A PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF THE PROCESS OF SPIRITUAL JIHAD AMONG
U.S. MUSLIMS
by
SEYMA N. SARITOPRAK
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
Master of Arts
Thesis Advisor: Julie J. Exline, PhD
Department of Psychological Sciences
CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY
January, 2018
ii
CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
We hereby approve the thesis/dissertation of
Seyma N. Saritoprak
candidate for the Master of Arts degree *.
(signed) Julie J. Exline, Ph.D. (chair of the committee)
Brooke N. Macnamara, Ph.D. (committee member)
Sandra Russ, Ph.D. (committee member)
(date) Thursday, June 29th, 2017
*We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein.
iii
Table of Contents
List of Tables ...... vi
List of Figures...... vii
List of Appendices ...... viii
Abstract ...... ix
Literature Review ...... 1
Spiritual Jihad: An Islamic Perspective ...... …5
Spiritual Jihad: Attributing Wrongdoings to the Nafs...... 9
Spiritual Jihad: Cognitive and Behavioral Components...... 9
Spiritual Jihad: Implications for Virtues, Vices, and Well-Being...... 12
Virtues ...... 12
Vices ...... 15
The Present Study ...... 18
Hypotheses ...... 18
Spiritual Jihad, Perceived Closeness with God, and Islamic Religiousness...... 18
Spiritual Jihad, Religious Coping, Struggle Engagement...... 19
Spiritual Jihad, Growth, and Decline...... 19
Spiritual Jihad, Psychological Well-Being, and Life Satisfaction...... 19
Spiritual Jihad and Religious/Spiritual Struggles...... 19
Spiritual Jihad, Virtues, and Vices...... 20
Method ...... 20
Participants and Procedure...... 20
Measures...... 20 iv
Spiritual Jihad Mindset...... 21
Religious Coping and Struggle Engagement...... 18
Islamic Religiousness...... 22
Closeness with God ...... 23
Post-Traumatic Growth ...... 24
Spiritual Growth and Decline ...... 24
Satisfaction with Life ...... 25
Anxiety...... 25
Depression ...... 26
Religious and Spiritual Struggles ...... 26
Vices...... 27
Gratitude ...... 27
Forgiveness...... 28
Patience ...... 28
Social Desirability ...... 29
Demographic Questionnaire...... 29
Data Analysis...... 29
Results ...... 29
Descriptive Statistics ...... 29
Exploratory Factor Analysis ...... 31
Internal Consistency ...... 32
Hypothesis Set (1): Spiritual Jihad, Perceived Closeness with God, and Islamic
Religiousness...... 32 v
Hypothesis Set (2): Spiritual Jihad, Religious Coping, Struggle
Engagement...... 34
Hypothesis Set (3): Spiritual Jihad, Growth, and Decline...... 34
Hypothesis Set (4): Spiritual Jihad, Psychological Well-Being, and Life
Satisfaction...... 36
Hypothesis Set (5): Spiritual Jihad and Religious/Spiritual Struggles ...... 36
Hypothesis Set (6): Spiritual Jihad, Virtues, and Vices ...... 37
Discussion ...... 38
Key Findings ...... 38
Implications for Research and Practice ...... 43
Limitations and Future Directions ...... 45
References ...... 95
vi
List of Tables
Table 1: Skewness, Kurtosis, and Standard Error for Community Sample...... 47 Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for Demographics...... 49 Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for Main Variables...... 51 Table 4: Internal Consistency for Main Measures...... 52 Table 5: Summary of Exploratory Factor Analysis Results for the Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure Using Maximum Likelihood Extraction...... 54 Table 6: Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Main Variables...... 56 Table 7: Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Forms of Positive Religious Coping...... 57 Table 8: Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Spiritual Jihad Mindset Predicting Spiritual Growth after Controlling for Islamic Religiousness (MTurk)...... 58 Table 9: Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Spiritual Jihad Mindset Predicting Spiritual Growth after Controlling for Islamic Religiousness (Community)...59 Table 10: Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Spiritual Jihad Mindset Predicting Post-Traumatic Growth after Controlling for Islamic Religiousness (MTurk)...... 60 Table 11: Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Spiritual Jihad Mindset Predicting Post-Traumatic Growth after Controlling for Islamic Religiousness (Community)...... 61 Table 12: Partial Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure, Depressive Symptoms, and Anxiety, Controlling for Islamic Religiousness...... 62 Table 13: Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Religious and Spiritual Struggles...... 63 Table 14: Partial Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Vices...... 64 Table 15: Partial Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Virtues...... 65 vii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Relationship with God, Islamic Religiousness, and Spiritual Jihad...... 66
Figure 2: Spiritual Jihad, Positive Religious Coping, and Engagement with
Struggle...... 66
Figure 3: Spiritual Jihad, Growth, and Life Satisfaction...... 67
Figure 4: Spiritual Jihad and Virtues...... 67
Figure 5: Spiritual Jihad, Mental Health, R/S Struggles, Vices, and Spiritual
Decline...... 68
viii
List of Appendices
Appendix A: Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure...... 69
Appendix B: RCOPE Subscales...... 71
Appendix C: Posttraumatic Growth Inventory...... 72
Appendix D: Spiritual Transformation Scale...... 73
Appendix E: PMIR Islamic Dimensions Subscales...... 74
Appendix F: The Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale...... 76
Appendix G: Satisfaction with Life Scale...... 77
Appendix H: Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-Item Scale...... 78
Appendix I: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Short Depression Scale...... 79
Appendix J: Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale...... 80
Appendix K: Struggle Engagement...... 81
Appendix L: Deadly Sins Scale...... 82
Appendix M: The Gratitude Questionnaire-Six Item Form (GQ-6)...... 83
Appendix N: Heartland Forgiveness Scale...... 84
Appendix O: 3-Factor Patience Scale...... 85
Appendix P: Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability Scale...... 86
Appendix Q: Demographic Questionnaire...... 87
Appendix R: Recruitment Contacts...... 89
Appendix S: Community Recruitment Letter...... 91
Appendix T: Snowball Sampling Recruitment Letter...... 92
Appendix U: Gift Card Email...... 93
Appendix V: Letter of Cooperation Email...... 94 ix
A Preliminary Analysis of the Process of Spiritual Jihad among U.S. Muslims
Abstract
by
SEYMA N. SARITOPRAK
Despite the positive outcomes associated with religion and spirituality (r/s), religion and spirituality can also be sources of struggle. Several studies have found such r/s struggles to be linked with greater levels of distress, while others have found them to be associated with growth-related outcomes. The author proposes that growth from struggles is a prominent experience in Islamic spirituality, referred to as spiritual jihad. The main hypothesis of this work was that incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset would result in greater well-being-related outcomes and buffer against the experience of r/s struggles.
The project included two samples of U.S. Muslims: an online sample (N= 280) and a community sample (N= 74). The project provided preliminary evidence of reliability and validity for a new measure of spiritual jihad mindset. Results revealed Islamic religiousness and perceived closeness with God predicted greater endorsement of a spiritual jihad mindset among participants from both samples. A spiritual jihad mindset was positively associated with greater levels of positive religious coping (both samples), spiritual and post-traumatic growth (both samples), and virtuous behaviors (MTurk sample), and negatively associated with depression and anxiety (MTurk sample), and certain vices (MTurk sample).
Keywords: spiritual jihad, Islam, Muslims, struggles, growth 1
A Preliminary Analysis of the Process of Spiritual Jihad among U.S. Muslims
Considerable research has been conducted on the psychology of religion and spirituality in the past decade (Miller & Thoresen, 2003; Emmons & Paloutzian, 2003).
Numerous studies have investigated the beneficial effects of religion and spirituality on health and well-being (Seybold & Hill, 2001; Miller & Thoresen, 2003). For example, individuals who are involved in religious/spiritual activities are often less likely to smoke and drink alcohol (Koenig, McCullough, & Larson, 2001; Koenig, King, & Carson,
2012). Moreover, greater r/s involvement has been associated with lower blood pressure, heart disease, hypertension, and even lower levels of mortality (for reviews, see Koenig et al., 2001; Koenig et al., 2012). In addition to physical health, religious and spiritual participation have also been linked with better mental health (Seybold & Hill, 2001).
Higher levels of religion and spirituality have been linked to lower levels of depression
(Baetz, Griffin, Bowen, Koenig, & Marcoux, 2004; Hirsch, Nsamenang, Chang, Kaslow,
2014; Koenig, 2004) and anxiety (Koenig, 2004; McCoubrie & Davies, 2005). Similarly, in times of distress, religion and spirituality are often the means through which people cope with negative emotion (Graham, Furr, Flowers, & Burke, 2001; Pargament, 1997;
Pargament, Smith, Koenig, Perez, 1998). Recent studies have also found religion and spirituality to be positively linked with a personal sense of security (Rowatt &
Kirkpatrick, 2002; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2013) and purpose in life (Park, 2005; Park,
Edmondson, & Hale-Smith, 2013).
While religious and spiritual involvement can yield various benefits, they can also be a source of struggle. Religious and spiritual (r/s) struggles transpire when a person’s 2 beliefs, practices, or experiences regarding r/s matters cause distress or conflict (for reviews, see Exline, 2013; Exline & Rose, 2013; Pargament, 2007; Stauner, Exline, &
Pargament, 2016). There are several forms of general r/s struggles (Exline, Pargament,
Grubbs, & Yali, 2014). Divine struggles occur when one experiences negative thoughts or feelings about God. Demonic struggles involve concerns about being attacked by a devil or various forms of evil spirits. Interpersonal struggles refer to conflicts surrounding religious people, groups, or institutions. On the other hand, intrapersonal struggles comprise of moral, doubt, and ultimate meaning struggles. Moral struggles involve concerns about obedience to moral principles and guilt surrounding violating one’s moral compass. Doubt-related struggles are a result of experiencing distress regarding matters of religious doubts and questions. Finally, ultimate meaning struggles involve concerns regarding an absence of meaning and purpose in life (Exline et al., 2014).
Many individuals experience r/s struggles (e.g., Stauner et al., 2016). In a study of
U.S. colleges and universities, Astin, Astin, Lindholm, Bryant, Szelényi, and Calderone
(2005) found that a majority of first-year students reported occasionally feeling distant from God (65%) and questioned their religious beliefs (57%). Similarly, about half of the students endorsed occasionally feeling angry with God (48%) and disagreeing with their families about religious matters (52%). Along similar lines, in a study involving individuals of differing medical illnesses, 15% reported moderate to high levels of r/s struggle (Fitchett et al, 2004).
Furthermore, recent studies have documented r/s struggles among diverse cultural and religious groups. For example, self-reports on the Religious and Spiritual
Struggles (RSS) scale among Israeli-Jewish university students indicated as high as 30% 3 of students experiencing r/s struggles (Abu-Raiya, Pargament, Weissberger, & Exline,
2016). Similarly, Abu-Raiya, Pargament, Exline, and Agbaria (2015) found that up to
40% of Israeli-Palestinian Muslims residing in Israel reported experiencing r/s struggles.
Saritoprak and Exline (2016) found that Muslims living in the United States endorsed moderate levels of r/s struggles across several domains, with moral struggles receiving the greatest endorsement. A large online survey of U.S. adults suggested that Muslims and Hindus reported greatest overall r/s struggles when compared to Catholics,
Protestants, Christians, Jews, Buddhists, atheists, and agnostics (Saritoprak, Exline, &
Stauner, 2016).
Religious and spiritual struggles have also been reported among the general
American population (Stauner et al., 2016). Using a large national representative sample of adults, Ellison and Lee (2010) examined distressing relationship with God, negative relationships within religious contexts, and chronic religious doubt related struggles and found that most people report low levels of r/s struggles. Nevertheless, the struggles were positively associated with psychological distress. Similarly, Abu-Raiya, Pargament,
Krause, and Ironson (2015) found that although on average participants reported low levels of r/s struggle, all forms of struggle were positively related to depressive and anxious symptomology.
R/s struggles often imply tension and conflict regarding one’s core beliefs and behaviors. Thus, it is not surprising that many studies have found r/s struggles to be linked with psychological distress (e.g. Ellison & Lee, 2010; Exline, Yali, & Sanderson,
2000). For instance, Johnson and Hayes (2003) surveyed over 5,000 university students and found that approximately 25% reported distress related to r/s concerns. Similarly, a 4 meta-analysis on religious coping and psychological adjustment revealed a direct link between r/s struggles and indicators of distress such as anxiety, anger, and depression
(Ano & Vasconcelles, 2005). More importantly, such links with psychological distress are found even after controlling for demographic variables (Ellison & Lee, 2010). R/s struggles have also been associated with greater thoughts of suicide (Exline et al., 2000), lower levels of life satisfaction (Abu-Raiya et al., 2016; Abu-Raiya et al., 2015), and less happiness even after controlling for overall religiousness, one’s personality, and social relationships (Abu-Raiya et al., 2015). Although there is not enough evidence to infer a causal relationship between r/s struggles and emotional distress, research suggests a strong connection between the two constructs.
In contrast to the significant body of research on the distressing aspect of r/s struggles, relatively little attention has been given to the growth aspect of r/s struggles.
The research on the relationship between r/s struggles and growth is mixed (for review see Pargament, Desai, & McConnell, 2006). Although some researchers have found a connection, others have not (e.g., Phillips & Stein, 2007) and some studies have even found negative links between struggle and growth (e.g., Park, Brooks, & Sussman, 2009).
