Civil Engineering

Volume 169 Issue CE2 May 2016

■■ Design and top-down construction at the Nanjing Youth Olympic Centre, China ■■ Unleashing potential – the benefits of new infrastructure in the Balkans ■■ Building to beat Ebola: the Royal Engineers in Sierra Leone ■■ Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review

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Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Civil Engineering Panel Chair and Honorary Editor: Emma Kent, Cundall Johnston & Partners LLP, UK

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CONTENTS:May 2016

Contact Information Editor: Simon Fullalove tel: +44 20 7665 2448 Civil Engineering email: [email protected] Journals Manager Ben Ramster tel: +44 20 7665 2242 email: [email protected] EDITORIAL General manager, ICE Publishing: Mike Cookson tel: +44 20 7665 2486 BRIEFING email: [email protected] Advertising: Steve Jackson, Structural Promotions Ltd. Super sewer: an introduction to the Thames Tideway tunnel project in London 51 12 Lawrance Way, Bourne, Lincolnshire PE10 0HU New UK code of practice provides guidance on alliancing and supply chain tel: +44 1778 420 857 integration 52 fax: +44 1778 424 771 email: [email protected] Urbanisation in the UK: the need for a more focused approach on city Published by infrastructure 53 ICE Publishing One Great George Street,Westminster ICE supports new online training initiatives for civil engineering undergraduates 54 SW1P 3AA tel: +44 20 7222 7722 Engineering a more sustainable and profitable future with ISO 14001:2015 55 fax: +44 20 7538 4101 email: [email protected] Moving infrastructure benefits beyond projects and programmes 56 www.icevirtuallibrary.com ICE Publishing is a division of Thomas MONITOR Telford Ltd, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Institution of Civil Engineers Books 58 Production editing by Paul Allanson Illustrations by Barking Dog Art ICE Proceedings 62 Origination by ICE review 64 Phoenix Photosetting Ltd, Chatham, Kent Printed in the UK by Garnett Dickinson, Rotherham TECHNICAL PAPERS Using fibre sourced from responsibly managed and sustainable forest Design and top-down construction at the Nanjing Youth Olympic ISSN 0965-089X (Print) Center, China 1751‑7672 (Online) © The authors and the Institution of Civil Q. Ren, Q. Zhao, W. Liu, S. Yang, S. Li, J. Yang and F. Peng 65 Engineers, 2016 Available online at Unleashing potential – the benefits of new infrastructure in the Balkans www.civilengineering-ice.com D. Wright 71 Subscription Information Non-members: Building to beat Ebola: the Royal Engineers in Sierra Leone Subscription enquiries and notification of change of address should be sent to the N. Francis 79 Customer Services department, ICE Publishing, Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review One Great George Street, Westminster SW1P 3AA W.-S. Chang and Y. Araki 87 tel: +44 20 7665 2460 fax: +44 20 7537 2529 email: [email protected] Civil Engineering, 4 issues per year (plus two special issues) 2016 subscription price: UK £191; EU £217; Elsewhere £236 ICE Specialist Engineering Journals Collection (formerly full ICE Proceedings Package), 94 issues per year, 2016 subscription price: UK £4495; EU £5135; Elsewhere £5565 PAGE 70 PAGE 75 PAGE 85 PAGE 88 Members: Subscription enquiries and notification of changes of address should be sent to Membership Registry, CIVIL ENGINEERING EDITORIAL PANEL Institution of Civil Engineers, PO Box 4479, London SW1P 3XB, UK Chairman Emma Kent, CEng, MICE,MIStructE, Cundall, London, UK Sebastian Lewandowski, Atkins, Birmingham, UK tel: +44 20 7665 2227 Andy Alder, CH2M HILL, UK Eva Linnell, MEng, Atkins, Bristol, UK fax: +44 20 7222 3514 J. Dario Aristizabal-Ochoa, National University of Colombia, Andrew Martin, BEng, MSt, CEng, MICE, MIStructE, COWI A/S, email: [email protected] Colombia Kongens Lyngby, Denmark David Atherton, BSc, MSc, CEng, CGeol, FICE, FIMMM, FCIWEM, MCIWM, FGS, David Oloke, Progressive Concept Consultancy Ltd, The papers and articles express the Peter Brett Associates, Reading, UK Walsall, UK opinions of the authors, and do not Philippe Bouillard, BSc, MSc, PhD, Hab, MICE, FAUA, Université Libre Neil Owen, BSc, CEng, MICE, Independent Consultant, necessarily reflect the views of the ICE, de Bruxelles, Belgium Birmingham, UK TTL, or the Editorial Panel. Papers are Yancheng Cai, PhD, MIASS, Meinhardt (C&S) Ltd, Hong Kong, Priti Parikh, PhD, CEng, MICE, FRSA, University College London, UK formally refereed by the editorial panel PR China Dave Parker, Independent Consultant, Bishop’s Stortford, UK whereas, to ensure topicality, Briefing John Clifton, BSc, CEng, CEnv, FICE, FCIHT,MCMI, Independent Consultant, Colin Rawlings, BSc, DIC, MSc, CEng, MICE, MASCE, CGeol, FGS, CH2MHill/HS2 articles are not refereed. Santa Barbara de Nexe, Portugal Ltd, London, UK Civil Engineering is indexed in the Mark Hagger, MA, CEng, FICE,MCIWEM, Environment Agency, UK Stuart Ross, Arup, Hong Kong, PR China Science Citation Index David Hobson, Jacobs, Stourbridge, UK P. J. Rudden, RPS Group, Killiney, Republic of Ireland Siva Kandasami, BE, ME, PhD, MICT, Coimbatore, India Alessandra Villa, CEng, MICE, Dott. Ing., Arup, London, UK

49 Civil Engineering Editorial Volume 169 Issue CE2 May 2016 Parker

Editorial

David Parker BSc, CEng, FICE Technical Editor Emeritus, New Civil Engineer, London, UK

Welcome to the May issue of Civil Engineering, the flagship A combination of simple blockwork construction and journal of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. proprietary disaster-relief tents cut construction time down to I have visited hundreds of sites around the world over just 5 weeks. A key early decision was to rely on in-country the last 25 years. Quite a few featured top-down basement contractors for the building works rather than flying in construction, an ingenious technique that obviously has many hundreds of British Army engineers, although the available advantages. However, none of the projects I have visited was skills base varied hugely. as ambitious as that described in the first paper, by Qingying Finally, the fascinating potential of a class of materials that Ren et al. (2016). so far have been virtually overlooked by the construction Designed by Zaha Hadid, the Nanjing Youth Olympic Centre industry is comprehensively illustrated by Chang and Araki in China features two towers, one of 58 stories, the other (2016). Shape-memory alloys have been used on a very of 68, perched atop an extensive three-storey basement. limited scale in the restoration of seismically vulnerable historic Ground conditions were challenging: the site is located on structures and to restrain excessive movements in bridge the floodplain of the Yangtze River, with alluvial deposits supports during seismic events. But the high cost of the early overlaying soft mudstone. And because of the imminence of generations of shape-memory alloys has proved a major the 2014 Youth Olympic Games, less than 30 months was restraint on their wider application. allowed for the construction phase. One exciting potential use is in the facades of so-called A number of innovative solutions are described in the ‘adaptive’ buildings. These have shutters and ventilators paper. Steel–concrete hybrid construction was used for that open and close in response to changes in light levels most of the structures. Complex plunge columns supported and air temperature and quality and even to vary the superstructure erection while basement construction building’s response to wind. Shape-memory alloy wires proceeded, and advanced concrete mixes were employed to can replace electric motors in such applications. With the minimise structural weight. All these factors contributed to development of significantly cheaper copper- or iron-based a successful completion in time for the opening ceremony of alloys there should be many more examples of their use in the games. the future. Major infrastructure projects in the UK can suffer many I trust you enjoy reading the papers and articles in this issue. complications at the planning stage – think High Speed 2 I also hope they will encourage you and your colleagues to or Heathrow Terminal 5 – but nothing here compares to consider sharing your own experiences through this and other the challenges faced on infrastructure developments in the ICE Proceedings journals. war-torn Balkans. As described by Wright (2016) in the second paper, these include dealing with complex politics References and different ethnicities in areas of extreme poverty and high unemployment. Chang WS and Araki Y (2016) Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: Five motorway projects dating back to 1998 illustrate a critical review. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil both the challenges and the solutions that contributed Engineering 169(2): 87–95, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00010. to project success. New links both internally and on to Francis N (2016) Building to beat Ebola: the Royal Engineers in Sierra Leone. Mediterranean ports and European transport corridors will Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil Engineering 169(2): 79–85, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00035. have a transformative effect on the local economies, as did Ren Q, Zhao Q, Liu W et al. (2016) Design and top-down construction at the actual construction phases. Local skills were enhanced, the Nanjing Youth Olympic Center, China. Proceedings of the Institution local entrepreneurs encouraged to become involved. of Civil Engineers – Civil Engineering 169(2): 65–70, http://dx.doi. In the third paper, Nick Francis, formerly a major in the Royal org/10.1680/jcien.15.00045. Engineers, describes the vital contribution his unit made to Wright D (2016) Unleashing potential – the benefits of new infrastructure winning another major battle – against the deadly Ebola virus in the Balkans. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil in West Africa (Francis, 2016). Engineering 169(2): 71–77, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00037. Six treatment units with 700 beds were rapidly constructed, CALL FOR PAPERS: Civil Engineering relies entirely on material contributed by three near the capital city, three out in the jungle. Each was civil engineers and related professionals. Illustrated articles of 600 words and papers of 2000 to 3500 words are welcome on any relevant civil engineering designed to a common concept, one that managed the topic that meets the journal’s aims of providing a source of reference material, one‑way flow of patients through the unit while maintaining promoting best practice and broadening civil engineers’ knowledge, Please the safety of medical staff. contact the editor for further information

50 Civil Engineering Super sewer: an introduction to the Thames Volume 169 Issue CE2 May 2016 Tideway tunnel project in London Stride http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.2.51 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved BRIEFING: WATER

Super sewer: an introduction to the Thames Tideway tunnel project in London

Work has just started on the £4·2 billion Thames Tideway tunnel project in London, UK. Tideway external affairs director Phil Stride explains the background and scope of the project as well as some of the civil engineering innovations that will help to deliver it over the next 7 years.

London’s sewerage system was of river walls, 50 in-river structures, primary lining to support the ground designed by civil engineer Joseph 45 tunnels, 24 km of gas mains, 15 km during excavation and a secondary Bazalgette in the 1860s for a population of water main and 18 km of sewers. lining to keep the shaft watertight. of 4 million people. That figure has now Borehole tests carried out by Thames The relatively short connection tunnels topped 8 million and continues to grow. Water in the planning phase indicate between most drop shafts and the While the Victorian sewers are still in that tunnelling will mostly be in clay main tunnel are likely to be constructed excellent working condition, just a in the west section, mixed sands and using open-faced tunnelling methods, small amount of rain can cause them to gravels in the central section and including sprayed-concrete linings. overflow into the tidal River Thames. chalk in the east. The joint-venture However, open-faced tunnelling is Due for completion by 2023, the contractors were invited to look at the not feasible in the potentially weak Thames Tideway tunnel is a 7·2 m core samples before submitting their chalk sections, which may contain diameter, 25 km long interception and final bids to understand each area’s high-pressure-water fissures. In these transfer tunnel running up to 65 m specific tunnelling requirements. locations, connection tunnels will be below the river. The so-called ‘super eliminated by using on-line shafts that sewer’ will pick up 34 of the most Designed for 120 years drop straight into the main tunnel. polluting combined sewer overflows These will be fitted with an innovative and provide storage of 1·6 million m3, The concrete-lined tunnel is required to vortex braking system to prevent preventing 20 Mt of untreated sewage last 120 years. In the absence of suitable damage at the bottom of the shaft. from entering the river each year. design codes, a project-specific durability It starts at storm tanks in Acton, west assessment was undertaken to reflect the Collaborative approach London, follows the Thames to Limehouse unique conditions in the tunnel. Designing and then cuts north-east to Abbey Mills the tunnel has also included computational With an in-house project team of over pumping station near Stratford. Flows will fluid dynamics modelling and constructing 400 highly skilled professionals, world- then be transferred by way of Thames state-of-the-art physical models to help class contractors and the collaborative Water’s newly completed £635 million design various components. approach engendered by NEC3, Tideway Lee tunnel to Beckton sewage treatment The drop shafts between the existing is confident of delivering the project on works in east London. sewers and the tunnel will have a time and within budget in 2023.

Private investment

The £4·2 billion project is being financed and delivered by Tideway, an independent licenced ‘infrastructure provider’ comprising a consortium of investors which are funding nearly 75% of the cost. Like Crossrail and London 2012, construction is being procured using the Institution of Civil Engineers’ NEC3 Engineering and Construction Contract. The three main contracts – west, central and east – have recently been let to international joint-venture contractors. There will be 24 main construction sites across 14 London Model view of the completed Thames Tideway tunnel foreshore works at Victoria Embankment boroughs. The route will pass under or in London near 1301 buildings, 75 bridges, 20 km

For further information contact: Phil Stride Email: [email protected] Web: www.tideway.london

51 Civil Engineering New UK code of practice provides guidance on Volume 169 Issue CE2 May 2016 alliancing and supply chain integration Evans http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.2.52 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved BRIEFING: PROCUREMENT

New UK code of practice provides guidance on alliancing and supply chain integration

Alliancing is a form of collaborative working being adopted in the UK and other countries for more cost-effective delivery of infrastructure. Dale Evans of the Infrastructure Client Group introduces a new UK alliancing code recently launched at the Institution of Civil Engineers.

In November 2015 the UK Infrastructure how value is created by putting the the leadership to deliver this change. Client Group launched Improving right behaviours at the heart of their This leadership spans client and partner Infrastructure Delivery: Alliancing Code procurement and organisational organisations and is underpinned by a of Practice (ICG, 2015) at the Institution development processes. It also deep-seated belief in more collaborative of Civil Engineers (ICE) in London. confirmed that significant benefits can and integrated working. The code was prompted by significant be delivered through more collaborative Alliances adopt commercial models that performance improvements achieved relationships. place an emphasis on creating the right by a number of infrastructure alliances Successful alliances require a environment and the right behaviours. compared to more traditional models. fundamental shift in behaviours, Best-practice alliances have challenging It was developed by undertaking a including removal of traditional commercial models that provide clear and detailed review of best practice across master–servant relationships across collective performance incentives. They a range of infrastructure alliances, client, tier-one suppliers and extended are not soft and relaxed organisations identifying the common and underpinning supply chain partners. – they respond positively to challenging characteristics. Improvement in both The capability to develop integrated targets with teams that demonstrate a efficiency and service demonstrate that, supply chain teams is a core relentless desire for improvement. in the right circumstances, there is now competence of an effective alliance. Alliances are invariably based on a clear business case for alliancing. However, securing input from all parts back-to-back commercial arrangements The underpinning themes set out of the supply chain requires a very that create direct alignment between in the code are: a focus on enabling different approach to procurement. client and partners, and provide for a and developing behaviours that deliver It requires clients to engage in delivery collective return to be generated only by value; the capability to develop and of outcomes rather than simply outperforming current cost baselines. sustain integrated supply chain teams; tendering for delivery of defined scopes a commercial model that creates and solutions. collaboration and drives the required Early engagement allows supply Promoting best practice behaviours; and the leadership required chain partners to contribute to the The new code of practice aims to to deliver a different way of working. design and planning process, bringing make alliancing best practice available significant cost savings. Suppliers to infrastructure organisations, both Shift in behaviours that are part of collaborative working clients and partners. To help firms groups almost always cite them as a establish and then improve their role in The best-practice review positive enabler to delivering greater an alliance, ICE and the Infrastructure demonstrated that alliances understand client value. Client Group have also produced a free Alliance supply chains are online self-assessment tool. characterised by effective business- Resources associated with the code of to-business relationships – long-term practice and self-assessment tool can be relationships that all parties want to found on the ICE website at sustain and that override any tendency www.ice.org.uk/disciplines-and- to game or to compromise on cost and resources/best-practice/alliancing-code- quality. of-practice-grid-infrastructure .

Change leadership Reference

The best-practice review confirmed ICG (Infrastructure Client Group) (2015) Improving The UK Infrastructure Client Group’s new that organisations which have developed Infrastructure Delivery: Alliancing Code of Practice. Alliancing Code of Practice is designed to HM Treasury, London, UK. See http://www.gov. promote best practice effective alliances had understood the uk/government/publications/infrastructure-client- significant changes required and had group (accessed 04/03/2016).

For further information contact: Charles Jensen Tel: +44 20 7665 2225 Email: [email protected] Web: www.ice.org.uk/disciplines-and-resources/

52 Civil Engineering Urbanisation in the UK: the need for a more Volume 169 Issue CE2 May 2016 focused approach on city infrastructure Comer and Forbes http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.2.53 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved BRIEFING: POLICY

Urbanisation in the UK: the need for a more focused approach on city infrastructure

In the first article from the Institution of Civil Engineers’ thought leadership programme, Andrew Comer of Buro Happold and ICE policy manager Kelly Forbes review urbanisation in the UK. They conclude British cities need a more flexible and tailored approach to their infrastructure provision.

