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Johan Österberg | We want you as our new recruit |

We want you as our new recruit

On 1 July 2010, conscription was made to rest in Sweden, in favor of an all- We want you as our new voluntary force, in so doing leaving a 100-year tradition. There were several reasons for this transformation of the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF), most important was the new security situation in Europe after the Cold War, which recruit 2018:8 led the SAF focusing more on participation in multinational missions abroad. Prerequisites for recruitment to and retention This thesis focuses on the recruitment and retaining of soldiers during the period when Sweden shifted the manning system for their armed forces. Results suggest in the Swedish Armed Forces that there are different incentives for staying in the SAF depending on manning system. In a conscription system, personality is a more prominent predictor of retention than in a voluntary system. The findings in this thesis emphasize the possibility to get the best from the two manning systems; to use the compulsory Johan Österberg military service as a pool for recruitment to officer programs and NCOs, and the AVF system’s work on improving the psychosocial working conditions in order to retain personnel. At the completion of this thesis, the SAF again changed the manning system, this time to a gender-neutral conscription, as the system with voluntariness failed in providing the SAF with sufficient numbers of soldiers with the right qualities.

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DOCTORAL THESIS | Karlstad University Studies | 2018:8 DOCTORAL THESIS | Karlstad University Studies | 2018:8 We want you as our new recruit Prerequisites for recruitment to and retention in the Swedish Armed Forces

Johan Österberg

DOCTORAL THESIS | Karlstad University Studies | 2018:8 We want you as our new recruit - Prerequisites for recruitment to and retention in the Swedish Armed Forces

Johan Österberg

DOCTORAL THESIS

Karlstad University Studies | 2018:8 urn:nbn:se:kau:diva-66086

ISSN 1403-8099

ISBN 978-91-7063-837-4 (print)

ISBN 978-91-7063-932-6 (pdf)

Distribution: Karlstad University Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Department of Social and Psychological Studies SE-651 88 Karlstad, Sweden +46 54 700 10 00

Print: Universitetstryckeriet, Karlstad 2018

WWW.KAU.SE 1

We want you as our new recruit Prerequisites for recruitment to and retention in the Swedish Armed Forces

Author: Johan Österberg

Supervisor: Leif Rydstedt

To Linus and Christian –

Fathers pride, lights of my life 3

Doctoral dissertation: We want you as our new recruit Prerequisites for recruitment to and retention in the Swedish Armed forces. Johan Österberg, Swedish Defence University, Department of security, strategy and leadership and Karlstad University Sweden.

Abstract

The purpose of this thesis was to study the prerequisites for the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF) in order to recruit sufficient numbers of suitable individuals to the organization, and to retain those within the organization.

The thesis comprises three studies (Study 1-3) where Study One comprises data gathered, with a longitudinal design, when Sweden relied on conscription for the manning of the Armed Forces. Results show that those wanting to do international military service assessed themselves higher for required qualities than those individuals not volunteering for international military service. Study Two shows that job satisfaction, according to Hackman and Oldham´s Job satisfaction model, is higher when job characteristics are good, and they in turn affect the Critical Psychological States, as proposed by Hackman and Oldham. Study Three indicates that there is a relation between performance orientation, job characteristics, job satisfaction and retention. In sum, this thesis suggests that there are different incentives for recruiting and retaining personnel to a conscripted force, and an all-volunteer force. Furthermore, the thesis indicates that an all-volunteer force concept is not the best way of manning the armed forces, for Sweden and countries with similar society, size and likewise a critical geopolitical position.

Doktorsavhandling: Vi vill ha dig som vår nya rekryt – förutsättningar för att rekrytera och behålla personal för den svenska Försvarsmakten. Syftet med denna avhandling var att studera förutsättningarna för Försvarsmakten för att rekrytera tillräckligt antal lämpliga personer till, och behålla de inom organisationen. Avhandlingen består av tre studier (Studie 1-3) där studie ett består av data som samlats in med en longitudinell design, Försvarsmakten hade ett värnpliktssystem för att personalförsörja organisationen. Resultaten visar att de som vill göra internationell militärtjänst skattade sig högre för önskvärda kvaliteter än de personer som inte frivilligt sökte internationell militärtjänst. Studie två visar att arbetstillfredsställelse, enligt Hackman och Oldhams jobbkaraktärmodell , är högre när jobbkarakteristika bra, och de påverkar i sin tur de kritiska psykologiska tillstånden, som föreslagits av Hackman och Oldham. Studie tre indikerar att det finns en relation mellan prestationsorientering, jobbkarakteristika, arbetsnöjdhet och viljan att stanna i organisationen. Sammanfattningsvis föreslår denna avhandling att det finns olika incitament för att rekrytera och behålla personal i ett värnpliktsförsvar, jämfört med frivilligt försvar. Vidare indikerar avhandlingen att ett frivilligt försvar inte är det optimala sättet att för försvarsmakter, som i Sverige och länder med liknande samhälle, storlek och likaledes en geopolitisk placering.

This thesis is based on the following three studies:

1. Rydstedt, L. W., & Österberg, J. (2013). Psychological characteristics of Swedish mandatory enlisted soldiers volunteering and not volunteering for international missions: an exploratory study. Psychological reports, 112(2). 678-688. Doi: 10.2466/17.02.PR0.112.2.678-688 2. Österberg, J. and Rydstedt, L, W. (In Press). Job satisfaction among Swedish soldiers- Applying the Job Characteristics Model to newly recruited military personnel. Military Psychology. 3. Österberg, J. and Rydstedt, L. W., Kleiven, J. & Fors Brandebo, M. (2017). The Path to Job Satisfaction - Applying the Theory of Purposeful Behavior to Military Conditions. Journal of Defense Resources Management 8:1: 27-42

Related publications

Österberg, J., Jonsson, E., & Berglund, A., K. (In Press). Officer recruitment – Improving the Process. Journal of Contemporary Military Challenges.

Österberg, J. (2017). Preparatory Military Training: An Experiment in Integrating Minorities in the Swedish Armed Forces”, Res Militaris, ERGOMAS issue n°5, “Recruitment & Retention, Part 1”November 2017.

Jonsson, E., & Österberg, J. (2017). Effective Recruitment of Military Women : Developing New Methods, Res Militaris, ERGOMAS Issue n°4, “Recruitment & Retention, Part 1”, July 2017.

Börjesson, M., Österberg, J., & Enander, A. (2017). Profiling the Swedish Ranger: Perceptions of motivation, profession and risk and safety issues, in Glicken Turnley, J., Michael, K., & Ben- Ari, E. (Eds) Special Operations Forces Around the World: A Social Scientific Agenda. Routledge.

Weber, M. & Österberg, J. (2015). An Analysis of Swedish Conscripts’ Values and Attitudes Towards their Military Education: A Principal Component Analysis of Swedish Conscription. Res Militaris, vol.5, n°2.

Hedlund, E. Börjesson, M. & Österberg, J. (2015). Team Learning in a Multinational Military Staff Exercise. Small group research, 46, (2), pp. 179-203.

Börjesson, M., Österberg, J., & Enander, A. (2014). Risk propensity within the military: a study of Swedish officers and soldiers. Journal of Risk Research, ISSN 1366-9877, E-ISSN 1466-4461.

Österberg, J. & Rydstedt, L. (2013). Core values and attitudes among Swedish conscripts volunteering for international missions: an exploratory study. Journal of values based leadership (6), 65-73.

Hedlund, E. & Österberg, J. (2013). Team Training, Team Learning, Leadership and Psychology Safety: A Study of Team Training and Team Learning Behavior during a Swedish Military Staff Exercise. Sociology Mind, (3), 89-98

Österberg, J., & Jonsson, E. (2012). Recruitment to international military service: The officers’ view. In G. Kümmel & J. Soeters (Eds.), New wars, new militaries, new soldiers? Conflicts, the Armed Forces and the soldierly subject (pp. 233-245). Bingley, UK: Emerald.

Börjesson, M. Österberg, J. & Enander, A. (2011) Risk and Safety Attitudes among Conscripts during Compulsory Military Training. Military psychology, 23 (6), 659-684

Österberg, J., & Carlstedt, B. (2010). Conscripts willingness to sign up for international military service. In T. Szvircsev Tresch & C. Leuprecht, (Eds.), Europe without soldiers? Recruitment and retention across the armed forces of Europe (pp. 109-126). Montreal and Kingston: Queen’s Policy Studies Series, McGill-Queen’s University Press.

Acknowledgements The accomplishment of this dissertation has been a long and nonlinear journey, including the Swedish Armed Forces changing their manning system halfway throughout the process of this thesis, forcing me to re-think the aim. Furthermore, illness struck me, forcing me to a halt with the thesis for roughly one year. Nevertheless, finally I have put my thesis together for which I am very proud and happy. I have not been able to complete this academic journey without my supervisor, Professor Leif Rydstedt, who has had an immense patience and have encouraged and supported me throughout this process – for this, I am deeply grateful. My co supervisor Dr. Eva Johansson have always believed in me, when my own faith was weak, and she has helped me a lot regarding the military aspects of the thesis.

I would like to thank all the colleagues at the Swedish Defence University for their support, no one mentioned no one forgotten.

I would like to thank The Swedish Armed forces HQ who have financed the projects for this thesis, thanks all the soldiers and officers whom I hunted in order to collect data on the military units.

Furthermore, I would like to thank former colleagues at the SEDU. I would especially mention Leif and Berit Carlstedt, who introduced me to the research field of military psychology, and they have since been one of my biggest sources of knowledge and they have big-heartedly shared their experience and proficiency. Charlotte Bäccman, (despite her constant lack of humour) and Björn Gustafsson have supported me along the way, grateful for that.

My colleagues at the Department of Psychology at the Karlstad University also deserves big thanks for supporting me and for giving me insightful comments along the way.

My two biggest supporters are my sons Linus and Christian, they may not have contributed in any theoretical way to this thesis, but their love and their clever insights on life has given me more than I could ever imagine – Dad loves you to the moon and back !

Johan Österberg

Karlstad, January 2018

I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but world War IV will be fought with sticks and stones

Albert Einstein 9

List of contents

Abstract ...... 3

Introduction ...... 11

Conscription as a foundation for manning the armed forces ...... 14

The Swedish conscription system ...... 14

A study of the last years of conscription in Sweden ...... 16

General reasons for abolishing conscription ...... 17

Challenges in the transition from conscription to an AVF ...... 18

Values and motives and their implications for the armed forces ...... 19

The organization of the Swedish Armed Forces ...... 21

Organizational pre-requisites for personnel policies and retention ...... 21

Job satisfaction from an organizational perspective ...... 22

Perceived working conditions and Job satisfaction in a military context ...... 22

The Job Characteristics Model ...... 24

Theory of Purposeful Behavior – an interactional approach to work-related behavior ...... 25

Personality psychology and its relation to job satisfaction ...... 27

Personality traits ...... 27

The Big Five or the Five-Factor theory of personality ...... 28

The implication of personality in the military ...... 30

Personality in the armed forces – the rise of research in a military context ...... 31

A brief history of Selection ...... 31

Stress in general and stress in a military context ...... 33

Hardiness as a buffer for stress ...... 35

Modern organizational theories ...... 38

Organizational challenges for the military ...... 38

Ethics ...... 40

Summary study 1 ...... 41

Background and Aim ...... 41

Participants ...... 41 10

Instruments ...... 42

The PQ ...... 42

Psychological fitness ...... 42

Psychological hardiness ...... 43

Results and conclusions ...... 43

Summary study 2 ...... 44

Background and Aim ...... 44

Instruments ...... 45

The Job Characteristics Model ...... 45

The Job description survey ...... 45

Participants ...... 46

Results and conclusions ...... 46

Discussion/conclusion ...... 47

Summary study 3 ...... 47

Background and Aim ...... 47

Instruments ...... 48

The Job description survey ...... 48

Turnover intentions ...... 49

Results ...... 49

Discussion/conclusion ...... 49

Final discussion ...... 50

Limitations ...... 55

Future research ...... 55

Conclusions ...... 55

References ...... 57

Introduction

On 1 July 2010, conscription was laid to rest in Sweden, in favor of an all-voluntary force (AVF), in so doing leaving a 100-year tradition. The compulsory military service in Sweden was put on hold, but could be reinstated again if the security situation in the Nordic region, or elsewhere in Europe, changed for the worse. There were several reasons for this transformation of the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF), most important was the new security situation in Europe after the Cold War, which led the SAF to focus more on participation in multinational missions abroad (Österberg & Jonsson, 2012; Strand & Berndtsson, 2015). This new situation implied that an extensive invasion based defense was neither considered cost- effective nor meaningful by the Swedish government (SOU 2001, GOV 2008/2009: 14). The transformation from an invasion-based defense to an operational defense meant that significantly fewer conscripts were trained each year compared with previous years within the last years of conscription in Sweden. Sweden was one of the last countries in Western Europe to abolish general conscription after the end of the Cold War. Despite the general conscription, in the mid-2000s, less than one fifth of the population of 18- year-old males began basic military training. The consequence of this was, despite the compulsory military service, that a large element of voluntariness was present when manning the SAF (Österberg and Carlstedt, 2010; Rydstedt and Österberg, 2013).

