This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. The Pelican in the Wilderness: Symbolism and allegory in women’s evangelical songs of the Gàidhealtachd Anne Macleod Hill Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Edinburgh 2016 Declaration This is to certify that this thesis has been written by me and is entirely my own work. No part of this thesis has been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. The following two papers are included in the Appendix: Rannsachadh na Gàidhlig 7. ‘An Cuan Nach Traoghadh: Metaphor and Reality in the Sea Imagery of Women’s Evangelical Songs’ (forthcoming) Rannsachadh na Gàidhlig 8. ‘Dh’fhalbh na Gillean Grinn: Spiritual Perspectives in Women’s Songs of The Great War’. By permission of Dunedin Academic Press Ltd. Signed: Anne Macleod Hill 16 February 2016 ii Abstract The Pelican in the Wilderness: Symbolism and allegory in women’s evangelical songs of the Gàidhealtachd The Gaelic women’s song tradition has been studied in depth, and the post- Reformation Church and its impact on the Gàidhealtachd examined from various perspectives, yet the body of evangelical song which shows the interaction of the two is possibly the least explored area of traditional Gaelic verse and the least understood outside the immediate environment in which it was created. In their devotional songs, evangelical elegies and waulking songs, generations of women have left a record of the domestic, spiritual and cultural life of the Gàidhealtachd which would be difficult to retrieve from any other source. The present study provides access to this important literary and cultural resource by creating a research corpus of 600 poems, representing the work of 165 women from many different parts of the Gàidhealtachd, dating from the mid-eighteenth century to the present day. The historical, theological and literary background to the songs is explored, using both a range of secondary sources and the words of selected poets as they articulate and define contemporary events within the context of Reformed doctrine. Analysis across the corpus shows songs creating an allegorical world within which every creature, person and place is imbued with spiritual significance, each acting as a mnemonic for an associated biblical paradigm. This use of scriptural and doctrinal allusion is functional rather than purely ornamental, with core metaphors expressed and made authoritative in lexicons of honorifics, epithets and poetic place names. The thesis facilitates fuller reading of spiritual song by explaining the symbolic significance of the above elements, demonstrating their role in creating contextual settings, linking songs into a network of biblical, doctrinal and poetic texts, extending and validating the poet’s message. The functioning of this referential system is further explored in detailed literary analysis of the work of a representative sample of poets, each of whom is set in her own social and historical context. iii Contents Abstract iii Abbreviations ix Acknowledgements x Chapter 1: Thesis Introduction 1 The Evangelical tradition in the Gàidhealtachd 1 1 Gaelic evangelical songs 4 Chapter 2: The Corpus 14 Introduction 14 2.1 The Corpus 15 Sources 16 The spiritual / secular spectrum 16 Chronological ordering of corpus 21 Categorisation of corpus 21 Terminology: Definition and description of categories 22 Marbhrannan soisgeulach 24 Cumhachan spioradail 24 Laoidhean spioradail 25 Laoidhean molaidh 26 Laoidhean teagaisg 27 Laoidhean soisgeulach and laoidhean dùsgaidh 27 Earailean 29 Òrain mun Eaglais 30 Conclusion 32 2.2 Gaelic evangelical song: a new evaluation 32 Historical, theological and cultural context 34 Analytic approaches 35 Biblical allegory: a system of contextualisation 36 iv Lexicons: Ainmean cliùiteach 36 Lexicons: Topography 38 Lexicons: Comharraidhean Gràis 39 Working with a large corpus 40 Biblical phraseology and allusion in secular song 41 Individual poets 42 2.3 Scholarship in the field 42 Literary criticism 45 The allegorical language of evangelical song 49 The Reformed perspective 50 Conclusion 50 Chapter 3: Historical, literary and social context 52 Introduction 52 3.1 Texts and publications 52 Foirm na n-Urrnuidheadh 52 The Catechism and the Westminster Confession of Faith 53 The Psalms 54 The New Testament and The Bible 56 The learned ministry: Thomas Hog of Kiltearn 57 The learned ministry: James Fraser of Alness 57 Puritan Tracts 58 Translated doctrinal works 59 Sermons: Evangelists and the oral tradition 61 3.2 Education 63 The SSPCK 63 Gaelic Schools Societies 65 The Outer Isles 66 3.3 Church and Community 69 Gilleasbuig Mac-Mhaoilein: Eilean Arainn 70 Mearraid