The lack of concurrent findings in the literature suggest that it may be the actual coping response to the r/s struggle, rather than the struggle itself, that predicts spiritual growth or decline (Exline & Rose, 2013; Exline, Pargament, Hall, & Harriott, 2016). In general, individuals who make meaning of unfavorable circumstances show better psychological adjustment (Park, 2010) along with more resolution of struggles and associated spiritual growth (Desai & Pargament, 2015). Finding meaning may help individuals preserve an essential aspect of their religious belief system, thereby promoting growth (Desai, 2006; 5
Desai & Pargament, 2015). Similarly, growth from struggle has been linked with positive religious coping (Exline et al., 2016), having a secure relationship with God (for review, see Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2013) integrating religion into everyday life (Desai, 2006), having religious support (Desai, 2006), and perceived support from God (Pargament et al., 2006)
Although studies have demonstrated that r/s struggles can be linked with growth- related outcomes, more research needs to be conducted to examine the growth processes of r/s struggles. A limitation of the current r/s assessment measures is the underlying assumption that r/s struggles are negative in nature. Such an assumption has led to the current measurements of r/s struggles to focus predominantly on the decline-related associations with r/s struggles. Hence, there is a need to measure r/s struggles from a growth-oriented perspective. Looking at the process of growth from a religious perspective, individuals may intentionally embrace the experience of struggle for a greater purpose such as for the sake of becoming closer to God or eliminating their lower self tendencies; such struggles may be intentional in nature for the purpose of spiritual growth. People of faith who may desire to become a more devoted believer may embrace struggle as a medium through which one develops a stronger relationship with the Divine.
The phenomenon of struggling for growth purposes is one that is prominent in the religion of Islam, referred to as spiritual jihad. Hence, a natural place to initiate an empirical investigation of such processes is within the context of the religion of Islam.
Spiritual Jihad: An Islamic Perspective
Much of the research conducted on r/s struggles has made use of predominantly
Judeo-Christian samples. The aim of the current project was to focus primarily on 6 struggles and growth among Muslims, framed in terms of spiritual jihad. The Arabic noun “jihad” is derived from the Arabic verb “jahada,” which is translated as “to make great effort” (Osman, 2001). From an Islamic perspective, there are two types of jihad: the greater and the lesser jihad. The greater jihad (al-jihad al-akbar), contrary to popular thought, refers to an internal spiritual strife or struggle in the path of God against the various trials of life (Nizami, 1997). On the other hand, the lesser jihad (al-jihad al- asghar) refers to an external endeavor for the sake of Islam (Unal, 2006). Examples of the lesser jihad include fighting for God’s cause on the battlefield, stepping out of a conversation due to religious purposes, or speaking out for God’s sake. Unfortunately, the lesser jihad (often simply referred to as “jihad”) has become increasingly identified with popular views of Muslims in the recent years (Amin, 2015; Afsaruddin, 2013). The term jihad has particularly become increasingly associated with acts of terrorism, thereby promoting the notion that terrorism is a fundamental aspect of Islam (Turner, 2007). Such mistaken understandings of the term jihad not only restrict the lesser jihad to solely warfare, but also fail to acknowledge the greater meaning of jihad in Islamic spirituality.
Islamic spirituality, as reflected largely in the Sufi heritage, considers the greater spiritual jihad as a fundamental component of spiritual growth and development. Spiritual jihad is a process that requires a conscious effort in “struggling against the soul (al-nafs) for the sake of God” (Picken, 2011). The nafs, which refers to self or the soul in the
Qur’an, plays a complex, multifaceted role as a part of spiritual change. There are three stages of the nafs as described by the Quran: al-nafs al-ammarah, al-nafs al-lawammah, and al-nafs al-mutma’innah. In the first stage, humans struggle against the evil- commanding soul referred to as al-nafs al-ammarah. The evil-commanding soul 7 provokes man towards evil. This is the lowest of the three stages and the most corrupt form of the nafs in regards to following one’s worldly desires and temptations of evil.
The evil-commanding soul provokes people towards evil, and at this beginning stage, humans engage in following the desires of their nafs, thereby potentially leading themselves into spiritual destruction. Second, the struggle to better oneself and overcome the lowest stage of the nafs involves the path towards purification of the mind, body, and heart. At this stage the soul is referred to as the blaming soul, al-nafs al- lawwamah
(Ashraf, 1987). The blaming soul involves becoming increasingly conscious of one’s condition, going against the desires of the evil-commanding soul, blaming the nafs for following temptations, embracing oneself spiritually, and initiating spiritual jihad. Hence, the exercise of spiritual jihad becomes the actual struggle against the desires of the nafs.
This stage encompasses wrongdoings, but more importantly, it encompasses repentance and recoveries. In the final stage, humans can control evil tendencies such as greed, revenge, and impatience through the continuous guidance and remembrance of God and achieves a tranquil soul, al-nafs al-mutma’innah. The tranquil soul evolves when the human will begins to act in harmony with the Will of God, implying a complete submission before God and triumph in one’s spiritual jihad (Ashraf, 1987). At this stage, the nafs becomes at peace, satisfied, desires only what is good and right, and continues to ask God for protection from any risks that may lead one astray. Though, spiritual jihad presumes struggling in a positive trajectory, it does not indicate that one will be struggle- free when he or she progresses within the varying levels of the nafs. Each stage is qualitatively different in regards to what the struggles may entail. It is also important to note that one cannot guarantee a constant state of the nafs. One may regress back to the 8 lower levels of the nafs. However, incorporating a spiritual jihad approach would promote the individual to go forward.
The ongoing journey of spiritual jihad is a common experience among practicing
Muslims. Numerous Qur’anic verses promote an intentional, continuous engagement in spiritual jihad, such as these: “And those who strive for Us - We will surely guide them to
Our ways. And indeed, Allah is with the doers of good” (29:69) and “The ones who have believed, emigrated, and striven in the cause of Allah with their wealth and their lives are greater in rank in the sight of Allah. And it is those who are the attainers [of success]”
(9:20). Similarly, as narrated by al- Bayhaqi, after a successful defeat and arrival from the
Battle of Badr, Prophet Muhammad stated, “We have returned from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad.” When his companions inquired about the greater jihad’s meaning, the
Prophet replied, “It is the struggle that one must make against one’s carnal self (nafs).”
As the Day of Judgment is one of the six articles of the Islamic faith, practicing Muslims often engage in a conscious examination of their nafs with the aim of striving to better themselves as believers in return for not only an eternal afterlife, but also for the sole sake of God. Thus, introspection regarding one’s behaviors, words, and thoughts throughout life on earth promotes a sense of preparedness for the final Judgment and a path toward spiritual refinement.
Nevertheless, despite the theological emphasis on spiritual jihad within Islam, no study to date has examined the construct of spiritual jihad within the field of psychology.
A review of the current literature on r/s struggles and growth indicates a gap in both the conceptualization and measurement of spiritual jihad. As a preliminary attempt to address 9 this gap, the aim of the current article is to investigate the process by which individuals engage in spiritual jihad and the outcomes associated with such engagement.
Spiritual Jihad: Attributing Wrongdoings to the Nafs
Attribution theory (Weiner, 1985) emphasizes the need to assign responsibility for events. Weiner (1985) proposed that in the face of certain events, people often look for information regarding the cause of why an event occurred, and this is especially true for unexpected and negative events (Weiner, 1985). In such cases, people may often think
“Why did this event occur?” or “Why I did I do what I did?” in attempting to investigate why a particular incident took place. By seeking knowledge to explain certain outcomes, whether that is success or failure, the individual can learn to adapt their behavior accordingly in order to prevent or promote a certain incident in the future (Weiner, 1985).
This line of research is relevant to the concept of spiritual jihad. Within a spiritual jihad mindset framework, Muslims who are faced with certain desires or temptations may attribute such inclinations towards their nafs. For example, one may think “I have a sexual desire because my nafs wants it.” Along similar lines, in the face of perceived wrongdoings or moral failures, a Muslim may think “I engaged in the behavior because of the desires of my nafs”, thereby attributing either thoughts or actions towards such proclivities of their nafs. By attributing certain thoughts and behaviors to their nafs,
Muslims incorporating a spiritual jihad approach into their life may be more likely to become aware of such inclinations in the future and engage in greater efforts in struggling against such desires.
Spiritual Jihad: Cognitive and Behavioral Components
10
Growth from stressful situations can be a result of appraising a negative situation in a positive manner (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000). For example, Folkman’s (1997) stress model provides a theoretical framework for how individuals may approach a negative situation. Folkman (1997) suggests that it is through the mechanism of meaning making that stressful events can result in positive emotional experiences. Hence, because religious beliefs and practices can be a major part of life experiences for many people, they can be a major component of meaning-based coping; religion is often a source of support and guidance in dealing with distressing events (Pargament, 1997). Pargament et al., (2000) define religious coping strategies as playing five major functions: providing meaning to distressing life experiences, a framework of control when events are beyond one’s resources, a sense of comfort in times of difficulty, connectedness with others, and helping people make life transformations.
Such coping strategies may be expressed in both positive and negative manners.
For example, one can make meaning of a stressful situation as a chance for spiritual growth or as a punishment from God. Hence, the way in which one makes use of religious coping can play a mediating role in psychological well-being (Pargament et al.,
2000). Religious coping has been hypothesized as two higher-order patterns: positive and negative (Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez, 1998). Positive religious coping methods reflect spiritual connectedness with the world and others, a secure relationship with God, and finding a greater meaning in life (Pargament et al., 1998). Negative religious coping methods, on the other hand, reflect religious struggles of finding significance in life, having a less secure connection with God, and an unfavorable view of the world (Pargament et al., 1998). Researchers have found both the negative and positive 11 religious coping methods to be associated with differing mental health outcomes.
Negative religious coping has been related to higher depression levels and lower quality of life, whereas positive religious coping has been associated with greater well-being and lower levels of psychological distress (Pargament et al., 1998). Such associations between religious coping and well-being were found to persist even after controlling for global religiousness and demographic variables (Pargament et al., 2000). Similarly, in a study conducted among clergy, church leaders, and congregation members, positive religious coping was associated with greater positive affect and religious satisfaction
(Pargament, Tarakeshwar, Ellison, & Wulff, 2001). Positive religious coping was particularly salient among individuals who viewed religion to play a central part in their identity. Among clergy, church leaders, and congregation members, clergy reported greater use of positive religious coping when compared with church leaders and congregation members (Pargament et al., 2001). These findings support the notion that religious coping is more prevalent among those who observe religion to be a greater part of their religious orienting system, that is their general system of beliefs and practices
(Pargament et al., 1992).
Similarly, spiritual jihad is a way of approaching life experiences. It is a process that includes both a cognitive and behavioral component in managing distress as it allows one to make meaning of negative experiences and cope in a proactive manner. In the face of adversities and struggle, Muslims may examine the situation through a spiritual jihad interpretive framework. Within such a framework, Muslims may regard negative life experiences as a test that will bring the individual closer to God, a medium through which the individual will become a more devout Muslim, an opportunity to seek Divine 12 forgiveness, a means of earning sawab (good deeds), or a desire of the nafs that the individual must struggle against. Such a mindset results in a positive meaning-making experience, thereby possibly promoting a sense of spiritual growth, positive emotions, and psychological well-being. In addition, a spiritual jihad approach towards struggles has an underlying assumption that religion and spirituality play a central role in one’s orienting system as the process of spiritual jihad requires significant devotion towards one’s faith and relationship with God. Thus, individuals who engage in such a process may be more likely to make use of active positive religious coping methods when compared with individuals who may not necessarily approach life experiences from a spiritual jihad interpretive framework. The current study is a first attempt at measuring such a framework of cognitions.
Spiritual Jihad: Implications for Virtues, Vices, and Well-Being
Virtues. Spiritual jihad is not only intended to promote positive religious coping, but it is also intended to promote virtues and prevent vices. From an Islamic perspective, there are several overarching themes rooted in the Qur’an and Sunnah of the Prophet that promote an active strive of bettering oneself in the path God through virtuous behavior.
First, for the purpose of this study, the author will focus on patience, gratitude, and forgiveness. The author will briefly review each construct with an emphasis on psychological well-being. Second, the author will discuss the emphasis on spiritual jihad being a means to purify the self of sinful behavior.
Patience. The cultivation of patience, referred to as sabr in Arabic, is an essential component in the active engagement of spiritual jihad. In the Islamic tradition, sabr can essentially be described as the restraining of oneself from wrongdoings, limiting 13 objections and complaints in the face of calamities, and putting all trust in God. One of the earliest examples of patience in Islamic history can be traced back to the time when the Prophet was being persecuted by the pagan Meccans of the time. During such times of hardship, the Qur’anic verse “And whoever is patient and forgives - indeed, that is of the matters [requiring] determination” (42:42-43) was revealed to the Prophet. The verse encouraged Muslims to maintain a steadfastness approach and patiently endure the wrongdoings in a forgiving and non-combative manner (Afsaruddin, 2007). Similarly, the importance of being patient is also emphasized in the sayings of the Prophet. For example, he states, “When you face them (i.e., your enemy) then be patient” (Al-Bukhari, book 52, hadith 86).
From a psychological perspective, approaching situations in a patient manner enhances resilience in times of hardship, thereby promoting better coping ability (Connor
& Zhang, 2006). The act of being patient involves a proactive approach in reacting to negative emotions such as anger and frustration. Therefore, it may encourage a more non- hostile approach to life experiences, a positive perspective, and increased resilience in the face of adversity. Studies have linked patience with lower levels of depression, greater goal pursuit during times of distress, and greater well-being and positive emotion
(Schnitker, 2012; Schnitker & Westbrook, 2014).
Gratitude. Gratitude, referred to as shukr in Arabic, is an essential aspect of
Islamic spirituality. Gratefulness towards God and other people is reflected through one’s appreciation and acknowledgement of the surrounding blessings. Gratitude is a manner through which one remembers God and brings a religious perspective on life to conscious awareness, which is a vital component of spiritual jihad. Numerous themes of gratitude 14 can be found in the Qur’an and hadith. For example, God instructs, “So remember Me; I will remember you. And be grateful to Me and do not deny Me” (2:152). A similar emphasis on gratitude is evident in such sayings of the Prophet: One who does not thank for the little does not thank for the abundant, and One who does not thank people does not thank God” (Muslim, hadith 2734).
