa Theologiae, has written the most voluminous and influential discussion on the cardinal virtues in late medieval theology.32 Additionally, in this later medieval period the emphasis is put on the political relevance of the virtues.33 In this period, the cardinal virtues mainly served as a structuring principle for political tracts, collections of exampla and also exegetical writings. However, the most important book on the cardinal virtues in the thirteenth century was still the twelfth century Sententiae by Peter Lombard, which has extensively been written commentaries upon in the thirteenth century. Lombard argues that by regulating our life on earth, the virtues open heaven for us. These virtues are fully present in Christ, and it is from him that we derive our virtues. Additionally, these virtues will continue to exist in heaven. Yet, with different functions.34 His views have often become topic of debate that lasted also in the thirteenth century. This passage has shown a short history of the discussions that were alive during the middle ages regarding the cardinal virtues. While Aristotle figures mainly as a big authority within the debate, his presence was questioned due to his non-Christian background. Yet, his influence became unquestionable during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, gaining increasingly more influence on the starting point of moral Theologian’s reflections, who connected his work with Christian doctrine, as well as Stoic and Neoplatonic views. 35 The cardinal virtues were applicable on many fields such as the political, collections of exempla and exegetical writings. However, the nature of the cardinal virtues has extensively been debated about during the medieval period; did they last in heaven? What is their connection? Are they equal to each other? Are they acquired or infused? Additionally, the virtues often lost their popularity or regained it. For instance, the cardinal virtues lost their significance

30 Ibid., 223. Definition of ‘the Fall’: Fall of men described in Genesis 3:1-24, also called ‘the Original Sin.’ 31 Ibid., 138. 32 Ibid., 143-144. 33 Ibid., 138. Some treatises emphasizing on the political relevance of the cardinal virtues described by Bejczy are Engelbert of Admont’s (ca. 1250-1331) De regimine principum, Dominican friar Henry of Rimini’s Tractatus de quatuor virtutibus cardinalibus (ca. 1295), Giles of Rome’s De regimine principum (ca. 1280), and most popular: John of Wales’ Breviloquium de virutibus (ca. 1260/70). 34 Ibid., 121. 35 Ibid., 136.

10 in late medieval hagiography, while maintaining to be discussed in some moral works in a purely devotional setting, anthologies of moral sayings and exempla, theological dictionaries that concentrate on moral items, and moral concordances of the Bible.36 These virtues changed from time to time, from having its roots in antiquity to being formally Christianized during the Middle Ages. Due to its changing nature, these virtues are highly significant as they change alongside the changing time period. Thus, how do they manifest themselves within 20th century’s The Hobbit?

3.0 Medieval Cardinal Virtues in Tolkien’s opus The following section will proceed with the medieval cardinal virtues in the work of Tolkien. We will discuss the virtues in the order proposed by Aquinas. This order begins with prudence, and follows up with justice, fortitude and temperance. He argues prudence perfects reason and justice in doing the good. Additionally, the virtues of fortitude and temperance are in turn protective virtues, which protect the possessor against passions. This aids in the process of doing good. 37 However, we will first look at the Christian position of Tolkien, which will give us some more insights on Tolkien’s Christian background in relation to his work. And therefore, why the positioning of Tolkien’s world in the Christian cardinal virtues is justified.

3.1 Christianity and Tolkien According to Tolkien, the origin of stories is connected with what the origin of language and the mind is. 38 Therefore, we can conclude that in Tolkien’s metaphor of soup-making, not only lie parts of historical narratives, but also his inner reality. Claudio A. Testi writes in Tolkien’s Work: Is it Christian or Pagan: A Proposal for a ‘Synthetic’ Approach about the religious nature of Tolkien’s work. Looking at the inner reality of Tolkien, there is no doubt that he was himself a devout Roman Catholic.39 Although, it is too black and white to ensure the Catholic influence of his oeuvre through this circumstance. Tolkien explains his religious stance in his work in one of his letters:

‘’I don’t feel under any obligation to make my story fit with formalized Christian theology’ (Letters 355); ‘I have deliberately written a tale, which is built on or out of certain ‘religious’ ideas, but is not an allegory of them (or anything else), and does not mention them overtly, still less preach them.’ (Letters 283-84).’40

36 Ibid., 149-153. 37 Ibid., 154. 38 Ibid., 31. 39 Claudio A. Testi, “Tolkien’s Work: Is it Christian or Pagan? A Proposal for a ‘Synthetic’ Approach,” in Tolkien Studies, Volume X, 2013, 1. 40 Ibid., 2.

11 However, this still fails to convince some critics who claim his work to be highly Christian.41 This emphasizes on the idea that the author is still able to fail in interpreting his own work. Although there are many elements which hint toward a more Christian nature, the paper concludes that it is not exclusively Christian nor pagan: ‘[Tolkien’s Mythology] is meant neither for a single nation (England) nor a specific religion (be it Christian or Pagan), but for ‘all of Mankind.’’42 Additionally, Tolkien mentioned that he deemed it important to not sort out the ‘soup’. Meaning, not to look at the bones and pieces of the soup but tasting the soup as a whole.43 However, the similarities between Christian religion and his work cannot be denied. To add, his inner reality could have influenced the story with it not being an allegory, but still hinting at several Christian ethics. Especially medieval ethics, which are 1) Christian, and are 2) involved in the Medieval Romances, the genre present within Tolkien’s mythology. Tolkien’s devout Christian nature did ‘affirm the importance of Catholic faith in his works,’ 44 as well. Even if he considered it irrelevant to research the bits and pieces of the soup, it can still discover some elements of what influenced Tolkien, and whether he unconsciously added some of these cardinal virtues. Patrick Curry mentions that ‘the spiritual world of Middle Earth is a rich and complex one. It contains both ‘polytheistic-cum- animist cosmology of ‘natural magic’ and a Christian (but non-sectarian) ethic of humility and compassion.’45 Therefore, ‘to deduce from such elements an opposition between Tolkien’s world and the order of Revelation is totally wrong.’46 Returning to the point made by Claudio Testi, he concludes that Tolkien’s world is in fact an ‘expression of a Catholic culture.’47 Even though it is absent from specific Christian elements, it is still in harmony with the ‘super national plane of Christian Revelation.’48 Therefore, it can be concluded that an ethical, Christian comparison is justified. Not because his fundamental faith can be found in his opus but rather the fact that it embraces the expression of Catholic culture. This also justifies the positioning of Tolkien’s The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings within the framework of the medieval cardinal virtues, which will now be studied.

3.2 Prudence: ‘For even the very wise cannot see all ends.’49 Prudence often comes first when looking at the order of the four virtues, because prudence is a leading factor in acquiring the other virtues of justice, fortitude and temperance. The definition given to the

41 Ibid., 2. 42 Ibid., 30. 43 Ibid., 4. 44 Ibid., 6. 45 Patrick Curry, Defending Middle Earth: Tolkien, Myth and Modernity (United Kingdom: HarperCollins, 1998), 28. 46 Claudio A. Testi, “Tolkien’s Work: Is it Christian or Pagan? A Proposal for a ‘Synthetic’ Approach,” in Tolkien Studies, Volume X, 2013: 7. With ‘the order of Revelation’ is meant the Biblical Revelation. 47 Ibid., 10. 48 Ibid., 11. 49 J.R.R Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2014), 61.