The renaissance of the UK’s cities and new technologies offer many of climate change in the urbanisation over the past two decades has been opportunities yet to be understood and debate. This will undoubtedly shape the remarkable. But there is a growing realised. But cities also face important future context for development and the perception that the rapid urbanisation challenges on housing and infrastructure responses available to civil engineers. of Britain is not meeting the immediate provision, which is where civil engineers Technological changes and the rise of needs and longer-term aspirations of the have a vital role to play. ‘big data’ may deliver greater efficiencies country’s growing population. in cities and will change understanding UK population growth has accelerated A flexible approach to and use of urban spaces. ICE and other in the past decade and is projected to infrastructure professional organisations need to reach 74 million by 2035, the majority of recognise the broadening skill sets required whom will live in urban areas. Citizens’ There is no single future for Britain’s and ensure built-environment professionals needs and goals, and how they are met, cities. Shaping what is possible will be are properly trained and experienced. will also change considerably over the a key role for civil engineers and other coming decades. The creation of liveable built-environment professionals. Transferring power and cities will become increasingly important. Certainly there is a risk in attempting opportunity Population growth has been seen to predict the future of urban areas – for across the country but has remained example, few would have anticipated Successful cities of the future will also strongest in the south-east. Other regions the UK’s recent urban renaissance. It is require strong vision and leadership. – often former industrial areas and ports, important to consider the future through This remains difficult while the UK particularly in the north – continue to lag. an awareness of new processes and remains fiscally centralised, with its In addition, while population growth and products, and recognition of key trends, cities having little autonomy to plan or economic growth are normally closely and then to develop flexible responses. make discretionary investment. correlated, UK productivity has stalled, One lesson from history might be Economic rebalancing across the country having not recovered as it did following that civil engineers should be planning is vitally important but UK government previous recessions. for flexible, adaptable infrastructure. policy has so far failed to deliver it. Urban areas offer considerable Recent Institution of Civil Engineers The devolution agenda is therefore to be potential for increasing productivity (ICE) workshop participants have welcomed and the proposed ‘northern through specialisation and agglomeration, highlighted a lack of focus on impacts powerhouse’ represents the strongest articulation of this ambition to date – even if objectives and emphases remain unclear. There is also increasing recognition that not all cities can or need to be competitive in the same fields and industries, and that there is a role for collaboration between cities. Economic specialisation and clustering, supported by appropriate infrastructure, will enable cities to develop and nurture competitive advantage. With increased powers and responsibilities, all cities will require appropriate economic underpinning to realise their potential. Delivering the right infrastructure will be critical, and the civil engineering profession needs to British cities such as Manchester need greater autonomy and a more flexible approach to infrastructure if they are to improve productivity be ready to respond.

For further information contact: Kelly Forbes Tel: +44 141 221 5276 Email: [email protected] Web: www.ice.org.uk/media-and-policy/policy

53 Civil Engineering ICE supports new online training initiatives Volume 169 Issue CE2 May 2016 for civil engineering undergraduates Broadbent http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.2.54 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved BRIEFING: EDUCATION

ICE supports new online training initiatives for civil engineering undergraduates

Two unique online resources for civil engineering undergraduates have recently been launched thanks to support from the Institution of Civil Engineers research and development enabling fund. Oliver Broadbent of Think Up introduces Materials Lab Online and Engineering Mastermind.

Three years ago the Institution of With the support of the ICE research Engineering knowledge quiz Civil Engineers (ICE) research and and development fund and academic development enabling fund generously partners, a total of 20 videos were The second challenge Think Up supported UK engineering education produced for Materials Lab Online: five has been working on, supported by company Think Up to develop new on concrete, eight on steel and seven the ICE research and development online civil engineering teaching tools. on timber. Since their launch in July enabling fund and the Ove Arup The tools were a response to two civil 2015, the videos have attracted over Foundation, is how to help civil engineering undergraduate teaching 13 000 views. engineering undergraduates develop challenges the company had identified Students report that the videos help their engineering general knowledge through its work with universities. them get a clear view in their mind of in the context of a packed curriculum. The first challenge is that as material failure mechanisms, and that Developing a broad civil engineering more universities shut their material they like being able to watch them vocabulary is necessary for effective laboratories, fewer students are getting repeatedly. As Martin Gillie at the communication in practice, and this the opportunity to learn first-hand University of Manchester put it, there base-level knowledge is the foundation about material behaviour. While the is no way he could get 220 students to for more advanced thinking skills such alternative is to turn to the growing watch a live test simultaneously. With as analysis and design. array of online videos showing these videos he is able to illustrate The response was to create common material tests, the quality vividly material behaviour in a way that Engineering Mastermind (http://www. and trustworthiness of these online really captures their attention. engineeringmastermind.org), an online resources are highly variable. multiple-choice quiz in which students win badges when they successfully Material failure videos complete rounds of questions related to different engineering topics. Students The response was to create Materials compete for places on the leader Lab Online (http://www.thinkup.org/ board, their ranking determined by the innovation/materials-lab-online), a number of questions they have correctly collection of high-quality online material- answered in the fewest number of testing videos for undergraduate civil attempts. Universities are also ranked engineers. The approach was to address according to how well their students are the issue of quality by paying particular doing. attention to the way the videos are shot, The development and operating such as how specimens are lit, how costs for the site have also been part- the experiment is framed and, where met by engineering companies, which appropriate, the use of slow-motion and sponsor rounds of questions. They sound. have the opportunity to offer prizes to The aim was to ensure a memorable the highest-ranking students in each and unambiguous view of the material round. Last year the top student won failure mechanism. The issue of the opportunity to interview for a trustworthiness was addressed by placement at Expedition Engineering – working with academics to design, and got the job. produce and narrate the films, Indeed, the prizes are proving to be namely Ahmer Wadee and Christian a major motivator for students using Chuquitaype at Imperial College, the site and are attractive to sponsoring Screenshot of one of the seven authoritative Chris Burgoyne at the University online videos of timber failure, the companies, which have the opportunity of Cambridge and Tim Ibell at the production of which was part-funded by ICE to identify promising future recruits: a University of Bath. win–win result.

For further information contact: Oliver Broadbent Tel: +44 20 7307 6520 Email: [email protected] Web: www.thinkup.org

54 Civil Engineering Engineering a more sustainable and profitable Volume 169 Issue CE2 May 2016 future with ISO 14001:2015 Ward http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.2.55 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved BRIEFING: ENVIRONMENT

Engineering a more sustainable and profitable future with ISO 14001:2015

Colin Ward of SGS looks at how new updates to ISO 14001 – the environmental management systems standard – will provide a framework to help civil engineering firms improve their environmental and financial performance.

The environmental performance of civil demonstrate active involvement across engineering firms can have a direct their environmental management system. bearing on their finances and ability to operate. It is thus vital to ensure that Enhancing credibility clients, regulatory bodies and the public maintain a positive perception of a Certainly the benefits of ISO firm’s impact on the environment. 14001:2015 are hard to ignore – By its very nature design, construction implementing an environmental and maintenance activity within the management system increases natural and built environment will have efficiency, minimises waste, energy an impact on the landscape. ISO 14001 and resource usage, improves public – the world’s most recognised image and relations with regulators, environmental management systems lowers insurance costs and avoids standard – provides a solution to litigation. ISO 14001:2015 also gives minimise and control this impact. It goes The new 2015 version of ISO 14001 will help companies competitive advantage and beyond simply meeting environmental civil engineers maintain a positive perception sets an environmental benchmark. compliance through demonstrating of their environmental impact It distinguishes them from their a commitment to maintaining a counterparts, enhancing their credibility. framework for sustainable development. from them, which means assessing internal There should be a symbiotic Released in September 2015, the cultures, principles and strategic directions. relationship between human updated standard (BSI, 2015) will help They also need to determine the external construction and the environment, one civil engineering firms implement an social, economic and environmental factors where companies feel confident in their environmental management system that may affect their business. ability to manage ecological operations to outline how their projects can and work in tandem with the needs of avoid or mitigate their impact on Risk-based thinking their natural surroundings. the environment and improve their environmental performance. ISO 14001:2015 also introduces risk- Conclusion based thinking as an essential component High-level structure of planning. For example, if a contractor In conclusion, civil engineers would be discovers a natural habitat or waterway unwise to continue ‘directing the great Recent studies on civil engineering close to its site, it must then consider sources of power in nature’ without management have found that operating what could go wrong – for example air, complying with ISO 14001:2015. separate management systems can lead soil, water and/or noise pollution. From Through implementing a compliant to a redundancy of tasks and information this evaluation the company can then environmental management strategy, collection. However, ISO 14001:2015 determine internal risks resulting from its firms will be up-to-date with incorporates a high-level structure – environmental impact and take action to environmental issues and be aware of called the ‘annex SL’ framework – which mitigate these risks. potential risks both to their business and contains common requirements, terms Leadership is critically important in a the environment. They will then have and definitions. This structure acts as a civil engineering context and a vital skill the necessary systems in place to tackle template to ensure all future and revised for developing an effective environmental these risks effectively and improve their management systems standards are management system. In previous environmental responsibility. aligned so they are easier to integrate. management systems standards, those in Under the new ‘context’ clause, civil senior positions delegated responsibility Reference engineering firms will need to determine to junior or middle managers. However, BSI (2105) BS EN ISO 14001:2015: Environmental their context to understand what they are with ISO 14001:2015, top management management systems. Requirements. BSI, about, what they do and what is expected is now held accountable and must London, UK.

For further information contact: Lesley Pilbeam Tel: +44 1276 697670 Email: [email protected] Web: www.sgs.com

55 Civil Engineering Moving infrastructure benefits beyond Volume 169 Issue CE2 May 2016 projects and programmes Blom and Guthrie http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.2016.169.2.56 ICE Publishing: All rights reserved BRIEFING: INFRASTRUCTURE

Moving infrastructure benefits beyond projects and programmes

Recent research confirms the growing limitation of infrastructure projects and programmes to deliver long-term benefits to society. A more holistic, system-level approach to infrastructure delivery and management is needed, say Carron Blom and Peter Guthrie from the University of Cambridge.

Notwithstanding calls to make better use of existing infrastructure, the project-centric, linear-life-cycle view of infrastructure delivery and management has little changed. This is despite a move towards managing work programmes rather than individual projects, and using a portfolio approach to asset management. Others argue that infrastructure governance has also failed to evolve, that life-cycle feedback is absent and All infrastructure needs to be seen in the context of a system servicing society rather than that application of theory to the practice individual projects of aligning strategy and operations is largely unexplored (Busby, 1998; Dobbs et al., 2013: p. 4; Flyvbjerg et al., 2003; What also emerged was that system- There is clearly an urgent need to Johnston and Pongatichat, 2008). level benefits are rarely being followed move beyond individual projects and Six years ago, former Institution of through to integrating projects into programmes and to consider system- Civil Engineers president Paul Jowitt their operational infrastructure systems level benefits – not through the current observed that a more holistic and – comprising assets, other projects and project- or programme-oriented view but inclusive approach to infrastructure was networks. In other words, while project rather from the perspective of the system required. He said it was the time to success may have been evaluated itself and the benefits it seeks to achieve. reorient civil engineering practice back in terms of conventional project towards its imperative: that of delivering management success factors, system- References societal benefits (Jowitt, 2010). level feedback is largely absent. Blom C and Guthrie P (2015) Surveying customer perceptions of road infrastructure comfort. A global problem Managing reality Infrastructure Asset Management 2(4): 173–185. Blom C and Guthrie P (2016) Towards long term infrastructure systems performance. Proceedings Recent research carried out by the The conventional asset life cycle – of of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Engineering Centre for Sustainable Development at plan, build, maintain and dispose – Sustainability, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/ the University of Cambridge found that, presumes the building of more projects and jensu.15.00035. Blom C, De Marco L and Guthrie P (2015) Customer despite a growing awareness within then the optimisation of those hard assets. perceptions of road infrastructure surface conditions. infrastructure practitioners of the need This may have been appropriate in the Infrastructure Asset Management 2(1): 23 –38. for a holistic approach, there are still establishment of ‘new world’ economies or Busby J (1998) The neglect of feedback in engineering design organisations. Design Studies widespread issues in fully delivering in response to specific events such as post- 19(1): 103–117. appropriate and relevant infrastructure world-war or disaster recovery. Dobbs R, Pohl H, Lin DY et al. (2013) Infrastructure Productivity: How to Save $1 Trillion a Year. outcomes over the long term (Blom and But the ‘pipeline’ view of McKinsey Global Institute, London, UK. Guthrie, 2016). infrastructure does not help manage the Flyvbjerg B, Skamris Holm M and Buhl S (2003) The research, across a number of complexities of less-tangible objectives How common and how large are cost overruns in transport infrastructure projects? Transport countries and infrastructure sectors, and the messy, non-linear reality of Reviews 23(1): 71–88. found that this cannot simply be day-to-day service-led infrastructure Johnston R and Pongatichat P (2008) Managing the explained away as poor organisational, management. It is also no longer tension between performance measurement and strategy: coping strategies. International Journal sector or country performance. appropriate to think of benefits in terms of Operations & Production Management It suggests a different approach is of engineering-led conventions rather 28(10): 941–967. Jowitt P (2010) Now is the time. Proceedings of the required better to understand and then than customer-oriented outcomes (Blom Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil Engineering 163(1): deliver long-term infrastructure benefits. and Guthrie, 2015; Blom et al., 2015). 3–8, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/cien.2010.163.1.3.

For further information contact: Carron Blom Tel: +44 74250 58215 Email: [email protected] Web: www.cam.ac.uk

56 ICE Publishing Awards 2015

Announcing the very best papers – from academia and industry – published in over 30 ICE journals in 2014.

The ICE Publishing Awards recognise Of particular note are the works of exceptional quality that benefit papers awarded the top 3 the entire civil engineering and science medals: community. Congratulations to all our The Telford Medal: Performance of GCLS in liners for landfill and distinguished authors! mining applications; R Kerry Rowe Their papers are free to read in perpetuity at The George Stephenson Medal: www.icevirtuallibrary.com/info/awards2015 Deep borehole disposal of nuclear waste: engineering challenges; Andrew John Beswick, Karl P Travis, Fergus G. F. Gibb The Baker Medal: William Hazledine (1763-1840): Pioneering iron founder; Andrew Pattison

MONITOR: BOOKS

Books REVIEWS

ICE manual of knowledge before discussing methods of processes and other key activities required health and controlling and addressing the hazards. to implement ‘level 2 BIM’ successfully. safety in Chemical, biological and physical hazards And if you do not know what level 2 BIM construction are all considered. The section on safety means, then you really need to read this (2nd ed.) addresses specific key risks, and will be book: all UK public sector construction useful alongside other more detailed projects have to comply with level 2 BIM by Ciaran McAleenan industry guidance. from April this year. and David Oloke, This book will be most useful in the The authors also describe the major published by ICE UK context, as many references and benefits to be gained with ‘level 3 BIM’ Publishing, 2015, examples refer to UK regulations, but as well as some of the contractual and £110, reviewed by Andy Alder, the principles set out in this book with insurance issues that will need to be CH2M Hill, UK be universally applicable. Overall it will addressed. In level 3 BIM, there will be be a useful and practical reference for one single project model, accessible by The book does what it promises to, clients, constructors and designers alike, all project team members: this could and delivers a comprehensive reference particularly when used in conjunction make true collaboration between manual for all aspects of health and safety with health and safety training. partners the new norm. The more in construction. The book is divided into widespread the understanding is of four sections: introduction; managing those benefits and issues, then it is to be occupational health and safety; health BIM in principle hoped that the greater the chances of hazards; and safety hazards. and practice success in moving towards level 3 BIM. The introduction describes the legal (2nd ed.) This book provides that knowledge. framework and the duties of the various by Peter Barnes parties to a construction project. This and Nigel Davies, section has been updated to reflect the published by ICE NEC3: the role of Construction (Design and Management) Publishing, 2015, the supervisor Regulations 2015, and provides a useful £30, reviewed by by Bronwyn Mitchell summary to the regulations. One of the Mark Hagger, and Barry Trebes, chapters provides a thought-provoking Environment Agency, published by ICE discussion of how leadership and culture UK Publishing, 2015, can influence successful health and £40, reviewed by safety on a construction project. As the authors of this admirable John Kinnear, The section on managing occupational volume state, ‘BIM is the future’. All those CH2M Hill health and safety includes a strong working in the construction industry need theme of design and planning to to understand what building information A recent Royal Institute of British eliminate hazards and reduce risk, modelling (BIM) is currently, how it Architects survey found NEC3 is now with some useful practical advice and is likely to develop in the future and the contract suite of choice for UK examples. Further chapters discuss health what issues need to be considered in its clients and is being used by over half and safety management systems, both implementation. This book is an excellent the construction industry. Mitchell’s and from a business perspective and in terms introduction to a vital topic. Trebes’ book describes the supervisor of establishing operational procedures. BIM is potentially the catalyst that role in the NEC3 Engineering and A specific chapter on procurement will drive a far better approach to the Construction Contract (ECC) and the provides good guidance in establishing delivery of civil engineering projects value it can bring to a project. a competent team, and a chapter on in the UK. It is already being used Spilt in into sections that match emerging technologies provides some extensively in the USA and some project phases, the book contains many ideas that could promote innovation in European countries. It can facilitate useful checklists, examples, templates planning for safety. genuine collaboration between project and diagrams which help to illustrate The second part of the book covers partners. It can reduce costs by reduction the authors’ points and give practical specific health hazards and safety of errors. It will help move the industry support to the supervisor role. There hazards. Health issues are generally less towards a more efficient production is consistent guidance through each well understood than safety issues, and it management approach to delivery. chapter, with contract responsibilities is good to see comprehensive coverage of Authors Barnes and Davies give a very presented along with key messages and health issues in this manual. The section clear description of the key features and opportunities where supervisors can or on health, in particular, provides useful benefits of BIM. They describe clearly the should be asked to provide additional background on the hazards to develop organisation, contractual arrangements, value to a project.