There are predominantly two different sets of systems when it comes to the manning of armed forces; through conscription or through an AVF. Conscription is the compulsory enlistment of people into military service. The modern system of national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s (Forrest, 2002). Many European nations copied this French organization in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve on active duty and eventually transfer to the reserve force. Conscription is debated for a variety of reasons, including religious or philosophical grounds or through political or conscientious objection (Burk, 1995).

According to Hedlund (2011), the Swedish conditions before the transition to an AVF differ from other European countries and the US. Firstly, Sweden has had almost 200 years without any war, meaning that external threats have been perceived to be quite low. Secondly, since 1905 Swedish security policies have been based on autonomy from military alliances in peace and neutrality in war, which made it possible for Sweden to stay out of armed conflicts, 12 without any military or political obligations to other countries. This period of peace, combined with over a century of conscription, has produced an armed force with a traditionally strong emphasis on peace, and civilian values and attitudes. Those who opposed to putting an end to conscription frequently argue that a citizen force would secure a consistent flow of young civilians into the military, which most probably would lead to a high degree of influence of civilian attitudes, values and culture therein. This is typically regarded as the most resourceful way of securing a democratic military, reflecting citizens’ values and attitudes (see e.g. Janowitz, 1979). Despite the fact that fewer people were called in for military service, it was crucial for the SAF to attract recruits with the right qualities during the last years of conscription. Carlstedt (2006) shows that the quality of the individuals, regarding psychological and physiological qualities, entering military service from 1998 to 2005 was maintained at a high level, although fewer individuals were called in, implying a good source for selection. Weber and Österberg (2015) describe how the fundamentals of the conscript system in Sweden changed from 2002-2010, due to downsizing and alleged societal shifts in values among youth, as well as the changes made in the SAF this last decade of conscription in Sweden. The study found that the most important values and attitudes among conscripts could be extracted into three components: individual development (sample item “the training has positively contributed to my development as a human being”), group cohesion (sample item “Human equality characterizes the working atmosphere in my platoon/ ship”) and competence (sample item, “I have enough skills to handle my duties in a critical situation”).

Several countries in Europe have carried out the similar transformation of its armed forces from a numerically large military invasion based defense, to a defense built on voluntary participation in the form of AVFs. Until 2010 conscription guaranteed supply of personnel for the SAF, but with an AVF, the SAF have to attract people in competition with civilian employers in the labor market. In Belgium, Manigart (2005) showed that in the first years after the transformation of armed forces from conscription to AVF there are usually no major recruitment problems because many individuals still are accessible in the military system, e.g. in form of former conscripts. The problems in recruiting sufficient numbers of personnel arise some years after the transition, which is why recruitment figures can be somewhat “deceptive” the first years after a transition. In the U.S., according to Woodruff, Kelty, & Segal (2006), the desire to apply to the military has declined, but figures show that recruitment targets in the U.S. in 2009 – 2010 was reached (U.S. Army, 2010), mainly due to the recession. 13

This underlines the strong link between the situation on the labor market and the possibility for armed forces to attract personnel. Hindelang, Schwerin, and Farmer (2004) further describe how competition has increased between the civilian and military sectors in order to attract and recruit personnel. Previous studies, for example, Eighmey (2006) and Knowles et al (2002) have demonstrated a link between the situation in the labor market and the ability of armed forces to recruit personnel, where armed forces in times when jobs are scarce have an easier time recruiting people than in times of economic growth. Furthermore, Bachman, Segal, Freedman-Doan, and O'Malley (2000) show a positive relation between high school students planning to apply to the military, and subsequently enlisting.

The transition to an AVF in Sweden also comprises different strategies in order to recruit people to the SAF. Where recruitment to a force based on conscription is a passive task, supplying an AVF with personnel necessitates active recruitment actions. In the conscription system in Sweden most of the conscripts served an average of 11 (7, 5-15) months and thereafter were given the opportunity to voluntarily apply for international military service or to become an officer. A SAF career in the AVF starts with a three-month basic training, after which the recruits can apply for employment in the SAF or for officer education training (Österberg & Jonsson, 2012).

The new ways of conducting wars, which have moved away from mass armies and boots on the ground, give rise to new demands and a need for new techniques, not the least regarding the psychological fitness of military personnel. Kaldor (1999) describes the new types of wars as not necessarily wars between states, but between networks, criminal groups or non-state actors. Technological developments, terrorism and cross-border conflicts have changed the way war is conducted. Today a great deal of research focuses on “fourth generation warfare”, where at least one participant is a non-state actor, where tactics and strategies are unconventional, and which raise the notion that perhaps today’s armies are not fully prepared to face this new kind of warfare. Nevertheless, the military is the most significant actor in these conflicts, and the military personality has not changed, implying a need for new strategies for education, performance and recuperation. The pace of rotation for U.S. soldiers serving abroad has become quicker, because of problems in recruiting sufficient numbers of soldiers. This means that those serving abroad do not have as much time at home for recovery before they are sent away again, putting more focus on psychological 14 robustness and well-being. As the focus of international missions’ shifts from peacekeeping to more combat-like situations, there will probably be more experience of humanitarian suffering and violations against individuals and/or groups of people. History is full of examples where soldiers put all their efforts into protecting ethnic groups, only to be left disappointed because of political resolutions. One of the most renowned examples is the Dutch battalion leaving the Muslim enclave of Srebrenica to Serbian soldiers in 1995 (Richardson, Verweij and Winslow, 2004).

Conscription as a foundation for manning the armed forces

In the 1990s, the trend in Europe was that of abolishing conscription, relying instead upon professional militaries with volunteers enlisted to meet the demand for troops (Manigart, 2005). The arguments for maintaining a conscript based defense, on the other hand, were that the armed forces could integrate the most suitable and meet the requirements of soldiers with high quality, and that compulsory military service could contribute to a large reserve, possible to mobilize at a relatively low cost. In many countries, the anchoring in society for a conscription system was still strong and conscription was also regarded as being an effective and inexpensive social system, which was at risk of being lost if conscription was abolished. Furthermore, some countries’ geographical location, old conflicts or threats remain in fresh memory (e.g. Finland, Turkey). Finally, conscription was also regarded as ensuring the social representativeness, thus preventing the military from becoming a "state within the state” (Janowitz, 1979; Moskos, 1977). The conscription system is by many regarded as a moral foundation for manning armed forces with individuals from the whole spectrum of society (Kucera, 2017).

The Swedish conscription system Enlistment into conscription relied on a wide-ranging drafting procedure that all Swedish male citizens underwent, often soon after their 18th birthday. The drafting process stretched over two days with tests of cognitive ability, physical endurance, muscular strength and health status. A psychologist who assessed the draftee’s ability to fulfill the psychological requirements of the military service also interviewed each potential conscript. All tests of physical and mental abilities were graded on a stanine (1-9) scale that approximates a normal distribution (Lindqvist & Vestman, 2011). 15

While exclusion from the military service was completely determined by health status, mental and physical abilities determined the type of position to which conscripts were enlisted. Enlistment as squad officer required a cognitive test score of at least five. To be qualified to serve as platoon officer, conscripts had to have a cognitive test score of 6 or higher, and a score of at least 6 (sergeant) or 7 (second lieutenant) in leadership ability, assessed by a psychologist. The final decision about which type of service to assign a draftee to lay with an enlistment officer who met the draftee at the end of the drafting process, then subsequently made his/her decision. Enlisted draftees generally started their military service 1-2 years after the draft.

International military service in the Swedish Armed Forces Sweden has a long tradition of participating in peacekeeping missions, in recent years in former Yugoslavia and in Afghanistan. The increased multinational cooperation in military operations in the 2000s ranges from classical peacekeeping to counterinsurgency and low- intensity combat and a result is that the SAF, largely, have more military objectives and tasks, and there is a need to become more interoperable with other nations’ armed forces (Hedlund, 2011). The new direction for the SAF in the 21st century when changing into an operational force places new burdens on soldiers deployed in foreign countries. Going from almost only peacekeeping missions from the 1970s onward, soldiers now must be able to handle both peacekeeping and peace enforcement (separating parties by force), which require other types of training as well as cultural knowledge (Johansson, 2001; Soeters, Winslow & Weibull, 2006). Österberg and Carlstedt, (2010) showed that for the last years of conscription, there was an element of positive self-selection among those wanting to apply for international military service. Those stating that they would apply generally reported higher scores for stress tolerance, concern for others, extraversion and orderliness, and lower for neuroticism. These personality measures were developed by Bäccman & Carlstedt, (2010) deriving from the Costa & McRae (1992) five factor model of personality inventory. The same positive self-selection was also observable regarding values among conscripts in a study done by Rydstedt and Österberg (2013). 16

A study of the last years of conscription in Sweden As the SAF took a new direction with a more international focus, studies of conscripts’ willingness to participate in international military service were conducted. Österberg and Carlstedt (2010) conducted a questionnaire study in June 2007 directed at conscripts (N=2520) at seven army regiments at the end of the soldiers’ compulsory military service. The aim of this study was to measure the 2007 conscripts’ willingness to sign up for international military service. Qualities regarding personality, values, and attitudes were measured in order to understand what variables influenced the willingness. A division between non- commissioned officers and privates was made in order to study the differences (if any) between the two groups. Willingness to sign up for international military service was measured in two different ways in the questionnaire. The respondents indicated whether they had applied for international service for the following five response alternatives: Nordic Battlegroup 2008 (NBG), Kosovo, Afghanistan, Bosnia, or elsewhere. The Nordic Battlegroup was one of the rapid-reaction battalions set up by the European Union that Sweden had the responsibility for manning with contracted soldiers. The answers were summarized into a dichotomous variable (applied for international service) that indicated whether or not the individual had applied for international service, regardless of the number of missions applied for. Results show that the interest for signing up for international military service was different between groups of conscripts - NCOs had higher levels of interest, and women showed higher interest than men. Conscripts born outside Sweden showed higher interest than those born in Sweden. Those accepted for international military service scored higher mean values for desirable qualities such as sound personalities and values, similar to the results in the study of Rydstedt & Österberg, (2013) than those not wanting to sign up. They also scored higher for the quality of military education, officer leadership and officers’ participation in international military service, compared to those not accepted, followed by those stating future interest and lastly those uninterested. Regarding the interest for officer training, the same positive differences appear, meaning that those wanting to continue to officer training also assessed the context variables higher than those not wanting to. The new political intention for the SAF starting in the mid-2000s with an international, more flexible defense force demanded that a certain proportion of an age group of conscripts signed up for international military service. Österberg and Carlstedt (2010) demonstrate that the Swedish system of conscription 17 produced soldiers who are well-equipped both psychologically and with regard to their values. After a simulated sorting out of persons with poor military marks, physical fitness, personality, and value base, the sum of those who signed up for international military service and those who stated future interest constituted a total of 18 percent of the sample of conscripts. These people are supposed to fulfill the yearly needs of the SAF for international military service as well as for officer training. Furthermore, results show that in order to obtain a sufficient number of personnel with the right qualities, a system with voluntary conscription, which was the case the last years before the transition to an AVF, is preferred.