12 word by Merriam Webster dictionary is the following: ‘the ability to govern and discipline oneself by the use of reason.’50 The priority of prudentia can also be noticed in manuscript VadSlg Ms. 484, titled Blumen der Tugend which is a German translation of brief instructive tales derived from an Italian model, by Heinrich Schlüsselfelder from 1468.51 Throughout the book, we can see Italian copperplate engravings of the four cardinal virtues. The first one is dedicated to prudentia on f. 50v: Prudentia Von der Edelen Tugent der Fursichticheit [Prudence, of the noble virtue of foreseeing]. The definition here is emphasized on looking forward rather than the ability to govern and discipline oneself. The latter definition by the Merriam-Webster dictionary of prudence is quite broad: what is the good way to govern and discipline oneself by the use of reason? This manuscript opens things up a bit more; one needs to foresee. Additionally, the next page reveals a copperplate engraving of the portrayal of prudence. The engraving shows three faces: one in front of the head, in the back of the head and in the mirror. This can be explained by the fact that this cardinal virtue strengthens the activity of the mind, closely connected with seeing. 7th century etymological theologian Isidore of Seville also argues that prudence is gained through looking ahead, porro videns.52 Therefore, the engraving symbolizes seeing, and foreseeing, by looking in different directions. In Christian, and therefore medieval prudence, it is not about limitations to reach perfection, but rather the opposite. Within Christian prudence, men are able to participate in the wisdom of God, and therefore, the virtue relies on something higher than itself: the holy spirit. Just as verse 1 Cor 2:12-12 that states: ‘We have not received the spirit of the world, but the Spirit who is from God, that we may understand what God has freely given us.’ (1 Cor 2:12) ‘And this is what we speak, not in words taught by us by human wisdom, but in words taught by the Spirit, expressing spiritual truths in spiritual words.’ (1 Cor 2:13). We can ask ourselves to what extent we can speak of a Holy Spirit, or something supreme in Tolkien’s opus. Since the opus of Tolkien also contains deities, we can apply this theory through these creatures. Important to note is the ‘gift of Counsel’ within the virtue. According to Aquinas, men should not take counsel according to human reason but they ‘should follow their interior prompting, because they are moved by a better principle than human reason.’53 The gift of Counsel by the Holy Spirit helps prudence. The fact that it is called ‘counsel’ already implies help by another, as stated by Aquinas, as well.54 Moreover, Aquinas explains the gift of Counsel in his Summa Theologiae:

‘Prudence or eubulia, whether acquired or infused, directs us in our searching into matters that our minds can grasp, and enables us to be of good counsel for ourselves or for others. Still,

50 Merriam-Webster, “Prudence,” Accessed on 07/04/2020, via: https://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/prudence. 51 E-Codices, “St Gallen, Kantonsbibliothek, Vadianische Sammlung, VadSlg Ms. 484, “ Online since 11/04/2010, accessed on 07/04/2020, via: https://www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/vad/0484. 52 Romanus Cessario, The Virtues, or the Examined Life (USA: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., 2002), 108. 53 Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Ia-IIae q. 68, a. 1. 54 Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, IIa-IIae q. 52, a. 2, ad 1.

13 because of our mind’s inability to grasp all individual and contingent events that can possibly happen, it happens that ‘the thoughts of mortal men are fearful and our counsels uncertain’ (Wis 9:14). Consequently, we need in our searchings the guidance of God who knows all things. This comes through the gift of Counsel, whereby we are guided by the advice, as it were, of God, rather as in human affairs those who are not sufficiently qualified to work things out for themselves require the counsel of wiser persons.’55

There are several interactions in The Lord of the Rings where Frodo needs counsel for his quest, which aid guide the story further. One major example is the counsel Gandalf provides throughout The Lord of the Rings, a godlike Maiar spirit formed into a wizard, an Istari. Therefore, Gandalf is the closest human form in the story in relation to a God. Hence, Gandalf provides the missing link in Aquinas’ story when connected to Tolkien, especially in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Aquinas states that prudence is helped by counsel and the mind is influenced by someone else through counsel, someone wiser than the person influenced. According to Aquinas this counsel and guidance is through God, who knows all things, and therefore, we are guided by the Holy Spirit. When we connect this theory to Gandalf positioning in the story, we can conclude several similarities. As being a subordinate to the ‘Gods’ the Valar, we could say the Maiar spirits are ‘angels’ when comparing it to Christianity. The entity Gandalf is thus an angel. Through him, the wisdom of the Gods comes through, especially the Valar Manwë, of whom the winds and airs were. Guidance through supremacy is gained through Gandalf. Important to note is that he was also accounted as the wisest Maiar. A characteristic of importance when looking at prudence. He is able to govern himself by the use of reason, as he is characterized as being the wisest. However, he uses this reason and wisdom also to project guidance on the other, which has its significance on the narrative. When Gandalf provides Frodo with the information on the just received ring, Frodo mentions that it’s a pity that Bilbo did not kill Gollum in his adventures during The Hobbit. Gandalf answers with:

‘’Pity? It was pity that stayed his hand. Pity, and Mercy: not to strike without need. And he has been well rewarded, Frodo. Be sure that he took so little hurt from the evil, and escaped in the end, because he began his ownership of the Ring so. With Pity.’ […] And he is bound up with the fate of the Ring. My heart tells me that he has some part to play yet, for good or for ill, before the end; and when that comes, the pity of Bilbo may rule the fate of many – yours not least.’’56

55 Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, IIa-IIae q.52, a.1, ad 1. 56 J.R.R Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2014), 61.

14 This passage shows ‘looking ahead’, as Gollum still has a role to play within the narrative. Prudence, Gandalf’s wisdom from within, aids the narrative. Later in The Lord of the Rings, Frodo is very close to killing Gollum, but also ends up with having pity. We can ask ourselves, without this speech of Gandalf, would Frodo have felt pity as well? Did the prudence of Gandalf ensure Gollum’s position and therefore the narrative’s position, in which Gollum indeed plays a significant role? This can of course be debated. But prudence from within surely plays a relevant role in ensuring the narrative and the course of the story. But how does the prudent Gandalf aid the narrative in The Hobbit through the virtue of prudence?

3.2.1 Gandalf the prudent in The Hobbit We already discussed the importance of Gandalf in light of prudence. He offers the missing link between deity and non-deity and is also perceived as the most prudent Maiar. But how does this prudent nature of Gandalf express itself within the narrative of The Hobbit? First of all, the importance of Gandalf’s ability to look wisely ahead manifolds within the very first parts of the narrative when Gandalf has decided to choose Bilbo as the burglar for the quest of the dwarves. The choice of the Hobbit Bilbo Baggins is not a very obvious decision as he ‘never had any adventures or did anything unexpected.’57 But why Bilbo then? One can argue the virtuous nature of Hobbits, which causes Gandalf to choose deliberately for Hobbits on his quests in both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Additionally, there was a need for a Hobbit on this specific quest due to the fact that Smaug does not recognize the smell of Hobbits. However, the specific choice on Bilbo could have manifested through the inner battle of Bilbo’s two family sides; the adventurous Took side, and the more respectable Baggins side. When Gandalf visits Bilbo, Bilbo shows that the Took side is still very much alive during their conversation:

‘Gandalf, Gandalf! Good gracious me! Not the wandering wizard that gave Old Took a pair of magic diamond studs that fastened themselves and never came undone till ordered? Not the fellow who used to tell such wonderful tales at parties, about dragons and goblins and giants and the rescue of princesses and the unexpected luck of widows’ sons? Not the man that used to make such particularly excellent fireworks! I remember those! Old Took used to have them on Midsummer’s Eve. Splendid!’58

Bilbo showcases his love for the adventurous tales of Old Took. This in turn, is taken by Gandalf as his lust for adventure. Gandalf says: ‘I will give you what you have asked for’59, with Bilbo saying he did not ask for anything. Gandalf replies with:

57 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 3. 58 Ibid., 7. 59 Ibid., 7.