Literature on the psychology of gratitude has considered gratitude to be a part of one’s larger framework of life, one which fosters the noticing and appreciating the positive in the world (Wood, Froh, & Geraghty, 2010). Grateful individuals have been found to show lower levels of neuroticism and greater extroversion, agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness (McCullough, Emmons, & Tsang, 2002). Moreover, gratitude has also been linked with less anger and hostility and with more warmth, altruism, and trust (Wood, Joseph, & Maltby, 2008) in addition to greater happiness and positive affect (e.g., Emmons & McCullough, 2003; Watkins, Woodward, Stone, &
Kolts, 2003). Researchers have found that individuals who are more thankful are more likely to have lower levels of anxiety, depression, and drug abuse (Kendler et al., 2003).
Notably, in the aftermath of traumatic experiences, studies have shown that engaging in gratitude predicts better life functioning, including post-traumatic growth (Fredrickson,
Tugade, Waugh, & Larkin, 2003; Kashdan, Uswatte, & Julian, 2006).
Forgiveness. The act of forgiving is an inevitable aspect of one’s spiritual jihad and holds a distinguished place in Islamic theology. As humans are vulnerable to sins, mistakes, and transgressions, forgiveness promotes an opportunity for spiritual reformation. The act of forgiving fosters both one’s relationship with God and with other humans. The Qur’an highlights both God’s forgiveness and the act of forgiving others, as 15 evident in the verse: “And let not those of virtue among you and wealth swear not to give
[aid] to their relatives and the needy and the emigrants for the cause of Allah, and let them pardon and overlook. Would you not like that Allah should forgive you? And Allah is Forgiving and Merciful” (24:22). Similarly, the Prophet states, “Be merciful to others and you will receive mercy. Forgive others and Allah will forgive you” (Al- Tirmidhi, hadith 1934).
Within psychology, forgiveness has been studied as a positive and prosocial response to transgressions (for reviews, see Fehr, Gelfand, & Nag, 2010; Riek & Mania,
2012; Worthington, 2005). Historically, researchers have found that individuals who tend to forgive others are more altruistic, caring, generous, and empathic (Ashton, Paunonen,
Helmes, & Jackson, 1998). More recent studies show that people who forgive are more likely to be in relationships described as “close, committed, and satisfactory” (Tsang,
McCullough, & Fincham, 2006). Furthermore, forgiving individuals report greater levels of positive emotion and life satisfaction (for a review, see Worthington, Witvliet, Pietrini,
& Miller, 2007). Similarly, forgiveness has been linked to lower levels of depression
(Freedman & Enright, 1996), anxiety, and unhealthy anger (Lin, Mack, Enright, Krahn,
& Baskin, 2004). Unforgiveness, on the other hand, has been associated with rumination
(McCullough, Bono, & Root, 2007) in addition to prolonged anger and distress
(McCullough, Bellah, Kilpatrick, & Johnson, 2001; van Oyen Witvliet, Ludwig &
Vander Laan, 2001), and may even have negative effects on one’s physical health (for a review, see Worthington & Scherer, 2004).
Vices. In addition to promoting virtuous behaviors, the greater jihad also fosters an active strife against the everyday malevolent temptations of the nafs as means towards 16 improving the self in the way of God. The individual must struggle to control one’s sinful desires for the purpose of gaining God’s sake and eternal Paradise as evident in the verse
“But as for he who feared the position of his Lord and prevented the soul from [unlawful] inclination, then indeed, Paradise will be [his] refuge” (79:40-41). Such a strife can take form against the many evils the Qur’an and Sunnah put forward. For example, the Qur’an presents numerous verses on the consequences of exhibiting arrogance and pride such as
“And do not turn your cheek [in contempt] toward people and do not walk through the earth exultantly. Indeed, Allah does not like everyone self-deluded and boastful” (31:18) and “Assuredly, Allah knows what they conceal and what they declare. Indeed, He does not like the arrogant” (16:23).
Similarly, resisting one’s lustful temptations is promoted among the Qur’anic verses and the life of the Prophet. For example, the Qur’an states “Certainly will the believers have succeeded, they who during their prayer are humbly submissive, … and who guard their private parts, except from their spouses or those their right hands possess, for indeed, they will not be blamed, but whoever seeks beyond that, then those are the transgressors” (23:1-7), emphasizing the importance of refraining from forbidden sexual activity as part of one’s successful submission to God. Other vices are also proclaimed against in the Qur’an. For example, the verse “So fear Allah as much as you are able and listen and obey and spend [in the way of Allah]; it is better for yourselves.
And whoever is protected from the stinginess of his soul - it is those who will be the successful” (64:16) highlights the strife to deter oneself from sinful traits such as greed and stinginess. Similarly, the saying of the Prophet “Do not spy upon one another and do not feel envy with the other, and nurse no malice, and nurse no aversion and hostility 17 against one another. And be fellow-brothers and servants of Allah” (Al-Bukhari, book 32, hadith 6214) discourages Muslims from vices such as envy and hatred. As part of a personal spiritual jihad, Muslims may engage in internally combating such evil tendencies with the goal of becoming a more devout Muslim.
In sum, research suggests that religion and spirituality can often be sources of positive outcomes related to both mental and physical health. Nevertheless, more recent studies report that religion and spirituality can also be a source of struggle for many individuals. Much of the research on r/s struggles has found associations with negative outcomes of emotional distress such as anger, depression, anxiety, thoughts of suicide, lower life satisfaction and less happiness. Despite the connection between r/s struggles and distress, a small amount of literature also suggests that r/s struggles may promote growth. However, the current methods of examining the links between struggle and growth are limited in that there is an underlying assumption that struggles are negative in nature. Nonetheless, individuals may intentionally embrace the experience of struggle for a greater purpose. Thus, there is a need to measure struggles through a growth-oriented lens. The phenomenon of struggling for growth purposes is one that is eminent throughout Islamic spirituality, discussed as spiritual jihad.
Spiritual jihad is considered an essential component of spiritual growth (al-
Ghazali, 1982; al-Bursawi, 1990). It requires a constant and conscious struggle against one’s nafs with the aim of developing a close relationship with God and becoming a more devout Muslim. The process of spiritual jihad involves attributing wrongdoings to the nafs, and a cognitive and behavioral aspect in approaching life experiences as it promotes
Muslims to make meaning of negative life experiences and cope in a proactive manner. 18
Hence, spiritual jihad provides a framework for understanding, interpreting, and engaging with life experiences. Such an approach has implications for being the underlying mechanism for psychological wellbeing and virtuous behavior for Muslims who view
Islamic spirituality as a salient part of life experiences.
The Present Study
Currently, there is a gap in the literature that looks at the role Islamic spirituality plays in psychological well-being. In addition, many measures on religion and spirituality have not been validated or modified with Muslim samples in the United States.
Furthermore, many religious coping measures have specifically examined methods that are applicable primarily to Judeo-Christian Americans. Thus, no study to date has investigated the process by which spiritual jihad may result in growth and well-being among U.S. Muslims. The current study defines growth as perceived spiritual and post- traumatic growth. The aim of this study was to investigate the outcomes associated with moral struggles that are endorsed by Muslims with a spiritual jihad mindset. Such an empirical investigation is important not only because it promotes a better understanding of principles regarding Islamic spirituality and ways in which people can perceive growth from struggle, but because it also promotes a better understanding of Muslim clients from a diversity perspective in the clinical setting.
Hypotheses
Hypotheses Set (1): Spiritual Jihad, Perceived Closeness with God, and Islamic
Religiousness. 19
Muslims endorsing a stronger relationship with God and higher levels of religiosity will report higher levels of approaching struggles with a spiritual jihad interpretive framework (Figure 1).
Hypotheses Set (2): Spiritual Jihad, Religious Coping, Struggle Engagement
Muslims who endorse higher levels of approaching a specific struggle with a spiritual jihad interpretive framework will be more likely to engage in positive religious coping in the form of Benevolent Religious Appraisal, Active Religious Surrender,
Seeking Spiritual Support, Religious Focus, Religious Purification, Spiritual Connection, and Religious Forgiving. On the other hand, Muslims who report lower levels of approaching struggles with a spiritual jihad mindset will be less likely to engage in positive religious coping methods. In addition, a spiritual jihad mindset will be related to a greater engagement with the struggle among Muslims (Figure 2).
Hypotheses Set (3): Spiritual Jihad, Growth, and Decline
A spiritual jihad interpretive framework will have a positive correlation with growth outcomes (Figure 3). Growth in this study was framed in terms of both spiritual and posttraumatic growth. It is also hypothesized that a spiritual jihad approach towards an experienced struggle will negatively correlate with personal spiritual decline as a spiritual jihad mindset is thought to bolster one’s spirituality (Figure 5).
Hypotheses Set (4): Spiritual Jihad, Psychological Well-Being, and Life Satisfaction.
Muslims who endorse higher levels of approaching struggles with a spiritual jihad interpretive framework will report lower levels of psychological symptoms of distress, namely depression and anxiety (Figure 5) and greater levels of life satisfaction (Figure 3).
Hypotheses Set (5): Spiritual Jihad and Religious/Spiritual Struggles 20
Greater levels of incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset will be associated with lower levels of general religious and spiritual struggles (Figure 5). Engaging in spiritual jihad is anticipated to exist among those with greater devotion towards God, thereby buffering against the typical r/s struggles experienced by the general population.
Hypotheses Set (6): Spiritual Jihad, Virtues, and Vices
Muslims who endorse higher levels of approaching struggles with a spiritual jihad interpretive framework will report greater levels of virtuous behaviors, specifically patience, forgiveness, and gratitude (Figure 3). Along similar lines, these individuals will be less likely to engage in vices, as a spiritual jihad mindset will promote a strife against sinful temptations (Figure 4).
Method Participants and Procedure
Participants were derived from two samples. The first sample was comprised of an adult Muslim sample (N= 280) obtained from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (MTurk) website. The second sample was comprised of an adult Muslim community sample (N=
74). Table 2 displays the demographics for the participants in both samples. The researcher contacted Muslim leaders throughout the United States (Appendix R) via email in order to recruit for the current study. All participants completed a battery of questionnaires assessing predictor and outcome variables related to spiritual jihad.
Participants read the consent form prior to initiating the questionnaires and received a small monetary award for their participation (MTurk participants: $3; Community participants: $10).
Measures 21
Descriptive statistics (frequencies, M, SD, Range, alpha) for all main study measures can be found in Tables 1-4.
Spiritual jihad mindset. A 16-item measure was developed by the author for this study in order to examine the extent to which participants endorse a spiritual jihad interpretive framework in the face of a specific event. Items were sent to experts in the field of Islamic spirituality in order to develop content validity. Participants were instructed to rate each item on a 7-point scale (1= “strongly disagree”, 7= “strongly agree”) pertaining to how they viewed a specific moral struggle they recently encountered. Sample items of the measure included “It is a test that will make me closer to God” and “It is a desire of my nafs that I must work against”. Reverse items were also included in the measure to address issues of response biases such as “I believe this struggle is ultimately weakening my faith” and “Allah plays no role in my struggle”. An overall average score was obtained from participants’ responses, and higher scores on the measure indicated a greater incorporation of a spiritual jihad mindset. Factor analysis was conducted to evaluate the structure of the measure, as described in the results section. The current study provided initial tests of reliability and validity of the new measure.
Religious coping and struggle engagement. Religious coping was measured with select subscales from the Religious Coping Questionnaire (RCOPE) developed by
Pargament, Koenig, and Perez (2000). The RCOPE consisted of subscales assessing coping responses to stressful experiences within a religious context. The Benevolent
Religious Appraisal subscale (e.g., “Thought the event might bring me closer to God”) examines the redefinition of stressors through religion as a benevolent and possibly beneficial experience. The Active Religious Surrender subscale (e.g., “Did my best and 22 turned the situation over to God”) examines giving up control over to God as a method of coping. The Seeking Spiritual Support subscale (e.g., “Looked to God for strength, support, and guidance”) examines looking for assurance and comfort through God’s love and care. The Religious Focus subscale (e.g., “Prayed to get my mind off problems”) looks at the engagement in religious activities as a way to shift focus from the stressor.
The Religious Purification subscale (e.g., “Asked forgiveness for my sins”) measures spiritual cleansing through religious efforts. The Spiritual Connection subscale (e.g.,
“Looked for a stronger connection with God”) looks at forming a connection with the transcendent as way of responding with stressors. The Religious Forgiving subscale (e.g.,
“Sought help from God in letting go of my anger”) examines participants’ using religion to shift feelings of anger, hurt, and fear. Participants’ average score was calculated from each subscale. Subscale scores and a total average score were examined. Reliability estimates for the RCOPE have demonstrated good internal consistency, with alpha being
.80 or greater for the subscales employed in the current study (Pargament et al., 2000). In regards to their mentioned struggle, participants were also asked to rate their engagement their struggle (i.e., “How much effort have you used in trying to work through the struggle you have mentioned?”) using a 5-point rating scale ranging from 1 (“None/ not at all”) to 5 (“A lot”). A total sum score was calculated.
Islamic religiousness. Islamic religiousness was measured with the five Islamic
Dimensions subscales of the Psychological Measure of Islamic Religiousness (PMIR;
Abu-Raiya et al., 2008). The Beliefs Dimension (e.g., “I believe in the Day of Judgment”) subscale looks at one’s belief in the pillars of faith such as the existence of Allah and the sacred texts on a 3-point scale (0= “no”,1= “somewhat”, 2= “yes”). The subscale has 23
demonstrated high internal consistency (α= .97). The Practices Dimension subscale
(e.g., “How often do you fast?”) examines engagement with Islamic religious practices.
One gender-specific item (i.e., hijab) was omitted from the current study. With the
omitted item, the subscale has demonstrated high internal consistency (α= .92).