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The book starts with a general tiers: workshop only; interviews and pavements including the materials used overview of the ECC and the context workshop; and interviews, workshop and in those pavements and the design and for the supervisor role, emphasising the supporting output tables. They explain construction of bituminous surfacings. importance of communications. It then how it is applicable to all projects and There are also chapters on key issues clearly sets out the supervisor’s duties can be used at any point in a project life such as earthworks, soil stabilisation and with clear diagrams, tables and key cycle for resolution of an issue. – probably the most important factor in message boxes, highlighting areas where Certainly the practical manner in which good pavement design – the drainage of an informed supervisor can add value. the book explains the methodology must the surface and sub-surface of the road. It then provides an in-depth review be applauded as it not only describes The book also looks at the important of what the supervisor is required to do the process, but uses case studies to area of pavement asset management at each project stage, again with good demonstrate its application. The inclusion including structural strengthening of road use of tables and diagrams to assist the of numerous knowledge templates and pavements, improving wet skid resistance reader, while providing helpful links to other information-capture tools does, and the use of thin surface treatments. contract clauses for future reference. however, make the book read like an Each of the 18 chapters has been The appendix is full of ready-to-use lists instruction manual in parts. written by industry experts who and templates, which may be particularly Nevertheless, I would recommend it share their knowledge and practical useful in the initial stages of a scheme. for use by any practitioners with project experiences on the many different While there are no case studies management implementation and aspects of highway engineering. to illustrate its points, this does not oversight duties. Lecturers may also find it detract from the value of this book in a useful reference book to help students Practical road clearly setting out the role of the ECC learn the concept as part of modules on safety auditing supervisor. Overall it is an informative innovative project management. (3rd ed.) guide and will be helpful to people by Martin Belcher, employing, working alongside or Steve Proctor and Phil undertaking the supervisor role. Highways: the location, Cook, published by design, ICE Publishing, 2015, Global risk construction £65, reviewed by assessment and and David Oloke, UK strategic maintenance of planning – an The book aims to road pavements provide a practical hands-on approach introduction (5th ed.) to conducting road safety audits. and facilitator’s edited by Coleman It reviews international road safety guide to the O’Flaherty with David audit procedures and processes, helping Grasp Hughes, published by ICE Publishing, readers to adopt a relevant strategy methodology 2016, £31·50, reviewed by Neil Owen, and methodology, and then looks at by John McLaughlin, Michael Ocock, Agi UK competency, discussing the requisite Oldfield and Barry Trebes, published by training and qualifications and the ICE Publishing, 2015, £28 reviewed by This fifth edition remains a context of EU directives. David Oloke, UK comprehensive textbook on all aspects Other topics covered include safety of highway engineering and has been data requirements associated with road The book presents the ‘global risk updated to include the latest European safety reports and the legal implications assessment and strategic planning’ standards. It is primarily aimed at of road safety audits. To set the UK (Grasp) method in a simple and easy-to- final year and master’s degree civil system into perspective, it presents a understand manner. Although presented engineering students but it is also a summary of the state of the art in six as a facilitator’s guide, it introduces the very useful reference book for all those countries and the EU. concept through a basic approach, which working in highway design offices The book also looks at other types helps to understand the origin, tiers and who are designing new roads and/or of audit related to road construction importance of Grasp. maintaining existing ones. and usage to help readers gain better It explains the concept of values First published in 1967, this latest understanding of the context of road that all parties bring to a project, and edition has been fully updated to provide safety audits. Finally, it reviews current how these ‘knowledge capitals’ can be the current position and thinking on issues in road safety audits with a range mined and utilised. A triangle is used to all areas of highway design, including of international case studies. highlight the inter-relationship between locating the line of a new highway, the Generally, the book is very stakeholder knowledge, situational use of digital elevation models, acquiring straightforward to read and has clear awareness and the project. any statutory approvals and investigating illustrations. It should therefore be a According to the authors, Grasp the ground on which the new road will sit. worthy addition to the library of the can be carried out in three optional It looks at the design of flexible and rigid safety practitioner and student.

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Stadium and geotechnical engineering. These include of waste generation that integrates arena design site investigation, ground improvement general attitudes to environmental techniques, shallow foundations, deep problems, subjective and personal norms edited by Peter Culley foundations, retaining structures, and perceived behaviour control. and John Pascoe, embankments, machine foundations The findings, while compelling, are published by ICE and geotechnical reinforcement. not surprising, and suggest an important Publishing, 2015, Each of its nine chapters is presented contribution of personal and subjective £96, reviewed by clearly and includes a summary, learning norms on the waste management Philippe Bouillard, aims, questions for practice and a useful behaviour of individuals. The author Université Libre de list of references and further reading. starts with the preconception that Bruxelles, Belgium Some chapters also benefit from worked human behaviour is the overarching Ten years after publication of examples. cause of waste generation. This their book Stadium engineering, The material in the book has been view is not uncommon, the roots Culley and Pascoe have updated the developed for an undergraduate of which are found deep in modern multidisciplinary content to cover current programme and will be a useful environmentalism. The 1980 book major sports facility design and the reference for all students on civil and by Cone and Hayes, Environmental increasing demand for sustainability. geotechnical engineering degree problems/behaviour solutions is a The book now starts with an interesting courses. However, it will also be useful comprehensive discussion on this. historical presentation of stadium and to practising professionals in helping The authors argued in 1980 that the arena engineering from the eighth century them find solutions to problems in the development of physical technology to the most recent international venues. ground. had far exceeded that of ‘behaviour The chapters about crowd circulation and technology’. security have been fully reconsidered, and Waste The ability of small behavioural chapters added on computerised design, prevention changes to leverage large effects concrete technology, natural and artificial policy and when acted en masse is an important pitches and retractable roofs. behaviour: new dimension to be highlighted, and Three new case studies are analysed approaches placing the burden of responsibility on consumers can be empowering when and supported by original data, these to reducing being the Hazza Bin Zayed Stadium in external obstacles and restrictions are waste removed. However, this becomes highly Abu Dhabi, Wimbledon Centre Court generation in the UK and Beijing National Stadium counterproductive when the overarching in China. Not covered, however, are and its infrastructures or policies act against the financial planning or lessons learned environmental consumer. The discourses surrounding from recent world cup venue projects. impacts climate change are an excellent example Overall, the book is easy to read, by Ana Paula Bortoleto, published by of this. even for non-specialists. The new Routledge, 2015, £85, reviewed by Phil The environmental movement was version will no doubt be welcomed by Renforth, Cardiff University, UK quick to highlight lifestyle changes professionals and practitioners involved as a key aspect of preventing climate in arena construction. It will also be The management of the 1·3 Gt of change, which they are. However, inspirational for any civil engineer waste that is generated in cities is seen lifestyle changes alone will not solve interested in understanding how as a key challenge in our progress the problem, and the lack of social to design and build these complex, towards an environmentally sustainable and private investment in the other landmark facilities. world. Bortoleto’s book charts the measures makes the former sound interface between policy and practice in hollow. The result: an increase in waste prevention. scepticism and apathy. Treatment of Core concepts The strength of the book is in the this disconnect, while mentioned, is of geotechnical presentation of three in-depth case not developed within Waste prevention engineering studies that examine waste policy across policy and behaviour. As such, the book by Sanjay Kumar Sheffield, Tokyo and Sao Paulo. These lacks depth in the overall treatment of Shukla, published genetically different cities provide a the subject. by ICE Publishing, rich backdrop on which to explore the Nevertheless, it offers an interesting 2015, £30, reviewed efficacy of waste policy. insight into the connection between by Colin Rawlings, Based on extensive surveys of the social sciences and civil engineering, CH2M Hill, UK residents in the three cities, the book and will be particularly beneficial for contains a wealth of information on those who are working within the This book is part of the ICE textbook attitudes and behaviour. The author uses technical and policy interface in waste series and covers the main concepts of these data to validate a framework model management.

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NEW BOOKS

The ICE library maintains one of the most comprehensive collections of civil engineering books in the world, including all titles from ICE Publishing (shown in bold below). New books received in the past 3 months include the following. A practical guide to adopting BIM in construction projects B Kumar £25·00 A practical guide to construction adjudication J Pickavance £64·95 Accessibility and the bus system: transforming the world (2nd ed.) N Tyler £100·00 Acoustic emission and related non-destructive evaluation techniques in the fracture mechanics of M Ohtsu £175·00 concrete Advanced materials and techniques for reinforced concrete structures M El-Reedy £99·00 Aquatecture: buildings designed to live and work with water R Barker and R Coutts £35·00 Basic principles of concrete structures X Gu, X Jin and Y Zhou £59·99 Being an effective construction client: working on commercial and public projects P Ullathorne £33·44 BIM for construction clients R Saxon £40·00 Civil engineering procedure (7th ed.) Institution of Civil Engineers £25·00 Coastal management: changing coast, changing climate, changing minds A Baptiste £250·00 Collaborative project procurement arrangements D Walker and B Lloyd-Walker £20·88 Comparative design of structures: concepts and methodologies S Lin and Z Huang £93·16 Construction materials based on industrial waste products L Dvorkin, O Dvorkin and Y Ribakov £158·50 Delivering sustainable buildings: saving and payback Y Abdul and R Quartermaine £45·00 Disaster recovery B Phillips £44·99 Engineering: questions and answers G Duckett £8·25 Getting to grips with BIM: a guide for small and medium-sized architecture, engineering and J Harty, T Kouider and G Paterson £34·99 construction Handbook on green infrastructure: planning, design and implementation D Sinnett, N Smith and S Burgess £180·00 Health and safety questions and answers: a practical approach (2nd ed.) P Perry £35·00 Masonry structures: between mechanics and architecture D Aita, O Pedemonte and K Williams £72·92 Principal designer’s handbook: guide to the CDM regulations 2015 Association for Project Safety £25·00 Renewable energies offshore C Guedes Soares £172·00 Seismic behaviour and design of irregular and complex civil structures II Z Zembaty and M De Stefano £117·00 Seismic loads V Lyatkher £130·00 Sensor technologies for civil infrastructures. Volume 2: applications in structural health monitoring M Wang, J Lynch and H Sohn £180·00 Sketching for engineers and architects R Slade £40·00 Stability of buildings. Part 4: moment frames A Gardner and IStructE £70·00 Supply chain construction: the basics for networking the flow of materials, information and cash W Walker £49·99 Sustainable building conservation: theory and practice of responsive design in the heritage O Prizeman £40·00 environment. Sustainable water C Ainger and R Fenner £30·00 Taming the flood: rivers, wetlands and the centuries-old battle against flooding J Purseglove £25·00 The ‘one planet’ life: a blueprint for low impact development D Thorpe £26·99 The economics of infrastructure provisioning: the changing role of the state A Picot, M Florio, N Grove and J Kranz £24·95 The sustainable built environment: technical, managerial, legal and economic aspects B Sertyesilisik and A Al Shamma’a £29·99 Theories of sustainable development J Enders and M Remig £90·00 Tidal power: harnessing energy from water currents V Lyatkher £130·00 Trust in construction projects A Ceric £95·00 Understanding and using structural concepts T Ji, A Bell and B Ellis £44·99 Urban pluvial and coincidental flooding C Maksimovic £67·00 Urban water reuse handbook S Eslamian £89·00 Water and climate change adaptation OECD £27·00

All books can be borrowed from the ICE library on the first floor of 1 Great George Street, London, SW1P 3AA from 8.30 am to 6.30 pm, Monday to Friday. ICE Publishing titles can also be purchased from the ICE library or ordered by calling +44 1892 832299, emailing [email protected] or by visiting www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/books.

MONITOR: PROCEEDINGS

ICE Proceedings

In addition to Civil Engineering, ICE Proceedings includes 17 specialist journals. Papers and articles published in the most recent issues are listed here. Summaries of all these and other papers and articles published can be read free in the ICE Virtual Library at www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/journals.

Bridge Engineering Recycled aggregates in structural concrete – Estimating bicycle parking demand with a Qatar case study limited data availability 169, No. BE1, March 2016, 1–78 K. E.-G. Hassan, J. M. Reid and M. S. Al-Kuwari P. C. Pfaffenbichler and T. Brezina Reliability analysis of a bridge Using standard repair methods on recycled Can bicycle training for children increase active network in Ireland aggregate concrete travel? C. Hanley and V. Pakrashi A. Badr R. Johnson, M. Frearson and P. Hewson Composite cable-stayed bridges: Use of crushed brick in reinforced earth Beyond walking and cycling: scoping state of the art railway structures small‑wheel modes J. J. Oliveira Pedro and A. J. Reis S. Ellis, A. Goodwin, E. Laycock and C. Hurst S. W. Lorimer and S. Marshall Contraction scour analysis at protruding Waste glass aggregate for cementitious and bridge abutments polymer concrete P. T. Ghazvinei, J. Ariffin, T. A. Mohammad, Ö. Andiç-Çakir, O. Üzüm, C. Yüksel and M. Sarikanat Forensic Engineering S. A. Amini, M. A. Mir, S. Saheri and 169, No. FE1, February 2016, 1–27 S. Ansarimoghaddam Energy Deterioration assessment of an Structural analysis and design of a multispan immersed-tube road tunnel in 169, No. EN2, May 2016, 47–90 network arch bridge Taiwan Air conditioning systems for A. Pipinato Y.-C. Chou school buildings: a case study Seismic performance of a bridge with tall piers Lessons learned from the Great East Japan F. Ascione, L. Bellia, C. Mele and R. Kulkarni, S. Adhikary, Y. Singh and A. Sengupta Earthquake F. Minichiello T. Tanikawa Civil Engineering Special Energy harvesting on road pavements: state Issue of the art F. Duarte and A. Ferreira Geotechnical Engineering Humanitarian engineering Innovation in deep foundation design 169, No. CE5, May 2016, 1–64 Engineering and and construction Re-engineering humanitarian Computational Mechanics 169, No. GE2, April 2016, 95–223 response – opportunity and The long-term behaviour of obligation 169, No. EM1, March 2016, 1–41 retaining walls in Dublin C. Lee and R. Potangaroa Free vibration of FG Lévy plate F. O’Leary, M. Long and M. Ryan Reducing rural isolation: a tale of two bridges resting on elastic foundations Primary firm secant pile concrete specification H. Westerink and M. Alonso Barco K. K. Pradhan and S. Chakraverty J. Gannon Sustainable roads for fragile states in Africa Analysis of a thermosyphon using a Pile tests to justify higher adhesion factors in M. Righi and N. Gardner Mandelstam condition London Clay A low-cost vernacular improved housing F. Bahrami, M. Zarroug and P. Lundberg J. Martin, D. Budden and S. Norman design DSSI analysis of pile foundations for an oil S. Kaminski, A. Lawrence, K. Coates and L. Foulkes Engineering History and tank in Iraq Protecting communities by remediating Heritage A. Kumar and D. Choudhury polluted sites worldwide Design of pile configuration for optimum raft D. Hanrahan, B. Ericson and J. Caravanos 169, No. EH2, May 2016, 55–108 performance The work of Engineers for Overseas Civil engineering heritage in A. Maheetharan, A. Raveendiraraj, O. Qusous and Development in humanitarian aid Spain: public protection strategies R. May I. Flower R. Ruiz, L. Cruz, F. J. Rodriguez and Mixed-in-place response of two carbonate Developing professional competencies for J. M. Coronado sands humanitarian engineers Assessment of U-type wrought iron railway bridges P. Doherty, G. Spagnoli and D. Bellato B. Reed and E. Fereday L. Canning and M. M. Kashani A hollow pile extended with a micropile: Managing safely in humanitarian projects The gothic tower of Freiburg Minster, tests and modelling A. Brown Germany: analysis and repair R. Barthel, J. Tutsch and J. Jordan J. L. Justo, J. L. Arcos, E. Justo, R. Gil, M. Vázquez- Construction Materials Civil engineering heritage: Country profile – Japan Boza, F. Martín and P Durand H. Isohata Ultimate lateral capacity of timber poles Recycled construction materials Civil engineering heritage: Country profile – embedded in clay 169, No. CM2, April 2016, 47–116 Wales, UK M. Pender and P. Rodgers An overview on recycling and K. Thomas and S. Jones Behaviour of reinforced polyurethane resin waste in construction micropiles J. Barritt Engineering Sustainability R. Valentino and D. Stevanoni Recycling of demolition waste in The boundary between deep foundations and Merseyside Facilitating active travel ground improvement M. Soutsos and M. C. Fulton 169, No. ES2, April 2016, 47–84 B. Hamidi, F. Masse, J. Racinais and S. Varaksin Asbestos in recycled materials – modern risks Space for tricycles and bike Model tests of soil heave plug formation in and future concerns trailers: necessary provisions suction caisson M. Fox G. Gaffga and C. Hagemeister W. Guo, J. Chu and H. Kou