15

‘Yes, you have! Twice now. My pardon. I give it to you. In fact I will go so far as to send you on this adventure. Very amusing for me, very good for you.’60

Was it indeed Gandalf’s intention to get the Took side out of the very Baggins’ Bilbo? During the narrative we notice that Bilbo was indeed the right choice. He never chose what was advantageous for himself, but solely what was the just thing to do. Therefore, one can argue the prudent abilities of Gandalf for choosing Bilbo. To add, the appeal of Gandalf towards Bilbo has been left ungrounded. In Tolkien’s Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle Earth, Gandalf speaks about his attraction to Bilbo:

‘Somehow I had been attracted by Bilbo long before, as a child, and a young hobbit: he had not quite come of age when I had last seen him. He had stayed in my mind ever since, with his eagerness and his bright eyes, and his love of tales, and his questions about the wide world outside the Shire. As soon as I entered the Shire I heard news of him. He was getting talked about, it seemed. Both his parents had died early for Shire-folk, at about eighty; and he had never married. He was already growing a bit queer, they said, and went off for days by himself. He could be seen talking to strangers, even Dwarves.’61

This gut feeling of Gandalf could have been developed through his prudent nature, and the connection to the divine. To choose prudently, counsel from within could emerge through gut feeling. Therefore, his connection with the divine is highly relevant in the light of the medieval cardinal virtues. Indeed, the gift of Counsel aids prudence. As shown through the gut feeling of the attraction towards Bilbo, which shows us again how the virtues aid the narrative for the sake of looking ahead. There are also other instances where looking ahead is necessary for the narrative. This following scene shows us the importance of looking ahead. When the group leaves for their quest, Gandalf suddenly disappears without notice. However, when he comes back his answer is explained through prudence, where one looks ahead, just as the engraving in manuscript VadSlg Ms. 484 entails: ‘’Where did you go to, if I may ask?’ said Thorin to Gandalf as they rode along. ‘To look ahead,’ said he. And what brought you back in the nick of time?’ ‘Looking behind,’ said he.’62 He explains that he went on to spy out their road. He noticed that their way will be dangerous, and when he felt the dwarves were in trouble, he looked behind and came back:

60 Ibid., 7. 61 J.R.R Tolkien, “The Quest of Erebor,” in Unfinished Tales of Númenor and Middle Earth, edited by Christopher Tolkien (United Kingdom: HarperCollins Publishers, 1980), retrieved via Google Books, n.p. 62 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 42.

16 ‘I immediately had a feeling that I was wanted back. Looking behind I saw a fire in the distance and made for it. So now you know. Please be more careful, next time or we shall never get anywhere!’63

Ergo, the importance of looking ahead and to have prudence is relevant to lead the narrative. As without it, ‘we shall never get anywhere.’64 Prudence aids the narrative, as it helps the protagonists continuing their quest. Frodo needs Sam to finish his goal of destroying the ring, and Gandalf is needed to provide counsel and to look ahead, for the sake of the narrative of The Hobbit. Without prudence and without counsel the narrative is not possible, or at least, the narrative would have been significantly different, since the protagonist perhaps would not be able to finish the quest.

3.3 Justice: ‘There is more in you of good than you know, child of the kindly West.’ 65 Manuscript VadSlg Ms. 484 starts its passage on justice on f. 122v with a frame narrative on the Old Testament’s Judgement of King Solomon.66 This judgement is described in Kings 3:16-28 where two women come towards him with a difficult consult. Both women recently had a baby, and one baby died when one woman rolled over on her baby in bed. The difficulties arise when one woman shouts that the babies have been swapped, and now they are fighting about to whom the baby belongs. King Solomon eventually says: ‘both of you say this live baby is yours. Someone bring me a sword. […] ‘Cut the baby in half! That way each of you can have part of him.’ (Kings 3:23-25) One woman agrees with this consult, while the other woman begs for mercy, and is willing to give the baby to the other woman. King Solomon knows enough, the baby belongs to the woman screaming to spare her baby. ‘The people in Israel realized that God had given him wisdom to judge fairly.’ (Kings 3:28) How does this passage connect to the cardinal virtue of justice? Romanus Cessario explains the virtue with the term of ‘otherness’, ad alterum. This means, that justice exists because of other people, and every responsible person should take account of, what Cessario calls it, the ‘neighbor.’ In this way, there is active commitment to the other, and responsibility for all of humankind.67 Aquinas perceived justice as such as well. Inspired by the Roman jurist Ulpian, who states that ‘justice is the lasting and constant will of rendering to each one his right.’68 In sum, the emphasis in Christian justice is put on ad alterum, which means that ‘justice requires that in social relations whatever is done matches, or fits evenly to, or balances with the rights of others.’ 69 In this sense, the ‘other’ makes

63 Ibid., 42. 64 Ibid., 42. 65 Ibid., 263. 66 E-Codices, “St Gallen, Kantonsbibliothek, Vadianische Sammlung, VadSlg Ms. 484, “ Online since 11/04/2010, accessed on 07/04/2020, via: https://www.e-codices.unifr.ch/en/vad/0484. 67 Romanus Cessario, The Virtues, or the Examined Life (USA: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., 2002), 128. 68 Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae, IIa-IIae q.58, a. 1. 69 Romanus Cessario, The Virtues, or the Examined Life (USA: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., 2002), 130.

17 justice a possibility, while reaching out to equality. This balance that makes up for equality is also portrayed in manuscript VadSlg Ms. 484, where we view justice portrayed with a balance and sword, a lady Justice. The balance to find whatever is due to the other is of main importance in defining justice. Everyone can act accordingly to justice. No individual has no interaction with other individuals, even when one lives alone. One cannot escape from one form or another of human relationships. However, to act just requires the will. This means that this virtue depends on the will of the people to balance what is owed to another, while leaving away feelings of benevolence.70 From that time on, Saint Anselm argues that ‘justice is rectitude of will preserved for its own sake.’71 The will to act just is therefore as important as to know what is good. Doing justice, therefore, relies on personal discipline of a person with a well-tempered and steady emotional life.72 Instances where doing justice aids the narrative in The Lord of The Rings happen often. We have mentioned where Gandalf gives counsel to Frodo to not kill Frodo, for he does not decide upon who dies and who does not. Additionally, he mentions: ‘My heart tells me that he has some part to play yet, for good or for ill.’73 Which concludes that his feeling of justice aids the narrative. Also, the highly relevant event of Gandalf the Grey turning into Gandalf the White shows us how justice is served by him not dying and saving the fellowship. Instead, he turns into the most powerful Istari, replacing the corrupted Saruman the White. Not only is it just to replace bad with good, it also serves the narrative as Gandalf has an important part to play within the narrative. The just act of replacing a corrupted person by a virtuous person happens more than once in The Lord of the Rings when Aragorn replaces the mad steward of Gondor, Denethor. Therefore, the powerful unworthy are replaced by virtuous characters. To do justice, to give someone the act that is due to the person can also rely on an object. We will argue this positioning of justice through the Arkenstone in The Hobbit. Here, the Arkenstone positions itself in making sure justice is fulfilled.