Participants were asked to respond on a 6-point scale, with larger numbers indicating
greater engagement in religious practices. The Ethical Conduct-Do Dimension (e.g.,
“Islam is the major reason why I honor my parents”) measures practices that are
encouraged in Islam. Items were answered via a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (“strongly
disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”). The items have demonstrated high internal consistency
(α= .95). The Ethical Conduct-Do Not Dimension (e.g., “Islam is the major reason why I
do not drink alcohol”) subscale looks at practices that are discouraged in Islam. Items
have revealed a high internal consistency (α= .96). Participants responded on a 5-point
scale ranging from 1(“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”). Finally, the Islamic
Universality Dimension ( e.g., “I identify with the suffering of every Muslim in the
world”) subscale measures the degree to which Muslims consider other Muslims as their
brother and sister by responding on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”)
to 5 ( “strongly agree”). The subscale has revealed high internal consistency (α= .91)
(Abu-Raiya et al., 2008). An average score was obtained from each subscale, in addition
to a total average score in order to measure overall levels of Islamic religiousness.
Closeness with God. Closeness with God was measured with the Daily Spiritual
Experiences Scale (DSES; Underwood & Teresi, 2002). The DSES examines spiritual experiences such as a perceived connection with the transcendent. The measure is comprised of 16 items. The response items for the first 15 items were presented in the 24 form of a 6-point scale (1= “never, or almost never”, 6 = “many times a day”). Higher scores on the DSES reflected greater endorsement of spiritual experiences. The final item
(“In general, how close do you feel to God?”) had four response options: “not close at all”,
“somewhat close”, “very close”, and “as close as possible”. The scale has demonstrated construct validity and high internal consistency (α= .94) (Underwood & Teresi, 2002).
The word “God” was substituted with “Allah” for the purpose of the current study. A total average score was obtained, with larger scores indicating greater perceived closeness with
Allah.
Post-traumatic growth. The Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi
& Calhoun, 1996) was administered in order to examine the extent to which participants
perceived themselves as having grown from their reported crisis. The PTGI consists of
five subscales: New Possibilities (e.g., “I developed new interests”), Relating to Others
(e.g., “I accept needing others”), Personal Strength (e.g., “I have a feeling of self-
reliance”), Spiritual Change (e.g., “I have a stronger religious faith”), and Appreciation
of Life (e.g., “My priorities about what is important in life”). A shortened (13-item)
version of the PTGI was administered. The items have demonstrated high internal
consistency (α= .90) and acceptable test-retest reliability (r= .71) (Tedeschi & Calhoun,
1996). The Spiritual Change subscale was not administered so as to not overlap with a
separate spiritual growth scale (see below). A 4-point scale (1= “I did not experience this
change as a result of my crisis", 4= “I experienced this change to a very great degree as a
result of my crisis”) was used. A total average score from obtained from the presented 13
items. 25
Spiritual growth and decline. Spiritual growth and decline were measured via the Spiritual Growth (e.g., “Spirituality has become more important to me”) and Spiritual
Decline (e.g., In some ways I have shut down spiritually”) subscales of the Spiritual
Transformation Scale (STS; Cole, Hopkins, Tisak, Steel, & Carr, 2008). Internal consistency for both the Spiritual Growth (α= .98) and the Spiritual Decline (α= .86) subscales were found to be excellent. Similarly, both scales demonstrated acceptable test- retest reliability r =0. 85 and r =0. 73, respectively (Cole et al., 2008). The STS was originally designed to assess for spiritual change following the diagnosis of cancer.
Because 4 items were related specifically to the diagnosis of cancer, they were omitted. A shortened version of the STS (8 items) was administered for the current study.
Participants were asked to rate their degree of agreement regarding spiritual growth and decline on a 7-point scale (1= “not at all”, 7= “very true”). A total average score was calculated for both subscales.
Satisfaction with life. The 5-item “Satisfaction with Life Scale” (SWLS;
Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) was used in order to measure satisfaction with
life (e.g., “So far I have gotten the important things I want in life”). Participants were
asked to respond to items on a 7-point scale (1= “strongly disagree”, 7= “strongly
agree”). A total score was obtained from all five items, including reverse scores items,
with higher scores indicating greater self-reported life satisfaction. The SWLS has
exhibited good internal consistency (α= .87) and good test-retest reliability (r= .82)
(Diener et al., 1985).
Anxiety. Participants’ level of generalized anxiety was measured with the
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item scale (GAD-7; Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams, & 26
Lowe, 2006). The GAD-7 consists of 7 items assessing generalized anxiety symptoms by asking participants to report their frequency of anxiety-related concerns (e.g., “Worrying too much about different things”) on 4-point scale ranging from 0 (“not at all”) to 3
(“nearly every day”). The GAD-7 has demonstrated excellent internal consistency (α=
.92) and good test-retest reliability (r= .83) (Spitzer et al., 2006). A total overall score of general symptoms of anxiety was obtained from participants’ responses.
Depressed mood. Depressed mood was assessed with the Center for
Epidemiological Studies of Depression Short Form (CES-D -10; Radloff, 1977). The
CES-D-10 is a 10-item scale that measures depressive symptomology (e.g., “I was bothered by things that usually don’t bother me”). Participants responded to statements measuring feelings of depression in the past week on a 4-point scale ranging from 0
(“rarely or none of the time”) to 3 (“all of the time”). The CES-D-10 has correlated with other measures of depression (Amtmann et al., 2014). The items have revealed good internal consistency (α= .86) (Björgvinsson, Kertz, Bigda-Peyton, McCoy, & Aderka,
2013) and test-retest reliability (r= 0.85). Higher scores indicated a greater level of depressive symptom severity (Miller, Anton, & Townson, 2008). A total score was calculated from the sum of ten items.
Religious/spiritual struggles. Religious and spiritual struggles were measured with the Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale (Exline et al., 2014). The scale comprises of 26 items measuring six, factor-analytically derived r/s struggle subscales: Divine (e.g.,
“Felt angry at God”) , Demonic (e.g., “Felt tormented by the devil or evil spirits”),
Interpersonal (e.g., “Had conflicts with other people about religious/spiritual matters”),
Moral ( e.g., “Wrestled with attempts to follow my moral principles”), Ultimate Meaning 27
(e.g., “Felt as though my life had no deeper meaning”), and Doubt (e.g., “Worried about whether my beliefs about religion/spirituality were correct”). Participants responded on a
5-point scale ranging from 1 (“not at all/does not apply”) to 5 (“a great deal”). Greater scores indicated greater experiences of r/s struggles. The RSS subscales have demonstrated good to excellent internal consistency (α= .85- .93) (Exline et al., 2014).
An average score from each subscale was calculated, in addition to a total combined average examining general r/s struggles.
Vices. Engagement with vices were examined via the Deadly Sins Scale
(reinterpreted version by Nauta & Derckx, 2007). The scale measures eight vices: Lust
(e.g., “ I am often absorbed in erotic daydreams” ), Anger ( e.g., “When I am angry, people who are close to me must suffer”), Pride ( e.g., “I have a sharper insight into social situations than most people”), Envy ( e.g., “I find it difficult to empathize spontaneously with the good fortune of others”), Greed ( e.g., “I look always for opportunities to better my financial position”), Gluttony, ( e.g., “Once I have started to indulge myself in eating sweets, I find it very difficult to stop”), Apathy (e.g., “I feel not responsible for all the world’s sorrow” , and Melancholy ( e.g., “I no longer believe in the good intentions of man”). The subscales pertaining to each of the sins revealed acceptable levels of reliability, except for the Apathy subscale” (α < .50) (Nauta & Derckx, 2007).
For this reason, the apathy subscale was not included in the current study. Participants responded on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (“Do not agree at all”) to 7 (“Do totally agree”). An average score from each subscale was obtained, in addition to a total average score of engagement in vices.
Gratitude. Disposition toward gratitude was measured with the Gratitude 28
Questionnaire- Six Item Form (GQ-6; McCullough et al., 2002). Participants responded to six items addressing gratefulness (e.g., “I have so much in life to be thankful for”).
The items were answered on a 7-point scale (1= “strongly disagree”, 7= “strongly agree”). A total sum score was calculated from the six items. The measure has demonstrated good internal reliability (α= .82) (McCullough et al., 2002). The GQ-6 has been validated among diverse populations and has demonstrated good construct validity
(Chen, Chen, Kee, & Tsai, 2009).
Forgiveness. A general tendency to forgive was measured with the Heartland
Forgiveness Scale (HFS; Thompson & Snyder, 2003). The HFS is a self-report questionnaire that has a total of 18 items. The items consists of 3 subscales: Forgiveness of Self (e.g., “I hold grudges against myself for negative things I’ve done”), Forgiveness of Others (e.g., “I continue to punish a person who has done something that I think is wrong”), & Forgiveness of Situations (e.g., I eventually make peace with bad situations in my life”). Participants responded on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (“almost always false of me”) to 7 (“almost always true of me”). The HFS has demonstrated positive correlations with other forgiveness scales and has demonstrated good internal consistency
(α=.87) (Thompson et al., 2005). A total scale score was calculated from the 18-items, including reverse scored items. The HFS has also been validated among diverse populations and has demonstrated good construct validity (Bugay & Demir, 2010).
Patience. Patience was measured with the 3-Factor Patience Scale (3-FPS,
Schnitker, 2012). The scale is comprised of eleven items measuring three types of patience: Interpersonal (e.g., “My friends would say I’m a very patient friend”), Life hardships (e.g., “I am able to wait out tough times”), and Daily hassles (e.g., “ In general 29 waiting in lines does not bother me”). The measure has demonstrated adequate to good internal reliability (α=.66-.80) (Schnitker, 2012). Scores on the 3-FPS have also demonstrated moderate to high correlations with other measures of patience such as the
PS-10 scale (Schnitker and Emmons, 2007). A composite score of participants’ overall score of patience was calculated from a summation of all items, including reverse scored items.
Social desirability. In order to control for socially desirable responses among
Muslims, a short form of the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (MCSDS;
Reynolds, 1982) was employed in the current study. The shortened measure has five items examining social desirability (e.g., “No matter whom I am talking to, I am always a good listener”). Participants indicated whether items were true or false for them. The
MCSDS has exhibited good internal consistency (α=.87) and test-retest reliability
(Reynolds, 1982). A total score was obtained from all items, including reverse scored items.
Demographic questionnaire. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire. The items provided further information on participants’ gender, age, religious/spiritual tradition, race/ethnicity, place of birth, relationship status, years of residence in the United States, and proficiency of their English language.
Data Analysis
Bivariate correlations and linear regression analyses were conducted to examine associations and predictions between variables.
Results Descriptive Statistics 30
Frequency and descriptive statistics for the demographics and main variables were examined for the MTurk and community samples. Participants were asked to skip any questions they may feel uncomfortable answering. The ability to skip items resulted in increased missing data and lower sample sizes for various variables, particularly within the community sample. Steps towards data validity were taken by eliminating participant responses reporting no current moral struggles and/or responding in incomprehensible ways to qualitative items (MTurk, N = 39; Community, N = 12). Preliminary analyses were performed to examine any violations of the assumptions of normality. No violations of normality were observed within the MTurk sample. However, violations of normality were observed for the Spiritual Decline, Islamic Religiousness, Divine Struggles,
Demonic Struggles, Ultimate Meaning Struggles, and Gratitude variables within the community sample (Table 1). Participants in this sample reported low levels of spiritual decline, divine struggles, demonic struggles, and ultimate meaning struggles. In addition, they endorsed high levels of Islamic religiousness and traits of gratitude. Data were transformed using square root transformation analyses to address non-normal distributions. Table 2 provides descriptive statistics (M, SD, range) for the demographics.
Both samples were comprised mostly of Middle Eastern participants, with the average age for both samples being in the range of early thirties to mid thirties. The participants in the MTurk sample revealed a larger percent of U.S.-born participants compared to the community sample, in addition to participants identifying as single. Participants in both samples had the greatest percentage of native speakers, followed by advanced English speakers in terms of their language proficiency. 31
Table 3 provides descriptive statistics for the main variables. T-test analyses, after a Bonferroni correction, to correct for multiple comparisons, indicated significant differences between samples for average scores of spiritual jihad mindset, daily spiritual experiences, deadly sins, forgiveness, gratitude, Islamic religiousness, life satisfaction, religious and spiritual struggles, spiritual growth, and spiritual decline. In comparison to those in the MTurk sample, participants in the community sample endorsed higher levels of incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset when approaching struggles. Similarly, they reported greater religiosity and closeness with God. The participants in the community sample were also significantly more likely to endorse dispositions toward forgiveness and gratitude. Similarly, the community sample members reported significantly higher levels of life satisfaction and lower levels of total religious and spiritual struggles when compared with the participants in the MTurk sample. Finally, the community sample participants were more likely to indicate lower levels of spiritual decline. No significant differences between samples were found for anxiety, depression, patience, positive religious coping, vices, spiritual growth, post-traumatic growth scores, and social desirability.
Exploratory Factor Analysis
All sixteen items from the Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure (MTurk sample) were entered into an exploratory factor analysis using maximum likelihood extraction and direct oblimin rotation. The direct oblimin rotation was chosen because the various items were expected to be correlated. The factor outcome was determined by the number of factors presented with eigenvalues greater than 1, in addition to any theoretical considerations. For this initial factor analysis, three factors emerged as a result of having 32 an eigenvalue greater than one. Examination of the factor loadings revealed one item that had a factor loading less than .40 (i.e., “I believe this struggle is ultimately weakening my faith”). This item was dropped and the remaining fifteen items were entered into another exploratory factor analysis. Results from the subsequent analysis revealed two factors, explaining 55% of the variance. Conceptually, the suggested two-factor solution corresponded with endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset and not endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset, respectively. Table 5 shows eigenvalues, percent of variance explained, and the pattern matrix with all items and factor loadings. Overall, the factor analytic results were supportive of the theoretical framework proposed in the development of the measure, although the two-factor solution was not anticipated. A factor analysis was not conducted with the community sample data due to a small sample size.