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Ground Improvement Municipal Engineer Urban Design and Planning 169, No. GI2, May 2016, 79–156 169, No. ME1, March 2016, 1–62 Latin America Experimental study of dynamic Using design–build system: 169, No. DP2, April 2016, 45–115 compaction adjacent to a slope an interpretive structural model Brazilian urban porosity: treat or A. Vahidipour, A. Ghanbari and B. Trigunarsyah and threat? A. Hamidi A. A. D. Parami Dewi I. M. Pessoa, T. Tasan-Kok and W. K. Altes Radial consolidation clay behaviour under Waynergy Vehicles: an innovative pavement Urban land use pattern identification using haversine cyclic load energy harvest system variogram on image S. S. Razouki F. Duarte, J. P. Champalimaud and A. Ferreira D. L. Barros, M. A. Giannotti, A. P. C. Larocca and Behaviour of an embedded footing on A new tram network for Bristol: a possible scenario? J. A. Quintanilha geotextile-reinforced sand H. A. Pollock Fraser, P. Christopher, C. Kennedy, Improving urban thermal profile with trees M. Kazi, S. K. Shukla and D. Habibi T. Webster, P. J. Vardanega and A. Johansson and water features Mixing and compaction of fibre- and Sewer risk management: reducing pollution É. Masiero and L. C. L. de Souza lime‑modified cohesive soil using minimum gradient and GIS Impacts of traffic calming interventions on C. Gelder and G. J. Fowmes M. Baker urban vitality Ground surface settlements of sands densified Dissolved oxygen model for a river with O. Baptista Neto and H. M. Barbosa with explosives extreme fl ow variations A spatial multicriteria model for urban C. A. Vega-Posada and R. J. Finno N. Ejaz, T. U Saeed, A. Ahmed and D. Khan accessibility mapping Behaviour of lignosulfonate-treated soil under Building spatial cloud-based local government D. S. Rodrigues, R. A. R. Ramos and M. G. S. Tobias cyclic loading services Designing and modelling Havana’s future bus Q. Chen, B. Indraratna and C. Rujikiatkamjorn S. Bediroglu, V. Yildirim and R. Nisanci rapid transit Field testing of permeation grouting using J. P. Warren and A. Ortegon-Sanchez microfine cement Structures and Buildings K. Hashimoto, S. Nishihara, S. Oji, Waste and Resource 169, No. SB4, April 2016, 235–312 T. Kanazawa, S. Nishie, I. Seko, T. Hyodo Management and Y. Tsukamoto Assessing reduction in concrete shear strength contribution 169, No. WR2, May 2016, 55–92 G. Arslan, S. Alacali and A. Sagiroglu Aerobic treatment of leachate from Management, Modelling steel-strip-confined municipal solid waste in Morocco Procurement and Law reinforced-concrete columns M. Abouri, S. Souabi, M. A. Bahlaoui, M. Rizwan, S. A. Khan, M. Ilyas and R.R. Hussain F. Zouhir, M. Baudu, R. Moharram and A. Pala 169, No. MP2, April 2016, 47–91 Flexural performance of lightweight Towards recycling and waste reduction in Compensation events in NEC3 reinforced-concrete slabs Mohammedia, Morocco contracts: case studies from R. Z. Al-Rousan A. El Maguiri, I. Laila, B. Kissi and S. Souabi South Africa An examination of the crack control provision Hazardous constituents of e-waste and S. Laryea in BS EN 1992-2 predictions for India Late disputes and the NEC3 Engineering and C. Arya S. Ahmed and R. M. Panwar Construction Contract Effect of carbon fibre-reinforced polymers on Recovery of lubricant base oils using ionic I. Ndekugri structural behaviour of hollow-core slabs liquid processes Social cohesion and interpersonal conflicts in L. A. Qureshi, M. Jawad, A. Elahi and A. Ajwad S. M. Grimes and F. Thompson projects Temporary support of five-storey building by U. Ojiako, G. Manville, N. Zouk and M. Chipulu column clamping Water Management Litigation following UK Water Resources Act J. Rowe, J. McElhinney and N. Smith section 110 appeal Cement-stabilised rammed-earth square Flood resilience M. Chapman column in compression 169, No. WM2, April 2016, 55–108 D. D. Tripura and K. D. Singh Methods of assessing flood Maritime Engineering resilience of critical buildings Transport M. Escarameia, N. Walliman, 169, No. MA1, March 2016, 1–45 C. Zevenbergen and R. de Graaf Present-day use of an empirical 169, No. TR2, April 2016, 63–121 Liverpool integrated urban drainage: wave prediction method Impacts of climate change on a partnership approach C. Lo Re, M. Cannarozzo and marginal nights for road salting A. Parkes, G. Forrester, P. Spencer, L. Gilmore and G. Todd G. B. Ferreri R. T. McSweeney, J. E. Tomlinson, Techniques for valuing adaptive capacity in Wave loading on rock lighthouses G. J. Darch, J. Parker and T. Holland flood risk management A. Raby, G. N. Bullock, D. Banfi , Y. Rafiq and Hybrid model for prediction of real-time traffic R. Brisley, R. Wylde, R. Lamb, J. Cooper, P. Sayers F. Cali flow and J. Hall Nature-based solutions: lessons from around B. Yao, Z. Wang, M. Zhang, P. Hu and X. Yan Enhancing urban flood resilience – a case study the world Driver injury severity analysis for two work for policy implementation N. Pontee, S. Narayan, M. W. Beck and zone types L. Nie A. H. Hosking J. Weng, G. Du and L. Ma Sustainable drainage systems: helping people Engineering of an island-style breakwater Quality cost in bus operations based on live with water system for the Fort Pierce marina activity-based costing G. Everett, J. Lamond, A. T. Morzillo, F. K. S. Chan J. C. Cox and R. E. Czlapinski A. García-Pastor, B. Guirao and M. E. López-Lambas and A. M. Matsler

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MONITOR: ICE REVIEW

ICE review

A review of recent developments at the Institution of Civil Engineers by ICE president John Armitt. For further information please contact the communications office on +44 20 7665 2107, email [email protected] or visit www.ice.org.uk//news-public-affairs.

Shaping Hong Kong Informing the flood debate I visited Hong Kong in January to Severe flooding struck the UK once deliver ICE’s recommendations on low- again over Christmas and into the carbon-dioxide urban development to New Year, affecting many. ICE was the Hong Kong government. Our report again at the forefront of the debate Infrastructure: shaping Hong Kong providing expert insight and analysis argued that Hong Kong should take the to media. opportunity to establish itself as a global Our calls for more innovative and leader in quality, sustainable urban holistic approaches to flood resilience, development. Richard Kirk presents ICE Northern Ireland’s which would avoid relying solely on The report set out a long-term roadmap infrastructure manifesto to regional conventional defences, were widely for developing Hong Kong’s infrastructure development minister Michelle McIlveen publicised together with our concerns networks and identified improving on flood defence maintenance. energy efficiency in buildings as a vital Not only is the maintenance budget first step. It also called for greenhouse Manifesto for infrastructure for UK defences insufficient, it is gas emissions created in delivering and Prior to the UK general election in May allocated annually meaning spending operating infrastructure to be assessed last year, we published an ICE manifesto is reactive, piecemeal and frequently and integrated into decision making, for infrastructure. This resulted in a inadequate. Funding to maintain including options that reduce the need commitment from all major parties to existing defences should be factored for new construction such as retrofitting prioritise infrastructure in their election into spending plans from the outset – or improved asset management. manifestos and led to establishment of ICE has long called for a move towards The report was funded by ICE’s the National Infrastructure Commission, a whole-life approach to infrastructure ‘Shaping the world’ initiative, which of which I am a member. investment. turns knowledge into action for public We have recently launched regional Past ICE president David Balmforth, good. It was based on joint research by manifestos in Scotland, Northern along with many other ICE flood ICE and the Chinese University of Hong Ireland, Wales and London, each urging experts, were quoted in national titles Kong, which generated insight into how politicians in the devolved government such as the Guardian, The Times and Hong Kong can achieve ‘low-carbon’ and mayoral elections on 5 May to make The Economist as well as regional living in a dense urban environment. specific infrastructure commitments in titles including The Yorkshire Post. The report can be read at www.ice.org. their own manifestos. Calls for each ICE experts were also interviewed on uk/shapinghongkong. region centre on ensuring delivery of key Sky News, BBC News, the BBC Today projects, building network resilience and programme, BBC Radio Scotland and securing long-term investment. BBC Radio Wales. Northern Ireland’s regional development minister Michelle McIlveen hosted the launch at Stormont, Welsh minister for finance and government business Jane Hutt received ICE Wales Cymru’s manifesto at the Senedd and Scottish business and energy minister Fergus Ewing met ICE Scotland following its launch. A column in the Evening Standard Left to right: ICE president John Armitt with also echoed ICE London’s call for a Eva Kong, CM Lee and Ken Lo of ICE Hong more radical approach to securing the Past ICE president David Balmforth being Kong with the Infrastructure: shaping Hong interviewed on BBC News about improving Kong report for the government £1·3 trillion investment needed in the UK flood resilience capital’s infrastructure by 2050.

64 Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Volume 169 Issue CE2 Civil Engineering 169 May 2016 Issue CE2 Pages 65–70 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00045 Design and top-down construction at Paper 1500045 the Nanjing Youth Olympic Center, China Received 11/08/2015 Accepted 04/01/2016 Published online 24/02/2016 Ren, Zhao, Liu, Yang, Li, Yang and Peng Keywords: buildings, structures & design/composite structures/excavation

Design and top-down construction at the Nanjing Youth Olympic Center, China Qingying Ren BEng Songlin Yang PhD Professor, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China; Chief Engineer, China Senior Engineer, China Architecture Design Institute, Beijing, China Architecture Design Institute, Beijing, China Sen Li PhD, MEng Qingyu Zhao PhD Engineer, China Architecture Design Institute, Beijing, China Researcher, Tianjin University, China Jian Yang BEng Wenting Liu PhD Engineer, China Construction Third Engineering Bureau, Shanghai, China Senior Engineer, China Architecture Design Institute, Beijing, China Fei Peng BEng Engineer, China Construction Third Engineering Bureau, Shanghai, China

This paper describes the design and top-down basement construction of Nanjing Youth Olympic Center in Nanjing, China. The building’s twin towers are 315 m high and are among the tallest to have had their basements constructed top-down. Designed and built for the Nanjing 2014 Youth Olympic Games, the structure was completed in just 20 months. Top-down construction was selected by the design engineer, along with various new techniques and developments of existing methods, to save time and improve safety. This paper describes the site conditions and structural design process, followed by the sequence of top-down basement construction. The design details of the diaphragm wall, foundations, columns, basement excavation and vertical load transfer are also presented. The paper aims to provide a reference for those using top-down construction on tall buildings.

1. Introduction with the basement. This dramatically shortened the construction time and resulted in structural completion by January 2014. Top-down basement construction involves building the permanent A number of innovative techniques, close collaboration between structural members of a basement from the ground downwards as the structural engineers and architects, and significant detailed excavation proceeds. It has been applied in many major construction design work were essential during the design and construction projects and attracted much attention from structural engineers process to achieve successful delivery ahead of schedule. around the world (Brand and Gibb, 1996; Fang and Jin, 2014; Hong et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2010; Marchand, 1993a, 1993b; Marchant et al., 1994; Parker, 2013; Powderham, 2002). 2. Project description and plan The method is mainly used for underground structures and for tall buildings with deep basements in urban areas, where ground As shown in Figure 1, the major elements of the project are two movements need to be kept to an absolute minimum. Furthermore, high-rise towers. The 255 m high tower one is a 58-storey hotel the method provides a significant saving in overall construction tower with a gross internal area of about 100 000 m2. Tower two, time, which is especially applicable for projects with tight conceived as 68 storeys and 314·5 m high, is an office werto with a programmes or immovable deadlines. gross internal area of about 120 000 m2. This paper describes the structural design details for the twin- The two towers have relatively regular building facades, which towered Nanjing Youth Olympic Center in China, the basement for extend straight upwards in two opposite sides and incline up or which was constructed using the top-down technique. Designed down by 1 or 3 degrees in the other two sides. The plan shapes of by Zaha Hadid Architects for the Nanjing 2014 Youth Olympic the towers are similar to flattened parallelograms. Games, the building contains hotels, offices, conference rooms and A three-storey basement (about 13·5 m deep) is shared complete supporting facilities. Because of its important role in the underground while a five-storey podium (about 26 m high) is games, the building had to be completed before the August 2014 shared above. Each tower contains its own complete services. opening ceremony. According to the construction programme, work would start in May 2012 and be completed in July 2014. However, it was not possible to complete such a large project in 3. The site less than 30 months using traditional construction methods. The top- down technique was therefore proposed by the structural engineer. The project is located in the south-west of Nanjing, China In addition, the superstructures were built upwards concurrently adjacent to the Yangtze River (Figure 2). The Nanjing International

65 Civil Engineering Design and top-down construction at the Volume 169 Issue CE2 Nanjing Youth Olympic Center, China Ren, Zhao, Liu, Yang, Li, Yang and Peng

(a) Central Central Bar Forest Bar Park Yangtze River Nanjing Eye Existing Pedestrian Existing buildings buildings Bridge Nanjing Youth Olympic Convention Center Existing (to be built) Nanjing International Nanjing Youth Expo Olympic Center Center Existing buildings Nanjing Youth Olympic Village (to be built) Existing 0 m 300 buildings

(b) Jinshajiang West Street Nanjing Existing Youth Olympic buildings Figure 1. The Zaha Hadid design features a pair of towers up to Convention Center 315 m tall immediately next to the six-storey convention centre (to be built)

Tower two Expo Center on the east side comprises many large-span steel Existing Nanjing International exhibition buildings and a single-level basement. A few existing Tower one Expo Center Jiangshan Street multi-storey residential units and office buildings are located to the Nanjing Youth north-east and south-east of the project site. Olympic Center The Nanjing Youth Olympic Village and the Nanjing Youth Olympic Convention Center were to be built to the west and north Existing buildings of the site, respectively, at the same time as the twin-towered building. The Convention Center is a large multi-purpose building Nanjing Youth Yecheng Road comprising six storeys above ground and two storeys underground, Olympic Village 0 m 80 (to be built) with a gross internal area of about 194 000 m2. The site investigation revealed the area was part of the floodplain of the Yangtze River. The complex distribution of the rock and soil layers was typical for this region. Made ground was present near Figure 2. Project location (a) and site plan (b) the surface, covering layers of alluvium (mainly soft clay and fine sand layers) deposited by the Yangtze River. The top of the silt clay was found at a depth of about 7 m, below this were the clay layers cube test), to achieve a higher bearing capacity and smaller cross- that became more sandy with depth, then sand and gravel layers section for the columns. and then mudstone, a typical extremely soft rock (the rock mass From the basement raft slab to the top of the towers, two internal basic quality is less than or equal to 250). reinforced-concrete cores were designed as vertical cantilevers Influenced by the Yangtze River system, the groundwater table to withstand lateral loads, providing strength and stiffness for was about only 0·7 m below the ground level. the buildings. Many circular-section steel tube columns were embedded in the lower part of the cores and then changed to ‘X’- or ‘I’-shaped columns in the upper part, partly for providing strength 4. Structural design of the twin towers and stiffness and partly because of the top-down construction technique. Steel–concrete composite construction was adopted in the The plan shapes of the internal cores were also flat project, with an external steel–concrete composite frame, an parallelograms. Considerable structural design effort was thus internal reinforced-concrete core and steel–concrete composite expended in arranging the core layouts, making the stiffness in one floors between them. The different materials increased the direction as close as possible to that in the perpendicular direction. efficiency of the structure, again reducing the construction time. The steel–concrete composite floors comprised steel welded plate For the external frame columns, square-section steel tubular girders and concrete slabs above. columns measuring up to 1600 mm × 1600 mm × 50 mm were used. Generally, structural engineers prefer to use rigid outriggers These were filled with micro-expansive, self-compacting, high- between the core and perimeter of high-rising buildings to provide strength concrete up to 60 MPa compressive strength (150 mm vertical stiffness. However, there was insufficient time to build rigid

66 Civil Engineering Design and top-down construction at the Volume 169 Issue CE2 Nanjing Youth Olympic Center, China Ren, Zhao, Liu, Yang, Li, Yang and Peng

outriggers on this project, so the stiffness was achieved by using 5.2 Foundation and columns more columns and a smaller column spacing of 6 m. This also The extremely soft mudstone layer was reluctantly chosen as the reduced the individual column loading, which was beneficial for bearing layer for the foundations. With a required rock embedment the top-down construction technique. depth of about 5 m, this meant the bored piles reached a depth of The structural arrangement of the towers in elevation and section nearly 80 m. is shown in Figure 3. To increase the bearing capacity along with reducing the diameter of the piles, high-strength 60 MPa underwater concrete was used. The bearing piles beneath the frame columns were 2·0 m in diameter, 5. Structural design for the underground while the other piles were 1·2 m, including those beneath the cores. structures and the top-down technique The layout of the major bearing piles is shown in Figure 4. The level B3 raft slab was supported on the bearing piles, with 5.1 Diaphragm wall the top of the slab 13·5 m below ground level. The slab is 3·7 m A strong supporting structure with soil-retaining and water- thick beneath the tower one core and 3·3 m thick elsewhere; under sealing properties was essential. Based on the geological tower two, the thicknesses are 4·1 m and 3·7 m, respectively. conditions, the construction method and the construction schedule, The temperature as the concrete cured therefore needed to be a diaphragm wall with a thickness of 1·2 m and depth of up to 60 m strictly controlled. from ground level was designed as a combined diaphragm wall and To support the superstructures during top-down construction, exterior wall of the basement. plunge columns were embedded in the piles. In view of the high The wall thickness and embedment depth were sufficient to anticipated loading on the plunge columns, concrete-filled steel guarantee integrity and impermeability during construction, tube columns were used to provide sufficient strength and lateral but made it quite difficult to complete the construction works stiffness with a relatively small cross-section. Vertical accuracy of on schedule. Due to the extraordinary depth and thickness, the 1:300 and 1:600 were specified for the piles and plunge columns, diaphragm wall had to be constructed with special large plant. respectively, which also represented a considerable challenge. Accuracy, security and efficiency during construction were also essential. 5.3 Sequence of top-down basement construction Before the construction started, the sequence of the diaphragm To reduce construction time, the superstructure construction was wall construction had been well planned by the design engineer. started within the top-down construction period rather than waiting It was divided into more than 60 panels, with precast stop ends and for completion of the basement. As shown in Figure 5, construction large prefabricated reinforcement cages – though these were quite started with the diaphragm wall and piling. Excavation of the hard to control during construction. Because of their great weight, basement then began, followed by the casting of the B1 slab. the reinforcement cages had to be divided into two parts and their Next, the top-down construction sequence involved excavating weight cut down as much as possible by structural technology; the the soil beneath B1, casting the B2 slab, excavating below B2 two parts were then welded together to provide sufficient rigidity for and, finally, casting the raft slab to create level B3. Superstructure handling. Furthermore, reinforced screw couplers had to be fixed to works started simultaneously at level B1, supported by just the the cages to form the floor or wall junctions, which was necessary plunge columns and corresponding bearing piles during the top- for the load transfer between different parts of the building. down construction process. At one stage, the plunge columns were The layout of the diaphragm wall is shown in Figure 4. supporting 19 storeys, from level B1 to level 18. The effective length of the plunge columns was kept in a reasonable range during the process, so temporary lateral restraint (a) (b) Tower one of the columns was not necessary. Similarly, temporary lateral Tower restraint of the diaphragm wall was not required because it was two propped by the progressively constructed basement slabs.

Tower one Tower one Bearing pile (a) Bearing pile (b)

(b) Tower two Diaphragm Tower two wall

0 m 20

Basement Diaphragm wall

Figure 3. Elevation (a) and individual tower cross-sections (b) Figure 4. Plan of the diaphragm wall and major bearing piles

67 Civil Engineering Design and top-down construction at the Volume 169 Issue CE2 Nanjing Youth Olympic Center, China Ren, Zhao, Liu, Yang, Li, Yang and Peng

Level Bearing pile Backfill material 6 Plunge column Concrete core 5 Diaphragm walling Frame column 4 0 m 20 3 Natural soil Raft slab 2 1 Ground B1 B2 B3 78 m below ground level

Figure 5. Sequence of top-down construction

To provide access to the lower levels for removal of soil and the engineers to join the plunge columns and layers of raft import of building materials, some floor slabs and permanent reinforcement together – see Figure 7(a). beams were temporarily omitted during the excavation process Because of the relatively large diameter of the plunge columns and some areas were designed as site access for heavy traffic and the relatively small diameter of the bearing piles, the diameter and/or greater construction loading (see Figure 6). In some cases of the bearing piles was increased in the connection region. To limit temporary diagonal beams were designed to brace the construction relative movement between the columns and piles, headed studs voids in the floor slabs. were welded on the inside and outside surfaces of the steel tubes in To enhance safety, the effect on the adjacent structures and the a carefully designed arrangement – see Figure 7(b). stress state of the primary members at various construction stages The circular plunge columns beneath the concrete cores became was monitored throughout top-down construction. All the work embedded in the core walls and then changed to ‘X’- or ‘I’-section was carefully planned and designed by the structural engineers in columns in the upper part of the cores – see Figure 7(c). The other collaboration with the construction engineers. square plunge columns extended above ground level as the external frame columns. 5.4 Vertical load transfer During top-down construction, the core walls were totally The construction sequence resulted in many load transfers as supported by the plunge columns and composite beams between work progressed. Clear and reliable paths for load transfer were the columns before completion of the lower levels (Figure 8). planned and designed by the structural engineers, with vertical load The core walls of levels B1 and B2 were then cast underneath using transfer being given particular attention. mirco-expansive, self-compacting, high-strength concrete up to To bring the raft slab into full play, the plunge columns and 60 MPa compressive strength to ensure adjacent levels were tightly the raft slab needed reliable connections both vertically and linked. Many other construction measures were undertaken during horizontally. Annular and vertical steel plates were used by casting to ensure a reliable load transfer between the wall levels.