3.3.1 the case of Justice through the Arkenstone in The Hobbit The meaning of justice of the Arkenstone in The Hobbit will now be discussed as the stone plays an important role within the narrative of The Hobbit. The stone is found within the Lonely Mountain, the Mountain the dwarves and Bilbo try to reach in the story for the sake of gaining back their home. It is buried with the rest of the treasures of the mountain. However, this stone carries more value than everything else for the dwarfs. The stone is described as the following:

‘But fairest of all was the great white gem, which the dwarves had found beneath the roots of

70 Ibid., 133. 71 Saint Anselm, De Veritate, Chapter 12 (PL 158: 482). 72 Romanus Cessario, The Virtues, or the Examined Life (USA: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., 2002), 133. 73 J.R.R Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2014), 61.

18 the mountain, the Heart of the Mountain, the Arkenstone of Thrain. […] It was like a globe with a thousand facets; it shone like silver in the firelight, like water in the sun, like snow under the stars, like rain upon the Moon!’74

When Bilbo enters the depths of the mountain, encountering dragon Smaug, he finds the Arkenstone knowing the value it carries for Thorin. When finding the stone, justice also comes into play. Bilbo is offered one fourteenth of the treasure hidden in Erebor, the Lonely Mountain, for his work as a burglar. When he finds the Arkenstone, he believes that the stone is what him is due. However, the feeling of unjust also comes into play when he feels uncomfortable picking this valuable piece of the treasure:

‘Now I am a burglar indeed!’ thought he. ‘But I suppose I must tell the dwarves about it – some time. They did say I could pick and choose my own share; and I think I would choose this, if they took all the rest!’ All the same he had an uncomfortable feeling that the picking and choosing had not really been meant to include this marvelous gem, and that trouble would yet come of it.’75

The importance of the stone to the dwarfs can be concluded. And indeed, trouble is yet to come of the stone as it acts as an intermediate of justice. While Bilbo keeps the precious stone, unjust events happen in the story. But to analyze these matters of justice, we first have to look at previous events. Before the dwarfs and Bilbo reach the Mountain, the group encounters several pivotal characters in the story of justice: Thranduil, an Elven king and Bard, a human, who helped them during their journey in Laketown. Both of these character’s residences are closely located by the Lonely Mountain. And therefore, when Smaug leaves the Mountain due to the defeat, both are negatively affected. Whereas Thranduil’s kingdom, Mirkwood, has been negatively affected by the dragon beforehand, Laketown is entirely destroyed after the dragon’s defeat. Thus, both parties feel that part of the treasure is their due, because of restorations of both of their kingdoms. This is especially the case for Bard, who tries to get a claim by balancing out what him is due:

‘I am Bard, and by my hand was the dragon slain and your treasure delivered. Is that not a matter that concerns you? Moreover, I am by right descent the heir of Girion of Dale, and in your hoard is mingled much of the wealth of his halls and towns, which of old Smaug stole. Is

74 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 212. Thrain is the father of Thorin. Thrór, is the grandfather of Thorin and the finder of the Arkenstone in the Lonely Mountain. Therefore, Thrain and Thorin are the heirs of the Arkenstone. 75 Ibid., 217.

19 not that a matter of which we may speak? Further in his last battle Smaug destroyed the dwellings of the men of Esgaroth, and I am yet a servant of their Master. I would speak for him and ask whether you have no thought for the sorrow and misery of his people. They aided you in your distress, and in recompense you have thus far brought ruin only, though doubtless undesigned.’76

This passage shows us several reasons why he believes justice is served through a claim on the treasure. However, whether this serving of justice was a previous thought is debatable, as he mentions beforehand that he had expected them to be defeated by the dragon. Ergo, he believed the Mountain to be unguarded and for the taking for Bard and Thranduil. Justice for this sake, can thus be debated. Additionally, one can ask whether Thranduil has a just meaning for his claim, as this is never explicitly mentioned. However, we can see how previous events in the story are influencing the furthering of the narrative: a claim on justice is done due to previous events. The claim, however, is reclined by Thorin. He believes that both parties do not deserve their claim. Additionally, he equally proclaims himself on justice when he asks if Bard would have done the same. Bard again mentions the friendliness of Laketown, when they were in need. Yet, Thorin does not believe that their claim on the treasure is due. Especially not, ‘with armed men at my gate.’77 After this interaction, the Arkenstone comes into play as an intermediate for justice. Bilbo still carries the stone, and escapes Erebor. He arrives at the camp in which both Bard and Thranduil reside and he makes them an offer, which entails the Arkenstone. While giving the stone, Bilbo says:

‘This is the Arkenstone of Thrain,’ said Bilbo, ‘the Heart of the Mountain; and it is also the heart of Thorin. He values it above a river of gold. I give it to you. It will aid you in your bargaining.’78

It can be questioned whether justice is served: is it Bilbo who can decide what justice is? Interestingly, is the answer of Bilbo when Bard asks how it is his to give. He replies with the fact that he ‘may be a burglar [...] but I am an honest one.’79 Is honesty then a parameter for acting just? In the way Bilbo applies the term it is. This is because Bilbo balances out what people is due. He feels that indeed justice is served by giving them the Arkenstone and therefore aid them in their bargaining for their due: a part of the treasure of Erebor for the sake of repairing their kingdoms.

76 Ibid., 241. 77 Ibid., 242 78 Ibid., 248. 79 Ibid., 248.

20 Naturally, Thorin does not want to reconcile and a war of gold breaks lose between the several parties. When Thorin becomes a victim of the battle, ‘wounded with many wounds,’80 justice in this sense triumphs:

‘Since I leave now all gold and silver, and go where it is of little worth, I wish to part in friendship from you, and I would take back my words and deeds at the Gate.’81

The balance has returned, Thorin takes back his words and deeds, and the Arkenstone is buried with him and returned to the Earth once more. The Arkenstone does not need to play its part anymore, since justice has won in the end. We have shown how an object can play a part in manifesting justice. Due to the particular object, characters in the narrative try to bargain for what them is due. The Hobbit teaches the reader that through the Arkenstone justice can be fulfilled by the virtuous Bilbo who uses the object for a virtuous end. Therefore, this passage argued the symbolic value of the Arkenstone and justice, as Thorin is not able to be just through his intemperate character development.