Internal Consistency
Results from the factor analysis were used to generate subscales. Estimates of
Cronbach’s alpha were calculated for the factor analytically derived subscales. The
Endorsing a Spiritual Jihad Mindset subscale revealed excellent internal consistency
(α=.91). The Not Endorsing a Spiritual Jihad Mindset subscale revealed good internal consistency (α=.83). With both subscales combined, the Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure revealed excellent internal consistency (α=.90). Many of the analyses below will be examined in reference to the two subscales and the total combined score.
Hypotheses Set (1): Spiritual Jihad, Perceived Closeness with God, and Islamic
Religiousness
The relationship between Islamic religiousness, perceived closeness with God, and a spiritual jihad mindset was investigated using Pearson correlation coefficients 33 within the MTurk sample. In line with predictions, results revealed significant positive correlations between incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset and Islamic religiousness.
Similarly, incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset was positively associated with a greater perceived closeness with God (Table 6). Similar results were found among participants in the community sample. Table 6 displays correlations between main variables and a spiritual jihad mindset in regards to both subscales and the combined total measure for both samples. A simultaneous regression analysis was conducted to evaluate how well
Islamic religiousness (β = .35, p < .001) and perceived closeness (β = .36, p < .001) with
God predicted participants’ endorsement of a spiritual jihad mindset within the MTurk sample. A significant regression equation was found F (2, 264) = 109.13, p < .001, with an R2 of .45. Similarly, a significant regression equation was observed, F (2, 264) =
101.00, p < .001, with an R2 of .43, for how well Islamic religiousness (β = .37, p < .001) and perceived closeness with God (β = .33, p < .001) predicted participants’ combined spiritual jihad mindset score. Both Islamic religiousness and closeness with God were significant predictors of having a spiritual jihad mindset, providing satisfactory support for hypotheses.
Similar results were found within the community sample. A significant regression equation was found F (2, 49) = 22.56, p < .001, with an R2 of .49, indicating that the two predictor model of Islamic religiousness (β = .35, p < .05) and perceived Closeness with
God (β = .44, p < .005) was able to account for 49% of the variance in endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset among the community sample. Both Islamic religiousness and closeness with God were significant predictors of having a spiritual jihad mindset also in the community sample. 34
Partial correlation was used to explore the relationship between Islamic religiousness and endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset, while controlling for scores on the
Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale within the MTurk sample. There was a strong, positive, partial correlation between Islamic religiousness and having endorsing spiritual jihad mindset, controlling for social desirability, r (264) = .62, p < .001. Similar results were found between Islamic religiousness and participants’ combined spiritual jihad mindset score, r (264) = .61, p < .001. An inspection of the zero-order correlation between endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset and Islamic religiousness suggested that controlling for socially desirable responding had very little effect on the strength of the relationship between the two variables. Similar results were obtained from the community sample. There was a strong, positive, partial correlation between Islamic religiousness and endorsing spiritual jihad mindset, controlling for social desirability, r =
.62, n = 43, p < .001.
Hypotheses Set (2): Spiritual Jihad, Religious Coping, Struggle Engagement
Relationships between a spiritual jihad mindset and various forms of positive religious coping (as measured by subscales of the RCOPE) were investigated using
Pearson correlation coefficients (see Table 7). As expected, there were moderate to strong, positive correlations between incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset and positive religious coping subscales, with high levels of a spiritual jihad mindset associated with higher levels of all forms of positive religious coping within both the MTurk and community samples, indicating strong support for proposed hypotheses. Similar results were found in regards to participants’ combined spiritual jihad mindset scores. On the other hand, not endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset was significantly negatively correlated 35 with all forms of positive religious coping within both samples. Table 7 displays correlations for all of the positive religious coping and spiritual jihad mindset subscales.
Incorporating high a spiritual jihad mindset was significantly associated with higher levels of effortful engagement with the struggle in the MTurk sample, but not in the community sample (Table 6), indicating partial support for the hypothesis.
Hypotheses Set (3): Spiritual Jihad, Growth, and Decline
The relationship between a spiritual jihad mindset and post-traumatic growth was investigated using Pearson correlation coefficient. As expected, moderate positive significant correlations were found for both the MTurk sample and the community sample (Table 6). The relationship between a spiritual jihad mindset and spiritual decline was investigated using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient among the
MTurk sample. As expected, a significant moderate, negative correlation was found
(Table 6). Similarly, not endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset was positively associated with spiritual decline. Though negative in direction, a significant correlation was not found within the community sample between one’s spiritual jihad mindset scores and spiritual decline (Table 6).
A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to assess the ability of endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset to predict spiritual growth after controlling for the influence of Islamic religiousness within the MTurk sample. Endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset was found to explain additional unique variance in spiritual growth (β = .46, p <
.001, after controlling for Islamic religiousness (Table 8). In the final model, both measures of Islamic religiousness and spiritual jihad mindset were statistically significant. Likewise, with the community sample, endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset 36 was statistically significant (β = .57, p < .001) in explaining unique variance in spiritual growth (Table 9). Similar results were found when examining the prediction of post- traumatic growth. Endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset (β = .45, p < .001), was found to explain additional unique variance in post-traumatic growth after controlling for Islamic religiousness within the members of the MTurk sample (Table10). Participants in the community sample also displayed similar results in regards to having a spiritual jihad mindset (β = .60, p < .001) in predicting post-traumatic growth, when controlling for
Islamic religiousness (Table11). Tables 8-11 display a summary of hierarchical regression analysis results for the both samples.
Hypotheses Set (4): Spiritual Jihad, Psychological Well-Being, and Life Satisfaction
Partial correlations were used to explore the relationships between spiritual jihad mindset and symptoms of anxiety and depression, while controlling for scores of Islamic religiousness within the MTurk sample. There was a negative, significant partial correlation between having a spiritual jihad mindset and anxiety, controlling for Islamic religiousness (Table 12). Similarly, there was a negative, significant partial correlation between having a spiritual jihad mindset and depression, controlling for Islamic religiousness (Table 12). Similar negative correlations were found among the community sample; however, results were not significant due to lower levels of statistical power in this smaller sample. No significant correlations were found between incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset and endorsing life satisfaction among either sample.
Hypotheses Set (5): Spiritual Jihad and Religious/Spiritual Struggles
Pearson product-moment correlations were conducted to explore the relationship between spiritual jihad mindset and religious and spiritual struggles. As hypothesized, 37 results indicated significant moderate, negative correlations between participants’ combined spiritual jihad mindset score and the various subscales of the RSS (Divine,
Demonic, Interpersonal, Moral, Ultimate Meaning, and Doubt, as presented in Table 13).
When specifically examining endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset subscale in relation to the various RSS subscales, correlations were less consistently significant across the subscales; correlations with the Demonic and Moral struggles subscales did not retain their significance. All of the RSS subscales were significantly positively correlated with not endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset. Contrary to predictions, however, no significant relationships were found between incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset and religious and spiritual struggles when examining results from the community sample (Table 13).
Strikingly, the moral, demonic, and divine subscales were found to be associated with a spiritual jihad mindset in opposite directions.
Hypotheses Set (6): Spiritual Jihad, Virtues, and Vices
The relationship between a spiritual jihad mindset and deadly sins was investigated using Pearson correlation coefficients with the MTurk sample (Table 14).
Though the associations were weak, results revealed negative, significant correlations between one’s combined spiritual jihad mindset score and deadly sins such as lust, anger, gluttony, and melancholy. No significant associations with a spiritual jihad mindset were found in relation to pride, greed, and envy. On the contrary, not endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset was positively associated with all of the subscales of the Deadly Sins Scale.
No significant correlations were found within the community sample, indicating a lack of support for hypotheses. Furthermore, the relationship between a spiritual jihad mindset and virtuous behaviors such as patience, forgiveness, and gratitude was investigated 38 using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient with the MTurk sample. Results revealed significant, positive correlations between all virtues, patience, forgiveness, and gratitude (Table 15) and incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset, thereby providing support for hypotheses. Similarly, significant negative correlations were demonstrated between not endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset and all virtues, patience, forgiveness, and gratitude. Contrary to predictions, no significant correlations were found within the community sample.
Discussion
The goal of the present study was to investigate the process of approaching moral struggles with a spiritual jihad mindset among Muslims living in the United States, and the outcomes associated with incorporating such a mindset. One aim was to create a new, fifteen-item measure to assess the construct of spiritual jihad, the Spiritual Jihad Mindset
Measure (SJMM). Participants were obtained from two samples: an online platform
(MTurk) and a community sample. The following sections will examine key findings of the current study, in addition to research and practical implications, and limitations and directions for future research.
Key Findings
The results of the current study provided preliminary support for the Spiritual
Jihad Mindset Measure. An exploratory factor analysis revealed a two-factor solution
(Endorsing SJ Mindset, Not Endorsing SJ Mindset) which provided further evidence for the underlying theoretical framework of the current study. Estimates of Cronbach’s alpha demonstrated good to excellent internal consistency for both subscales, Endorsing SJ
Mindset, Not Endorsing SJ Mindset (.91 and .83 respectively). Examining the measure, 39 the two subscales and the total combined scale seemed to provide similar meaningful results regarding associations. Though the researcher analyzed all three possible outcomes, future research may want to consider using the scale as a single scale; not only was internal consistency good using this method, but use of both the Endorsing SJ and
Not Endorsing SJ items may help to work against response bias.
Furthermore, the findings of the present study revealed Islamic religiousness and the perception of a close relationship with God to both be significant predictors of incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset when Muslims may face moral struggles, even when controlling for social desirability. The findings were significant in both the MTurk and the community sample, providing support for the proposed hypotheses. The association between greater degrees of religiosity and perceived closeness with God, in relation to approaching struggles with a spiritual jihad mindset may add validity to the construct of spiritual jihad, which implies a conscious effort in striving to become a more devout Muslim by working against the temptations and desires of the nafs. Hence, a level of religiosity and closeness with God was expected among participants endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset.
Furthermore, the results indicated that Muslims in both samples who endorsed higher levels of a spiritual jihad mindset were more likely to make use of positive religious coping. For example, they were more likely to see stressors as beneficial for them or view stressors as part of God’s plan. Along similar lines, Muslims with a spiritual jihad mindset were more likely to turn towards religion and spirituality when coping with their stressors. Not endorsing a spiritual jihad mindset was also negatively 40 associated with positive religious coping among Muslims in both samples. The findings provided strong support for the hypotheses in the current study.
From an Islamic perspective, such findings may imply that Muslims who incorporate a spiritual jihad mindset in relation to their religious and spiritual struggles may be more likely to use religious methods such as, for example, prayer (du’aa), repentance (tawba), and remembrance of God (dhikr) in initiating the behavioral and action components of their spiritual jihad journey. Such findings are in line with prior literature suggesting that practicing Muslims are more likely to engage in religious practice upon distressful events in comparison to prior to distressful events (Abu-Raiya,
Pargament, & Mahoney, 2011).
Participants in the MTurk sample who endorsed greater levels of a spiritual jihad mindset were also more likely to report greater effort and engagement toward their experienced struggles. The findings are in line with the foundations of the construct of spiritual jihad, which implies constant exertion dedicated towards bettering oneself in working against the desires and temptations of the nafs. Prior research with predominantly Christian samples has revealed similar results, indicating that greater engagement with religious and spiritual beliefs is associated with a more positive relationship with God (Hall & Edwards, 2002) and responding to struggles in more beneficial ways (Exline et al., 2016). Nevertheless, it is important to note that the significant association between a spiritual jihad mindset and engagement with struggles was not found among participants in the community sample. The difference in results perhaps may be indicative of a need to measure Muslims’ effort and engagement with struggles in a more thorough manner. The researcher used only one question to assess 41 such constructs, which may have failed to capture a more comprehensive and specific understanding of effort and engagement in the face of struggles.
A further key finding was that Muslims in both samples who were more likely to incorporate a spiritual jihad mindset when faced with moral struggles also reported greater levels of spiritual and post-traumatic growth. More importantly, the results remained significant even after controlling for Islamic religiousness, implying that a spiritual jihad mindset may be contributing additional unique variance in Muslim’s perceived spiritual and post-traumatic growth experiences. Although the research on the relationship between r/s struggles and growth is mixed, the current findings add preliminary evidence to proposed suggestions in the literature that the actual response to the r/s struggle, rather than the struggle itself, may be what predicts spiritual growth or decline (Exline & Rose, 2013; Exline et al., 2016). Similar results emerged in regards to the association between a spiritual jihad mindset and perceived spiritual decline. As expected, Muslims in the MTurk sample who were more likely to endorse a spiritual jihad mindset were also less likely to endorse perceived spiritual decline. However, this relationship was not found within the participants in the community sample. The results may suggest that Muslims in the community sample who reported greater levels of having a spiritual jihad mindset may perhaps experience a sense of decline in their religious/spiritual life due to experiencing such struggles, and perhaps feel that they would not be experiencing such struggles were their faith stronger.
In terms of mental health outcomes, results revealed negative associations between participants’ scores on the Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and their levels of anxious and depressive symptoms, as expected, within the MTurk sample. However, 42 these results should be interpreted with caution and will need further investigation, as the associations were weak, and no significant correlations were found within the community sample. These findings suggest that perhaps the struggle itself that Muslims are experiencing may be associated with distress. For example, though Muslims may approach struggles with a spiritual jihad mindset, they may continue to experience some level of distress in striving towards working against their nafs’ desires and temptations.
In addition, another striking result was in regards to the lack of association between incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset and self-reported life satisfaction.
Contrary to what was anticipated, no significant results were found within either sample.
Perhaps living a life in which one makes great effort to go against certain desires can at times be associated with lower satisfaction with one’s life conditions. Results regarding religious and spiritual struggles were in line with expectations. Muslims in the MTurk samples who were more likely to approach struggles with a spiritual jihad mindset were less likely to report experiencing divine, demonic, interpersonal, moral, ultimate meaning, and doubt-related religious and spiritual struggles. Nevertheless, when examining the RSS subscales in relation with the Endorsing Spiritual Jihad Mindset subscale, correlations were not as strong and some associations even became non- significant (demonic and moral). In addition, the results were not supported with the community sample. Such findings partially support the notion that a spiritual jihad mindset may buffer against general struggles in relation to religion and spirituality.