General reasons for abolishing conscription The background to why many European countries abandoned the conscript system in favor of AVFs is essentially related to: the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the USSR, and the end of the East-West conflict (Haltiner& Szvircsev Tresch 2009). These actions contributed to many countries no longer feeling that there was a direct threat in the near future. The increased forming of alliances and cooperation with other countries rose in Europe during the late 90s and the beginning of the 21st century (for example the Partnership for Peace NATO, within the European Defence Agency, within the EU and the OSCE). The increased participation in international operations (for example former Yugoslavia and Afghanistan) was said to require intensive and extensive training that may be difficult to meet through conscription (Rydstedt & Österberg, 2013). The discussion about an unfair distribution of the burden of doing military service as only one third of the European young men out of every year cohort did military service in the early 2000s also affected the will to abolish conscription. In addition, conscription did not apply to women and fears that the social representativeness could not be maintained as long as conscription was not general or gender neutral (Szvircsev Tresch & Haltiner, 2008). The rise of new threats such as terrorism, which, unlike the conventional rules of warfare are not strictly tied to territory and borders were also a new challenge for the armed forces. These motives are more or less universal for countries that abandoned the conscript-based defense in favor of an AVF. Furthermore, in Sweden, the force behind the reasons for putting conscription to rest was mostly political, whereas in several other European countries, the decision was launched by the armed forces themselves (Noll, 2005). 18

Challenges in the transition from conscription to an AVF There has been an continuing debate since the end of World War II about the decline of the mass armies (Haltiner, 2006; Van Der Meulen & Manigart, 1997). The arguments assumed that the rise of economic productivity, living standard and increased specialization on the labor market would increase individualization in society, as well as globalization, thereby decreasing the importance of traditional values and eroding the significance of compulsory military service. Since the end of the Cold War, countries relying on conscription have become a minority, and there are almost no countries left with general conscription (Szvircsev Tresch, 2010). These times of change pose new challenges to the armed forces. The reasons for leaving conscription was relatively similar in most European countries and followed Haltiner’s and Klein’s (2005) typology of the three waves of reform since the Cold War. The three waves are rapid downsizing, professionalization and enhanced international cooperation and participation. This typology is valid to most of the countries leaving conscription, Sweden is no exception (Österberg & Jonsson, 2012). This meant that challenges connected with this transition appear, leaving the armed forces as an employer like any other. The armed forces now need to attract people, recruit them, educate them, retain them and then phase them out in a good fashion. (ARUBA model in Swedish, Attract, Recruit, Educate, Retain and Phase out). With an armed force manned by conscription, attraction, recruitment and retention are not of main focus as the system replenishes itself every year. Manigart (2005) and Szvircsev Tresch (2010) show that there are generally small recruitment problems within the first years after the transition, problems tend to appear after 5 -7 years, which was also the case for the SAF. The concept of an AVF put job satisfaction and other job-related issues in focus in order to retain personnel. The psychosocial working conditions of the soldiers and recruits are of extra interest in this new system as individuals simply can quit immediately if they are not satisfied with the working conditions. During conscription, there is extensive legislation regarding if one is allowed to quit or not, and refusal to commence the compulsory military service if called upon could render a jail conviction.

The challenges for armed forces in recruiting and retaining personnel can be defined on a social and economic level. Socially, the demographic change of the European society is a major factor, where many of the western democracies face the same challenges: a population growing older, hence diminishing the potential pool of applicants to the armed forces (Munz 19

2007; 2011). Furthermore, the change of values in society, where postmodern society, which emphasizes individualism more, influences the way armed forces are accepted by the population. A positive attitude towards the armed forces seems to be the key precondition for young people being interested in the services (Buhlmann & Wieninger 2004), but others claim that the interest in the armed forces is declining, especially among young people (Biehl, vom Hagen & Mackewitsch, 2001;, Inglehart & Welzel, 2010). On the economic level the armed forces are challenged by the present employment situation in society. The armed forces have to face the free market and compete with private industry for labor, mainly among youth (Weber & Österberg, 2015). Hereby they can often only offer lower financial compensation, and non-monetary incentives, than the private sector. This imply that non- monetary incentives could be fruitful for attracting youth to the armed forces. The competition is enhanced through low unemployment and a strong economy and makes successful recruitment even more difficult during a good economic situation (Cohn, 2007). Problems in recruitment of volunteers due to economic development is not a novel phenomenon. The US armed forces already had difficulties in recruitment in the 1970s before changing to a voluntary system in 1973 (van Doorn, 1976; Gilroy, Philips & Blair, 1990). These challenges, recognized in the 1970s and 1980s, are still challenging today as many western democracies face recruitment problems (Szvircsev Tresch, 2010; Österberg, 2017). In AVFs, there generally is a lack of specialists such as e.g. IT-specialists and medical personnel (Harding, 2007). This is one of the factors why in some countries the armed forces recruit non- nationals. The armed forces of Belgium and Luxembourg recruit EU- citizens and Spain recruits Spanish-speaking people from South America. France has employed foreigners in their armed forces for years (Bender, 2006).

Values and motives and their implications for the armed forces Richardson, Op den Buijs & van der Zee (2011) claim that an increasing proportion of ethnic minorities in the West has made cultural diversity an important issue in many organizations. The importance of cultural diversity has also become of increasing importance for the armed forces (Winslow & Dunn, 2002; Richardson, Bosch & Moelker, 2007). This depends mainly on two factors: an increase in numerical troops deployed in Islamic countries such as Afghanistan that requires an understanding of Eastern cultures, and the fact that a defense force typically should be a reflection of society in terms of gender, socioeconomic class, religion and ethnicity 20

(Richardson et al, 2011). This new direction, considering cultural awareness and the armed forces mirroring society, is far from the needs of the first and second world wars, where only young men were recruited as a result of the ways war was conducted at that time. Österberg and Rydstedt (2013) found that Swedish conscripts volunteering for international military service assessed themselves better for desirable values (altruism and family-oriented values), than those not wanting to do international military service.

There are studies dealing with motives for joining the armed forces, a short summary is presented in the following section. Eighmey (2006) distinguished between tangible occupational goals such as job benefits or education, and intrinsic and intangible institutional goals – such as fidelity. When analyzing the motives behind enlistment decisions among American high-school attendants, Griffith (2008) found that soldiers motivated by intrinsic, institutional goals reported a higher willingness to serve in international missions, to remain in the army and to serve their country compared to those with motives that are more instrumental. Österberg and Rydstedt (2013) found that conscripts who volunteered for international military service had significantly higher family-orientated and altruistic values than those not volunteering. Basic values as well as attitudes can be seen as related to what Richardson, Verweij and Winslow (2004) describe as moral fitness in relation to fulfilling peacekeeping missions. Moral fitness is the ethical requirements to be upheld by the military personnel in the complex types of conflicts where peacekeepers are called in. As the term fitness suggests, Richardson, Verweij and Winslow (2004) claim that similarly to physical fitness “moral fitness” also needs to be regularly practiced in everyday life to be upheld, it is something that can be exercised and improved, just like physical fitness. Moral fitness reflects on moral and ethical dilemmas in missions and suggests that moral and ethical dilemmas are an increasing problem during international missions.

On the threshold between conscription and AVF, it is of significance to study who is interested in a continued commitment in the SAF and which qualities they have, whether it is international military service as was the case during conscription, or as a contracted soldier within the AVF.

Aim

The overriding aim of this thesis is: 21

To study the prerequisites for the SAF in order to recruit and retain sufficient numbers of suitable individuals to the organization. Each of the three studies included in this thesis have a specific aim, which is described in the following:

Study 1) What characterized the conscripts who were willing to participate in international military missions, in terms of physiological and mental capacities? And how did these capacities develop during their compulsory military service?

Study 2) How do the job characteristics affect the newly recruited soldiers’ motivation for wanting to stay in the SAF?

Study 3) Is there an interplay between personality and job characteristics in relation to turnover intentions within the SAF?

The organization of the Swedish Armed Forces The Supreme Commander is the head of the SAF and is the highest-ranking officer on active duty. The SAF consists of three service branches: The Army, the Navy and the Air Force. In addition to this, the Home Guard is also a military reserve force. The SAF has four main tasks: to assert the territorial integrity of Sweden, to defend the country if attacked by a foreign nation, to support the civil community in case of disasters and to deploy forces to international peace support operations (www.forsvarsmakten.se, 2016). The Headquarters is the highest level of command in the SAF, and the Supreme Commander leads it with a civilian Director General as his deputy. On unit level, the battalions, companies and platoons are organized by traditional international military standards.

Organizational pre-requisites for personnel policies and retention The following sections will deal with the specific features that characterize a military context and some of the theories applicable to study this research area. Besides the individual factors and dispositions, there are also organizational factors and conditions that can improve or worsen the predispositions for a good recruitment and retention strategy within the SAF. Among others, theories of job satisfaction in general have been shown to be closely related to retention of personnel, and Hackman and Oldham’s Job characteristics model (1974, 1980) is one of the most utilized models to understand the complexity of job characteristics and their outcome. 22

Job satisfaction from an organizational perspective

The definition of job satisfaction varies depending on the theoretical viewpoint, and no specific definition is widely accepted. One of the most accepted definitions is Locke's (1976) which describes job satisfaction as a pleasant / positive emotional state resulting from the assessment of human work or work experience. Job satisfaction can be said to be the definition of the person’s reactions in relation to work and applies not only to the work performed, but also specific aspects of attitudes towards salary, working conditions, colleagues, management, promotion and job content. These components are assumed to be included if people feel they have total job satisfaction (Locke, 1976). Employees can experience different levels of satisfaction in the different subcategories, but the sum of these experiences is job satisfaction (Smither, 1998). When the feelings of this attitude are positive it is called job satisfaction and when the feelings are negative, it may be termed labor discontent.

Spector (1997) provides a more general definition of job satisfaction, as whether or not an individual is satisfied with the overall job. Hulin and Judge (2003) give a more reflective definition, stating that job satisfaction also comprises different psychological responses to an individual's job, and that these responses have cognitive affective and behavioral consequences. Job satisfaction can furthermore be considered important from two perspectives, where the first is that job satisfaction is an indicator of a person's psychological well-being, the second is that it is often assumed that high job satisfaction leads to motivation and a good work performance (Arnold, Cooper & Robertson, 2015) In general, most definitions cover the affective feeling employees have towards their job. This could be the job in general or their attitudes towards specific aspects of it, such as: their colleagues, pay or working conditions.