3.4 Fortitude:‘But I expect they had lots of chances, like us, of turning back, only they didn’t.’ 82 Fortitude takes on different forms within Tolkien’s opus. Therefore, the concept needs to have a precise definition what is ought to be fortitude in the eyes of medieval people, in a period where these antique virtues became highly Christianized. 83 In this sense, fortitude is connected with the previous discussed prudence, as it is argued that fortitude cannot exist without a good reason by Aquinas. He discusses that man is strengthened through fear of dangers or of toils by reason, and from this fortitude emerges. 84 Prudence plays a significant part in conveying a good fortitude, although it is not derived from good reason only. In many accounts on the cardinal virtues and Christianity, the virtue is connected with martyrdom. 85 This is because fortitude has reference to death according to Pieper

80 Ibid., 262. 81 Ibid., 262. 82 J.R.R Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2014), 729. 83 István Bejczy, Cardinal Virtues in the Middle Ages: A Study in Moral Thought from the Fourth to the Fourteenth Century, 3. 84 Nicholas Austin, Aquinas on Virtue, A Causal Reading (USA: Georgetown University Press, 2017), 6. The entire translation from Latin to English on reason and fortitude: ‘For it is necessary to place the order of reason in the matter of passions due to their resistance to reason, which is twofold. First, insofar as passion impels to something contrary to reason, and thus it is necessary that passion be restrained, and from this is named temperance. Second, insofar as passion withdraws from that which reason dictates, just as fear of dangers or of toils, and thus it is necessary that man be strengthened in that which is of reason, lest he recede [from it]; and from this is named fortitude.’ 85 For a more elaborate explanation on this, see: Romanus Cessario, The virtues, or the examined life (Münster, 2002). And: Josef Pieper, The four cardinal virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance (USA: University of Notre Dame Press, 2010).

21 Josef, in his account on the Four Cardinal Virtues.86 Christian Fortitude is about the readiness to die, or to fall, in battle.87 This could sound as if fear is not present. Nevertheless, the opposite is true. Vulnerability comes into play with fortitude, as without the vulnerable nature of humans, bravery and therefore fortitude cannot exist. 88 Additionally, fortitude can only thrive with the prior virtues of prudence and justice. This can be explained because of the fact that ‘to take death upon oneself is not in itself praiseworthy, but solely because of its subordination to good.’89 Therefore, the fortitude person needs prudence and justice. We will explain this distinction in twofold, beginning with prudence. Prudent counsel is necessary for the instruction of fortitude, as without it, fortitude seems ‘plainly unwise or stupid.’90 As mentioned, genuine fortitude is guided by what is deemed good. Therefore, reason is necessary to guide thoughts on good and evil. Additionally, an evaluation of the act of fortitude is needed about what is risked, but also what is gained for the higher goal. For the evaluation of good and evil, justice is needed. However, as these virtues are proposed in a necessary order, justice cannot exist without prudence, and fortitude cannot exist without the twofold of prudence and justice. To sum up this virtue, fortitude is not just synonymous to bravery or courage. Fortitude also examines what is good and bad and makes its decision to fall into battle by this evaluation of the risks that the purpose carries, with also keeping in mind that the purpose is about the realization of the good. 91 But what is considered good within Tolkien’s opus is the next question that needs to be answered. There is a clear distinction between antagonists and protagonists in all his books on Middle- Earth. However, it can be argued that both parties act for what they deem good. Although, there are many indicators that evil exists next to good, by the usage of words by Tolkien. In analyzing this, we will look at the antagonist Melkor, also known as Morgoth, and his servant Sauron, present in all books about Middle Earth. The reason for the choice of these figures, is because the protagonists in the opus almost always want to die fighting against these antagonists. The examination of what is deemed good is relevant. The fact that there is a clear distinction in Middle Earth between good and evil is given by the following quote by Tolkien in a letter to Naomi Mitchison, who read page-proofs of the first two volumes in The Lord of the Rings:

86 Josef Pieper, The four cardinal virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance (USA: University of Notre Dame Press, 2010), 117. 87 Ibid., 117. 88 Ibid., 117. 89 Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II, II, 124, 3. Translation from: Josef Pieper, The four cardinal virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance (USA: University of Notre Dame Press, 2010), 122. 90 Josef Pieper, The four cardinal virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2010), 123. 91 Ibid., 122-125.

22 ‘The story is cast in terms of a good side, and a bad side, beauty against ruthless ugliness, tyranny against kingship, moderated freedom with consent against compulsion that has long lost any object save mere power, and so on.’92

As mentioned, Melkor and Sauron are clear antagonists by the way Tolkien describes these characters. The other name Melkor goes by, is Morgoth. Morgoth is Elvish Sindarin for ‘Dark Enemy’. And Sauron is described as a fallen Maia, who became ‘corrupted’ by Melkor, becoming the greatest servant. The expression of good and evil is displayed by Tolkien by light and darkness. 93 Melkor gets his name ‘the Dark Enemy’, Morgoth. Additionally, the Valar are perceived as light, whereas evil, Sauron and Melkor for instance, are described as shadows. 94 To add, the epigraph in The Lord of the Rings about the magical Rings, also showcases this distinction between good and evil through light and darkness:

‘Three Rings for the Elven-kings under the sky, Seven for the Dwarf-lords in their halls of stone, Nine for Mortal Men, doomed to die, One for the Dark Lord on his dark throne In the Land of Mordor where the shadows lie. One Ring to rule them all, One Ring to find them, One Ring the bring them all and in the darkness bind them. In the Land of Mordor where the Shadows lie.’95

This distinction between light and dark in relation to good and evil emphasizes the fact that there indeed is something evil to fight against, where conquering this evil results in something good. In the chapter The Mirror of Galadriel, in The Lord of the Rings, elf Celeborn shows that the fellowship of the Ring is indeed fighting against evil. After they fled from Morgoth’s creature, a Balrog, losing Gandalf, he mentions:

‘I did not know that your plight was so evil.’96

92 Humphrey Carpenter, The Letters of J.R.R Tolkien, edited by Humphrey Carpenter with the assistance of Christopher Tolkien (United Kingdom: George Allen & Unwin, 1981), 178-179. 93 Jyrki Korpua, “Good and Evil in J.R.R. Tolkien’s Legendarium: Concerning Dichotomy between Visible and Invisible,” in Fafnir – Nordic Journal of Science Fiction and Fantasy Research, vol 1, issue 1, 2009, 46-55. 94 Ibid., 48. 95 J.R.R Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2014). 96 Ibid., 365.

23 Whereas ‘good’ in Christian, medieval fortitude has a Christian moral layer to it, we will focus on the good of Middle Earth, while implementing the elements of what Christians perceived as good fortitude. We will start by looking at the characteristic of Christian fortitude that focuses on the readiness to fall and die in battle. At an eyeglance, almost all protagonists have a strong fortitude in this manner. In The Lord of the Rings, Frodo is willing to die while finishing the quest of destroying the Ring. Sam wants to fall in the battle of protecting Frodo against the Ring, and therefore of himself, and his surroundings. the key characters of the Fellowship, Aragorn, Legolas, Gandalf, and Boromir also have a strong fortitude to finish the quest for the sake of good, destroying evil. As stated by Aragorn towards Frodo in The Lord of the Rings:

‘I am Aragorn son of Arathorn; and if by life or death I can save you, I will.’97

The strength of one of the protagonists in the quest of the Ring shows the importance of fortitude for the protection of Frodo. It does not only show the importance of Frodo’s quest, but also the relevance of the fellowship’s fortitude to fulfil the task as a collective. Additionally, it shows the underlying religious message that dying for a good cause against evil is considered the just behavior of a hero. This message in The Lord of the Rings could be taken for granted because of a Christianized culture where such behavior is seen as just virtuous in itself. But one can question whether our conception of virtue is influenced by Christianity, and hence the cardinal virtues. It can be concluded that fortitude in the form of dying in battle is always to a certain extent present in Tolkien’s work, the amount of fortitude varies from character to character. But also, it varies from time to time in the characters. Fortitude peaks or lowers during the narrative. And again, this cardinal virtue serves the narrative, adding a deeper virtuous meaning. An interesting example of this gradual change of fortitude can be noticed in Bilbo, in the Hobbit, as his character development to a certain extent relies on the change in fortitude.