Similarly, the results may also imply that Muslims who endorse greater levels of a spiritual jihad mindset may be experiencing r/s struggles that may be more nuanced in nature and may not be captured by a scale examining more broad r/s struggles. On the 43 other hand, struggles that revealed opposite associations than predicted (divine, demonic, and moral) may be indicative of the presence of struggles that Muslims who incorporate a spiritual jihad mindset may be experiencing when aiming to live a more devout life.
However, due to inconsistency in outcomes, the results should be considered preliminary.
The pattern of results in regards to vices were also less consistent. While certain vices such as lust, anger, gluttony, and melancholy were negatively correlated with a spiritual jihad mindset within the MTurk sample, others such as pride, greed, and envy were not found to have an association. In addition, no significant correlations emerged within the community sample, providing a lack of support for the proposed hypothesis.
However, Muslims who were more likely to endorse a spiritual jihad mindset were found to also endorse greater levels of virtue traits such as gratitude, patience, and forgiveness.
Such findings may add evidence to the construct of spiritual jihad as it promotes Muslims to behave in virtuous manners that are promoted in Islam in working towards developing a stronger relationship with God. Nevertheless, these findings were only significant within the MTurk sample. Perhaps the lack of associations within the community sample may be a result of devout Muslims portraying greater humility when inquired about virtues. On the other hand, these Muslims may be more likely to be honest regarding their negative inclinations or be more aware of their lower-self tendencies due to potentially having very high moral standards. Nevertheless, further analyses and different measures will be required for future hypotheses.
Implications for Research and Practice
The proposed new construct of spiritual jihad and associated findings in the present study have noteworthy implications for both research and practice. First and 44 foremost, the construct of spiritual jihad is one that has never been studied in the field of psychology to this date. As a result of the current study, researchers can begin to learn more about not only Islamic spirituality, but also the emerging field of Islamic
Psychology in a quantifiable manner. The Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure demonstrated good to excellent internal consistency for both of its subscales, in addition to the combined subscale version of the measure. In addition, by correlating with variables such as Islamic religiousness, perceived closeness with God, spiritual growth, post-traumatic growth, forgiveness, patience, and gratitude, the measure shows preliminary evidence of validity for future use. Second, though the researcher recognizes that the term jihad was not included within the measure itself, the study may begin to highlight the importance of a more positive and beneficial understanding of the term jihad, a term that can often be misunderstood by non-Muslims and/or Muslims practicing in fundamental and extremist manners. Third, the results indicate the importance of religious beliefs and practices among Muslims, specifically within community members. The practice of spiritual jihad can be brought to attention within the therapeutic setting when working with Muslim clients who may identify themselves as practicing. This may specifically be important for practicing Muslims experiencing struggles related to their religion and spirituality.
Fourth, the findings of the study add further evidence that struggles do not necessarily always result in negative psychological outcomes. In fact, in some circumstances they may actually be associated with perceived growth. Finally, the results from the current study imply similarities between Muslims and other faith traditions as comparable findings have also been found with other religious groups such as Christians (Saritoprak
& Exline, 2017). Further similar constructs may be researched with Christians and other 45 groups residing in the United States. Though Islam may be unique and distinct in certain beliefs and practices, it also shares great overlap with other traditions, specifically
Abrahamic traditions, which may open doors for greater cross-cultural research of theory and practice.
Limitations and Future Directions
It is important to note several limitations of the current study. First, the researcher aimed at developing a self-report measure of spiritual jihad, in addition to evaluating the newly developed measure’s reliability and validity psychometrics. Self-report measures have limitations such as participants responding in biased ways, participants lacking introspective ability to respond accurately, and participants interpreting items in unintended manners. Second, the construct of spiritual jihad has never been measured prior to the current study. Hence, the reported findings are preliminary and should be interpreted with caution. Third, the presented data were cross-sectional. Hence, results do not indicate any causal inferences regarding the construct of spiritual jihad. In future research, it will be important to conduct research regarding Muslims and spiritual jihad with longitudinal analyses. Fourth, the community sample was local and smaller than intended, which most likely impacted the findings within the group. Subsequent studies should focus on gathering larger samples from the community, in addition to gathering clinical samples to investigate the role of spiritual jihad among Muslims seeking mental health treatment. Fifth, it is important that future research focus on more refined and nuanced research questions such as “How different is spiritual jihad from religion and spirituality?”, “Do all individuals identifying religion and spirituality as important engage in spiritual jihad?, and “What are more specific factors that predict incorporating a 46 spiritual jihad mindset?” Finally, future studies that utilize different research methods such as qualitative analyses can provide further tests of the hypotheses considered here.
47
Table 1
Skewness, Kurtosis, and Standard Error for Community Sample Raw Transformed Skewness Kurtosis (SE) Skewness (SE) Kurtosis (SE) (SE) Spiritual Decline 1.58 (.30) 2.71 (.60) .83 (.30) -.44. (.60)
Islamic
Religiousness -1.69 (.32) 4.07 (.63) -.62 (.32) .57 (.63)
Divine
Struggles 2.36 (.33) 5.73 (.63) 2.15 (.33) 4.33 (.63)
Demonic
Struggles 1.97 (.33) 3.41 (.64) 1.78 (.33) 2.80 (.64)
Ultimate
Meaning 1.81 (.33) 2.89 (.64) 1.50 (.33) 1.51 (.64) Struggles
Gratitude
-1.55 (.34) 2.17 (.66) -.73 (.34) -.16 (.66)
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Table 2
Descriptive Statistics for Demographics Community MTurk
N = 74 N = 280
Age 35 31 Mean 14.4 9.2 SD 19-77 18-65 Range
Gender Female 50 (68%) 131 (46%) Male 24 (32%) 130 (47%) Transgender Female 0 (0%) 9 (3.2%) Transgender Male 0 (0%) 9 (3.2%)
Race/Ethnicity Middle Eastern 27 (37%) 131 (47%) White/Caucasian/European American 19 (26% 54 (19%) Indian 13 (18%) 27 (10%) African American/Black 6 (8%) 28 (10%) Asian/ Pacific Islander 6 (8%) 13 (5%) Latino/Hispanic 0 (0%) 5 (2%)
U.S. Born Yes 37(50%) 233 (83%) No 37(50%) 47 (16%)
Relationship Status Single 29 (39%) 146 (52%) Married 44 (60%) 77 (28%) Living w/ Romantic Partner 1 (1%) 26 (9%) Engaged 0 (0%) 15 (5%) Separated/Divorced 1 (1%) 2 (.7) Widowed 0 (0%) 3 (1%)
Years in U.S. 20+ years 46 (62%) 210 (75%) 11-15 years 2 (3%) 25 (9%) 16-20 years 7 (10%) 20 (7%) 6-10 years 8 (11%) 18 (6%) 0-5 years 11 (15%) 8 (3%)
English Proficiency 49
Beginner 0 (0%) 7 (3%) Native 40 (54%) 197 (70%) Advanced 31 (42%) 58 (21%) Intermediate 3 (4%) 18 (6%)
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Table 3
Descriptive Statistics for Main Variables MTurk Community Sig.
Anxiety M(SD)(Range) 14.00(5.3) (7-28) 13.40 (5.1) (7-28) p = .441 Depression
M(SD)(Range) 21.30(5.7) (10-36) 19.89(4.2) (12-30) p = .089
Daily Spiritual Experiences M(SD)(Range) 4.08(1.3)(1-6) 4.74(1.0)(1-6) *p = .001 Deadly Sins
M(SD)(Range) 3.63(1.1)(1-6) 3.18(.7)(2-5) p = .008 Forgiveness
M(SD)(Range) 81.63(16.0)(47-126) 89.08(13.1)(65-118) *p = .002 Gratitude
M(SD)(Range) 29.70(6.9)(11-42) 38.04(4.4)(23-42) *p < .001 Islamic Religiousness
M(SD)(Range) 3.34(.8)(1-5) 3.83(.6)(1-5) *p < .001 Patience
M(SD)(Range) 39.34(7.6)(17-55) 40.83(6.5)(30-55) p = .200
Post-Traumatic Growth
M(SD)(Range) 2.74(.7)(1-4) 2.90(.6)(1-4) p = .148 Life Satisfaction
M(SD)(Range) 21.50(7.0)(5-35) 24.82(5.1)(13-34) *p = .001 Positive Religious Coping
M(SD)(Range) 2.70(.81)(1-4) 2.88(.73)(1-4) p = .094 Religious/Spiritual Struggles
M(SD)(Range) 3.27(1.0)(2-6) 2.60(.6)(2-4) *p < .001
Spiritual Jihad
Mindset(Combined) 5.92(2.0)(1-10) 7.68(1.9)(3-10) *p < .001 M(SD)(Range) Spiritual Growth
M(SD)(Range) 4.43(1.6)(1-7) 5.00(1.5)(1-7) p = .015 Spiritual Decline
M(SD)(Range) 3.61(1.7)(1-7) 2.10(1.2)(1-6) *p < .001 51
Social Desirability
M(SD)(Range) 7.90(1.5)(5-10) 8.22(1.1)(5-10) p =.140 *Significance based on Bonferroni correction (p = .003).
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Table 4
Internal Consistency for Main Measures MTurk Community Alpha Alpha Religious Coping (RCOPE) Subscales Religious Focus .80 .85 Religious Purification .83 .85 Spiritual Connection .85 .86 Benevolent Religious Appraisal .87 .85 Active Religious Surrender .87 .95 Spiritual Support .87 .92 Religious Forgiving .85 .97
Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory .89 .88
Spiritual Transformation Scale Spiritual Growth .87 .82
Spiritual Decline .86 .80 Psychology Measure of Islamic .87 .96 Religiousness .65 Beliefs Dimension .83
Practices Dimension .95 .97
Ethical Conduct-Do Dimension .88 .90
Ethical Conduct-Do Not Dimension .86 .71 Islamic Universality Dimension Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale .97 .93
Satisfaction with Life Scale .90 .82
Anxiety (GAD-7) .92 .89
Depression (CES-D-10) .81 .62
Religious and Spiritual Struggles Subscales .91 Divine .80 .91 .90 Demonic .89 .70 Interpersonal Moral .86 .82
Ultimate Meaning .89 .85
Doubt .92 .89 Deadly Sins Scale Subscales Pride .70 .48 Greed .65 .54 Lust .86 .67 Anger .87 .71 53
Gluttony .78 .74 Envy .64 .33 Melancholy .79 .62 The Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ-6) .78 .76 Heartland Forgiveness Scale .86 .84 3-Factor Patience Scale .87 .84
54
Table 5
Summary of Exploratory Factor Analysis Results for the Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure Using Maximum Likelihood Extraction (MTurk Sample, N = 280) ______Factor Loadings and Descriptive Statistics Endorse SJ Not Endorse SJ Mindset Mindset Eigenvalue 6.08 2.17 % of Variance 41% 15% Alpha .91 .83
Items1
I have been thinking of my struggle as a test that .78 -.03 will make me closer to Allah.
I have been thinking of my struggle as a desire .57 .09 of my nafs (soul/self) that I must work against.
I see the struggle as an opportunity to pray and .76 .01 ask Allah for guidance.
I believe that through this struggle my iman .75 -.06 (faith) will become stronger.
I have been thinking of my struggle as a trial .75 -.09 through which I will become a better Muslim.
I view the struggle as means of earning more .71 .11 thawab (good deeds) for the afterlife.
I tend to think that the struggle is for my best .72 .03 interest because Allah is al-Alim (All-Knowing).
55
I believe the struggle is a way in which I can .56 -.03 understand my imperfect nature.
I know that there is khair (good) in the struggle because there is khair (good) in everything Allah .64 -.16 does.
The struggle is an opportunity for me to seeks .67 -.08 Allah’s forgiveness.
I do not view the struggle as means to become -.15 .57 closer to Allah.
There is no place for Islam in my struggle. .03 .73
The struggle has no meaning for me. .10 .61
Allah plays no role in my struggle. -.01 .69
I do not see the struggle as part of my spiritual -.12 .60 growth.