Perceived working conditions and Job satisfaction in a military context

Studies conducted concerning job satisfaction in a military context show the following outcomes in relation to job satisfaction. Sanchez, Bray, Vincus, and Bannerman (2004) showed that the two strongest predictors of job satisfaction were perceived amount of work demands, and quality of the leadership. Alpass, Long, Chamberlain and MacDonald (1997) showed that employees in the U.S Armed Forces had lower job satisfaction compared to those who left the 23 army and later found a civilian job. However, in both groups a positive relation was found between job satisfaction, good leadership and high work autonomy. Schumm, Gade and Bell (2003) correspondingly found that the demographic characteristics, age, seniority in the army and higher education were positively related to job satisfaction in the armed forces. Some studies also examined the impact of both work related factors as well as non-work related factors, and found that quality of life (QOL) relates to retention. QOL can be described as the general well-being of individuals, as well as societies, by this means drawing negative and positive features of life. QOL covers general life satisfaction, comprising everything from physical health, family, education, to job characteristics, wealth, and the environment (Sirgy, 2001). Furthermore, job satisfaction within the military has been studied by Woefel and Savell (1978) through job satisfaction, Gade, Tiggle and Schumm (2003) through organizational commitment and Segal, Rohall, Jones and Manos (1999) who studied the impacts of deployment. Wilcove, Schwerin and Kline (2009) used a multidimensional approach to measure satisfaction at work and outcomes, as high ratings of life domains in general affect job performance. The findings from Wilcove, Schwerin, and Wolosin, (2003) and Schwerin, Kline, Olmsted, and Wilcove (2006) propose that non-work factors have a direct relationship to retention plans and work factors have a direct relationship to organizational commitment, which in turn is related to retention plans. Organizational commitment can be defined as an individual’s psychological attachment to the organization. Meyer and Allen (1991) claim that organizational commitment to an organization is a psychological state, and that three distinct components affects employees feeling about their organization. The three components are, affective commitment (affection for the job), continuance commitment (fear of loss) and normative commitment (a feeling of obligation to stay). Additionally, Mercurio (2015) extended the concept by reviewing earlier studies on organizational commitment, stating that affective commitment is the main principle of organizational commitment. Several studies have demonstrated a negative relationship between job satisfaction and staff turnover (e.g. Harrison, Newman & Roth, 2006; Saari & Judge, 2004). Other studies, however, indicate that job satisfaction does not directly impact the individual’s propensity to leave the organization. It does, however, influences issues such as organizational commitment, which in turn is related to employee turnover, hence it seems to have a mediating effect on retention (Horn & Griffeth, 1995; Lytell & Drasqow, 2009). 24

The Job Characteristics Model

The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) (Hackman and Oldham, 1974, 1976) is the most applied model for studying and describing how job satisfaction and motivation occur when the work environment encourages intrinsically motivating characteristics. The model comprises the following dimensions: job characteristics, psychological states and work outcomes. The fourth job dimension is autonomy and the fifth dimension is feedback.

The five key job characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback influence three critical psychological states (CPS). The CPS are meaningfulness, (which relates to skill variety), task identity and task significance. Responsibility relates to autonomy and knowledge of results relates to feedback from work. Subsequently, the three psychosocial states then lead to a number of possible outcomes, including job satisfaction. Therefore, from an organization’s point of view, it is thought that by improving the five core job dimensions this will subsequently lead to a better work environment and increased job satisfaction. The JCM has shown positive relationships with job satisfaction and with organizational commitment (Lin & Hsieh, 2002; Chiu & Chen, 2005).

The CPS are theorized to mediate between the core job dimensions, and on the other hand, personal performance and work outcomes – e.g. work motivation, job satisfaction and turnover (Behson, Eddy & Lorenzet, 2000; Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The critical psychological states are understood as the causal core of the model, (Hackman & Oldham, 1980), as they are crucial for moderating the outcome of the job characteristics. A number of review studies (Barrick, Mount, & Li, 2013; Fried & Ferries, 1987; Humphrey, Nahrgang & Morgeson, 2007) have offered limited support for the JCM. Based on a review of over 200 studies Fried and Ferris (1987) established a modest support for the JCM. The critical job dimensions have been revealed to relate to the outcome variables, although stronger to the mental variables (job satisfaction and work motivation) than to the behavioral outcomes (absence, turnover and work performance) (Boonzaier et al., 2001; Fried & Ferris, 1987). Furthermore, the almost constant exclusion of the CPS in most studies, was critized, in the meta-analysis conducted by Fried and Ferris (1987).

Figure 1. The Job Characteristics Model.

Figure 1 shows the relations between job characteristics, the critical psychological states and work outcomes. Growth Need Strength moderates both the relationship of job characteristics and psychological states, and the relationship between psychological states and the work outcomes.

Theory of Purposeful Behavior – an interactional approach to work-related behavior

The theory of Purposeful Work Behavior by Barrick, Mount & Li, (2013) integrates higher-order goals with principles derived from the Five-Factor Model (FFM) (Costa & McRae, 1992) of personality and the expanded job characteristics model to explain how traits and job characteristics jointly and interactively influence work outcomes. The core principle of the theory is that personality traits initiate purposeful goal strivings, and when the motivational forces associated with job characteristics act in concert with these purposeful motivational strivings, individuals experience the psychological state of experienced meaningfulness. In turn, experienced meaningfulness triggers task-specific motivation processes that influence the attainment of work outcomes (Barrick et al., 2013). The Theory of Purposeful Work Behavior Model represents a contemporary progress in the interactional approach to the analysis of work-related behavior. More specifically than earlier models, it suggests that personal dispositions and job characteristics interact in influencing work outcomes (Barrick, Mount & Li, 2013). The main principle is that personality traits make the individual prone to strive for the types of purposeful goals that match his/her personality. 26

When the personal motivations associated with striving for these goals are supported by the job characteristics, a psychological state of experienced meaningfulness is reached.

Figure 2. Striving for purposefulness and meaningfulness. From Barrick, Mount and Li (2013) p.134

In order to study the relationship between these two motivational dynamics, Barrick, Mount and Li (2013) propose the concept of achievement striving motivation. It is described as “...an employee´s desire to complete things in a timely, careful, efficient way and... characterized by a strong focus on getting things done” (Barrick, Mount and Li 2013; p.145).

The central principle of the theory is that personality traits launch purposeful goal strivings, and when the motivational forces associated with job characteristics act in unity with the purposeful motivational strivings, individuals experience the psychological state of experienced meaningfulness. In turn, experienced meaningfulness activates task-specific motivation processes that influence the fulfilment of work outcomes (Barrick, Mount & Li, 2013). 27

Personality psychology and its relation to job satisfaction

Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that tries to explain and understand humans’ ways of acting and working from an overall perspective, rather than different individual sub- functions, such as cognition, motivation and perception (John, Robins & Pervin, 2008). Theories within the area of personality are many and diverse, as Hogan, Johnson and Briggs (1997) show. Historically people have always wanted to be able to classify and categorize individuals and themselves. Thousands of years ago, individuals were classified on the basis of an idea that personality was connected to body fluids and how those fluids affected behavior. A more systematic approach and desire to scientifically explain and study human behavior led to new and better methods for describing and explaining human behavior and personality traits. One of the most influential schools of thought, from the 19th century to date, is the psychoanalytic approach to personality (John, Robins & Pervin, 2008), where drive and events in childhood are given most importance. The psychoanalytic approach emphasizes traits as crucial for an individual´s behavior, whereas the cognitive approach to psychology emphasizes the environment or the context the individual works in, as determining behavior and individual development.

Personality traits

Mischel (1968) proclaimed that personality instruments could not predict behavior with a correlation of more than 0.3., hence making it somewhat hard to publish articles on the matter. Social psychologists like Mischel argued that attitudes and behavior were not stable, but varied with the situation. Predicting behavior from personality instruments was claimed to be impossible. However, it has later been confirmed empirically that the extent of the predictive correlations of traits with real-life criteria can rise significantly under stressful emotional conditions, consequently accounting for a significantly larger proportion of the predictive variance. In addition, emerging methodologies challenged this and Epstein and O´Brien (1985) give a historical and a more modern perspective describing how researchers found that they could predict patterns of behavior by gathering greater numbers of observations, instead of trying to predict solitary cases of behavior. Consequently, correlations between personality and behavior increased considerably, and personality per se was accepted as a concept (Kendrick & Funder, 1988). Lucas and Donnellan (2009) argue that 28 personality and social psychologists now usually agree that both personal and situational variables are needed to account for human behavior. In the 1980s, Goldberg (1981) started his own verbal project, highlighting five broad factors once again, in which he later created the term "Big Five" as a label for the factors.

Personality traits have proven to be relatively stable over time (Judge, Bono, Ilies and Gerhardt, 2002; Staw and colleagues, 1985, 1986). However, they have had limited independent value in behavior prediction (Fleeson & Noftle, 2008). Furthermore, individual variability across different situations or contexts is large, which raises doubts about the meaningfulness of a trait approach to personality (e.g. Fleeson & Noftle, 2008; Mischel & Shoda, 1998). From another perspective, personality is understood to be an interaction between the individual’s mental constructs (e.g. goals, expectancies), cognitive-affective processes, and the external environment (Mischels & Shoda, 1998). Departing from this perspective, the role of these mediating mental representations or processes (rather than traits per se), in interaction with the external context or environment, are thus of key importance for behavior prediction (Mischels & Shoda, 1995; 1998)

Personality psychology is often used for analyzing group culture, individuals and group interactions to develop and/or evaluate employee selection, and assessment procedures. This branch of psychology studies the personality and its variation among people by studying e.g., individual psychological differences, psychological similarities and different psychological processes. This could also be used to predict human reactions or problems to other people (Winnie & Gittinger, 1973), or as to study behaviors or thoughts that affect people’s values, attitudes and expectations (Krauskopf & Saunders, 1994). Other areas of use are assessing leadership and employee motivation strategies, and studying ways organizations can effectively manage cultural differences and different leadership styles (Aamodt, 2010).

The Big Five or the Five-Factor theory of personality

The rise of personality psychology in the 20th century in general, and the Big Five trait taxonomy in particular, emerged in the 1930s and Allport (1937) tried to find common words that describe a person, or personality. Allport found 18 000 words that described personality in different ways, choosing 4 000 words he found to be essential (Evans & Rothbart, 2007). McDougall (1932) suggested that personality could be largely studied based on five separate 29 factors. Cattell (1945) continued the work of Allport and made statistical calculations from these words, finding 16 factors that described personality factors, or traits. The factors that emerged within research during this period, from the 1930s and onwards, were in many cases similar to those factors used by researchers today (Barrick & Mount, 1991).

The Big Five consists of five broad personality dimensions (See e.g. Barrick & Mount, 1991, John & Srivastava, 1999). The Five-Factor model of personality (FFM) stems from Costa and McCrae (1992) and has a marginally different framework; for example, values are considered an aspect of Openness in the FFM, but not in the original Big Five. However, the rise of the FFM suggests that personality consists of five independent dimensions; Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Emotional stability (neuroticism), Agreeableness and Extraversion (Barrick & Mount, 1991). Several studies (Digman, 1990) show the robustness of the Five-Factor Model, independent of instruments (Costa & McCrae, 1988), culture (Noller, Law & Comrey, 1987) and different samples (Digman, 1990). The FFM has been validated through various studies in western society (Saucier, Hampson, Goldberg & Hampson, (2000). However, Ashton and Lee (2005) showed that more factors emerged, as did Hough, (1992), and Block (1995) argued that there are more dimensions, even more important than those in the FFM. Nevertheless, the Big Five is the most frequently used concept of personality, and tests deriving from the Big Five, dominate the test sector within the field of psychology.

The dimensions of the Five Factor Model (FFM) (Costa & McRae, 1992) have often been applied to assess emotional well-being and role performance in military contexts. Bartone, Eid, Johnsen, Laberg and Snook (2009) found extraversion to be a significant predictor of military leadership among army cadets in field training, while conscientiousness was better in predicting their academic achievement. Fiedler, Oltmanns and Turkheimer, (2004) found conscientiousness, agreeableness and emotional stability to be predictors of successful job performance in a military context. Salimi, Karaminia and Esmaeili (2011) found extraversion to be strongly associated with successful management style, among a sample of Iranian senior military leaders, while neuroticism was shown to have negative associations with military leadership. A Turkish study aimed at identifying selection criteria for armed forces officers by having already active officers rank the importance of personality traits of relevance and importance to the military profession (Symer, Symer, Demiutku, & Cifci, 2001). This study was based on the FFM and found conscientiousness, and agreeableness/ extraversion to be the 30 personality traits rated by senior officers as most relevant and important for a successful military career.