3.4.1. Fortitude: A case study of Bilbo’s Fortitude in The Hobbit When we first encounter the protagonist Hobbit, Bilbo, he is a ‘very well-to-do hobbit, and his name was Baggins. [...] people considered them very respectable, not only because most of them were rich, but also because they never had any adventures or did anything unexpected.’ 98 This indicates a rather non-fortitude attitude, which is how Bilbo represents himself throughout the beginning of the story. On the other hand, in Bilbo’s veins runs Took-blood, the family side of his mother, who ‘would go and have adventures.’99 This interplay between the characteristics of the non-adventurous Baggins side and the adventurous Took side is prominent, as they constantly battle rationality and adventure:

97 Ibid., 178. 98 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 3. 99 Ibid., 4.

24

‘Then something Tookish woke up inside him, and he wished to go and see the great mountains, and wear a sword instead of a walking-stick [...] And he thought of plundering dragons settling on his quiet Hill and kindling it all to flames. He shuddered; and very quickly he was plain Mr. Baggins of Bag-End, Under-Hill, again.’100

This two-sided character of Bilbo can be deemed relevant in relation to his character development concerning fortitude, as the Tookish side could have taken over the Baggins side of Bilbo. Although, something else could be at stake as well. Before the quest commences, the Hobbit is very rational, and certainly not willing to die. Before he gives anything away about whether he wants to help the Dwarves on their journey to take their home, Erebor, back from the Dragon Smaug, he first questions: ‘also I would like to know about risks, out-of-pocket expenses, time required and remunerations, and so forth’ – by which he meant: What am I going to get out of it? And am I going to come back alive?’101 Interestingly, the way he fills in his life highly depends on which side is taking over, Took or Baggins, throughout the first chapter. Where the Took side is dominant in the middle of the chapter, the Baggins side becomes more dominant throughout the end. He emphasizes in the end ‘I will give you a good breakfast before you go’102, where he gets the response: ‘before we go’103, emphasizing on his unwillingness to go. Moreover, he surrenders to his Baggins side: ‘The Tookishness was wearing off, and he was not now quite so sure that he was going on any journey in the morning.’104 Though this sounds not as promising for the sake of fortitude, the development Bilbo goes through in the story does rely on this factor; the Took-side becomes dominant. His willingness to die for the cause increases during every encounter, reaching its peak while encountering dragon Smaug in the kingdom of Erebor. Where the spirit of the fellow dwarfs had left, ‘now strange to say Mr. Baggins had more than the others.’105 During his encounter with Smaug, he picks up the valuable ‘Arkenstone’, loved and wanted by his dwarven-fellow Thorin, who he helps getting back his home. Instead of returning this stone to him, he keeps it, as Thorin becomes filled with greed. After this adventure, a new one follows. Many kingdoms surrounding Erebor feel that they are obliged to have some of the treasure kept within the Kingdom. Thorin, filled with greed, ignores this, while he previously promised part of the treasure with one kingdom. A battle emerges, where again, Bilbo’s fortitude to help for the sake of the good is significant for the narrative.

100 Ibid., 16. 101 Ibid., 22. 102 Ibid., 26. 103 Ibid., 26. 104 Ibid., 26. 105 Ibid., 189.

25 Bilbo gives the Arkenstone to the counterparty, in an attempt to stop a war from happening. They agree on giving the Arkenstone to Thorin, so he will return his promise to a part of the treasure. Again, he refuses, as he believes he does not have to return something that has been stolen from him. Although Bilbo is to blame, and almost killed by Thorin, this prudential fortitude for the sake of what is good, shows that he is not doing this only for himself. If this would have been the case, he would have returned the stone to Thorin, for a significant reward. Additionally, when the adventure has ended, he does not want the entire part of the treasure which he is obliged to, but rather agrees on two small chests,

‘one filled with silver, and the other with gold, such as one strong pony could carry. ‘that will be quite as much as I can manage,’ said he.’106

But what then, was his foreseen goal when his fortitude increased? Friendship. Bilbo became increasingly involved in the lives of the dwarfs, their losses, and life-stories. Bilbo mentions this on Thorin’s deathbed:

‘this is a bitter adventure, if it must end so; and not a mountain of gold can amend it. Yet I am glad that I have shared in your perils – that has been more than any Baggins deserves.’ 107

Friendship is closely connected with the Christian value of Love, which is considered morally good and therefore we can say that his result of ‘love’ is therefore a moral ground for the fortitude Bilbo carries. Lastly, I would like to add the response Thorin provides after the previous quotation by Bilbo:

‘’No!’ said Thorin. ‘There is more in you of good than you know, child of the kindly West. Some courage and some wisdom, blended in measure. If more of us valued food and cheer and song above hoarded gold, it would be a merrier world. But sad or merry, I must leave it now. Farewell!’’108

This perfectly sums up the Christian fortitude, mixed with prudence. As explained, Christian, medieval fortitude cannot live on its own, but needs the virtues of prudence and justice. Thorin perfectly puts this all together in this one quote. Bilbo is good, with courage and wisdom. In addition, he is tempered in these virtues. Lastly, we will examine this virtue. Nevertheless, for Bilbo’s fortitude;

106 Ibid., 266. 107 Ibid., 263. 108 Ibid., 263.

26 he was highly Tookish throughout the story, but ‘the Tookish part was getting very tired, and the Baggins was daily getting stronger. ‘I wish now only to be in my own armchair!’ he said.’109

3.5 Temperance: ‘If more of us valued food and cheer and song above hoarded gold, it would be a merrier world.’110 The last virtue that remains is the virtue of temperance. This virtue is often related in Christian light to extreme temperance, such as fasting and chastity. This is indeed also temperance, but it carries a deeper meaning. The virtue of temperance can be explained by several appetites. This is because of the fact that the fundamental response of human beings in front of a good or evil object involves the dynamism of these concupiscible appetites. These are also called passiones animae, and can be distinguished by love and hatred, desire and aversion, pleasure and sadness. 111 These appetites are not by definition something bad, as these can be moderated by the virtue of temperance. Thus, when the object is good and embraced in measure, then it can perfect the nature of the human and therefore, promote the overall well-being. Fundamental, human drives are therefore not threatening but can embrace good. Aquinas verbalizes on the virtue of temperance: ‘the virtue of temperance is engaged first with emotions of desire and pleasure about goods of sense, and then as well with emotions of grief arising from their absence.’112 Ergo, when one encounters feelings of pleasure or joy, temperance will moderate these appetites in order for them not to turn respectively into emotions of grief when these pleasures are not present. Temperance therefore fulfills the task of personal discipline and creating order within oneself. Especially this order within oneself is important to discuss further. When one has pleasure and/or joy, this is allowed with the virtue of temperance as long as the inner order is not disrupted. So, as we have mentioned, temperance moderates the self, and therefore creates this inner order. When this order becomes disrupted the body as a whole is negatively affected, as it affects the practical judgement an individual makes about the usage of certain goods, or how a desired end is approached.113 When this happens, reason becomes subjected to desire. But why is this considered a vice? Intemperance results from indulging in pleasure that exceeds the order of right reason. This is because it corrupts practical reasonableness. Therefore, ‘among all vices, intemperance particularly affects the person’s capacity for engaging effectively in social communication.’114 Additionally, Josef Pieper mentions that ‘temperance is selfless self-preservation and intemperance is self-destruction

109 Ibid., 268. 110 Ibid., 263. 111 Romanus Cessario, The Virtues, or the Examined Life (USA: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., 2002), 177. 112 Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, IIa-IIa q. 141, a. 3. 113 Romanus Cessario, The Virtues, or the Examined Life (USA: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., 2002), 184. 114 Ibid., 185.