1 Boldfaced text indicates items assigned to each factor.
56
Table 6
Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Main Variables
Endorsing SJ Not Endorsing SJ Combined MTurk(N=275) Community (N=53)MTurk(N=275) Community (N=53) MTurk(N=275) Community (N=53) Daily Spiritual
Experiences .49** .63** .63** .63** -.30** -.40**
Islamic
Religiousness .63** .62** -.32** -.47** .62** .61**
Struggle Engagement .33** .09 -.15* .13 .31** .05
Anxiety
-.08 .04 .16** -.16 -.15* .08
Depression
-.06 .16 .16** -.12 -.12* .18
Spiritual
Growth .58** .63** -.26** -.30** .52** .61**
Spiritual
Decline -.29** .01 .35** .04 -.19** -.01
Post-Traumatic
Growth -.16* -.30* .49** .48** .54** .48**
Life
Satisfaction .10 .13 .09 .14 -.07 -.03
*p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
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Table 7
Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Forms of Positive Religious Coping
Endorsing SJ Not Endorsing SJ Combined MTurk(N=274) Community (N=63) MTurk(N=274) Community (N=63) MTurk(N=274) Community (N=63) Spiritual
Connection .62** .69** Coping .64** .71** -.32** -.50**
Benevolent
Religious .55** .69** -.27** -.41** Appraisal .53** .65** Copi
Active Religious Surrender .55** .58** -.26** -.35** .63** .55** Coping
Spiritual
Support .64** .66** -.37** -.50** .65** .65** Coping
Religious
Forgiving .56** .64** -.25** -.35** .54** .60** Coping
Religious
Focus .52** .57** -.26** -.34** .52** .53** Coping
Religious
Purification .54** .45** -.27** -.22** Coping .55** .51**
*p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
58
Table 8
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Spiritual Jihad Mindset Predicting Spiritual Growth after Controlling for Islamic Religiousness (MTurk Sample, N =265) Model 1 Model 2
Variable B SE β B SE β
Islamic Religiousness .96 .11 .49** .06 .02 .19** Endorsing SJ Mindset .13 .02 .46** R2 .24 .36 R2 Change .13 F for change in R2 74.70** *p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
59
Table 9
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Spiritual Jihad Mindset Predicting Spiritual Growth after Controlling for Islamic Religiousness (Community Sample, N =52) Model 1 Model 2
Variable B SE β B SE β
Islamic Religiousness 1.60 .46 .43** .29 .53 .07 Endorsing SJ Mindset 1 .6 .40 .57** R2 .19 .38 R2 Change .20 F for change in R2 15.17** *p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
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Table 10
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Spiritual Jihad Mindset Predicting Post-Traumatic Growth after Controlling for Islamic Religiousness (MTurk Sample, N=265) Model 1 Model 2
Variable B SE β B SE β
Islamic Religiousness 4.81 .62 .43** 1.67 .74 .15** Endorsing SJ Mindset 1.80 .26 .45** R2 .19 .31 R2 Change .12 F for change in R2 58.11** *p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
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Table 11
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Spiritual Jihad Mindset Predicting Post-Traumatic Growth after Controlling for Islamic Religiousness (Community Sample, N=51) Model 1 Model 2
Variable B SE β B SE β
Islamic Religiousness .09 .05 .25 -.04 .05 -.13 Endorsing SJ Mindset 15 .04 .60** R2 .04 .27 R2 Change .21 F for change in R2 9.17** *p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
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Table 12
Partial Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure, Depressive Symptoms, and Anxiety, Controlling for Islamic Religiousness
Endorsing SJ Not Endorsing SJ Combined MTurk(N=273) Community (N=45) MTurk(N=274) Community (N=45) MTurk(N=274) Community (N=45) Depressive
Symptoms -.20** .01 -.11 -.01 .18** .04
Anxiety
-.13* -.13 .17** -.02 -.21** -.09 . *p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
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Table 13
Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Religious and Spiritual Struggles
Endorsing SJ Not Endorsing SJ Combined MTurk(N=272) Community (N=53) MTurk (N=272) Community (N=53) MTurk(N=272) Community (N=53) Divine
Struggles -.36** .05 -.23** .02 .42** .10
Demonic
Struggles -.06 .12 .29** .05 -.17** .11
Interpersonal Struggles -.21** -.27 -.21** -.33* .38** -.07
Moral
Struggles -.07 .13 .22** .17 -.15* .16
Ultimate
Meaning -.22** -.07 .41** .01 -.33** -.05 Struggles
Doubt
Struggles -.23** -.13 .38** .08 -.34** -.08
Total R/S
Struggles -.33** -.02 -.20** -.01 .41** .08
*p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
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Table 14
Partial Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Vices
Endorsing SJ Not Endorsing SJ Combined MTurk(N=267) Community (N=48) MTurk(N=267) Community (N=48) MTurk(N=267) Community (N=48) Pride
.06 -.09 .14* -.16 .15* .12
Greed
.12* .28 .22* .02 .03 .21 . Lust
-.14* .19 .40** .11 -.24** .18
Anger
-.10 -.01 .27** .09 -.18** .02
Envy
.03 .13 .22** .19 -.06 .16
Melancholy
-.19* -.02 .30** -.07 -.28** -.03 . Gluttony
-.06 .19 .31** .11 -.17** .17 . Total
-.03 .15 .35** .12 -.17** .15 . *p < 0.05 (2-tailed) **p < 0.01 (2-tailed)
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Table 15
Partial Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure and Virtues
Endorsing SJ Not Endorsing SJ Combined MTurk(N=272) Community (N=48) MTurk(N=272) Community (N=48) MTurk(N=272) Community (N=48) Patience
.43** -.10 .39** -.08 -.21** -.11
Forgiveness
.27** .10 -.21** .03 .32** .09 . Gratitude
.40** -.04 -.32** .13 .47** .01
**p < 0.01 (2-tailed) *p < 0.05 (2-tailed)
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Close relationship with God
Spiritual Jihad Mindset
Islamic Religiousness
Figure 1. A stronger relationship with God and greater Islamic religiousness will be predictive of incorporating a spiritual jihad mindset. The arrows represent significant positive relationships.
Positive Religious Coping
Spiritual Jihad Mindset
Engagement with Struggle
Figure 2. A spiritual jihad mindset will be associated with greater use of positive religious coping and engagement with struggle. The arrows represent significant positive relationships.
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Growth
Spiritual Jihad Mindset
Life Satisfaction
Figure 3. A greater incorporation of a spiritual jihad mindset will be associated with greater levels of spiritual/post-traumatic growth and life satisfaction. The arrows represent significant positive relationships.
Patience
Spiritual Jihad Forgiveness Mindset
Gratitude
Figure 4. A greater incorporation of a spiritual jihad mindset will be associated with greater endorsement of patience, forgiveness, and gratitude related traits. The arrows represent significant positive relationships.
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Depression
Anxiety
Spiritual Jihad
Mindset R/S Struggles
Vices
Decline
Figure 5. A greater incorporation of a spiritual jihad mindset will be associated with lower levels of depression, anxiety, general r/s struggles, vices, and spiritual decline. The arrows represent significant negative relationships.
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Appendices
Appendix A- Spiritual Jihad Mindset Measure
Think of a type of moral struggle you have experienced or are currently experiencing in life, how did/do you view the struggle you experienced/are experiencing?
Strongly Disagree Disagree Somewhat Disagree Neither Somewhat Agree Agree Strongly Agree
The following items are examples of moral struggles: • I want to do more positive things, however, I’m having trouble doing them (e.g. praying the recommended prayer, tahajjud; becoming more conscious of Allah) • I’m struggling with the temptation to do something wrong (e.g. engaging in sexual desires; skipping my prayers; eating unhealthy) • I’m feeling guilty because I have done something wrong. • I’m having trouble telling what is morally wrong and right.
1. I have been thinking of my struggle as a test that will make me closer to Allah.
2. I have been thinking of my struggle as a desire of my nafs (soul/self) that I must work against.
3. I see the struggle as an opportunity to pray and ask Allah for guidance.
4. I believe that through this struggle, my iman (faith) will become stronger.
5. I have been thinking of my struggle as a trial through which I will become a better Muslim.
6. I view the struggle as means of earning more thawāb (good deeds) for the afterlife.
7. I know that there is khair (good) in the struggle because there is khair (good) in everything Allah does.
8. The struggle is an opportunity for me to seek Allah’s forgiveness.
9. I tend to think that the struggle is for my best interest because Allah is al-Alim (All-Knowing).
10. I believe that the struggle is a way in which I can understand my imperfect human nature.
11. I do not see the struggle as part of my spiritual growth (reverse). 70
12. The struggle has no meaning for me (reverse).
13. There is no place for Islam in my struggle(reverse).
14. I do not view the struggle as means to become closer to Allah (reverse).
15. Allah plays no role in my struggle (reverse).
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Appendix B- RCOPE Subscales
In response to this specific religious/ spiritual struggle, to what extent have you responded in each of these ways?
Not at all Somewhat Quite a bit A great deal
Benevolent Religious Reappraisal *1. Saw my situation as part of God’s plan. *2. Tried to find a lesson from God in the event. *3. Tried to see how God might be trying to strengthen me in this situation.
Active Religious Surrender *1. Did my best and then turned the situation over to God. *2. Did what I could and put the rest in God’s hands. *3. Took control over what I could, and gave the rest up to God.
Seeking Spiritual Support *1. Sought God’s love and care. *2. Trusted that God would be by my side. *3. Looked to God for strength, support, and guidance.
Religious Focus *1. Prayed to get my mind off of my problems. *2. Thought about spiritual matters to stop thinking about my problems. *3. Focused on religion to stop worrying about my problems.
Religious Purification *1. Confessed my sins. *2. Asked forgiveness for my sins. *3. Tried to be less sinful. 4. Searched for forgiveness from God. 5. Asked for God to help me be less sinful.
Spiritual Connection *1. Looked for a stronger connection with God. *2. Sought a stronger spiritual connection with other people. *3. Thought about how my life is part of a larger spiritual force. 4. Tried to build a strong relationship with a higher power. 5. Tried to experience a stronger feeling of spirituality.
Religious Forgiving *1. Sought help from God in letting go of my anger. *2. Asked God to help me overcome my bitterness. *3. Sought God’s help in trying to forgive others.
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Appendix C- Post-Traumatic Growth Inventory
Below, please indicate the degree to which this change occurred in your life as a result of your religious/spiritual struggle.
Not experienced Small degree Moderate degree Very great degree
1. My priorities about what is important in life
2. Trying to change things that need changing
3. A feeling of self-reliance
4. A better understanding of spiritual matters
5. Knowing that I can count on people in times of trouble
6. A willingness to express my emotions
7. Being able to accept the way things work out
8. Having compassion for others
9. Seeing new opportunities that would not have been available otherwise
10. Putting more effort into my relationships
11. Developing a stronger religious faith
12. Developing new interests
13. Accepting needing others
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Appendix D- Spiritual Transformation Scale
Whether you are or are not spiritual or religious, please indicate the extent to which these statements are true for you as a result of the struggle you described above.
Think about how you were before this religious/spiritual struggle happened and how you are now.
1 = Not true at all 2 3 4 5 6 7 = Very true
Growth
1. Spirituality has become more important to me. 2. I have grown spiritually. 3. I more often experience life around me as spiritual. 4. My relationships with other people have taken on more spiritual meaning.
Decline
1. My faith has been shaken and I am not sure what I believe. 2. I feel I’ve lost some important spiritual meaning that I had before. 3. In some ways I think I am spiritually lost. 4. In some ways I have shut down spiritually.
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Appendix E- PMIR Islamic Dimensions Subscales
Beliefs Dimension Subscale
Using the scale below, indicate your agreement with each item by placing the appropriate number on the line next to that item.
1) No 2) Somewhat 3) Yes
1. I believe in the existence of Allah. 2. I believe in the Day of Judgment. 3. I believe in the existence of paradise and hell. 4. I believe in the angels, the Jinn, and Satan. 5. I believe in all the prophets that Allah sent and in the sacred texts that were revealed to them.
Practices Dimension Subscale
Please respond to each item as it best applies to you.
1. How often do you pray?
1) Never 2) Several times a year 3) Several times a month 4) Most of the time five times a day 5) Five times a day or more
Please respond to each item as it best applies to you.
1) Never 2) A few times in my life 3) A few times a year 4) A few times a month 5) About once or twice a week 6) Once a day or more
2. How often do you go to the masjid? 3. Except in prayers, how often do you read or listen to the Holy Qur’an? 4. How often do you fast?
Ethical-conduct Do Dimension Subscale
Please respond to each item as it best applies to you.
1) Strongly disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neither agree nor disagree 4) Agree 5) Strongly agree
1. Islam is the major reason why I am a humble person. 2. Islam is the major reason why I honor my parents. 75
3. Islam is the major reason why I help my relatives and neighbors. 4. Islam is the major reason why I assist the needy and the orphans. 5. Islam is the major reason why I am tolerant person.
Ethical-conduct Don’t Dimension Subscale
Please respond to each item as it best applies to you.
1) Strongly disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neither agree nor disagree 4) Agree 5) Strongly agree
1. Islam is the major reason why I do not eat pork. 2. Islam is the major reason why I do not drink alcohol. 3. Islam is the major reason why I do not have sex before marriage or outside it. 4. Islam is the major reason why I do not consider committing suicide. 5. Islam is the major reason why I do not engage in gossip.
Islamic Universality Dimension Subscale
Please respond to each item as it best applies to you.
1) Strongly disagree 2) Disagree 3) Neither agree nor disagree 4) Agree 5) Strongly agree
1. I consider every Muslim in the world as my brother or sister. 2. I identify with the suffering of every Muslim in the world. 3. One of my major sources of pride is being a Muslim. 4. I would like to live in a world ruled by the Islamic laws. 5. I believe that brotherhood and sisterhood is one the basic tenets of Islam.
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Appendix F- The Daily Spiritual Experiences Scale
The list that follows includes items which you may or may not experience, please consider how often you directly have this experience, and try to disregard whether you feel you should or should not have these experiences.
1) Never/almost never 2) Once in a while 3) Some days 4)Most days 5) Every day 6) Many times a day
1. I feel God’s presence.
2. I experience a connection to all life.
3. During worship, or at other times when connecting with God, I feel joy, which lifts me out of my daily concerns.
4. I find strength in my religion or spirituality
5. I find comfort in my religion or spirituality.
6. I feel deep inner peace or harmony.
7. I ask for God’s help in the midst of daily activities.
8. I feel guided by God in the midst of daily activities.
9. I feel God’s love for me, directly.
10. I feel God’s love for me, through others.
11. I am spiritually touched by the beauty of creation.
12. I feel thankful for my blessings.
13. I feel a selfless caring for others.
14. I accept others even when they do things I think are wrong.
15. I desire to be closer to God or in union with Him
16. In general, how close do you feel to God?
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Appendix G- Satisfaction with Life Scale
Please respond to each item as it best applies to you.
1) Strongly agree 2) Agree 3) Slightly agree 4) Neither agree nor disagree 5) Slightly disagree 6) Disagree 7) Strongly disagree
1. In most ways my life is close to my ideal.
2. The conditions of my life are excellent.
3. I am satisfied with my life
4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.
5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.
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Appendix H- Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-Item Scale
Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by the following problems?