The implication of personality in the military The increased attention today on the health of soldiers and officers deployed to places like Iraq and Afghanistan has increased the focus on the possibility of predicting strong and good psychological functioning (Erbes et al, 2011). Schaubrook, Riolli, Peng and Spain (2011) also stress the fact that individuals in many occupations, such as soldiers and fire fighters, have strong features of psychologically demanding tasks to cope with in their everyday life. Military personnel may have to endure isolation, threats of a physical nature, and they are often exposed to stressful situations of different kinds.

However, at the beginning of the 20TH century, many soldiers were regarded as cowards or deserters when showing signs of maladaptive psychological reactions to combat (Michel, 2005). Myers (1915) introduced the term “shell shock”, meaning a psychological state, caused by biological changes in the brain after being exposed to shelling. This finally helped persons get a diagnosis, instead of being seen as weaklings. The work of Charcot (1887) and eventually Freud (1920, 1964) also helped society understand the psychological effects of trauma. During World War II, soldiers suffering from psychological trauma were evacuated, creating a shortage of personnel at the front, thus parting from the experiences of World War I, where Salmon (1917) found that early intervention could mitigate the effects of shell shock or trauma. More lately, Adler et al (2009) showed that early intervention and debriefing significantly decrease the occurrence of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) among American combat soldiers.

During and after the Vietnam War, a new direction for studying personality in the military evolved as PTSD (DSM-IV American Psychiatric Association, 1994) was identified among hundreds of thousands of former American soldiers. The recognition of PTSD also increased the field of research in such areas as violence and criminality (Kilpatrick et al, 1993). Kulka et al (1990) describe how studies of Vietnam veterans contributed to explaining and understanding PTSD, and that PTSD and other psychiatric conditions are also positively related to higher exposure to combat. 31

Personality in the armed forces – the rise of research in a military context

The end of the Cold War resulted in different strategies and tasks for the armed forces, as mentioned earlier. The period after the Cold War also resulted in a new way of warfare where the traditional peacekeeping missions were replaced by peace-enforcement missions or separations of parties by force (Michel, 2005). Johansson (2001) argues that peacekeepers are in need in of more training than the peace enforcers, depending of the multi-faceted tasks they carry out during a mission. However, the increasing need for peace-enforcement operations, and a more dominant NATO on military conflicts in Europe, during this period resulted in more numerous studies of the mental health in the military. During the 1990s, at the same time as Sweden started to deploy numbers of soldiers and officers to former Yugoslavia as peacekeepers, the UN created a Peacekeeping Operations/Training Unit to prepare peacekeepers for their difficult work (United Nations, 1995). The Unit advised countries to present their potential peacekeepers with information about the possibilities of mental disorders during or after a mission. The Unit (United Nations, 1995, Pt. 2) stated that three broad types of psychological strain could occur: the first were the occupational stressors, discomforts, and deprivations of missions in foreign cultures and climates, the reactions to factors involving vulnerability, group cohesion and e.g. lack of family support. The second was the cumulative effect of occupational stress that could lead to distress and exhaustion and burn-out if long-lasting. The last and often the most severe type with symptoms was that of the stressors connected to direct experience of some extraordinary life- threatening or atrocious event, or a close identification with someone who has had just had such an experience. The next section will discuss stress as a general phenomenon, but foremost stress in the military context which sometimes appears to be multi-faceted. For the military selection, stress, job performance and leadership are areas that are ever-present, regardless of era or culture.

A brief history of Selection Judges Section 7 (the Bible) described Gideon's victory over the Midianites more than three thousand years ago. 32,000 people marched with Gideon to destroy the Midianites. The Lord said to Gideon that there were too many people in his entourage, and asked Gideon, "ask those who fear and are afraid to return home," 22,000 then turned back. The Lord said to 32

Gideon, "There are still too many people present, ask each to drink the water in the river." Those who fell to their knees, without bothering to guard their backs, were sent home; those who drank water by bringing water to their mouths using their hands were selected to follow Gideon. A total of 300 remained. This can be seen as one of the earliest selections in a military context (Carlstedt & Widén, 1997).

Since the FFM is the most widespread concept of personality, the use of the Big Five within testing and selection is common. The use of the Big Five in personality tests has been questioned historically, but numerous studies show support for the Big Five (e.g. Salgado, 2002 & Visweswaran & Ones, 2002) in predicting different facets of job performance and work outcomes, such as turnover and job satisfaction. De Fruyt and Salgado (2003), show that conscientiousness and neuroticism predict job performance across jobs, countries and assessment methods.

Personnel selection involves the goal orientation of applicants and organizations, and interviews have traditionally been one of the most important pieces of information in regard to selection decisions (Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff & Mishra, 2011). But today, the increase in technology has made tests of measures of talent, achievement, and also personality more common in the selections process (Schinkel, Van Dierendonck, Van Vianen & Ryan, 2011). Measuring personality has become an important selection tool (Stark et al., 2014), but there is still a need to figure out how the different personality factors may influence and interact with environmental variables to affect performance and other important work criteria. Besides, as the more narrow aspects of the FFM seem to have more influence on work criteria than the broader factors (Dudley, Orvis, Lebicki, & Cortina 2006), there are reasons to believe that this issue will be further discussed. In addition to work-related aspects, personality has a long proven history of correspondence with psychological well-being (e.g., DeNeve & Cooper, 1998; Steel, Schmid, & Shultz, 2008). Bäccman and Carlstedt (2010) developed a Profession- Focused Personality Questionnaire (PQ 41 items), adapted for a military context. The structure of the PQ was modelled by means of confirmatory factor analysis, and its convergent validity was tested against the FFPI (Hendricks, Hofstee, & de Raad, 1999, 2000) and the SIMP (Woods & Hampson, 2005) as correlations and showed satisfactory results. 33

Stress in general and stress in a military context

Stress is a well-researched area, in the following I will give a brief overview of some of the implications of stress in the military.

Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) description of stress is widely accepted and it can be explained as the perceived imbalance between demands facing an individual and his/her resources to meet those demands, or as occurring when pressure surpass one's perceived capacity to cope. Furthermore, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) claim that stress is not necessarily a direct response to a stressor, and that one's resources and ability to cope could mediate the stress response and therefore the response could be subject to a change, thus allowing stress to some extent be controllable. Palmer (1989) describes it as follows: stress is the psychological, physiological and behavioral response by an individual when they perceive a lack of balance between the demands placed upon them and the ability to meet those demands, which, over a period of time, can lead to sickness. The interpretation of the stressful event is more important than the event itself, and it is the primary appraisal, which decides the severity of the stressor, and the secondary appraisal deciding how well the individual can manage the stressor. There are then different coping strategies, which may reduce the stress, emotion-focused, occupation- focused, problem-focused and appraisal-focused are among the most common coping strategies. Several authors (e.g. Bandow, 1999; Johansson, 2001; Moelker, 2005; Richardson, Verweij & Winslow, 2004) claim that today’s soldiers must be able to act in more complex and in many cases more uncertain environments than previously was the case. There are also numerous studies showing that soldiers that serve in combat often are exposed to high stress and the hazards that might follow combat-related stress (e.g. Thomas, Dandeker, Greenberg, Kelly, & Wessely (2006) Taft et al (2007) Tucker, Sinclair & Thomas (2005). Dolan and Ender (2008) point out stressors that characterize the military environment, often experienced due to traumatic situations during deployment. According to Bartone (2006) the primary stressor dimensions in modern military operations are isolation, ambiguity, powerlessness, boredom (alienation), danger (threat) and a high workload. Likewise, Dirkzwager, Bramsen and Van Der Ploeg, (2005) state that feeling powerless and threatened, as well as the the feeling that the mission had become meaningless were significantly associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among Dutch soldiers and officers participating in peacekeeping missions. Similarly, war zone stress and unclear rules of engagement have also been reported as 34 significant contributors to PTSD symptoms (Thomas, Dandeker, Greenberg, Kelly, Wessely, 2006); (Litz, Orsillo, Friedman, Ehlich & Batres, (1997). For Swedish soldiers, the tradition of international military service has been that of peacekeeping character. The new direction for the SAF means that Swedish soldiers will possibly be exposed to combat to a greater extent than before, consequently in the danger zone of higher stress exposure. As the international missions shift focus from peacekeeping to combat-like situations, there will probably be more of experiences from humanitarian suffering and violations against individuals or /and groups of people for the involved soldiers.

Harris and Segal (1985) illustrated some of the stress factors associated with peacekeeping as caused e.g. by cultural deprivation, lack of privacy, and loss of control of personal time and space. Furthermore, Segal, Furukawa, and Lindh (1984) confirmed the importance of training peacekeepers to recognize the ‘low-intensity’ combat component of their missions. Finally, Stretch (1990) surveyed 121 Canadian peacekeepers with previous experience in the Vietnam War, and found that only a minority to have developed symptoms of PTSD. Litz (1996) described the changing face of peacekeeping from the non-threatening to the extremely stressful, and warned that exposure to the increasingly dangerous conditions could create potentially traumatizing events for which actual interventions should be established. In spite of the long period of knowledge about the negative effects of traumatic stress, this topic was scarcely mentioned in military psychology literature until Fiske and Taylor’s (1991), and Birenbaum’s (1994) description of peacekeeping, and Suedfeld’s and Granatstein’s (1995) were studying the impact of traumatic stress on military peacekeepers. However, subsequently Litz (1996), McDonald, Chamberlain, Long and Mirfin (1996), and Weisaeth, Melhlum, & Mortensen (1996) started to dig deeper into this matter. MacDonald, Chamberlain, Long and Mirfin (1996) conducted a study of peacekeepers, and their relation to the duration, tension, and unpredictability of their missions. For front-line peacekeepers as separate from those in more stable areas, problems regarded remaining neutral when provoked, frustration through witnessing atrocities and being unable to intervene, and being inexperienced of having civilian women and children as casualties. However, only about 3% of peacekeepers were found to be in need of clinical medical appointment, and at greatest risk were the inexperienced, the younger and the immature personnel with dysfunctional family backgrounds. 35

Weisaeth, Melhlum, & Mortensen (1996) presented a six-year follow-up study of a stratified sample of nearly 16 000 Norwegian former peacekeepers. They argued that working abroad was not the problem for these soldiers, but witnessing atrocities, and being subjected to harassment without the right to strike back. While the majority of the Norwegian peacekeeping soldiers completed their service as planned, some 3.3% or 530 individuals had to be repatriated for medical, social or disciplinary reasons, with a higher percentage of them recording symptoms of PTSD and accident-proneness than their controls. For Swedish soldiers, the tradition of international military service has been of a peacekeeping nature, and studies by Michel, Lundin and Larsson, (2003) and Michel (2005) give a good overview of mental health following service in peacekeeping operations. Furthermore, Michel (2005) found that possible predictors of poor mental health for peacekeepers could be constituted by low scores on emotional stability, personality disorders in general and prior family problems/psychiatric problems.

Hardiness as a buffer for stress Although many soldiers experience mental health problems connected to exposure to stress, some also show resilience, despite high stress levels (Bartone, 2006). This suggests that there are ways of alleviating the effect of stressful situations during and after international military service.