27 through the selfish degradation of the powers which aim at self-preservation.115 The Bible mentions: A man without self-control is like a city broken into and left without walls (Proverbs 25:28). According to Pieper, temperance has not only a role of preserving, but also of defending. It defends itself against all selfish perversion of the inner order.116 This is clearly summarized in Romans 7:19 in the Bible, that states: it is not the good my will preserves, but the evil my will disapproves, that find myself doing. Thus, genuine self-preservation plays a significant role in temperance and fulfils the right order from within. However, in an oeuvre where anger plays a big role, what is the correlation between anger and temperance? Anger is very much perceived as part of the primal forces of human nature, and therefore essential to living. ‘Wrath is the strength to attack the repugnant, the power of anger is actually the power of resistance in the soul’117 So anger is perceived as something good when it is related to the order of reason and when it is perceived in someone who does good. Nonetheless, ‘blind wrath, bitterness of spirit, and revengeful resentment, is intemperate anger and therefore, evil. 118 Lastly, it is important to look at the temperance of humbleness and pride. Laura Garcia wrote about ‘pride and humility in The Hobbit’ and makes an interesting comparison about pride as sin and humility as virtue. She states that many antagonists in the opus have a feeling of pride which leads them to fall. In the contrary, humility is consistently seen as a central virtue. She gives the example of hobbits Frodo and Sam in The Lord of the Rings, who are remarkably humble, and therefore can resist the Ring’s power and glory. This in turn, leads to the fall of Sauron’s pride. Interestingly, she connects this to Tolkien’s Catholic nature, in which these depictions are strongly influenced by Christian moral virtues and vices.119 Indeed, when looking at temperance, the One Ring is surely an interesting object to analyze, as only some Hobbits can carry the object without becoming corrupted by the Ring. There are Bilbo and Frodo clearly in the The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings carrying the ring without the corruption of power. Additionally, Hobbit Samwise Gamgee who wears it for a short period when Frodo is captured. The Hobbit could therefore be perceived as temperate in his will of power. However, there are other humble characters in The Hobbit who show their humble character not solely through the ring, but also as a character trait connected to the character.

3.5.1 Humble Characters of The Hobbit

115 Josef Pieper, The four cardinal virtues: Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance (USA: University of Notre Dame Press, 2010), 148. 116 Ibid., 150. 117 Ibid., 193. 118 Ibid., 194. 119 Laura Garcia, “Pride and Humility in the Hobbit,” in The Hobbit and Philosophy: For When You’ve Lost Your Dwarves, Your Wizard,and Your Way (USA: John Wiley and Sons, 2012), 79.

28 We have touched upon the distinction made by Laura Garcia on humble characters and non-humble characters and how this affects the positioning of the personality within the narrative. Additionally, it is argued by Rateliff that pride is the cardinal sin within the opus of Tolkien.120 To give one example in The Hobbit, where pride leads to injustice is the case of Thorin, who combines pride and greed, which prevents him from acknowledging the justice of others’ claims on the treasure.121 We will now bring this theory to The Hobbit and examine how the humble personalities of Bard and Bilbo impact the narrative as a whole, and therefore, analyze the further significance of temperance within The Hobbit. In doing so, the virtue of humility plays a relevant role, as this virtue ‘prevents us from striving for a kind of excellence or perfection that is beyond our powers.’122 This element is ever so vital in Tolkien’s work, as power is often prominent within his narratives, including The Hobbit. Bard is described as a bowman from Lake-Town, one of the villages Bilbo and the dwarves pass during their journey to the Lonely Mountain. Bard is a descendant of Girion, lord of Dale, a city that was left in ruins. Due to the event people fled to Lake-Town, where now another master rules. Yet, he fulfills the tasks of a lord, which the master of Lake-Town is neglecting. This factor shows us the moderation Bard has in his will of power. He does not want a title of power but still wants to make sure ‘his people’ are saved. This comes forward in his battle with the escaped Smaug, hovering over Lake-Town. Bard has inherited the Black Arrow, which can kill Smaug. Bard uses this arrow, while being in danger himself, and kills Smaug, while the master of Lake-Town quickly vanished to make sure he was safe. Bard therefore fulfills the role of master of Lake-Town, while not implying on the power which this position carries. Due to the heroic actions of Bard, and the selfish actions of the master of Lake-Town, the dualistic nature of temperance and intemperance of power comes forward. Marjorie Burns discusses the positioning of humble heroes into Tolkien’s opus as a replacement of the powerful unworthy.123 In this sense, Bard replaces the selfish master of Lake-Town. After the killing of Smaug, the people desire the reign of Bard, even though they believe him dead:

‘And they praised the courage of Bard and his last mighty shot. ‘If only he had not been killed,’ they all said, ‘we would make him a king. Bard the Dragon-shooter of the line of Girion! Alas that he is lost!’’124

After discussions between the people, the master of Lake-Town and the returned Bard, Bard shows his moderation in power when he just wants to help the people, while not aiming for power:

120 John D. Rateliff, The History of The Hobbit (United Kingdom: HarperCollins, 2007), 565. 121 Laura Garcia, “Pride and Humility in the Hobbit,” in The Hobbit and Philosophy: For When You’ve Lost Your Dwarves, Your Wizard,and Your Way (USA: John Wiley and Sons, 2012), 79 122 Ibid., 83. 123 Marjorie Burns, King and Hobbit: The Exalted and Lowly in Tolkien’s Created Worlds (USA: Hammond & Scull, 2006), 139-152. 124 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (United Kingdom: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 229.

29

‘‘This is no time for angry words, Master, or for considering weighty plans of change. There is work to do. I serve you still – though after a while I may think again of your words and go North with any that will follow me.’ [...] Meanwhile Bard took the lead, and ordered things as he wished, though always in the Master’s name, and he had a hard task to govern the people and direct the preparations for their protection and housing.’ 125

Yet, Bard does carry a certain sense of pride after having killed the dragon. He often mentions that he indeed is ‘the slayer of the dragon’. Additionally, whilst they encounter Thorin Oakenshield he uses his pride as a form of bargaining for the treasure.126 He mentions his powerful heritage and his deeds. Is this form of pride also considered a vice as it is used for a just purpose? Pride is here clearly presented as a virtue and not as a vice. This is because of the fact that Bard certainly deserves praise for his heroism.127 Therefore, pride as a virtue or pride as a vice is highly dependent on context. However, outside of Bard’s pride and the pride of the lord of the Eagles, who is described as pride as a compliment, pride is in fact depicted as a vice, ‘and even the fatal character flaw that leads to the ruin of the wicked.’128 Due to this fatal character flaw of the wicked characters, Bilbo often gets the possibility to flourish. Because of the pride of both the giant spiders, they leave their prey due to Bilbo calling the spiders names.129 This pride is also the case for Smaug, where Bilbo makes appeals to his pride, discovering his weak spot.130 Nevertheless, when Bilbo for once uses pride after having stolen some treasure of Smaug, he is also punished by flames coming after him. Of which Bilbo later mentions his well-known quote: ‘Never laugh at live dragons, Bilbo you fool!’131 Hitherto, Bilbo is praised for his humble character. First of all, he can resist the power of the Ring, which indicates the humble nature of the wearer in their lust of power. Additionally, his humble character serves the narrative in the sense that the story changes in accordance to this humility. Bilbo saves his friends many times by being careless and moderate about himself. In this sense, his self-perseverance is existing through his selflessness. He aids the dwarfs often by making a claim on the antagonists’ pride. This is the case, as we have said, with the spiders and Smaug, but also when he hands over the Arkenstone. In this way, the pride of Thorin is damaged. Therefore, it can be argued that Bilbo also considers pride to be a vice, as he often times uses it to inflict damage upon the other. When he indeed considers this to be the