(a) (b) The beam to be omitted

Temporary Temporary beam beam

Site access for heavy traffic Temporary construction void Temporary slab

Figure 6. Plan (a) and photograph (b) of temporary construction voids to facilitate top-down construction

68 Civil Engineering Design and top-down construction at the Volume 169 Issue CE2 Nanjing Youth Olympic Center, China Ren, Zhao, Liu, Yang, Li, Yang and Peng

(a) (b) (c) Angular Layers of Plunge steel plate reinforcement column Headed stud Crossed-shaped I-shaped Vertical Raft slab column column steel plate

Raft slab

Plunge column Reinforcement fabric

Layers of reinforcement Bearing pile

Angular steel plate

Plunge Bearing pile column Headed stud Vertical steel plate Concrete in the column Steel tube Steel tube Concrete in Reinforcement column in column in the column fabric the cores the cores

Figure 7. Details of vertical load-bearing connections for raft slab and plunge columns (a), bearing piles and plunge columns (b) and flanged columns and tube columns (c)

(a) (b)

Internal Internal concrete core concrete core

Upper level Lower level Steel– concrete composite Steel–concrete beam composite beam

Plunge columns Plunge embedded in columns the core embedded in the core

Figure 8. Schematic diagram (a) and photograph (b) of composite beams used for vertical load transfer within the core walls during construction of the basement

6. Conclusion The top-down technique reduced construction time significantly and made the construction process both rapid and safe. Despite many challenges for the engineers, the structure Furthermore, as excavation for the basement was carried out of the Nanjing Youth Olympic Center was completed in beneath the ground floor slab, excavation noise was effectively January 2014 – just 20 months after work started (Figure 9). screened – particularly beneficial for construction in urban areas. The project successfully demonstrated the advantages of the The top-down technique should become one of the most top-down technique applied to high-rise buildings, in which the commonly used construction techniques by engineers in the superstructure and basement are constructed simultaneously. future.

69 Civil Engineering Design and top-down construction at the Volume 169 Issue CE2 Nanjing Youth Olympic Center, China Ren, Zhao, Liu, Yang, Li, Yang and Peng

Figure 9. Night and day views of the completed building, the structure of which was built in just 20 months

Acknowledgements Lee D, Lee H and Chan C (2010) Grand Lisboa hotel and casino, Macau: a fast-track high-rise. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil The authors would like to thank China Architecture Design Engineers – Civil Engineering 163(6): 40–47, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/ Institute Co., Ltd. (Cadic) for providing the support to undertake cien.2010.163.6.40. the project; and Zaha Hadid Architects and China Construction Marchand S (1993a) A deep basement in Aldersgate Street, London. Part l: Third Engineering Bureau Co., Ltd. for their contribution and Contractor’s design and planning. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil Engineering 97(1): 19–26, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/ co-operation during the design and construction process and for icien.1993.22377. sharing the information relevant to this research. Special thanks are Marchand S (1993b) A deep basement in Aldersgate Street, London. Part 2: also due to all the structural engineers at Ren Qingying Structure Construction. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil Design Studio at Cadic who have contributed to the work in this Engineering 97(2): 67–76, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/icien.1993.23259. project. Marchant S, Wren G and Lamb R (1994) Top-down construction and its implications. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – References Geotechnical Engineering 107(2): 123–124. Parker J (2013) Engineering The Shard, London: tallest building in western Europe. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil Brand P and Gibb A (1996) Construction management of Vintners Place Engineering 166(2): 66–73, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/cien.12.00036. office development, London. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil Engineering 114(4): 167–174, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/ Powderham A (2002) The observational method—learning from projects. icien.1996.28904. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Geotechnical Engineering 155(1): 59–69. Fang G and Jin Z (2014) A study of the planning methods in the underground work of top-down construction in high-rise buildings. In Frontiers of Energy, Materials and Information Engineering (Kao JCM, What do you think? Sung WP and Chen R (eds)), Advanced Materials Research vols 1044– If you would like to comment on this paper, please email up to 200 words 1045. Trans Tech Publications Inc., Pfaffikon, Switzerland, pp. 561–565. to the editor at [email protected]. Hong W, Kim S and Kim S (2005) Up–up construction takes off in Korea. If you would like to write a paper of 2000 to 3500 words about your own Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Civil Engineering 158(3): experience in this or any related area of civil engineering, the editor will be 120–123, http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/cien.2005.158.3.120. happy to provide any help or advice you need.

70 Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Volume 169 Issue CE2 Civil Engineering 169 May 2016 Issue CE2 Pages 71–77 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00037 Unleashing potential – the benefits Paper 1500037 of new infrastructure in the Balkans Received 27/07/2015 Accepted 22/10/2015 Published online 19/02/2016 Wright Keywords: developing countries/local government/roads & highways

Unleashing potential – the benefits of new infrastructure in the Balkans Dominic Wright MEng Bechtel, Infrastructure GBU, Kosovo ([email protected])

The Bechtel–Enka partnership has been working in the Balkans for over 15 years on five separate motorway projects. This paper describes the challenges of working with new and politically complex governments and institutions in several Balkan countries to bring such projects to life, and deliver results that connect communities and countries. It describes the process of engaging with stakeholders and communities with different ethnic backgrounds, and high rates of poverty and unemployment, so that they respond positively to the opportunities afforded to them through associated job opportunities, training, skills and knowledge transfer. The paper provides a local perspective on the overall economic and development benefits brought about by such major civil engineering projects, and describes a range of transformative initiatives that will leave behind a lasting legacy.

1. Introduction they have completed more than 28 000 km of highways and roads, 100 tunnels and 25 major bridge projects. Building infrastructure is much more than constructing facilities This paper discusses some of the methods and initiatives applied that support better-functioning economies, it’s about developing on Bechtel–Enka joint venture projects over the past 15 years of societies: helping them to interact and develop, and ultimately partnership in the Balkans. It starts with an overview of projects improving the living conditions of their members. Engineering in Croatia and Albania, but the main focus is on two motorway and construction companies not only provide this once projects are projects in Kosovo, one which was completed in 2013 and the other complete but they also have the opportunity to improve people’s which is ongoing. Figure 1 shows the locations of these motorways. lives while projects are under way – in the short, middle and long term – depending on when, where and what is being built. An awareness and understanding of the complex cultural needs of each individual community is something engineers need to appreciate, understand and become a part of, at both a personal and business level. Not only has this become the expectation for many clients across the globe but it is also at the heart of a sustainable business model in international construction. Social impact has become a key component of the tender process and, as such, must be seen as a critical factor for success. Bechtel and Enka have been working as joint venture partners in the Balkans for over 15 years on five separate motorway projects. Each project has helped to strengthen the economic prospects of countries suffering from post-conflict tension, low economic growth and isolation. Over the 15 years, there have been many challenges that stem from working with new and politically complex governments and institutions. To deliver results, it has been important to engage proactively with local stakeholders and communities; bringing opportunities to those who reside within them through associated job opportunities, training, skills and knowledge transfer to make certain that these projects leave behind a lasting community legacy. Bechtel is one of the leading engineering, construction and project management companies in the world, while Enka is Turkey’s largest construction firm and a well-established international contractor. The two companies have successfully delivered a Figure 1. Map showing the Bechtel–Enka Croatian, Albanian and number of major infrastructure projects in the region, including Kosovo motorways motorways in Albania, Croatia, Kosovo and Turkey. Between them,

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This paper highlights the challenges of working in new and efforts and sponsoring mine-awareness campaigns aimed at developing countries and the importance of going above and children. beyond what is stipulated in the contract to ensure the success of an The project also had a strong focus on supporting local infrastructure megaproject, not only for the contractors but also for businesses through numerous initiatives. In one case, the team the future of the countries and the people who live in them. aided a small manufacturer in gaining finance to buy an industrial zone, which the project then leased from them. In another case, the project provided an electricity diversion for work camp 2. The Croatian motorway accommodation through a residential area in order to connect local houses to a considerably closer and less expensive line. From 1998 to 2005, the joint venture undertook a challenging The infrastructure for the project camp also helped establish local plan to build 195 km of the Bregana–Zagreb–Dubrovnik water supply to villages that previously had lived without regular motorway as part of the government’s plan to link Croatia to access to potable water. pan-European transportation corridors. Figure 2 shows a viaduct being constructed through a Croatian valley. Now complete, the motorway is the main highway connection between the capital city 3. Building an economic future in Albania of Zagreb in continental Croatia and the central Adriatic coastal area of Dalmatia. The joint venture managed the design and Topography proved to be a primary challenge on the Albanian construction of the motorway. motorway, which needed to cut through a portion of the mountain The war in Croatia’s recent past (1991–1995) left the country chain known as the Dinaric Alps that runs from Slovenia to with many challenges that would not normally be encountered Greece without a defined break. The 60 km, four-lane motorway on a major infrastructure project, including land mines, high from Rreshen to Kalimash in the Republic of Albania was needed unemployment, low safety standards and an inexperienced supply to allow for a high-speed, reliable connection between Eastern chain. When the project began in 1998, there was very little Europe, land-locked Balkan countries (including Kosovo, Serbia foreign investment and few jobs available in the country. The joint and Macedonia) and the coast – specifically the country’s main port venture hired a significant number of local engineers to develop in Durres. Figure 3 shows the motorway being constructed through the engineering design for the project and the majority of the direct the Albanian mountains. labour force from Croatia as well. The motorway project was initiated not only to strengthen the There was an extensive mine-clearance programme on the economies in the region by providing greater access to imported project, as the middle section ran through former war zones with goods but also to create better economic opportunity for Albania, active minefields and other ordnance. Throughout the 6-year in particular by supporting Durres to become a more well- project, the team assisted local governments in rebuilding war- established port on the Adriatic. When the team first opened the torn community infrastructure by helping ongoing mine-clearing 6 km tunnel through the mountains, marking the completion of

Figure 2. Construction of a viaduct through a valley in Croatia

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Figure 3. Demonstration of the complexities of building a four- lane motorway through local land and over roads in the Albanian mountains the motorway, the opening day slogan was, ‘The Balkans can now The numerous challenges to conducting an efficient breathe Adriatic air’. expropriation programme – including unclear land ownership, As the largest infrastructure project in Albania’s history, the communication issues and general distrust of the legal process motorway also connected previously remote areas to the rest of – were identified early on. To address these challenges, project the country. Prior to the completion of the motorway, it was a 10 h, leadership worked closely with community leaders to prepare 210 km drive from Tirana to Kukes along a treacherous mountain the necessary expropriation documentation. In addition, the road. After the motorway was opened, the drive became 130 km and joint venture helped municipal leaders to establish a viable land only took 2 h. By its very nature, the scale of the project also greatly record system to formalise previously undocumented ownership improved the local economy in the regions of Mirdita and Kukes. and processed it through the central government. As a result of The contract between the Albanian government and the joint this close government–joint venture relationship, the project venture stated that the joint venture must give fair and reasonable successfully expropriated over 350 private plots of agricultural opportunity for contractors of Albania to be appointed as land, as well as the relocation of 132 houses, one school and one subcontractors. The partners went far beyond the government’s cemetery in accordance with local customs. requirement, helping to create companies that continue to exist Safety is the most important value on any construction and flourish in the region today. The project team prepared an project, whether it takes place in the developed or developing extensive community relations plan for construction that engaged world. Instilling a safety culture that previously had not existed residents and other stakeholders along the right-of-way, presenting in Albanian construction was a major challenge on this project. information on project activities, schedule, impacts and benefits. For example, it had previously been common practice for local A coordinated resolution of project issues among the client, local workers to consume locally made alcohol before they came to officials and communities led to an overall improved quality of life work in the mornings. The project team worked hard to educate for local villages through upgrades in utilities and infrastructure, the local labour force on the heightened risk of accidents that including roads, electricity, water-supply systems and housing. could take place due to the influence of alcohol. Turning a culture The joint venture also asphalted local community access roads to of zero safety into zero accidents was a real achievement on connect houses and villages that were previously cut off. this project.

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4. Kosovo – developing a nation If the project had become embroiled in claims, the limited resources would have become locked in analysis instead of enabling In the late 1990s, as a result of Kosovo’s call for independence the rest of the project. The joint venture was able to resolve from Serbia and the rise of a rebel army, violent conflict arose all commercial issues through reasonable communication and resulting in approximately 12 000 deaths and 800 000 people being mediation instead of having to go to the next level. As a result there forced from their homes (Spiegel and Salama, 2000). Several were no claims raised on the R7 project. This successful execution international attempts to mediate the conflict failed, and the style led to both the World Bank and the International Monetary former Serbian president’s rejection of a proposed settlement led Fund changing their opinion for R6 and ultimately supporting the to a 3 month Nato military operation beginning in March 1999 that project based on the same execution style. forced Serbia to withdraw its military and police forces from the province. 4.1 Putting the country to work Following nearly a decade of United Nations (UN) supervision, While Kosovo may be the world’s second newest country, it Kosovo officially declared its independence in February 2008, already holds another concerning distinction with the second making it currently the world’s second newest country behind highest unemployment rate for young people (aged 15–24 years), South Sudan, and ushering in a new era for the embattled nation. at a staggering 52% and 64% for men and women, respectively Over 100 countries have now recognised Kosovo as an independent (CIA, 2015). In order to ensure local employment on R7, the country, and it has joined organisations such as the International government of Kosovo stipulated in the contract that ‘not less than Monetary Fund, World Bank and the European Bank for 40% of the Contract Price shall be expended on Kosovar resources Reconstruction and Development, to ensure the financial stability (e.g. Subcontractors, labour, goods, materials and services)’. While of the country for years to come. achieving this percentage is a very important part of the joint The joint venture has been building motorway projects venture’s work in Kosovo, it can often prove more challenging than in Kosovo for 5 of the 7 years since the country declared one might expect. independence. The first of these was Route 7 (R7), launched in Since new and developing countries do not always have the 2010 and completed in 2013, which has served as the centrepiece materials or qualified subcontractors needed to ensure quality on a of the country’s national transport system, helping to promote project, planning and local knowledge was key. The strategy which trade and overall economic growth. It is an 80 km dual-carriage the joint venture adopts is a simple one: always look for a local highway extending from Morinë, at the south-west border with supplier first. There are certain materials Kosovo does not produce, Albania, to just north of Kosovo’s capital, Pristina, reducing such as bitumen and high-density polyethylene pipe, which need to the total journey from 2 h to just 45 min and improving traveller be imported from neighbouring countries; however, activities such safety. as ensuring rock is sourced from local quarries for fill works and The second Kosovo motorway project, Route 6 (R6), is a new concrete production are possible. 60 km motorway that will link Pristina to the neighbouring Former The R7 project employed workers from all six of Kosovo’s Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, creating a second major transport major ethnicities, and, at peak production, 70% of the over 2700 artery through Kosovo. Both of these motorways are 100% funded employees were local Kosovars. As a result of these efforts, the by the government of Kosovo. They are helping Kosovo become a final in-country expenditure exceeded the contractual requirement crossroads for traffic from ports in Greece and Albania, developing at 62%. new and expanded businesses, and spurring long-term economic Despite the R6 contract not containing a similar clause, the joint growth for the country. Construction on R6 commenced in July venture team continues to take the same attitude towards local 2014 and has an estimated completion date of January 2018. sourcing as a core value and part of conducting a successful and Building major infrastructure in such a new country with ethical business. new government structures brings unusual challenges and extra Project Six Sigma expert Hira Bujari is a great example of responsibility to deliver on budget and on time. Prior to R7, local employee development. Since beginning work for R7 in the structural deficiencies undermined the development of the country’s project controls department in July 2010, she has undergone 330 h export sector and prospects for sustainable growth. In spite of this, of training, from safety and quality to root-cause analysis and many in the international community, including members of the Six Sigma. She is now a trained ISO 9001 internal auditor and a World Bank and International Monetary Fund, voiced the opinion certified Six Sigma black belt and has helped train 16 yellow belts that the project was too big, too soon for the small country and and an additional 14 Six Sigma champions on the project. expressed concerns that an expenditure of this scale so soon after According to Bujari, ‘Bechtel–Enka has given me the skills the country’s formation could cripple the economy and ruin the to manage reporting systems, meet deadlines, lead meetings and country’s chance for survival. trainings, develop process-improvement projects, communicate As such, the joint venture went above and beyond what was clearly with multicultural teams, and understand how engineering stipulated in the contract and worked very closely with the projects of this scale are successfully delivered. I believe that all government of Kosovo to create a transparent payment system I have learned on this project will be extremely valuable for my where all parties would be aware of the schedules in detail and how future career.’ money would be spent, rather than taking a hard line on claims. Currently on the R6 project, 79% of the 786 manual staff and The joint venture understood that there were limited resources 46% of the 181 non-manual staff are locals. Since many of the on the Kosovar government side which were needed in order to Kosovar staff have little to no experience in construction prior to progress the works. hiring, all undergo extensive safety and skills training. To date