Hardiness is a personality trait that has proven valuable in dealing with stressful situations (Bartone, Johnsen, Eid, Brown, Laberg, 2009; Maddi & Kobasa, 1984). Hardiness can be seen as a model of courage, and also of strategies that facilitate the potential to use stressful events as opportunities to develop, rather than seeing them as disasters (Maddi, 2008). Hardiness is measured on a 15-item scale (the short version) developed by Bartone (1995). The scale consists of three factors: Commitment, Control and Challenge. The scale contains both positively and negatively loaded items covering these three factors. Commitment relates to an individual’s high or low sense of devotion to work and life, and measures an individual's propensity to get involved in various activities. The second factor, Control, refers to a high or a low sense of control in stressful situations. Control also describes the degree to which an individual tends to believe and act as if life's different situations are controllable and predictable. Challenge accounts for an individual's openness to the changes and challenges in life. Challenge also measures the degree to which an individual sees potentially challenging 36 and stressful events as providing positive opportunities for learning and development. Previous research in a military context shows that hardiness relates negatively to perceived stress and that high levels of hardiness reduce stress symptoms (Bartone, 1999; Bartone Roland, Picano & Williams, 2008; Britt, Adler & Bartone, 2001; Maddi, 2008). People with high levels of hardiness also have a greater tendency to find positive meaning in life, and create value in their work, and this is associated with a stronger sense of purpose and pride in their work, and reduces the effects of stress (Bartone, 1999). Hardiness can also be passed on, in that leaders with high hardiness may generate an increase in hardiness amongst their subordinates (Bartone, 2006). There are also studies that show a correlation between transformational leadership and less psychological stress, and lower frequencies of depression (Bliese & Britt, 2001 & Chen & Bliese, 2002); this may mean an indirect link between leadership and the level of hardiness among subordinates. Hardiness changes as a function of stress, in that exposure to highly stressful or traumatic events can result in a reduction in hardiness, which in turn leads to the experience of stressors, whereby events feel uncontrollable and threatening (Vogt, Rizvi Shipherd & Resick, 2008). Studies of hardiness have often been carried out in a military context (Bartone, 1999; Bartone, 2006; Bliese & Britt, 2001).

Job performance and personality Hough and Oswald, (2000) show that job performance can be fairly well predicted by using the “more of the same” method; i.e. earlier reactions to events predict future reactions or behavior. Personality traits are related to a number of academic and occupational outcomes. Noftle and Robins (2007) and Poropat (2009) show that the Big Five, especially conscientiousness, predict academic achievement. In terms of occupational outcomes, Judge, et al. 1999 demonstrates that childhood personality traits predict adult career achievement. A series of meta-analyses show that personality traits relate to job performance (Barrick and Mount 1991, Mount, et al. 1998) and job satisfaction (Judge, et al. 2002). Bäccman (2015) summarizes: Conscientiousness and Emotional stability have been the most validated broad factors for job training and overall job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Barrick & Mount, 2012), the other three factors appear to be more context-specific and will probably affect other work criteria besides job performance. Extraversion seems to be positive when a job entails social skills; Agreeableness seems to be positive for jobs where getting along is important, and Openness to experience seems useful when work is complex and autonomous, 37 but will also increase the probability of attrition (Barrick & Mount, 2012). These wide-ranging factors seem to be not only relevant for diverse kinds of jobs, but also for different aspects of work criteria. Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and Emotional Stability are positively related to performance in jobs involving interpersonal interactions. Results also support the hypothesis that Emotional Stability and Agreeableness are more strongly related to performance in jobs that involve teamwork (where employees interact interdependently with coworkers), than in those that involve dyadic interactions with others (where employees provide a direct service to customers and clients) (Barrick & Mount, 1998).

The development of Leadership theories Galton (1869) suggested that leadership was an exclusive asset of astounding individuals, and he suggested that the traits, which leaders possessed, were indisputable and could not be developed. Throughout the early 1900s, the study of leadership focused on traits (Yukl & Van Fleet, 1992). Most theorists, influenced by Galton, believed that trait leadership depended on the personal qualities of the leader; however, the later tradition did not accept that leadership only derives from excellent people (Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002). This trait perspective of leadership was widely accepted until the late 1940s and early 1950s, when researchers began to consider personality traits insufficient in predicting leader effectiveness (Mann, 1959).

Before the development of the Big Five, researchers tried to find traits that predicted leadership success, and at that time decided that leadership success was contextual, depending on the environment and different situations. Barrick, Mount and Judge, (2001) show how the situation changed with the development of the Big Five, and much research support the predictive ability of some traits for leadership. Unsurprisingly, conscientiousness has been shown to predict success in most jobs, as have low scores in neuroticism (ibid). Murray, Barrick and Mount (1991) also show how extraversion predicts success in certain jobs, and Judge et al (2002) showed how extraversion relates positively to leadership success. Furthermore, the fairly strong multiple correlations (R .39–.53) between the Big Five traits and leadership criteria suggest that the Big Five typology is a successful foundation for examining the dispositional predictors of leadership. “Overall, the five-factor model had a multiple correlation of .48 with leadership, indicating strong support for the leader trait 38 perspective when traits are organized according to the five-factor model.” (Judge et al., 2002: P. 765)

Organizational challenges for the military Earlier sections have dealt with the individual, personal and job characteristics regarding recruitment to and retention in the armed forces. However, research shows that organizational conditions also enhance the possibilities to staff an organization with individuals with the right qualifications, and then to retain them within the organization for a sufficiently long time.

The coming section will look at the demands put upon the military organization in order to create meaningfulness, to motivate the coworkers and to keep them in the organization. The interplay between personal, cognitive dispositions and job characteristics has a significant relation to job satisfaction (Barrick et al 2013), and this relationship is not a priority when conscription is used for manning the armed forces. Depending on a system for manning the organization, different aspects of organizational behavior are emphasized, whether it is a consequence of the prevailing system, or an active approach from the strategic management (headquarters). Studies of military organizations, (see e.g. Österberg & Rydstedt 2017, Österberg et al, 2017) show that job characteristics and experienced meaningfulness are of importance for motivating and retaining personnel.

Modern organizational theories

Organizational researchers as Argyris, McGregor, and Herzberg argued for a human relations approach to management in the 1950s (Anderson et al, 2001). They supported a more partaking style of management where the employees had more influence in the decision- making in their work environments. Herzberg’s (1966) job enrichment theory also predicted increase of jobs that would give individuals better chances to make decisions in their jobs, and job enrichment programs were implemented in many organizations, mainly American, even in the US Air Force (Anderson et al, 2013). The development of the technological production in society after the Second World War resulted in organizational difficulties for several organizations, and research focused on new ways of organizing the production (Eijnatten, 1993). The Tavistock Institute introduced the sociotechnical system theory in Europe (Trist & Bamforth, 1951; Emery & Trist, 1969). The sociotechnical approach emphasized a fit between 39 social and technical systems. The protagonists of the sociotechnical system encouraged a participative management approach, and many organizations in Great Britain, Norway and Sweden introduced this system. The sociotechnical theory concerns first and foremost the adaptation of technique to humans needs and conditions (Abrahamsson & Andersen, 1998). The organization of working groups and creation of autonomous working groups play a major part in this theory and workers as well as managers have a major responsibility for creating effective teams. The autonomous groups would have the responsibility for the implementation and organizing of work, instead of the management, as had been the case in the development of modern industrial organizations. Instead, the sociotechnical orientation implies that an organization or corporation works as an interacting system where everything is connected. The research regarding sociotechnical theory later on led to the emergence of the “quality of work life” orientation where the main thesis was that the technique and the organization should adapt to human ability, as well as to human relations and needs (Bolman & Deal, 2005). Parallel to the development of the sociotechnical theory, Herzberg (1959) conducted a study where he had asked employees about their positive and negative experiences from work life. Results from the study showed that are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. Herzberg’s two-factor theory mean that there are motivators, (e.g. recognition for own achievement, meaningful works tasks and involvement in decision-making) that contribute to positive satisfaction. Hygiene factors (e.g. salary, job security and work conditions) on the other hand, do not give positive satisfaction or lead to higher motivation, though dissatisfaction results from their nonexistence (Herzberg, 1959; 1967). It should be noted that as per the two-factor theory, above stated factors of satisfaction and dissatisfaction act independently and absence of one does not lead to the presence of another. For instance, the absence of meaningful work tasks does not lead to dissatisfaction; it is just not a state of satisfaction. Likewise, the absence of job security does not automatically lead to satisfaction. Furthermore Herzberg (1968) emphasized that by only eliminating dissatisfying job factors the performance at work will not be enhanced. The conclusion is that even with the best prerequisites of hygienic factors, employees will be neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. It is only through enhancing the motivating factors that an organization can genuinely presume enhanced motivation of their employees (Herzberg, 1968). In the JCM, Hackman and Oldham (1980) 40 extended the work by Herzberg by constructing a model signifying job characteristics and critical psychological processes as foundations for increasing job satisfaction and motivation. Need theories of motivation (e.g. Herzberg, 1968; Maslow, 1970; McClelland, 1976) try to explain what motivates persons in the workplace. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) focuses more on the cognitive antecedents that relate to motivation and the way they relate to each other (Lunenburg, 2011). Thereby, expectancy theory could be described as a cognitive process theory of motivation that is founded on the idea that people believe there are relations between the effort they put into their work, the performance they achieve from that effort, and the rewards they receive from their effort and job performance. Conclusively, people will be motivated if they believe that strong effort will lead to good performance and good performance will lead to desired rewards. Vroom (1964) was the first researcher to develop an expectancy theory with direct application to work settings, Porter and Lawler (1968) and Pinder (1987) later expanded the theory.

Hereafter follow the summaries of the three studies in this thesis.

Ethics For study 1, on all three occasions, text at the beginning of the questionnaire informed the participants about ethical considerations, confidential treatment of data, voluntary participation, and contact information for the researchers. Each participant was asked to provide a signed consent to participate in the study, and was also asked to provide a signed consent to the use of his or her social security number, in order to match all three questionnaires. Informed consent was obtained in advance, and participants were able to opt out at any time. Officers at the military units carried out data collection. The authors had neither access to personally identifying information nor points of contact. Study 2 and 3 underwent an ethical examination at the Swedish Defence University institutional review board.

Summary study 1 Rydstedt, L. W., & Österberg, J. (2013). Psychological characteristics of Swedish mandatory enlisted soldiers volunteering and not volunteering for international missions: an exploratory study. Psychological reports, 112(2). 678-688. Doi: 10.2466/17.02.PR0.112.2.678-688

Background and Aim

The Swedish Armed Forces' (SAF) re-organization from an invasion-based defense force to a much smaller force with an international focus resulted in a shift from 2010, where the previous mandatory military enlistment system was replaced with a system of contracted voluntary enlistment for the armed forces (SOU 2009:63). When mandatory enlistment for the SAF was in force, the entire year class of males age 18 years with Swedish citizenship undertook pre-screening for military fitness, where physical, cognitive, emotional, and social functioning and fitness were assessed. While pre-screening was mandatory in the last years with conscription, only 5–10% of the potential recruits were actually enlisted. This gave the SAF the opportunity to enlist the best-fitted and most motivated individuals from each year group. The voluntary recruitment scenario raised concerns about the quality and standards of potential recruits. International experience has shown that the transition from mandatory enlistment to a system based on voluntariness often has been associated with difficulties to recruit soldiers with physical as well as psychological fitness required to meet the challenges involved in military missions successfully (e.g., Tresch, 2008). The aim of this study was to assess psychological characteristics, values and attitudes among conscript soldiers volunteering for international peacekeeping (n=146), by comparing them with conscripts from the same intake and unit, who did not apply for international missions (n=275). The data for the current study was gathered in three subsequent surveys; one week after joining up, after basic training (4 months) and in the last week of conscription.

Participants

The sample in this study consisted of all the recruits in a maintenance regiment from the last class of mandatory enlisted Swedish soldiers; thus, the military training that they underwent when completing the surveys was formally mandatory. 42

The mean and median age of the participants at the start of their training was 20 years. The vast majority (427) of the respondents were men, while 17 were women; 38 failed to report their country of birth, while 421 of the respondents were born in Sweden. All participants were Swedish citizens, a requirement for military enlistment in the SAF. In all, 44 respondents failed to report the rank. Of the completed responses, 314 were private soldiers, while 91 were non-commissioned officers at squad/section level, and the remaining 28 non- commissioned officers at platoon level. The soldiers volunteering for international peacekeeping (n=146) were compared to conscripts from the same intake and unit who did not apply for international missions (n=275).