125 Ibid., 231-232. 126Ibid., 241. 127 Laura Garcia, “Pride and Humility in the Hobbit,” in The Hobbit and Philosophy: For When You’ve Lost Your Dwarves, Your Wizard,and Your Way (New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 2012), 78. 128 Ibid., 78. 129 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (London: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 146-149. 130 Ibid., 204-205. 131 Ibid., 209.

30 case, we can conclude that Bilbo tries to be the opposite of having self-pride. Therefore, he is moderate in self-pride. Lastly, we can argue the temperance of Bilbo of honor and noble actions. The selflessness of Bilbo shows us that he does not often choose a path that he believes has a positive outcome for him, but just what is the virtuous thing to do,132 which explains why he always helps his companionship when they need him. The Arkenstone makes again a good example of this virtuous character of Bilbo. He knows that when the precious stone is given away, he will surely be punished by Thorin. Yet, he knows that this is the virtuous thing to do, even though it only has negative implications on him. This is also closely connected to fortitude, where one is willing to die for the just cause, implying on pure selflessness. Humility plays a huge factor in the opus of Tolkien where humility is a virtue, and pride is a vice. This does not mean that some virtuous characters do not have pride. After great actions also comes great pride. The difference lies in deserved pride and unfounded pride. Both Bilbo and Bard are moderate in power and pride, which causes these characters to flourish. On the other hand, we have the extremely proud Smaug and Thorin, which fatally fall through their pride. Indeed, Bilbo does get a part of the treasure, but surely not all that is promised to him. He only wants one small chest. This also shows the nature of temperance, as temperance makes an appeal on moderation, which should not be confused with refraining from the material as a whole. But most of all, he was content to be home at last after the long journey. He does not crave honor, pride, and possession, but just the kettle on his hearth. 133

4.0 Conclusion This thesis has shown the correlation between the medieval cardinal values and The Hobbit by a comparative analysis through the new historicist method. This analysis has revealed that there are indeed many characters and actions that are influenced by these values. Therefore, it can be concluded that the narrative is actually aided through the cardinal values. The fact that the cardinal values played a significant role in medieval narratives is not as surprising as this religious mindset ruled during its period. However, the fact that these still persevere in 20th century texts mean that these values are significant in the cultural sphere. Stories such as The Hobbit also aid in keeping the values preserved in people’s minds, as people could read about these values repetitively. Therefore, the importance of narrative in keeping such values alive can be stated. However, the Christianized, western culture also

132 Laura Garcia, “Pride and Humility in the Hobbit,” in The Hobbit and Philosophy: For When You’ve Lost Your Dwarves, Your Wizard,and Your Way (New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 2012), 77. 133 J.R.R Tolkien, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (London: HarperCollinsPublishers, 2011), 275. When Bilbo returned to his home Bag-End, his honorable journey turns back into the normal life: ‘it is true that for ever after he remained an elf-friend, and had the honor of dwarves, wizards, and all such folk as ever passed that way; but he was no longer quite respectable. [...] I am sorry to say he did not mind. He was quite content; and the sound of the kettle on his hearth was ever after more musical than it had been even in the quiet days before the Unexpected Party.

31 supported this development. Through the usage of the new historicist method we have equalized the literary text and non-literary texts, which gave us interesting insights into the perseverance of the values in Tolkien’s work. We have shortly looked upon The Lord of the Rings, where we also noticed the medieval cardinal virtues. This is not odd, as some of the same characters make their appearance in both The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, and often times keep their character traits that are connected to these medieval values. The research question, to what extent do the medieval, cardinal virtues influence the narrative of Tolkien’s The Hobbit, can now be answered. It has been discussed how the cardinal virtues support the story. Due to the values certain actions are influenced by the usage of a cardinal virtue, or the fact that the virtue is part of a character trait of one of the people within the story. For instance, we have shown how the development of fortitude influences how Bilbo perceives his world, but also how it influences his actions. Whereas he first is very cautious when his fortitude is low, he later judges his actions not as positive for him, but what is good for the higher goal, or what is the virtuous thing to do. We have also shown how objects can purpose as symbol of the cardinal virtue of justice. The Arkenstone expresses how justice can be corrupted by intemperance, but also how justice is served through an object. Due to the virtuous nature of Bilbo, the Arkenstone can play its part concerning the cardinal virtues. The overall analysis of The Hobbit and the medieval cardinal virtues show that the virtues mainly influence the narrative through the protagonist Bilbo. He acts just in the situation surrounding the Arkenstone by handing it over to Bard and the Elven king to make sure justice is served; he shows character development in his fortitude, from a modest Baggins to an adventurous Took; and his humbleness shows his temper character, which helps the narrative in the way that modesty fights pride in Tolkien’s oeuvre. The fact that almost all virtues are present within the protagonist, shows the importance of the values to create a good character who people can identify with. This identification with Bilbo shows us the presence of the cardinal virtues in society and the importance of the virtues in the creation of good within a fictional narrative. The fact that these cardinal virtues are highly present within the narrative express the dominance of what is deemed good within Christianity. Thus, the presence of an underlying religious or moral message by the usage of the cardinal virtues can be taken for granted because of the western, Christianized culture. Additionally, the incorporation of these values can also have been done unconsciously by Tolkien, as these virtues confirm what is good in his Christian culture. Hence, to create a good protagonist and a story that deals with the battle between good and evil, this incorporation is not peculiar in a Christian setting, which is the western society. However, knowing that literature can bring over a Christian message is relevant to understand the society wherein the narrative is written. Consciousness about the moral message should not be taken for granted due to the society one lives in. With to the presence of unconscious Christian virtues one can see where society’s bundle of virtues is coming from and how literature confirm what is good with the usage of cardinal

32 virtues in the case of The Hobbit. To add, the fact that the story is entailed as a children’s book, also incorporates these values at a young age. Showcasing Christian virtues within literature is thus a highly effective way of keeping a Christian mindset, conscious or unconscious.

33 5.0 Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude for the guidance of my bachelor thesis supervisor Dr. Inge van der Ven for her genuine interest in the topic. She provided me with great guidance throughout the process of writing this thesis when needed, while still giving me the freedom to make decisions myself. Despite of the Covid-19 pandemic, I never felt a lack of assistance. Additionally, I would very much like to thank The Academy of Art and Design St. Joost student Mees van den Beemt for illustrating the cover of this thesis. Lastly, a special thanks to Bastienne Meijer for her time of reading the final draft of this thesis and providing me with additional feedback.

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