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on R6, there have been over 16 000 h of safety training and over 4.3 A focus on environmental impact 3700 h of job-specific skills training. Once the project is complete, One of the most significant humanitarian initiatives undertaken Kosovo will have a bigger contingent of construction experts who on R7 was called ‘Building the green corridor’ (Figure 5), which have worked to international standards, a major benefit in the focused on various ways that the project could make a positive country’s continued development. environmental impact on the country. A key part of the initiative saw the transformation of a contaminated, hazardous waste area 4.2 Working hand-in-hand with the community into a green, tree-lined location of natural beauty for public use. A good working relationship with the local community is Located on the outskirts of the country’s capital, the disposal site essential to the success of a major infrastructure project like those for the Kosovo Energy Corporation’s toxic by-products, and high- carried out in Kosovo. As families and businesses located along risk materials such as arsenic, cadmium and chromium, posed a the motorway’s alignment are directly impacted by its progress, real threat to public health and safety. communicating with them early and often can help avoid potential When the World Bank lacked the funding to cover the site misunderstanding and conflict. properly, the joint venture stepped in to assist. Before the project On R7 and R6, community relations manager and Kosovar Latif became involved in this initiative there were plans for the Kosovo Renda has had the crucial task of coordinating the expropriation Energy Corporation’s waste area to be covered and thus reduce of land along the alignment to allow for on-time project delivery. the hazards present; however, the World Bank lacked financing for He says, ‘Working and exchanging experiences with professionals this work. The project team decided to use and develop the area, from all around the world, the ever-changing working environment creating a location of beauty and removing the current scar on the and focusing all of my efforts toward one goal, the success of landscape. During peak construction, more than 40 trucks working the project has been my best take-away from working on the in 10 h shifts delivered over 120 loads of excavated soil per hour to projects. I have also developed knowledge in environmental and cover the waste site, preventing over 216 t of fuel-generated carbon social programming, meeting international standards, building dioxide emissions. community ownership for the project, and creating a smooth To stabilise and beautify the land on top of the former waste project implementation. site, the project also engaged local schools to help plant over ‘I have obtained a great foundation of knowledge in design, field 4500 trees, garnering significant positive media coverage. This construction, quality and the importance of delivery on time, with effort also gives an opportunity to mine the area in 10–15 years. a special focus on the safety of each employee. In terms of my At the Duhel interchange, an additional 3000 trees were planted position as a communities manager, I have learnt to communicate, by children from local schools. This extra effort took a great listen and understand local people, from all communities, to work deal of planning and was coordinated closely across the project hard, to be mobile and how to handle different challenges.’ departments, the energy corporation, ministries, local authorities Expropriation is no easy task in Kosovo, where the government and media. is still putting procedures in place and citizens have an especially strong attachment to their land. By approaching community leaders with effective communication and a deep understanding of local culture, Latif has managed to accomplish even the most delicate property negotiations. In one case, he had to notify the village of Vermica in southern Kosovo that the only possible alignment for the motorway meant the relocation of a local graveyard. After numerous discussions, and in co-operation with Kosovo authorities and the village, the project successfully relocated approximately 250 graves, the first time such a feat had been attempted in Kosovo. In spite of the challenging environment in Kosovo, R7 was delivered 1 year ahead of schedule and R6 is planned to complete on time thanks in large part to the successful partnership with the local community and government. By understanding local needs, creating a ‘no claim culture’ and making sure money spent on the project goes back into the country, the joint venture has found a winning strategy for the people of Kosovo. ‘These projects have made an incredible impact on our country, not least because the new motorways are drastically reducing the amount of accidents seen on the previous cross-country road network,’ explains Kosovo director for roads infrastructure Rame Qupeva. ‘These projects have also proven to those in Kosovo and the international community that a project of this scale can be successfully executed in our country – changing the mentality of our citizens and potential investors.’ Figure 4. Flags flying in Kosovo to celebrate how the motorway opens Figure 4 shows Albanian and Kosovar flags flying just before the a doorway between two nations R7 motorway was opened in 2013.

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Figure 5. Part of the completed ‘green corridor’ on the Kosovo R7 motorway

Thanks to the project’s focus on environmental impact, much school. To help address this problem, starting in 2013, the project more than the corridor itself got a ‘green’ makeover. In May 2012, partnered with a local charitable animal shelter, the South Kosovo the joint venture converted their asphalt plant to run on liquefied dog and cat shelter, by donating leftover food from the project propane gas (LPG), a new technology for the developing country canteen to help meet the shelter’s daily food needs. The donations (Figure 6). This change in fuel greatly reduced harmful greenhouse have reduced food costs for the animals, allowing the shelter to gas emissions, resulting in the release of 57% less carbon dioxide, prioritise resources on caring for sick animals and carrying out a 99% less nitrogen oxide, 63% less carbon monoxide, 70% fewer catch-and-release sterilisation programme. hydrocarbons and 98% less particulate matter. The conversion achieved savings of €270 570 during the production of 168 875 t of asphalt for R7, after which LPG technology was also implemented 5. Conclusion on two additional asphalt plants. Workforce skills were also enhanced through training in the use of this new technology and Megaprojects of this scale affect many lives. Creating one the plants are currently in use on R6. engineering solution to a local problem is a great triumph. However, to make a lasting impact requires an understanding 4.4 Improving life for all of Kosovo’s inhabitants of local culture, with a focus on sustainability woven into the By understanding local community challenges, projects can foundation of every project department. This paper has touched often find easy ways to assist at low or no additional cost but upon some of the major initiatives Bechtel–Enka has implemented creating significant benefits. Like many developing countries, in 15 years of work in the Balkans and how the joint venture has Kosovo has a major stray dog problem, which poses serious danger dealt with challenges that have arisen due to the unique needs in to the country’s population, many of whom often travel by foot in this region. poorly lit areas. The way engineers design and construct megaprojects changes In one recent and widely reported case, an 8-year-old boy was countries, wherever they are being built. When working in the mauled to death by a pack of wild dogs on his walk home from developing world, it is even more important for projects to go above

76 Civil Engineering Unleashing potential – the benefits of Volume 169 Issue CE2 new infrastructure in the Balkans Wright

Figure 6. The R6 asphalt plant, fuelled by liquefied propane gas

and beyond what is written in the contract, ensuring the long-term out, because fundamentally that is the reason why civil engineering success and economic growth of the country and improving the projects are being executed in the first place. livelihood of the people who live there. While it can be a challenge sometimes to procure all of the right materials and skills within the country, having proactive procedures Acknowledgements in place can address almost any limitation. It is important to strive to beat the local investment targets set out by the client government; The author would like to acknowledge Bechtel Corporation, and, if none is imposed by the client, for the project partners to Enka and the Kosovo Motorway Project Team; with special thanks challenge themselves to develop goals for local investment and to Christopher Jennions (project manager), Hira Bujari (R6 Six economic opportunity internally. Sigma black belt), Latif Renda (community relations manager), This engineering strategy is not only sustainable and ethical, and also Rame Qupeva (Kosovo director for roads infrastructure). it is also good business. Engineers need to develop initiatives to help the local community. Many of these initiatives will support References business needs, such as hiring locals and improving job skills on- site, which reduces overall project costs when compared to hiring CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) (2015) The World Fact Book, Kosovo. CIA, skilled expat labour. Washington DC, USA. See https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- In some specific cases, expat labour is essential when the world-factbook/geos/kv.html required trade or experience level cannot be found locally, but it is Spiegel PB and Salama P (2000) War and mortality in Kosovo, 1998–99: important to seek locally first. Bechtel–Enka’s work in Kosovo has An epidemiological testimony. The Lancet 355(9222): 2204–2209. been an excellent example where this has been the case. Many of the locals working on R6 previously worked and were trained on What do you think? R7. This has driven costs down and is creating a legacy in Kosovo If you would like to comment on this paper, please email up to 200 words for future projects, giving the country a stronger stance in Europe to the editor at [email protected]. and a more competent workforce. If you would like to write a paper of 2000 to 3500 words about your own Engineers have the responsibility not just to build but also to experience in this or any related area of civil engineering, the editor will be happy to provide any help or advice you need. improve the lives of people where the building is being carried

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Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Volume 169 Issue CE2 Civil Engineering 169 May 2016 Issue CE2 Pages 79–85 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00035 Building to beat Ebola: the Royal Paper 1500035 Engineers in Sierra Leone Received 22/07/2015 Accepted 02/11/2015 Published online 15/01/2016 Francis Keywords: developing countries/disaster engineering/ public health

Building to beat Ebola: the Royal Engineers in Sierra Leone Nick Francis MEng, MSc, CEng, MICE, MInstRoyal Engineers, CMgr, MCMI Principal Engineer, Eadon Consulting, Rotherham, UK; Formerly: Major, 170 (Infrastructure Support) Engineer Group, Royal Engineers, UK

The 2014 Ebola outbreak in west Africa raised fears of a global pandemic. Specialists from the UK Corps of Royal Engineers were deployed to Sierra Leone to design and construct emergency treatment units, in support of the UK Department for International Development. Whereas projects of this scale typically take several years to plan and deliver, the exponential spread of the disease required that the design, tender and construction programmes were extraordinarily accelerated. Extensive innovation and gruelling programmes ensured that all six treatment units were open and receiving patients within 3 months. This paper outlines the clinical principles underpinning the design of Ebola treatment facilities and chronicles the experience of running multiple major construction sites simultaneously in the developing world during a humanitarian disaster.

1. Background of Sierra Leone

During the 1990s the west-African country of Sierra Leone was ravaged by a brutal civil war. However, since the ceasefire in 2002 there has been considerable progress in establishing good governance and economic growth, with significant advances in tackling maternal mortality, child mortality and malaria. By 2014, the UK Department for International Development (DfID) was spending £60 million a year assisting the development of Sierra Leone, with approximately £12 million dedicated to energy and water infrastructure projects.

2. UK response to the Ebola crisis

The Ebola outbreak in west Africa in summer 2014 triggered international fears of a global pandemic and risked completely destroying all development progress made in Sierra Leone. Ebola is a haemorrhagic fever, transmitted to humans from wild animals such as bats and monkeys, which then spreads in the population though close human-to-human contact. During the early stages of the disease it has a very low level of contagion, requiring exchange of bodily fluids, but haemorrhaging patients and corpses are highly toxic and pose an extreme infection hazard. Fatality rates are typically around 50%, but can reach 90% for some outbreaks. The vital statistic in the spread of the disease is the ‘reproduction Figure 1. Known Ebola cases in west Africa, September 2014, World rate’ (R ), which signifies the number of people subsequently O Health Organization infected by each sufferer: if RO < 1, the number of cases falls; if

RO > 1, the number of cases grows exponentially. In September On 13 August 2014, the UK agreed to build an Ebola treatment 2014 the RO figure in Sierra Leone was 1·4 and it was predicted that it could rise to 1·8 as the disease spread into urban areas (Figure 1). unit at Kerry Town on the Freetown peninsula to provide 50 treatment The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention predicted that beds for locals and a further 12 dedicated beds for infected healthcare there could be up to 1·4 million cases across west Africa by January workers. On 3 September 2014, DfID was tasked by the UK 2015, with an inevitable spread to other countries. government to lead international work to contain the Ebola disease

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in Sierra Leone and the headquarters of a British Army brigade to high contamination. Particular attention was needed for the exit was deployed to Sierra Leone in support. On 17 September 2014, and undressing stations where most infections are thought to occur. DfID announced a further £100 million in funds and committed to The staff area that directly supports patients, including a laundry construct a total of 700 treatment beds within Ebola treatment units. and pharmacy, forms the ‘green zone’ and is only accessed by For each treatment unit, DfID would lead on contracting trained staff. The whole site is then supported by a ‘white zone’ that and negotiations to find an operator and non-governmental provides a safe administrative and training area as well as stores organisations (NGOs) would then run each site employing UK and power generation. National Health Service (NHS) volunteer staff and locally trained With the overall concept in place it was possible to start personnel. The UK Corps of Royal Engineers was to be responsible developing a standard layout and, from previous sites, it was for the design and construction of the Ebola treatment units. estimated that each treatment unit should fit within a 200 m × 200 m Six locations were identified for the construction of large treatment footprint. Reconnaissance to identify suitable Ebola treatment unit units. Three units were to be built close to the capital city in the locations was conducted concurrently with the design. In urban western area − at Kerry Town, Hastings and Goderich − and three areas on the Freetown peninsula a huge amount of negotiation inland at the towns of Port Loko, Moyamba and Makeni. was required to secure sites, whereas, in the more rural locations, local chiefs viewed the construction of treatment units as important long-term infrastructure development. Therefore, convenient town 3. Concept design centre sites such as football pitches and school grounds were rejected in favour of pushing the treatment units out of town into When the Royal Engineers teams arrived in west Africa, a patches of jungle (Figure 4). number of Ebola treatment units had already been constructed by organisations such as Médecins Sans Frontières and the World Health Organization. However, these all suffered from alarming 4. Unit layouts rates of infection among healthcare workers. There was no universally agreed layout or best practice so it was essential that To take the concept through to detailed design it was necessary the new designs eliminated potential hazards to the volunteer staff to understand the type of infrastructure to be created. Existing while maximising the effectiveness of treatment for patients. examples of Ebola treatment units covered extreme ends of the The primary consideration in the design of an Ebola treatment spectrum, from local third-world emergency structures to first- unit is patient flow. Patients become increasingly contagious world specialist isolation facilities. The absolute importance of as their condition deteriorates, so, to prevent the spread of clinical safety, coupled with the requirement to win the support of contamination, they must only ever move through the unit in one uneasy NGO partners, pulled in the direction of first-world levels direction (Figure 2). Clinical requirements split this path into three of infrastructure, whereas the exponential spread of the disease zones – ‘suspected’ for unconfirmed cases, ‘dry symptoms’ and made speed the overriding priority. As a planning assumption, finally ‘wet symptoms’, where patients are suffering from bleeding, DfID stipulated a design life of 1 year. Balancing these conflicting diarrhoea, vomiting and loss of cognitive function. This whole area pressures suggested a realistic and acceptable construction forms the very high risk ‘red zone’. period of approximately 5 weeks, using a combination of simple To treat patients, medical staff have to be in full personal blockwork structures and proprietary disaster relief tents on protective equipment (Figure 3) and follow the same path from low washable concrete foundations (Figure 5).

Figure 2. Concept layout of an Ebola treatment unit Figure 3. Clinical rehearsals in personal protective equipment

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Figure 4. Jungle at Moyamba before and during construction of an Ebola treatment unit

The DfID procurement processes were fast-tracked as much as possible while maintaining compliance with all procurement regulations. For the Kerry Town site, a waiver was agreed to employ the contractor already engaged by the government of Sierra Leone so that there was no cessation in works despite the changes in client and design. Initial considerations to deploy hundreds of British Army engineers to conduct construction were rightly rejected and all sites were constructed by in-country contractors, with key resources and equipment provided by DfID. The tender process for construction projects of this scale would typically take a minimum of 6 months. However, for the five remaining sites the full tender process was exceptionally accelerated and completed simultaneously in the space of just 2 weeks. DfID’s specialist in-country logistics contractor Chase led on the procurement of long lead-time client-provided items such as Figure 5. Erection of disaster relief tents on concrete foundations generators, tents and incinerators, while the Royal Engineers gave technical advice and a link to military logistics organisations when needed. Simple three-dimensional models rapidly produced using Google The in-country contractor base varied hugely – all the way from SketchUp proved invaluable in helping to develop the standard unit an international British contractor with primarily British staff layout (Figure 6). Many of the NGO end-users were completely through to small local contractors with extremely limited technical new to dealing with Ebola and, in some cases, new to providing expertise and employing unskilled local labour on an ad hoc basis. medical care of any kind. Therefore, developing a standard design However, as all the sites needed to be constructed concurrently it across different sites provided valuable reassurance. Most of the was very much an ‘all-hands-to-the-pump’ situation and virtually facilities followed very similar final designs, with the notable all contractors were employed. exceptions of Kerry Town, where the site was already half built The Royal Engineers worked as the designer and client’s by the government of Sierra Leone by the time the UK became representative, but this role ramped up massively, stepping involved, and Goderich, where the Italian medical NGO Emergency into mentoring, direct construction management and hands-on stipulated very different clinical requirements to run drugs trials. construction as required to fill shortfalls and accelerate work. Sierra Leone armed forces personnel were used to support the work of the contractors, with the infantry providing security and 5. Detailed design and tender engineers providing low-skilled artisan manpower. As the contract details were being completed, British military teams To accelerate the tender process and de-risk the construction were deployed to establish forward operating bases at Port Loko, period, a full detailed design was required for invitation to tender. Makeni and Moyamba, supervising site clearance and gathering This allowed just 6 days to develop the concept design into a full detailed site survey information. With the contactors confirmed, a detailed design, with approximately 90 detailed drawings and all rapid ‘value engineering’ exercise was then undertaken to accelerate associated documentation. construction, amending construction details and methods to