Nice-Leain: Pòll Iù 72 ‘Sud an Eaglais Shaoir’ 73 v Màiri Morison: Beàrnaraigh na Hearadh 76 Eibhric Morison: Tairbeart na Hearadh 77 3.4. The social and spiritual life of the Gàidhealtachd 80 Asceticism and secular culture 80 Ministers and elders 81 The precentor 83 An sgoil fhonn 84 Òrduighean 85 Nòtaichean 87 Comharraidhean Gràis 87 Òrduighean as a focus for song 88 Bean a’ Chlachair: Ceairsiadar, lost songs and poetic families 92 3.5 Composition, transmission and survival 94 The ‘gift of poetry’ 97 Private grief and public mourning 100 Transmission and survival 102 Publication 104 Laoidheadairean 105 Conclusion 106 Chapter 4: Biblical paradigms and allegorical worlds 108 Introduction 108 4.1 Dearbhadh an Fhocail 109 Themes and motifs 110 Marbhrannan soisgeulach and cumhachan spioradail 111 Aiseirigh 113 Marbhrannan soisgeulach 113 Earailean 114 Laoidhean spioradail 115 Laoidhean spioradail: Honorifics, epithets, topography 116 Laoidhean spioradail: Sin 117 vi Laoidhean spioradail: Penitence, confession, doubt 118 Laoidhean spioradail: The Song of Solomon 120 Laoidhean soisgeulach 122 Òrain mun Eaglais 124 Conclusion 127 4.2 The allegorical setting of evangelical song 129 Turus an fhàsaich 129 Turus a’ Chriosduidh 130 Am fàsach 130 Biblical topography 132 Beinn Shion 134 Inhabitants of Am Fàsach 137 An Nàmhaid 138 Birds and beasts 138 Indigenous belief 142 Fàsach na fairge 144 Abhainn Iordain 148 4.3 Allegory and the elements 149 The soul as a boat 149 An t-aiseag 152 Leabhar Mòr na Cruitheachd 156 Conclusion 163 Chapter 5: Bean a Bharra, Bean Torra Dhamh, Mairearad Chaimbeul 164 5.1 Bean a Bharra, Anna Campbell 164 ‘Geillibh do lagh an Ard-Righ’ 168 ‘M’ Athchuinge ort a Righ an Aigh’ 176 Contemporary perceptions of Bean a Bharra 180 5.2 Bean Torra Dhamh, Mary MacPherson, Mrs Clark 184 ‘Beatha na buaidhe’ 190 vii 5.3 Mairearad Chaimbeul, Marairead Cham’ron 200 ‘’S beag mo chion air an t-saoghal’ 203 The troubled world 209 Chapter 6: Anna NicFhearghais and Margaret Camaran 217 6.1 Anna NicFhearghais 217 ‘B’ fheárr gu b’ urrainn mi ’n Fhìrinn’ 223 ‘Cia maiseach éibhinn bha Adhamh air éideadh’ 235 6.2 Margaret Camaran 244 ‘Cuimhneachan’ 246 ‘Samhradh mo chràidh’ 250 Chapter 7: Catrìona Thangaidh, Màiri Anna NicIomhair and Catrìona an Tucsain 258 7.1 Catrìona Thangaidh 258 ‘Marbhrann do ’n Urr. Uilleam MacRath’ 264 ‘Marbhrann air Aonghas MacIomhair’ 269 ‘Laoidh – O Righ air a’ chathair’ 275 7.2 Màiri Anna NicIomhair 280 ‘Cogadh Hitler’ 283 ‘Marbh-Rann air an Urramach Alasdair MacLeòid’ 290 7.3 Catrìona an Tucsain, Catrìona Caimbel 300 ‘Nach mise bha Ort fagus’ 302 ‘Marbh-Rann do Ishbel NicLeòid’ 306 ‘O mo chlann tha ’n diugh air m’ aire’ 307 Chapter 8: Thesis Conclusion 310 Bibliography 318 Appendix (Separate volume) viii Abbreviations AF An Fhianuis AM Angus MacLeod Archive / Ease Archive, Kershader CD Màiri Anna NicIomhair, Ceòl agus Deòir (Stornoway: Stornoway Gazette, nd.) EGSS Edinburgh Gaelic Schools Society EUL Edinburgh University Library DSCHT Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology FG An Fhianuis Ghàidhealach LW Life and Work: The Magazine of the Church of Scotland MR The Monthly Record of the Free Church of Scotland MSA Unpublished text from the collection of John Murdo MacDonald, now held by his daughter, Maggie Smith, Achmore, Isle of Lewis. NLS National Library of Scotland NLS MS 14987 Notebook containing unpublished evangelical songs by Anna NicFhearghais, Kintyre, c. 1841 SA Recordings from the School of Scottish Studies Sound Archive, University of Edinburgh. SG The Stornoway Gazette SGS Scottish Gaelic Studies SGTS Scottish Gaelic Texts Society SPGH Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at Home SSPCK Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge TGSI Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness ix Acknowledgements At various stages of this study, and in many different ways, I have been fortunate in being able to draw upon the knowledge and advice of family, friends and colleagues. Each has made their own vital contribution to a work which I hope will reflect their generosity, if not their entire approval. That it remains open to many criticisms is entirely my own responsibility. Initially, I would like to offer my most sincere thanks to my supervisors, Dr Anja Gunderloch and Professor Wilson McLeod whose help has been invaluable and without whose friendly encouragement and searching questions, this study would have been very much the poorer. I should also like to thank Professor Donald Macleod of Free Church College, Edinburgh, for his advice and encouragement, and for his critique on an early chapter, which helped avoid various errors and omissions.