Instruments

The PQ

The Personality Questionnaire (PQ) (Bäccman & Carlstedt, 2010) is based on FFM and profession-focused for military purposes. The PQ includes 41 items that cover seven different dimensions of personality traits: Social ability (5 items), Concern for others (5 items), Orderliness (7 items), Stress resistance (5 items), Self-efficacy (7 items), Temper instability (7 items), and Independence (5 items). The PQ has shown good internal consistency and fairly good convergent validity when tested against, e.g., a Five-factor Personality Inventory (Bäccman & Carlstedt, 2010).

Psychological fitness

Psychological fitness for combat missions was assessed in the second and third surveys (α = .91 on both occasions; Guttman split-half coefficient = .80) on a scale consisting of nine items, “I perceive my ability to make decisions in demanding situations as…” with five graded Likert type response alternatives, derived from a scale developed by Solberg, et al.(2005). The original scale contained 16 items. Since it was developed for soldiers who already had signed up for and were about to be deployed in international missions, some of the items were considered less relevant for this sample of mandatory enlisted soldiers still undergoing the basic military education. The original scale has previously been shown to be a strong predictor of self-efficacy in a military context (Solberg, et al., 2005). 43

Psychological hardiness

Psychological hardiness was measured in the second (α= .69) and third (α =.73; Guttman split- half coefficient = .72) surveys by the Short Hardiness Scale developed by Bartone (1995). This scale consists of 15 items with 4 response alternatives where a higher value indicates higher hardiness, e.g., ”Changes of routines are interesting for me”, “Most days in my life are really interesting and rewarding for me”. The Short Hardiness Scale has been reported to show good criterion-related and predictive validity with respect to health and performance under high- stress conditions (Bartone, 1995, 2006).

Results and conclusions

There were no demographic differences between the groups. The volunteers reported greater stress tolerance, concern for others, extraversion, and self-confidence than the non- volunteers. There were no differences between the groups in orderliness, temper instability, or independence. Volunteers repeatedly reported greater psychological fitness for military missions and greater hardiness over the period of military service compared to the non- volunteers. Out of the 421 participants who completed the questions in the third survey about their plans after completion of their military conscription, 35% (146) reported that they had applied, or had decided to apply, for international peacekeeping missions, while 65% (275) reported other plans. In terms of physical fitness, the volunteers reported a better improvement in strength during their military training and they also reported more frequent physical training during their service. Furthermore, the volunteers reported a significantly higher stress tolerance, higher empathy and higher degrees of extraversion, as well as higher self-efficacy. In particular the correlations between stress tolerance and self-efficacy, furthermore between extraversion with concern for others and extraversion with self-efficacy. Temper instability had significant negative correlation to all personality dimensions apart from independence. The participants volunteering for enlistment to peacekeeping missions reported a significantly higher capacity to handle stressful situations in both data collections. However, it is worth noting that both of these measures significantly improved over the period of mandatory military training - for both volunteers and non-volunteers. The findings in the current study give a positive picture of the personal qualities of the conscript soldiers volunteering for international peacekeeping missions. The higher stress 44 tolerance, social competence, self-confidence, and confidence in their own capability to deal with stressful military situations are all qualities that previous studies have shown to be associated with successful military adjustment and performance. A tentative conclusion from this study is that the mandatorily enlisted soldiers that later volunteered for international peacekeeping missions constituted, to some extent, positive self-selection. Given the significantly improved psychological fitness and hardiness reported by volunteers and non- volunteers over the course of their military training, it seems possible that these psychological characteristics can be improved by proper military training, as suggested by Bartone (2006).

Summary study 2 Österberg, J. and Rydstedt, L, W. (In Press) Job satisfaction among Swedish soldiers- Applying the Job Characteristics Model to newly recruited military personnel. Military psychology.

Background and Aim

On July 1, 2010, after more than a century, Sweden’s conscription system was suspended and a professional military was introduced. This change meant that a new profession was introduced into the Swedish labor market - employed soldiers. Previously, soldiers of the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF) were employed for single missions or expeditions, but now employment contracts are signed for service in the SAF for a number of years, and there is an obligation to serve both nationally and internationally if needed (Hedlund, 2011). The current system means that the SAF first need to recruit successfully, i.e. attract individuals to apply for basic military training and then motivate those completing the training to be employed within the SAF (Weber & Österberg, 2015). The aim of the study was to examine the impact of the five core job characteristics (skill variety, task significance, task identity, autonomy, and feedback from the job itself), on the outcome variables general job satisfaction, turnover intentions and internal work motivation. Furthermore, the study aims at examining whether the critical psychological states, experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility and knowledge of results, added explanatory power to the relations between the job characteristics and the outcome variables. 45

Instruments

The Job Characteristics Model

The most common model applied to analyze work motivation is the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) (Hackman & Oldham, 1975; 1976). The JCM specifically identifies five core characteristics thought to cause work motivation: Skill variety defines the extent to which an individual must use different skills to perform his or her job. Task identity refers to the extent to which an individual can complete a whole piece of work, while Task significance concerns the extent to which a job impacts the lives of others. Taken together, these three job dimensions are referred to as “job content”. Furthermore, autonomy refers to the freedom an individual has in carrying out work and finally, feedback from the job concerns the extent to which a job imparts information about the individual's job and to the degree to which the worker is provided with clear, specific, detailed information about the effectiveness of his/her job performance. The job characteristics are hypothesized to prompt three critical psychological states of the worker, which “postulate that an individual experiences affects to the extent that he learns (knowledge of results) that he personally (experienced responsibility) has performed well on a task that he cares about (experienced meaningfulness)” (Hackman & Oldham, pp. 255-256.

The Job description survey

The Job description survey (JDS) was developed by Hackman and Oldham in 1974, and was modified in 1980. The JDS is based on a theory of how job design affects work motivation, and offers measures of (a) job dimensions, (b) individual psychological states, (c) affective reactions of employees to the job and work setting, and (d) individual growth need strength (Hackman, 1974). The JDS is used for measuring the variables in the JCM.

The outcomes in the model are the personal and work outcomes of the initial theory: Internal Work Motivation, General Job Satisfaction, Absenteeism and Turnover, and Performance Quality. As we have no independent measures on absenteeism and turnover, we created an index, working as a proxy for absenteeism/turnover of the following four questions for turnover intentions (alpha .84). sample item “I am looking for a civilian employment” 46

Participants

Questionnaire responses were obtained from 300 employed soldiers in 2012 and 2013. They represented all three armed services. Six units (two from each armed service) were invited to participate in the study and five of them responded positively. Due to the low response rates (less than 15 responses per unit), two of the units were excluded from the study. The response rate for the three remaining units (one from each armed service) was 42 %. The sample included mainly men (91%) and the mean age was 24 years; 40 % had completed basic military training and 60 % conscription. 60% were employed in the Army, 25% in the Air Force and 15% in the Navy. The data was collected with assistance from officers at the different units. Each soldier/sailor was handed a questionnaire and an addressed envelope. To guarantee that the participants responded anonymously, the participants sealed and posted their own questionnaire. The questionnaire contained written information about the study. All participants were treated in accordance with the ethical principles of human research formulated by the Swedish Research Council (2002).

Results and conclusions

The results showed that the dimensions of JCM were related to the working conditions in the SAF for this sample of newly recruited soldiers. The job dimensions included in the JCM as well as the CPS associated with these dimensions were all related to the targeted outcome variables. The demographic variables age, sex, or branch showed no significant differences in relation to any of the outcome variables. Job content related significantly to all three outcome variables - Internal Work Motivation, General Job Satisfaction and Turnover Intents. The job characteristic skill variety related positively to internal work motivation, while not relating to either general job satisfaction or turnover intentions. While task identity did not relate to internal work motivation, it was significantly related to general job satisfaction as well as to turnover intentions. Task significance related, albeit negatively, significantly to internal work motivation and positively to turnover intents. Also in the case of the job characteristic “feedback from the job”, the associated CPS “knowledge of work results” had a significant influence on all outcome variables. 47

Discussion/conclusion

Results show that all the CPS contributed significantly to the explained variance in the outcome variables, thus confirming the importance of such core principles as experienced meaningfulness, autonomy and feedback in explaining reactions to one’s work. One main finding in our study is that the CPS explains much of the outcome variables and has a strong mediating effect, as proposed by Hackman and Oldham (1976). This, we argue, is partly related to the specific sample where the participants in the present study have gone through a selection process, where physical as well as psychological suitability to military performance has been considered. The SAF need to consider how these individuals can be motivated to remain in lower positions. Some of those who do not start the officer training program are likely to apply for civilian positions, where they receive better economic benefits. To ensure high job satisfaction using other incentives is, therefore, of the utmost importance. In other countries (e.g. the USA), high school education is used as an incentive for completing a military career; in Sweden this is already free of charge for anyone who is admitted to high school or university. A major conclusion from the study is that, in order to promote organizational commitment in the armed forces, it is of crucial importance to provide working conditions that will be perceived as meaningful for newly recruited soldiers.

Summary study 3 Österberg, J. and Rydstedt, L. W., Kleiven, J. & Fors Brandebo, M. (2017). The Path to Job Satisfaction - Applying the Theory of Purposeful Behavior to Military Conditions. Journal of Defense Resources Management 8:1: 27-42

Background and Aim

In any organization, high degrees of employee satisfaction and commitment are important prerequisites for good work performance and the retention of qualified and motivated personnel. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between, on the one hand, job content, personality and performance orientation and, on the other, job satisfaction and turnover intentions, using Barrick’s et al. theory of purposeful behavior.

Questionnaire responses were obtained from 300 employed soldiers in 2012 and 2013. They represented all three armed services. Six units (two from each armed service) were 48 invited to participate in the study and five of them responded positively. Due to the low response rates (less than 15 responses per unit), two of the units were excluded from the study. The response rate for the three remaining units (one from each armed service) was 42 %. The sample included mainly men (91%) and the mean age was 24 years; 40 % had completed basic military training and 60 % conscription. 60 % were employed in the Army, 25 % in the Air Force and 15 % in the Navy. The data was collected with assistance from officers at the different units. Each soldier/sailor was handed a questionnaire and an addressed envelope. To guarantee that the participants responded anonymously, the participants sealed and posted their own questionnaire. The questionnaire contained written information about the study. All participants were treated in accordance with the ethical principles of human research formulated by the Swedish Research Council (2002).

Instruments

The Job description survey

Personality Personality was measured using the Single Item Measures of Personality (SIMP), (Woods and Hampson, 2005), which is a short form of the Big Five or the FFM. The SIMP showed a mean convergence of r=0.61 with longer scales of Big Five measures, as well as acceptable reliability compared to longer scales. Our sample had undergone psychological screening before entering the SAF, hence there was a restricted range in our sample, mainly regarding neuroticism, because the psychological screening discriminates against those who score low (reversed score) on neuroticism. For emotional stability, the median value was 7.0 (SD 1.65) and for conscientiousness 4.17 (SD 1.70) respectively, on a nine-point scale. 49

Performance Orientation Our index for achievement striving comprised four questions (Cronbach’s alpha .74). The first two are recovered from Hackman and Oldham’s JDS: “In this job it is difficult for me to be concerned about whether or not it is done properly”, and “I feel a very big personal responsibility for the work I do”. The second two questions were derived from a qualitative interview study, by Fors-Brandebo et al (2012): “I feel that my work contributes to accomplishing the unit´s task” tasks, and “I feel that I am able to put my skills to good use”.