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Figure 6. Three-dimensional model showing the layout of an Ebola are finally discharged through an exit shower (J). The red zone is treatment unit. The standard unit has an outer fence and a single surrounded by a double fence (K), has covered walkways (L) to prevent point of entry. Staff and deliveries have a service entrance (A), whereas rain washing contamination through personal protective equipment patients go in a different direction to a drop-off point (B). Patients and separate ablutions (M) for each degree of patient. All clinical waste enter through a triage area (C) where they are either admitted or is disposed of on site, burned in clinical incinerators (N) and buried discharged immediately. Admitted patients are held in the suspected in a large ash pit (O). Staff enter the red zone through the personal ward (D) awaiting the result of blood tests. A laboratory is located at the protective equipment dressing station (P), and then exit back into the junction of the red and green zones (E) and can receive samples through green zone through the personal protective equipment undress area designated hatches from the red zone and external deliveries, with staff (Q). The green zone contains the laboratory (E), pharmacy (R), industrial entering from the safe area. If blood tests are negative, patients are laundry (S), ablutions (T), offices and storage. The only route into immediately washed and discharged; if blood results are positive, they and out of the green zone is through the locker room (U). The white are moved on to the ‘dry symptoms’ ward (F). As a patient’s condition zone comprises a kitchen and large dining/welfare facility (V), offices, deteriorates they are moved on to the ‘wet symptoms’ ward (G). As storage (W), ablutions (X) and a services area for generators and waste patients recover they are moved to the convalescence ward (H). Patients disposal (Y). Large water storage tanks (Z) receive water from boreholes who die are moved to the mortuary (I) where their body can be washed for distribution throughout the site. All of the electrical distribution is in view of their families before being taken for safe burial. Survivors configured to keep distribution boards and feeder posts in safe areas suit the ground and the particular capabilities of the workforce. rapidly and to a relatively high quality and would leave a useful All unnecessary elements were removed and where improvements legacy for the local communities. Part way through construction were identified the lessons were passed to the other sites. an unexpected national shortage of cement temporarily became a severe risk to the programme. However, by flexing resources between sites and contracts it was possible to maintain the pace of 6. Construction details work until a shipment of cement arrived in the country. All buildings were designed to standard dimensions in order The groundworks for each site were completely redesigned in to allow prefabrication of roof trusses. Inspection of work on conjunction with the relevant contractors. Where there was a ready the Freetown peninsula revealed that the quality of timber was supply of plant equipment, entire sites were rapidly levelled to extremely poor and the trusses were therefore designed accordingly. form compacted laterite working platforms. By contrast, the sites However, in other parts of the country, the readily available timber employing large numbers of local labourers used hand-built ground turned out to be tropical hardwood, similar to teak, leading to some beams and stub walls to level individual structures locally. of the strongest roof trusses in Africa (Figure 7). It was established that disaster relief tents would be used for Designs for the mortuary were enlarged twice during construction many of the main structures. However, at the concept design stage, as predicted fatality rates grew. Corpses of Ebola victims are there was much discussion about the best structural form for all extremely contagious and one of the key aspects of the design was the ablutions and secure buildings such as the pharmacy, laboratory an understanding of cultural sensitivities. Unlike in neighbouring and mortuary. Both block and timber options were developed, but Liberia, cremation is completely culturally unacceptable in Sierra experience showed that blockwork could be erected extremely Leone and washing the body of a family member prior to burial is a

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key ritual. Within Sierra Leone there had been several tragic cases 5 days of supply. Two pairs of tanks were then used for fixed-dose of families exhuming recently deceased relatives in order to wash chlorination, feeding three completely separate water distribution them, thereby triggering further large Ebola outbreaks. To overcome systems – raw water for showers, low-chlorine water (0·05% chlorine this situation, a covered viewing platform was added at the back by volume) for hand washing and high-chlorine water (0·5% chlorine of each mortuary, with a double fence to allow relatives to watch by volume) for disinfectant throughout the site (Figure 9). medical workers washing bodies before they were taken for burial. The requirement to provide all three types of water to each ward and Another key concern to healthcare workers was the triage and many of the facilities generated a very onerous mechanical services reception area as this is where many doctors are thought to have design: due to the corrosive effects of chlorine, no metal fittings become infected. All new patients need to be reviewed but, in order could be used. Aspirations to use a simple gravity-fed system proved to minimise the intimidation of already terrified sick people, it impossible due to the head required to maintain flow throughout such is important that they are not confronted by medical staff in full large sites. Instead, large multi-stage pumps, running in parallel with personal protective equipment. A protective booth with an acrylic a duty and standby for each water type were adopted (Figure 10). screen was therefore constructed within the triage tent, providing Wastewater is handled in two completely separate systems – one a safe separate access route for doctors and a humane examination for the high-risk red zone and another for combined waste from process (Figure 8). the green and white zones – with each system running to separate The planning figure for water required 400 l per patient per day, septic tanks and soakaways. It was understood that the original with much of this being chlorinated and used for disinfection. reinforced concrete designs for the septic tanks were likely to However, none of the remote sites had any form of local supply. be the single largest element of construction and could delay the Boreholes were thus constructed on each site, with storage for project. Novel alternative solutions were therefore developed, in some cases utilising welded ISO containers with baffles encased in concrete. In other locations the low groundwater level meant that it was possible to create septic tanks by connecting together readily

Figure 9. Colour-coded distribution point for raw, low-chlorine and Figure 7. Simple timber roof trusses high-chlorine water

Figure 8. Doctors’ triage booth as visualised (left) and built (right)

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Figure 10. Water chlorination tanks and pumping system Figure 12. Surface laid steel-armoured cables between buildings available plastic water storage tanks in series (Figure 11). Both of quarantine positive cases quickly and to identify people without these systems saved a huge amount of time and cost, and had the the disease so that they can be released from high-risk containment additional advantage of eradicating all work inside excavations. areas immediately. The construction of laboratories was therefore On all the sites employing local contractors, the Royal Engineers the highest priority. teams faced the challenge of trying to instil a safety culture into Working closely with Public Health England, a design was the local workforce and this was exacerbated by the urgency of the rapidly developed for a laboratory that would provide a safe and work. The safety equipment and procedures expected on a UK site flexible working environment. The laboratories were constructed could not be replicated, but by applying basic rules and repeatedly and operational within 3 weeks of completing the design, running demonstrating that dangerous practices would not be tolerated it was on temporary water and power supplies and testing samples as possible to run safe sites and simultaneously educate the workforce. construction continued across the rest of the site (Figure 13). Power to all of the sites was provided by a pair of 250 kVA generators, imported and supplied by DfID. The power and distribution systems were specifically designed to be simple and robust, with duty 8. Handover and standby generators and additional fuel filters to deal with the poor quality of diesel. All of the complex elements were kept within The construction of the Ebola treatment units was just one small safe areas to enable ongoing maintenance and, where possible, steel- cog in the process of getting victims out of their communities and armoured cables were surface laid to save time (Figure 12). treated – the construction teams thus did not have the luxury of protracted snagging or handover periods. Mountains of medical equipment and supplies started arriving at the sites and a staged 7. Laboratories process of ‘beneficial occupancy’ was managed to allow the NGOs and NHS staff to start training and rehearsing (Figure 14). In trying to defeat Ebola, one of the most critical elements The first patients started arriving about 4 days after the contractors to bring down the reproduction rate RO is to identify and thus left the site.

Figure 11. Example of an improvised septic tank system Figure 13. Rapidly constructed laboratory

84 Civil Engineering Building to beat Ebola: the Royal Engineers in Sierra Leone Volume 169 Issue CE2 Francis

9. Lessons learned Adaptation is key. The rapid delivery of infrastructure in any new environment can create conflicting pressures for a designer – on the The Ebola outbreak in west Africa prompted an unprecedented one hand wanting to stick with established construction techniques, level of collaboration between the international community, while on the other trying to adapt to the local environment, national governments, NGOs and the military. While the unique workforce and supply chain. Throughout this project it proved useful political and clinical conditions in Sierra Leone are unlikely to approach design by defining the effect a piece of infrastructure to be repeated, the project has many parallels with mainstream needed to achieve and then treating the available resources and construction and offers valuable lessons for the rapid delivery of skills as the toolkit from which to develop the quickest and simplest emergency infrastructure in the developing world. solution. Employing high-skilled tradesmen to mentor and backfill It is important to separate ‘needs’ from ‘wants’. On any urgent low-skilled local contractors leveraged the maximum possible project with challenging external pressures there is a risk of output from the available workforce and provided significant becoming paralysed by the complexity of the task or by conflicts additional long-term training and education benefits to the local between stakeholders. To maintain momentum on a high-pressure community. project a vital first step is to define the needs rigorously, thereby enabling a clear focus and preventing wants from slowing progress. For this project, the needs were to create facilities that were safe 10. The future for Sierra Leone enough and to build them as quickly as possible. Secondary wants, such as providing development for local communities or reducing At the time of writing this paper it appears that the combined costs, were then incorporated, but never to the detriment of the needs. efforts to defeat Ebola have been successful, with RO now It is also important to have a full understanding of the consistently below 1. The fight against Ebola is now about trying to stakeholders. As construction projects progress, designers can eliminate the disease completely and the treatment units continue become frustrated at apparent changes in requirement or scope to play a vital role in isolating and treating new cases. stemming from initial misunderstandings with an end-user. From Thanks to a concerted international effort, the number of the outset of this project it was vital to establish the mind-set that the fatalities from Ebola is in the low thousands rather than millions. infrastructure was being created purely to serve clinical needs. This However, extensive work is now required to repair the much wider mental leap placed the onus for understanding the requirement onto damage caused by the disease. the designers, rather than regarding definition of the requirement The previous healthcare system in Sierra Leone was decimated as the responsibility of the client. This relationship empowered the by Ebola, resulting in many thousands of avoidable deaths due to designers to probe and question client requirements, often drawing other causes, and the prolonged closure of schools has set back out new clinical questions and leading to early identification of advances in education by several years, creating a generation who issues. The use of a simple three-dimensional model enabled rapid have now broken the habit of going to school. The UK DfID will feedback from end-users and thereby avoided later changes that continue to lead on the transition away from Ebola and assist Sierra could cause delays during construction. Leone to recover and develop.

Figure 14. In-loading stores at Makeni Ebola treatment unit during beneficial occupancy

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ICE Journals-Ad-Jan14.indd 1 06/01/2015 11:46 Civil Engineering Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Volume 169 Issue CE2 Civil Engineering 169 May 2016 Issue CE2 Pages 87–95 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcien.15.00010 Use of shape-memory alloys in Paper 1500010 construction: a critical review Received 08/03/2015 Accepted 08/01/2016 Published online 24/02/2016 Chang and Araki Keywords: buildings, structures & design/materials technology/seismic engineering

Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review

1 Wen-Shao Chang BSArch, MSArch, PhD 2 Yoshikazu Araki PhD Lecturer, BRE Centre for Innovative Construction Materials, University Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, Kyoto University, of Bath, Bath, UK (corresponding author: [email protected]) Kyoto, Japan

1 2

Shape-memory alloys possess a number of unique characteristics, such as shape memory and superelasticity. Shape memory means the alloys return to their original condition when heated, whereas superelasticity allows large deformations with limited or no residual strain. When the alloys repeatedly undergo phase transformation, they have superior energy dissipation capacity compared to normal metallic materials. Recent developments have been rapid, making the alloys a viable solution for numerous situations in buildings and infrastructure. This paper provides an overview of the potential and limitations of shape- memory alloys in construction. First, applications in real projects are introduced and lessons learned are discussed. Second, the use of shape-memory alloys to mitigate natural disasters and enhance structural performance; to reduce vibration by increased damping; and to integrate into building envelopes to respond to the environment and improve energy efficiency are reviewed and discussed. Finally, factors that affect the shape-memory alloys used in construction are discussed.

1. Introduction

Shape-memory alloys are known to have two unique Alloy characteristics: a shape-memory effect and superelasticity. itaimice The shape-memory effect is the ability of the alloys to revert to a their initial shape upon being heated until they enter their phase roicecoatamiim transformation temperature. a Superelasticity is where the alloys exhibit comparatively large oeramiimmaaese recoverable strain. Different families of shape-memory alloys a have different suitable applications due to their different ranges of romaaeseamiimice transformation temperature, as depicted in Figure 1 (Omori et al., a 2011). For example, aluminium–manganese and iron–nickel– emeratre cobalt–aluminium shape-memory alloys are suitable for seismic application as their working temperatures cover the range of –50°C to 50°C. Application Different families of shape-memory alloys have different ace advantages and disadvantages. Shape-memory alloys have been developed since the early 1960s. They have been successfully used tomoie for medical (Bansiddhi et al., 2008; Morgan, 2004; Sun et al., eismic 2012), robotic (Kim et al., 2006; Qin et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2008), aerospace (Hartl and Lagoudas, 2007; Hartl et al., 2010a, Figure 1. Operational temperature range of polycrystalline superelastic 2010b) and automobile applications (Bellini et al., 2009; Stoeckel, alloys with their applications (Omori et al., 2011) 1990). This paper provides an overview on how shape-memory alloys can be used in buildings and infrastructure.

87 Civil Engineering Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review Volume 169 Issue CE2 Chang and Araki

2. Applications in construction to date pre‑tensioned within the device to ensure two-way superelasticity under movement. The ways shape-memory alloy devices were The first field implementation using the shape-memory effect mounted within the structures depended on whether they were used for post-tensioning of a concrete structure was on a highway to prevent large deformations of slender structures or out-of-plan bridge in Michigan. It had suffered cracks due to insufficient shear collapse of building facades. resistance. To strengthen the bridge girder, iron–manganese– A number of shape-memory alloy devices were then silicon–chromium shape-memory alloy rods with a diameter of implemented in the restoration of the bell tower of San Giorgio 10·4 mm were mounted crossing the cracks at both faces of the web church at Trignano in Italy (Figure 4), which was heavily damaged (Figure 2). Each rod was heated by electrical power with 1000 A by an earthquake in 1996. Shape-memory alloy devices were current to achieve 300°C, resulting in a reduction of the crack connected with steel bars in series inside the bell tower to restrain width by 40% (Soroushian et al., 2001). horizontal movement during an earthquake (Indirli and Castellano, The lessons learned from the innovative project were: (1) a 2008; Indirli et al., 2001a). conventional hydraulic jack is an easier way to work on site if the A similar application was then implemented to improve seismic purpose of the application is to provide force to close the crack performance of the bell tower of Badia Fiorentina in Italy (Figure 5) in a structure; (2) the behaviour of shape-memory alloys under before an earthquake. It was strengthened by 18 shape-memory different working temperatures in the field needs to be investigated, alloy devices in 2006. The devices were used in a similar way to in particular if the shape-memory alloys are to be left with the those in Trignano. Although the devices cannot prevent the tower structures for a long time and the temperature fluctuates over time. or a slender structure developing cracks during an earthquake, Shape-memory alloys have also been used to repair and they can prevent the tower from having excessive deformation and, strengthen architectural heritage structures. A shape-memory alloy consequently, collapsing during aftershocks. device was developed by the EU-funded Istech project (Figure 3), The technique was also applied at a number of Italian cultural which included nickel–titanium shape-memory alloy wires heritage sites damaged by earthquakes to prevent collapse of

rac eiorcemet

mm mm istret ros mm

mm mm ae aememor ao ars erees mm

Figure 2. The shape-memory alloy bars were used to connect the two angles placed at both sides of the crack; the shape-memory effect would help to close the crack (Soroushian et al., 2001) Figure 4. San Giorgio church and its bell tower, Trignano

Figure 3. Shape-memory alloy device developed in Istech project (Indirli and Castellano, 2008)

88 Civil Engineering Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review Volume 169 Issue CE2 Chang and Araki

Figure 5. Bell tower of Badia Fiorentina, Firenze Figure 7. San Serafino church, Foligno

3. Developments to improve seismic resistance

Modern building codes require that structures undergo significant structural and/or non-structural damage so as to dissipate energy during a severe earthquake. After an earthquake, structures with large residual deformation are either repaired or demolished; therefore protection against economic loss is not guaranteed due to costs of repair and associated business downtime. After the Christchurch, New Zealand earthquake in February 2011, approximately 50% of the buildings in the central business district were declared unusable due to their significant damage and nearly 1000 buildings were demolished. The estimated cost to New Zealand is about NZ$40 billion, equivalent to 20% of the country’s annual gross domestic product. This highlights a need for building systems that can dissipate energy with minimum structural damage and return to their initial position (self-centre) after earthquakes Figure 6. Basilica of St Francis, Assisi (Chancellor et al., 2014). facades, such as the Basilica of St Francis of Assisi (Figure 6) and 3.1 Bridge restrainers the San Serafino church (Figure 7) (Indirli and Castellano, 2008, Excessive movement in bridge supports, which leads to unseating Indirli et al., 2001b). A total of 47 shape-memory alloy devices of bridge decks, is a major cause of infrastructure failure during were installed to repair the facade of the Basilica of St Francis, an earthquake (Andrawes and DesRoches, 2005). Reduction of the which was damaged due to an earthquake in 1997 (Croci, 2001, excessive movement of bridge decks relies on bridge restrainers. Martelli, 2008). By 2008, at least 19 buildings were strengthened Several bridge-restrainer systems incorporating shape-memory by shape-memory alloy devices or energy-dissipation systems alloys have recently been developed: (a) nickel–titanium shape- (Benavent-Climent, 2008). memory alloys in tension (Andrawes and DesRoches, 2005, 2007; Experiences on these projects indicate that, compared with high Johnson et al., 2008); (b) nickel–titanium shape-memory alloys damping capacity and shape-memory effect, superelasticity of shape- in bending (Choi et al., 2009); and (c) a hybrid system combining memory alloys is extremely important when improving the structural base isolation and shape-memory alloys (Ozbulut and Hurlebaus, behaviour in an earthquake or repairing mechanical damage of a 2010, 2011). structure after an earthquake, since damping can be provided by The experimental and analytical outcomes have revealed that alternative mechanisms such as rubber or low-yield steel. bridge restrainers incorporating shape-memory alloys can reduce