1) Not at all 2) Several days 3) More than half the days 4)Nearly every day
1. Feelings nervous, anxious, or on edge.
2. Not being able to stop or control worrying.
3. Worrying too much about different things.
4. Trouble relaxing.
5. Being so restless that it is hard to sit still.
6. Becoming easily annoyed or irritable.
7. Feeling afraid as if something awful might happen.
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Appendix I- Center for Epidemiologic Studies Short Depression Scale (CES-D 10)
Below is a list of some of the ways you may have felt or behaved.
Please indicate how often you have felt this way during the past week by checking the appropriate box for each question.
1) Rarely or none of the time (less than 1 day) 2) Some or a little of the time (1-2 days) 3) Occasionally or a moderate amount of time (3-4 days) 4) All of the time (5-7 days)
1. I was bothered by things that usually don't bother me.
2. I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing.
3. I felt depressed.
4. I felt that everything I did was an effort.
5. I felt hopeful about the future.
6. I felt fearful.
7. My sleep was restless.
8. I was happy.
9. I felt lonely.
10. I could not "get going."
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Appendix J- Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale
Over the past few months, to what extent have you had each of the experiences listed below?
"Over the past few months, I have..."
1)not at all / does not apply 2) a little bit 3) somewhat 4) quite a bit 5) a great deal
1) questioned God’s love for me 2) felt angry at God 3) felt as though God had abandoned me 4) felt as though God was punishing me 5) felt as though God had let me down 6) felt attacked by the devil or by evil spirits 7) felt as though the devil (or an evil spirit) was trying to turn me away from what was good 8) worried that the problems I was facing were the work of the devil or evil spirits 9) felt tormented by the devil or evil spirits 10) had conflicts with other people about religious/spiritual matters 11) felt rejected or misunderstood by religious/spiritual people 12) felt as though others were looking down on me because of my religious/spiritual beliefs 13) felt angry at organized religion 14) felt hurt, mistreated, or offended by religious/ spiritual people 15) felt guilty for not living up to my moral standards 16) worried that my actions were morally or spiritually wrong 17) wrestled with attempts to follow my moral principles 18) felt torn between what I wanted and what I knew was morally right 19) had concerns about whether there is any ultimate purpose to life or existence 20) felt as though my life had no deeper meaning 21) questioned whether life really matters 22) questioned whether my life will really make any difference in the world 23) struggled to figure out what I really believe about religion/spirituality 24) felt troubled by doubts or questions about religion or spirituality 25) felt confused about my religious/spiritual beliefs 26) worried about whether my beliefs about religion/spirituality were correct
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Appendix K- Struggle Engagement
How much effort have you used in trying to work through the struggle you have mentioned?
None/ Not at all A little bit Moderate Quite a bit A lot
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Appendix L- Deadly Sins Scale
Please respond to each item as it best applies to you.
1 = Do not agree at all, 2 = do not agree, 3 = do not agree a little, 4 = do not agree, neither disagree, 5 = agree a little, 6 = agree, 7 = do totally agree
1. I like to be the center of attention. 2. I attach great importance to a well-paid job. 3. Sometimes I fantasize over sleeping around. 4. I am often angry without knowing why. 5. Most of the time I am the first to finish my meal. 6. Successful people should encounter more difficulties in their lives. 7. I have been disappointed in many of the things I have done. 8. I have a sharper insight into social situations than most people. 9. There is nothing I like better than buying all sorts of things. 10. I cannot help flirting with the women/men I meet. 11. When I am annoyed, I easily lose my temper. 12. Once I have started to indulge myself in eating sweets, I find it very difficult to stop. 13. I find it difficult to empathize spontaneously with the good fortune of others. 14. I no longer believe in the good intentions of man. 15. Sometimes people look up to me. 16. I look always for opportunities to better my financial position. 17. I find it very difficult to keep my eyes off beautiful people. 18. Sometimes anger makes my head spin. 19. I very often eat more than what is good for me. 20. Most of the time people in high positions are lucky as well. 21. Life has not been good to me; I expected a better deal. 22. I have gone far in the world. 23. I really consider it an exaggeration to tip for any small service. 24. I am often absorbed in erotic daydreams. 25. When I am angry, people who are close to me must suffer. 26. With respect to eating and drinking I find it very hard to restrain myself. 27. I really wonder if successful people are happy. 28. Sometimes I feel that my life has failed.
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Appendix M- The Gratitude Questionnaire-Six Item Form (GQ-6)
Using the scale below as a guide, write a number beside each statement to indicate how much you agree with it.
1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 = slightly disagree 4 = neutral 5 = slightly agree 6 = agree 7 = strongly agree
____1. I have so much in life to be thankful for.
____2. If I had to list everything that I felt grateful for, it would be a very long list.
____3. When I look at the world, I don’t see much to be grateful for.
____4. I am grateful to a wide variety of people.
____5. As I get older I find myself more able to appreciate the people, events, and situations that have been part of my life history.
____6. Long amounts of time can go by before I feel grateful to something or someone.
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Appendix N- Heartland Forgiveness Scale
In the course of our lives negative things may occur because of our own actions, the actions of others, or circumstances beyond our control.
For some time after these events, we may have negative thoughts or feelings about ourselves, others, or the situation. Think about how you typically respond to such negative events.
Next to each of the following items indicate the degree to which you typically respond to the type of negative situation described.
There are no right or wrong answers. Please be as open as possible in your answers.
1) Almost always false of me 2) More often false of 3) Somewhat false of Me 4) Neutral 5)Somewhat true of me 6) More often true of me 7) Almost always True of Me
1. Although I feel badly at first when I mess up, over time I can give myself some slack. 2. I hold grudges against myself for negative things I’ve done. 3. Learning from bad things that I’ve done helps me get over them. 4. It is really hard for me to accept myself once I’ve messed up. 5. With time I am understanding of myself for mistakes I’ve made. 6. I don’t stop criticizing myself for negative things I’ve felt, thought, said, or done. 7. I continue to punish a person who has done something that I think is wrong. 8. With time I am understanding of others for the mistakes they’ve made. 9. I continue to be hard on others who have hurt me. 10. Although others have hurt me in the past, I have eventually been able to see them as good people. 11. If others mistreat me, I continue to think badly of them. 12. When someone disappoints me, I can eventually move past it. 13. When things go wrong for reasons that can’t be controlled, I get stuck in negative thoughts about it. 14. With time I can be understanding of bad circumstances in my life. 15. If I am disappointed by uncontrollable circumstances in my life, I continue to think negatively about them. 16. I eventually make peace with bad situations in my life. 17. It’s really hard for me to accept negative situations that aren’t anybody’s fault. 18. Eventually I let go of negative thoughts about bad circumstances that are beyond anyone’s control.
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Appendix O- 3-Factor Patience Scale
Instructions: For each of the statements below, please indicate how much the statement is like/unlike you.
1) Not like me at all 2) Unlike me 3) Neutral
4) Like me 5) Very much like me
2) My friends would say I’m a very patient friend. 3) I am able to wait-out tough times. 4) Although they’re annoying, I don’t get too upset when stuck in traffic jams. 5) I am patient with other people. 6) I find it pretty easy to be patient with a difficult life problem or illness. 7) In general waiting in lines does not bother me. 8) I have trouble being patient with my close friends and family. 9) I am patient during life hardships. 10) When someone is having difficulty learning something new, I will be able to help them without getting frustrated or annoyed. 11) I get very annoyed at red lights. 12) I find it easy to be patient with people.
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Appendix P- Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability Scale—Short Form
Please answer the following questions as they apply to you personally. Please read each item below and decide whether the statement is true or false as it pertains to you personally.
1) I sometimes feel resentful when I don't get my way. 2) No matter who I'm talking to, I'm always a good listener. 3) There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone. 4) I sometimes try to get even rather than forgive and forget. 5) I am always courteous, even to people who are disagreeable.
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Appendix Q – Demographic Questionnaire
1) What is your gender? Male (1) Female (2) Transgender male (3) Transgender female (4) Other (please describe) (5) ______
2) What is your age in years?
3) How would you describe your present religious/spiritual tradition, if any? Catholic (1) Jewish (2) Christian (not Catholic) (3) Hindu (4) Buddhist (5) Muslim (6) Atheist (7) Agnostic (8) Other (please describe) (9) ______
4) What is your race/ethnicity? Please feel free to select multiple options if appropriate. Middle Eastern (1) Indian (2) African American/Black (3) Asian/Pacific Islander (4) White/Caucasian/ European American (5) Latino/Hispanic (6) Other (please describe) (7) ______
5) Were you born in the United States? Yes (1) No (2)
6) In what country were you born? ______
7) Is English your first language? Yes (1) No (2)
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8) How would you describe your English proficiency? Beginner (1) Intermediate (2) Advanced (3) Native (4)
9) What is your current relationship/marital status? Please feel free to select multiple options if appropriate. Single (1) Engaged (2) Living with a romantic partner (3) Married (4) Separated/divorced (5) Widowed (6) Other (please describe) (7) ______
10) How long have you lived in the United States? 0-5 years (1) 6-10 years (2) 11-15 years (3) 16-20 years (4) 20 or more years (5)
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Appendix R- Recruitment Contacts
Islamic Center of Cleveland Call Islamic Center at (216) 362-0786 (Monday - Saturday) (3:30 pm - 6:30 pm) Office Manager direct number (216) 609-3117 Fax: 216.362.0787 Imam's direct number: (216) 609-3123
Islamic Society of Akron and Kent 152 East Steels Corners Road, Cuyahoga Falls, OH 44224 330-922-9991 [email protected]
First Cleveland Mosque 3613 E 131ST Cleveland, OH 44120 [email protected] 216.283.9027
Islamic Society of Greater Kent 325 Crain Ave. Kent, OH 44240 Phone: (216) 678-4252
Islamic Society of Northeast Ohio 6976 Promway Ave NW, North Canton, OH 44720 By Phone : 330-494-0073 By Email : [email protected]
Masjid Bilal of Cleveland 7401 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland OH 44103 Phone: (216) 391-8899 Email: [email protected]
West Cleveland Muslim Association Mailing Address: West Cleveland Muslim Association,P.O. BOX 45096,Westlake, OH 44145 Tel:440-385-4064 Fax:440-385-4064 Physical Address:31023 Center Ridge Road, Westlake, OH 44145 Email:[email protected]
Uqbah Mosque Foundation Phone: 216 791 8411 E-mail: [email protected] President: Ramez Islambouli Imam: Sheikh Masoud Larya 90
2222 Stokes Blvd. Cleveland, Ohio 44106. 216-791-8411.
Muslim Association of Cleveland East. 26901 Chardon Rd, Richmond Hts, OH 44143 440-347-9930 [email protected]
Al- Omary Mosque 4600 Rocky River Dr. Cleveland, OH, 44135 (216) 676-9177 [email protected]
Masjid Rasool Allah Address: 9400 Detroit Ave, Cleveland, OH 44102 Phone: (216) 220 - 9864 Email: [email protected]
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Appendix S- Community Recruitment Letter
As-Salāmu Alaykum Brother/Sister,
My name is Seyma Saritoprak. I am a student in the Clinical Psychology Ph.D. program at Case Western Reserve University located in Cleveland, Ohio. My research advisor is Julie Exline, Ph.D., a faculty member in the Clinical Psychology Ph.D. program. As part of my degree requirements, I am currently conducting a study examining the impact of Islamic practices on psychological well-being. The study focuses on moral struggles that people face in daily life and the role of Islamic practices and beliefs in helping people cope with these struggles. Currently, there is a lack of empirical research conducted both on Muslim samples and Islam in general. Through my research study, I hope to embark upon filling the gap between Islam and Psychology.
In order to conduct and complete my study, I am looking for Muslim participants who are willing to take a survey with a series of questions. I am writing to you to kindly request your help in recruiting participants for my study. Participants who complete the survey will be rewarded with a monetary reward.
If you agree to assist with recruiting for my study, please let me know by replying to this e-mail and attaching a signed version of the Letter of Cooperation that is attached to this e-mail. I will then be able to send you the link of the study, along with a brief recruitment e-mail, so you can forward it to any Muslim members of your community.
If you have any questions or concerns, please contact me at (440) 789- 3775 or [email protected]
Thank you so much for your consideration.
Best,
Seyma N. Saritoprak
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Appendix T- Snowball Sampling Recruitment Letter
Dear ______,
Thank you for your interest in my study “Coping with Moral Struggles.”
I am writing to you to ask whether you are willing to pass along the provided survey link to any friend’s and family members who may be interested in participating in my research study.
There is no obligation to share the provided information. Your decision will not affect your relationship with the researchers.
If you have any questions or concerns please contact me via email [email protected] or phone number (440) 789-3775 and I will be happy to assist you.
Thank you for your time and consideration.
Best,
Seyma N. Saritoprak
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Appendix U- Gift Card Email
Hello!
Thank you for participating in our study “Coping with Moral Struggles.”
Please find you $10 amazon gift card attached to this email.
We also greatly appreciate if you could pass along the provided survey link below to any friends or family members who may be interested in participating in our research study.
Please remember to send along the recruitment letter (attached to this email) with the survey link! https://cwru.az1.qualtrics.com/SE/?SID=SV_1YUUUt83zJ6ZalL
If you have any questions or concerns please contact us via email [email protected] or phone number (440) 789-3775 and we will be happy to assist you.
Thank you again for your time and consideration.
Best,
Seyma N. Saritoprak, M.A. Julie J. Exline, Ph.D. Case Western Reserve University
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Appendix V- Letter of Cooperation
Dear Ms. Saritoprak,
The [name of organization] is pleased to collaborate with you on your project “Coping with Moral Struggles.”
We understand that we will be distributing the survey link to our community members. Individuals who are interested in participating will complete an online survey and receive monetary compensation. We have had the opportunity to discuss the research with you and ask any further questions or clarifications. We understand that the investigators will maintain confidentiality of all research participants from our community members.
As [position title] of [name of organization], I approve of this research to occur with our community members.
We look forward to working with you.
Sincerely,
[Signature of representative]
[Name/ Title of representative]
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