89 Civil Engineering Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review Volume 169 Issue CE2 Chang and Araki

the movement of bridge decks during an earthquake and limit the 4. Embedding shape-memory alloys in structures residual deformation after an earthquake. However, the price of shape-memory alloys is the major barrier for them to be adopted, 4.1 Concrete as most of the research work has been focused on nickel–titanium Several projects have been carried out using shape-memory shape-memory alloys. alloys in a critical region of concrete structures where the main purpose is to reduce the permanent deformation (Saiidi and Wang, 3.2 Base-isolation systems 2006). In an earthquake, shape-memory alloys are expected to A number of base-isolation systems have been developed using yield in these regions and dissipate energy but also to recover nickel–titanium shape-memory alloys (Dezfuli and Alam, 2013; the deformation. Shape-memory alloys can be used in concrete Dolce et al., 2007; Wilde et al., 2000). All these systems were connections (Alam et al., 2008), as shown in Figure 9, and concrete developed to combine a conventional rubber bearing system with beams (Abdulridha et al., 2013), as shown in Figure 10. shape-memory alloys, where the superelasticity of shape-memory From hysteretic loops (shown in Figure 11) the shape-memory alloys was exploited. The advantage of this combined system is alloy bars can significantly reduce the residual deformation under that it can significantly reduce the movement of superstructures both cyclic loading and reversed cyclic loadings. Notice that during an earthquake. After an earthquake, the superelasticity of although the shape-memory alloys will yield during an earthquake, the shape-memory alloys will bring the rubber bearing system they will also facilitate the structure in recovering from deformation back to its original position; however, during the earthquake large after an earthquake. deformation was found in the base-isolation system. An alternative is to use shape-memory alloys in a shear wall; a To limit the large deformation of a conventional base-isolation series of tests have been performed and the results revealed that a system, Das and Mishra (2014) proposed a shape-memory shear wall with superelastic shape-memory alloy bar could reduce alloy–rubber bearing (Figure 8) and demonstrated that it has the residual displacement. However, it was also pointed out that the better efficiency when compared against a conventional system. need to prevent buckling of shape-memory alloy bars needs to be The disadvantage of this system is that it is more costly when the investigated (Effendy et al., 2006). system is to be implemented in an existing structure, due to the The concrete part of the structure will remain damaged after cost of the material and construction. the devastation; therefore the main advantage of this application is to reduce the repair cost as the shape-memory alloy performs superelasticity, which enables structures to have self-centre capacity. orti stee ate 4.2 Steel and timber connections er Attempts have been made to use shape-memory alloys in connections in timber (Chang et al., 2013) and steel connections tee ate (Abolmaali et al., 2006; Fang et al., 2014; Yam et al., 2015). DesRoches et al. (2010) pointed out that energy dissipating shape- memory alloy connections are effective in reducing maximum a aememor deformation demands, while re-centring shape-memory alloy ao ire connections are more suitable for controlling residual deformation. Conventional steel connections are often coupled with beam Figure 8. Details of shape-memory alloy–rubber bearing developed by local buckling and are costly to repair after an earthquake; Das and Mishra (2014) Ma et al. (2007) modified the connection with shape-memory alloy bolts to improve the solution, as shown in Figure 12, and have shown its effectiveness. Rofooei and Farhidzadeh (2011) ear stee eiorci ar analysed three-, six-, nine- and 12-storey steel structures with 0, 5%, reiorcemet etre ear ot sto ar coer it at e aememor ao reiorcemet o mm mm is eiorce cocrete eam ars oer at mm

ear ot mm ear stee errate it at e mm reiorcemet ri rai

eiorci ar eiorce cocrete errate mm et o o mm com ri rai saememor ao ars oer ars mm Figure 9. Concrete connection and single barrel screw-lock coupler with shape-memory alloys embedded (Alam et al., 2008) Figure 10. Beam specimen design (Abdulridha et al., 2013)

90 Civil Engineering Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review Volume 169 Issue CE2 Chang and Araki

om a i crve art stieer ot t e stieer ae i etesio ri – y f s A / P tee eam

Load, mm

tee aememor ao ot com mm mm

Displacement ductility, ∆/∆y Figure 12. Steel beam-to-column connection with shape-memory alloy bolts (Ma et al., 2007) 10%, and 15% eccentricities, subjected to different bi-directional y f s earthquake components using the connection designed by Ma A / P et al. and compared the results with connections with normal bolts. The results showed that base shears were considerably reduced. Load, 4.3 Bracing Integration of shape-memory alloys in a bracing system can effectively resolve the pinching in the hysteretic loop of a structure after it undergoes a large deformation and demonstrates strong re‑centring capacity (Araki et al., 2014; Hu et al., 2013; Massah Displacement ductility, ∆/∆y and Dorvar, 2014), as illustrated in Figure 13. Previous experiences with concentrically braced steel frames Figure 11. Normalised load–displacement ductility responses suggest that this system has limited ductility and energy of concrete beam: (a) cyclic loading; (b) reversal cyclic loading dissipation due to buckling of the bracing. To tackle this limitation, (Abdulridha et al., 2013) several projects used shape-memory alloys connected with bracing of which the rigidity is much higher than that of shape-memory alloys.

tee aememor ao

Figure 13. Bracing system design (Araki et al., 2014)

i ari Do rt Civil Engineering Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review Volume 169 Issue CE2 Chang and Araki

Research has shown that braces with shape-memory alloys are a effective in limiting inter-storey drifts and residual drifts during an Detie steite aememor eect earthquake (Auricchio et al., 2006; McCormick et al., 2007). martesite oai oai

oai Stress A eati oai ooi 5. Using shape-memory allows in building A s eati Strain M envelopes s c oai oai oai

Shape-memory alloys can also contribute to the recent trend in Temperature er easticit adaptive buildings, enabling them to respond to changes in the ie Detie Detie martesite martesite martesite Stress eect oai ambient environment, such as changes in light, temperature and air M quality. Strain A project ‘Pixelskin02’ by Sachin Anshuman in 2006 used shape- ae memor eect memory alloy wires as a non-motorised technique for opening a ereasticit eect facade. In this project, each pixel tile consisted of four triangular panels actuated by 200 mA shape-memory alloy wires and could open Figure 14. Different phases of shape-memory alloy at different or close by controlling the electric current supply (Anshuman, 2008). temperatures and their relationship with loading and unloading Tashakori (2014) has also developed a computer-controlled facade system that can track the sun which employs shape-memory alloy wires, with the facade system actuated by providing electric current. low temperatures, for example –40°C, and this limits their application in Coelho and Maes (2009) developed a shutter system that can control outdoor conditions in cold temperatures (Qiu and Zhu, 2014), whereas ventilation and light, motorised by shape-memory alloy wires. Loonen copper-based shape-memory alloys can achieve much lower Af, such as (2015) proposes using strips of shape-memory alloy that expand or –85°C, and therefore are suitable for application in construction in an contract in response to carbon dioxide concentration; thus a perfect outdoor environment (Qiu and Zhu, 2014; Zhang et al., 2008). balance between facade opening, pressure difference and momentary ventilation requirements can be achieved. Lignarolo et al. (2011) 6.2 Phase-transformation temperatures against working investigated the response of a kinetic facade to wind in tall buildings temperature to enhance the aerodynamic behaviour of high-rise buildings; shape- To investigate the relationship between phase-transformation memory alloys were used to actuate deformation of the element in the and working temperatures, Andrawes and DesRoches (2007) facade and to change the roughness of the building skins. examined the behaviour of bridge restrainers in different ambient Although many designers and architects are interested in temperatures varying from 255 K to 315 K. With an increase developing systems composed of shape-memory alloys to make in working temperature, the phase-change stress increases and buildings respond to changes in the environment, the application of damping ratios decrease, while the stiffness of the shape-memory shape-memory alloys in building design is still in its infancy and at alloy restrainers remains the same. For both nickel–titanium and demonstration scale. More efforts are needed to ensure the market copper-based shape-memory alloys it was found that increased takes up the design in order to realise these concepts. temperatures lead to a reduction in the equivalent damping and an increase in the forward transformation stress. It is important that shape-memory alloys should be used carefully, 6. Structural design considerations particularly when exposed to an outdoor environment and where temperatures vary significantly between different seasons, leading to 6.1 Phase-transformation and working temperatures the shape-memory alloys performing in an unexpected way. Although There are four critical phase-transformation temperatures: phase-transformation temperatures are important to consider when

Ms, Mf, As and Af. They stand for the start (subscript s) and finish using shape-memory alloys in a structure, there are several factors (subscript f) temperatures of martensitic (M) and austenitic (A) that will affect these, including: (a) composition of the alloys; (b) transformations, respectively. The lattice of shape-memory alloy heat treatment procedure; and (c) mechanical loading. The first two can transfer between twinned martensite, detwinned martensite and factors are fixed, whereas the last factor will be influenced by the austenite with loading and temperature, as shown in Figure 14. design stress that shape-memory alloys are designed to resist. The superelasticity occurs when the working temperature is Figure 15 demonstrates that as the applied stress increases, the above Af. When the working temperature is below As, the shape- phase-transformation temperatures increase (Lagoudas et al., memory alloy will deform and could have permanent deformation 2009). Mechanical loading could lead to martensitic transformation, before being heated. When the shape-memory alloy is heated to and therefore could lead to a change in phase-transformation above Af, it will return to its original shape and the shape-memory temperatures. This is evidenced in a number of researches effect will occur. Therefore, whether shape-memory alloys exhibit (Miller and Lagoudas, 2000; Montecinos and Cuniberti, 2008). superelasticity or shape-memory effect depends on the working From previous discussion, the essential development that needs to temperature in relation to these phase-transformation temperatures. be achieved is that, should superelasticity of shape-memory alloys Although nickel–titanium shape-memory alloys have a superior be used in construction, manufacturers must be able to develop superelasticity effect suitable for many applications in construction, shape-memory alloys with extremely low Af (such as –40°C) so there are limited possibilities in designing the Af to achieve extremely that superelasticity can be ensured when needed.

92 Civil Engineering Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review Volume 169 Issue CE2 Chang and Araki

artesite σ σ σ σ restress M Ms A s A

Stress Stress: MPa

steite

M Ms As A Strain: % Temperature

Figure 16. Stress–strain relationship of a copper-based shape-memory Figure 15. Representation of thermos-mechanical transformation alloy bar in tension, the bar was prestressed to martensite phase (2%) loading path in stress–temperature phase diagram (Lagoudas et al., and started to cycle between 2–6%, which gives much higher energy 2009) dissipation

6.3 Increasing damping of a structure quantities and manufacturing procedure. DesRoches and Smith The damping capacity of shape-memory alloys comes from two (2004) pointed out that the price of nickel–titanium shape-memory mechanisms: martensite variations reorientation and stress-induced alloys had decreased from US$1100 per kilogram in 1999 to martensitic transformation. The energy-dissipation capacity of US$111 per kg in 2004. nickel–titanium shape-memory alloy wires in the martensite phase The retail price of the nickel–titanium shape-memory alloy wire is significantly higher than that in the austenite phase (Song et al., went down to approximately US$20–30/kg for mass orders as at 2006). the end of 2014. The price is expected to decrease over time. This It was observed that damping capacity is dependent on price is only indicative as the price and quality of shape-memory temperature, loading frequency and number of cycles (Araki et al., alloy products vary with composition of materials and from 2012; Dolce and Cardone, 2001), and that the energy-dissipation manufacturer to manufacturer. capacity of the shape-memory alloys would be significantly Copper-based shape-memory alloys have recently been increased when they are prestressed to the martensite phase (Dolce developed as an alternative to nickel–titanium shape-memory and Cardone, 2001). Prestressing shape-memory alloys before alloys due to lower cost and superior characteristics (Omori et al., using them in a structure can also provide good energy-dissipation 2013). Araki et al. (2011) pointed out that the material cost of capacity, as shown in Figure 16. copper–aluminium–manganese shape-memory alloys is about Notice that when the shape-memory alloys are prestressed to the 15–30% of that of nickel–titanium shape-memory alloys, and when martensite phase, the stiffness of the material will be significantly including machining the total cost could be as low as 10% of that reduced. It is also important to consider, when using shape-memory of nickel–titanium shape-memory alloys. alloys to provide damping to dissipate energy, the relationship In addition, iron-based shape-memory alloys also share the same between phase-transformation and ambient temperatures, in low-cost advantages and have better weldability (Cladera et al., 2014; particular for structures built in regions that have extreme weather. Troiani et al., 2009). Cost analyses have been carried out to compare For instance, the shape-memory alloys in a structure could the cost, loss and downtime after a major earthquake of a ten-storey provide good energy-dissipation capacity during a cold winter (for reinforced-concrete building in Japan (Arup, 2015); the results showed example, –20°C) but relatively poor energy dissipation in a hot that to add cross-bracing with copper-based shape-memory alloys to summer (40°C). the building would increase the total construction cost by 3·5%, similar to conventional cross-bracing, whereas that figure would increase to 38·7% if nickel–titanium shape-memory alloys were used. 7. Costs and availability The business downtime needed for a shape-memory alloy cross-braced building to recover fully would be reduced by 42% One of the main barriers to shape-memory alloys being adopted compared with that of a concrete structure with conventional in construction is the cost of the material, as materials needed in cross-bracing after a devastating earthquake. In structures with construction tend to be used in large amounts. The cost of producing shape-memory alloy bracing, most of the time spent after the shape-memory alloys involves the raw materials, processing, heat earthquake was on repair of non-structural elements, whereas with treatment and machining. To enhance the market uptake of shape- conventional bracing more time was needed to repair the structure. memory alloys for use in construction, it is essential to develop Although it appears that nickel–titanium shape-memory alloys low-cost and high-performance shape-memory alloy products. are more expensive, the availability is much better than other classes Shape-memory alloys use a number of metallic commodities of shape-memory alloy as they have been well developed and for which the price would fluctuate over time, and the price of have reached a proper market size. A number of well-established the shape-memory alloy products are also influenced by shape, manufacturers for nickel–titanium shape-memory alloys can be

93 Civil Engineering Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review Volume 169 Issue CE2 Chang and Araki

found, while there are only a handful of manufacturers who are at Alam M, Youssef M and Nehdi M (2008) Analytical prediction of the seismic the stage of trying to develop production lines for copper-based behaviour of super elastic shape-memory alloy reinforced concrete and iron-based shape-memory alloys. elements. Engineering Structures 30(12): 3399–3411. The availability of affordable shape-memory alloys with Andrawes B and DesRoches R (2005) Unseating prevention for multiple sufficient performance is another barrier to shape-memory alloys frame bridges using superelastic devices. Smart Materials and Structures being used in building and civil structures. 14(3): S60–S67. Andrawes B and DesRoches R (2007) Effect of ambient temperature on the hinge opening in bridges with shape-memory alloy seismic restrainers. 8. Fatigue life Engineering Structures 29(9): 2294–2301. Anshuman S (2008) PixelSkin02. See http://nait5.wordpress. com/2008/06/11/pixelskin02/ (accessed 22/01/2016). Fatigue of shape-memory alloys can be classified into functional Araki Y, Endo T, Omori T et al. (2011) Potential of superelastic Cu–Al–Mn and structural fatigues. The functional fatigue is the decrease in the alloy bars for seismic applications. Earthquake Engineering and Structural mechanical function of shape-memory alloys, such as superelasticity Dynamics 40(1): 107–115. and shape-memory effect associated with an increased cyclic Araki Y, Maekawa N, Omori T et al. (2012) Rate-dependent response of loading, whereas the structural fatigue is the accumulated damage superelastic Cu–Al–Mn alloy rods to tensile cyclic loads. Smart Materials in microstructure of shape-memory alloys during cyclic loading and and Structures 21(3): 032002. eventually leads to fatigue failure (Eggeler et al., 2004). Araki Y, Maekawa N, Shrestha KC et al. (2014) Feasibility of tension braces There are many factors that influence the fatigue life of shape- using Cu–Al–Mn superelastic alloy bars. Structural Control and Health memory alloys, including loading frequencies, stress levels, Monitoring 21(10): 1304–1315. phase-transformation temperatures and change in microstructure. Arup (2015) Shape-Memory Alloy Seismic Application to 10-Story Japanese Building – Loss and Downtime Assessment. Arup, San Francisco, CA, USA. Existing research has found that larger stress introduced in shape- memory alloys leads to shorter fatigue life. Auricchio F, Fugazza D and DesRoches R (2006) Earthquake performance of steel frames with nitinol braces. Journal of Earthquake Engineering 10(1): One particular situation which should be considered when 45–66. prestressed shape-memory alloys are used in a structure is that the Bansiddhi A, Sargeant T, Stupp S and Dunand D (2008) Porous nickel– fluctuation in temperature can lead to changes in stress within a shape- titanium for bone implants: a review. Acta Biomaterialia 4(4): 773–782. memory alloy and cause further fatigue failure in the longer term. Bellini A, Colli M and Dragoni E (2009) Mechatronic design of a shape- memory alloy actuator for automotive tumble flaps: a case study. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 56(7): 2644–2656. 9. Conclusion Benavent-Climent A (2008) Development and application of passive structural control systems in the moderate-seismicity Mediterranean Shape-memory alloys have been successfully used in a number of area: the case of Spain. Proceedings of the 14th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Beijing, China. See http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/ industries due to their benefits of superelasticity, shape-memory effect wcee/article/14_S05-02-016.PDF (accessed 22/01/2016). and high damping, although the construction sector has not widely Chancellor NB, Eatherton MR, Roke DA and Akbaş T (2014) Self-centering adopted this new material due to the limitations of costs, availability seismic lateral force resisting systems: high performance structures for the and temperature-dependent behaviour described in this paper. city of tomorrow. Buildings 4(3): 520–548. Shape-memory alloys are a rapidly developing material that will Chang WS, Murakami S, Komatsu K et al. (2013) Potential to use shape become a good option for tackling the challenges that society is memory alloy in timber dowel-type connections. Wood and Fiber Science now facing, such as natural disaster resilience and demand for high 45(3): 330–334. performance. It is essential that engineers and researchers work Choi E, Lee DH and Choei NY (2009) Shape-memory alloy bending bars as together to popularise this innovative material’s use in building seismic restrainers for bridges in seismic areas. International Journal of Steel Structures 9(4): 261–273. structures and facades as well as in infrastructure. Cladera A, Weber B, Leinenbach C et al. (2014) Iron-based shape-memory alloys for civil engineering structures: an overview. Construction and Acknowledgements Building Materials 63: 281–293. Coelho M and Maes P (2009) Shutters: a permeable surface for environmental control and communication. In Proceedings of the The work was funded by the International Copper Association 3rd International Conference on Tangible and Embedded Interaction. (TEK-1079). The authors would like to thank Castellano Maria Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp. 13–18. Gabriella in FIP Industriale, Italy for discussion and sharing her Croci G (2001) Strengthening the basilica of St Francis of Assisi after the experiences in working with shape-memory alloys, and Arup San September 1997 earthquake. Structural Engineering International 11(3): 207–210. Francisco and Tokyo offices for sharing their cost analyses and unpublished report. Das S and Mishra SK (2014) Optimal performance of buildings isolated by shape-memory-alloy-rubber-bearing (shape-memory alloyrb) under random earthquakes. International Journal for Computational Methods in References Engineering Science and Mechanics 15(3): 265–276. DesRoches R and Smith B (2004) Shape-memory alloys in seismic resistant Abdulridha A, Palermo D, Foo S and Vecchio FJ (2013) Behavior and design and retrofit: a critical review of their potential and limitations. modeling of superelastic shape-memory alloy reinforced concrete beams. Journal of Earthquake Engineering 8(3): 415–429. 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94 Civil Engineering Use of shape-memory alloys in construction: a critical review Volume 169 Issue CE2 Chang and Araki

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