Turnover intentions

An index of four questions was used for turnover intentions (Cronbach’s alpha .84). “I am looking for a civilian employment”, “I want to be trained and then leave the SAF”, “I will not stay long in the SAF because of the low salary” and “I have decided to leave the SAF”.

Results

A path analysis gave partial, but not full support to the assumptions behind the theory of the purposeful behavior model. No relationships were found between the personality traits of emotional stability and conscientiousness, either to performance orientation or directly to job satisfaction. On the other hand, performance orientation showed a consistent relationship to perceived levels of the job characteristics, which mediated the path between the person- related variables and the outcome variables. Performance orientation also showed a strong direct relationship to general job satisfaction, which, in turn, was strongly related to turnover intentions.

Discussion/conclusion

These findings have practical implications for the SAF. Firstly, dropouts from basic training and secondly, the large proportion of recruits who leave the SAF after a short period, produce an unsatisfactorily high attrition rate. The problems for the SAF in retaining personnel are costly and alarming and highlight the importance of job satisfaction. As our results show, general job satisfaction correlates negatively with turnover intentions. For the SAF this means that providing their employees with meaningful work tasks, giving soldiers responsibility and, most of all, facilitating performance orientation must be prioritized. Those joining the Swedish military have done so on a voluntary basis and our results suggest that providing these, mostly 50 young, people with a work environment that generates performance orientation is significant in order to retain personnel.

The apparent importance of performance orientation highlights important issues for the SAF. It is of great importance to provide motivated individuals, who have joined voluntarily, with duties that match their desire for high performance. Cutting down on training and opportunities for soldiers to train as they fight seems to have a significantly negative impact on this group. If the SAF provide opportunities for contracted soldiers to perform at work, a greater proportion of them will stay in the organization.

Final discussion The aim of this thesis was to study the prerequisites the SAF needs to recruit sufficient numbers of suitable individuals, and to retain them within the organization.

The transformation of the SAF implies great challenges. The probably greatest challenge is the recruitment of sufficient numbers of personnel with sufficient qualities. The SAF competes with employers on the civil market, which was not the case when the compulsory military service comprised almost every single 18-year-old man. This thesis shows that there are somewhat different incentives, or motives for joining or wanting to remain in the SAF, depending on the manning system. Results from the conscription system suggest that motives for doing international military service has a positive relation to sound values, experiencing a good basic training, good leadership and positive psychological functioning. Reasons for staying within the system in an AVF seem to be concerns regarding the psychosocial working conditions and job satisfaction of the employees. To benefit from experiences from both systems appears to be a success, and the Swedish Government’s decision to reinstate conscription seems to be the most successful and realistic way of re-organizing the SAF. There is a great potential in the conscription system, nevertheless, serving 6 months abroad is not the same thing as signing a contract.

Findings in thesis suggests that for a nation of Sweden´s size combined with the socioeconomic situation in Swedish society, an exclusive AVF is inadequate to meet the demands of a well-functioning military force both in terms of numbers and qualities. The 100 years of conscription guaranteed a supply of youth into the SAF, as shown by Österberg and Carlstedt (2010) and Weber and Österberg (2015). In spite of conscription, the last years before the 51 transition to an AVF, it was still in reality voluntary to do conscription. If an individual was not motivated, he was unlikely to be called in. This system with a voluntary conscription has also shown to be positively related to the proportion of women doing compulsory military service, one issue that is prioritized within the SAF, and an outspoken goal from the Swedish Parliament is to increase the proportion of women in the SAF. At the time of completion of this thesis, the Swedish Parliament voted to re-instate conscription in Sweden, now with a gender neutral conscription, which is the condition in Norway, where the recruitment numbers are more than sufficient. The relatively quick, dramatic change in the security situation in the Nordic region with the increased Russian presence therein also put pressure on the SAF to, after 20 years of downsizing, increase the volume (from 4000 in 2018, to 8000 in 2023) and the effectiveness of the SAF. A conscription system can in a much easier way provide the SAF with personnel, if the situation should demand so. If there is a change in the security situation, the challenge of sufficient numbers of people called in could easily be solved by calling in more conscripts. The AVF relies solely on voluntariness, implying difficulties of a quick replenishment of soldiers, especially if there are many jobs available on the labor market. The reasons for putting conscription to rest has also been shown to be obsolete as the main focus for the SAF has returned to national defense (instead of international operations), the cost for the AVF has shown to be as expensive as for a conscription system and finally the political situation and the increased military activity in the Nordic region poses new challenges that calls for other ways of recruiting, training and using of soldiers. Sweden is not the only European country that calls for a re-instating of conscription, there has been an ongoing political discussion in several countries (e.g. Germany (http://www.telegraph.co.uk), Bulgaria (http://sofiaglobe.com) and Slovenia (http://www.rtvslo.si) where they struggle with recruitment and retention issues after their conversion to AVFs.

Military training is considered to be a life-changing experience (Elder, Gimbel, & Ivie, 1991), and military service provides a strong set of norms and behaviors. Submission with these directions is rewarded and previous habits can become obsolete and may even be punished. According to Jackson et al. (2012), this socialization process can facilitate changes in personality. However, personality traits and life satisfaction seem to remain stable, regardless of the considerable changes in an individual’s life associated with military training. Military service coincides to a large extent with early adulthood, which is a time when most people 52 start to live on their own, and undergo several changes in life. Throughout that period, young individuals tend to grow more mature personalities (Lüdtke et al., 2011), and men who join the army seem to be no exception (Lönnqvist, Mäkinen, Paunonen, Henriksson, & Verkasalo, 2008). The timeless issues of recruitment, selection, training and retaining personnel with the right qualifications in the military will not diminish in the years ahead; on the contrary, given the more complex nature of warfare, these matters will be of even greater importance.

The SAF need to consider the psychosocial working conditions in their peacetime organization, as well as the different incentives shown in this thesis in order to retain personnel. Lievens and Van Hoye (2009) emphasize the importance of positive word-of-mouth early in the recruitment process, which the SAF must consider in the process of attracting young people.

Legree et al. (2000) stress that many youths do not have parents with adequate knowledge and information about a military career, a fact that is somewhat problematic as the parents’ views of the military enhances the propensity to enlist. This issue is expected to become more serious as a result of the fact that the number of parents with military experience will decrease. Gibson, Griepentrog, and Marsh (2007) also found that the intentions of parents to advise a military career and communication frequency (regarding enlistment) were positively related to the youths’ intentions to enlist. With over 100 years with a conscription system, a big proportion of the male population over 35 years have completed compulsory military service. And from what we learned, there is support for an element of positive self-selection among those wanting to have a sustained engagement with the SAF. When the effects of the new manning system are visible in some years, it will be interesting to see if the pattern remains.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation (Herzberg, 1964; 1966) is constructed on the concept that the existence of one certain set of job characteristics or incentives leads to job satisfaction at work, while another and distinct set of job characteristics leads to dissatisfaction at work. Consequently, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not to be understood as while one increases, the other one diminishes, instead they are independent phenomena. The theory suggests that to improve job attitudes and productivity, managers should recognize and attend to both sets of characteristics and not assume that an increase in satisfaction leads to a decrease in dissatisfaction. The two factors associated with 53

Herzberg’s theory differentiate between motivators (e.g. stimulating work, appreciation for one´s achievement and meaningful tasks), and hygiene factors (e.g. salary, job security and fringe benefits) (Herzberg, 1966).

Findings from study two and three in this thesis suggest that newly employed soldiers are more driven by motivators, than by hygiene factors. This is important to bear in mind as much of the ongoing discussion in the media, and in the SAF as well, has been focused on hygiene factors when debating the issue of retention. For the SAF, it is easier to provide the employees with higher salaries and fringe benefits, than meaningful tasks and recognition for one´s work. However, this direction can be devastating in the long term as providing motivators seem to be more valued by the employees.

The relevance of this thesis has risen since Sweden’s decision to re-instate conscription, implying that the findings from the studies included herein could have great importance for the SAF in the transition back to compulsory military service.

The SAF now face a similar challenge regarding the recruitment to the AVF. Results from the first year with the AVF showed that recruitment was successful, both in terms of quantity and quality. The SAF managed to recruit individuals whose qualities, but this has later declined, but the first year the recruits were as good as or better compared to previous years when the conscript system was still in use (Jonsson, Carlstedt, & Johansson, 2011). Despite this positive result one should bear in mind that experiences from other European armed forces transforming into an AVF indicate that the first years after the transition the recruitment of applicants is satisfying, but later on tends to decline (Manigart, 2003, 2005; Tresch, 2010).

It is obvious that volunteer military recruitment has been a problem during the AVF in Sweden since 2010, although the SAF have conducted efforts for trying to broaden the recruitment base (Jonsson & Österberg, 2017). Issues such as burden sharing and equality in the recruitment process become less important when a country is left without enough volunteers to make up a capable military. The difficulties of military recruitment have led to the current debate in Sweden, which subsequently has led to a re-instated, gender neutral conscription. The reasons for this were that the SAF were not successful enough in recruiting people to the organization, exclusively on a voluntary basis. The implementation will still rely on voluntariness, but subsequently a part of those called in every year will be enlisted through 54 conscription. Different factors seem to be needed for motivating conscripts or professionals. Conscripts seem to be motivated by individual factors such as, while professionals seem to be motivated by job characteristics, meaningfulness in work and task identity. These findings may suggest that in the new system, the SAF need to address good training opportunities as well as good psycho social working conditions. Conscription can contribute to society in other ways than mainly training employees for the SAF’s main task, to conduct armed conflicts. With the suggested shift of values and norms in society with the entrance of the millennials on the labor market, with a more individual focus, conscription can provide a socio-economic gain. By training youth in leadership, group processes, physical training as suggested by Neretnieks (2017) and through networking, will enhance future business collaborations and working projects, as suggested by Braw (2017). Sundevall (2017) found that there were frequent concepts and requests by policymakers and social analysts of education on making use of conscription for non-military purposes as it provided the nation with an exclusive chance to reach and influence entire generations of men. These aspects are not measurable in economic terms; still, they are of great importance for society. This thesis has shown that the values and attitudes of conscripts seem to be much more in line with the values of the younger generation as defined by Perry and Urwin (2011). This is important when Sweden re-instates conscription or improves military education in general. By focusing on the three components found in this thesis in general, and in Weber and Österberg (2015) in particular, individual development, group cohesion, and competence, the Swedish Armed Forces may be able to make a career in the military a more attractive option for today’s youth, thereby help in solving military recruitment problems in Sweden.

We see that it is important to enhance job satisfaction, and propose what could be done in order to do so. Good leadership, job characteristics and job satisfaction are factors that the SAF can affect and enhance. The challenge for the SAF to retain people is as important as recruitment. The outcomes obtained will help the SAF to reach a lower degree of attrition. To establish the working conditions to meet the demands of those voluntarily applying for the SAF in line with their performance orientation is crucial to retain personnel. 55

Limitations

Some limitations should be acknowledged. First, study 2 and 3 results are based on self- reports gathered by a single survey. Therefore, common method variance may be an alternative explanation for some of the results. Second, the criterion variable for the first study is willingness to participate in international military mission as a proxy for wanting to have an engagement in the SAF. Results may be biased in that way that starting an employment could be a different way of engaging, hence a skewed comparison with study 2 and 3.

Future research

Future studies should include Cable and Turban’s, (2001) framework of employer knowledge to recognize aspects determining organizational attractiveness for the SAF. Furthermore, future research must consist of potential applicants’ knowledge of the armed forces as an employer to those of actual applicants. A continuous survey of the recruitment base, applicant pool and soldiers, conscripted or employed, is crucial for the SAF for solving the manning of the organization. As to our knowledge, few studies have empirically tested the theory of purposeful behavior model, which could be a fruitful area of research, as the interactional approach that the model provides could be useful for organizations and employers struggling to retain qualified personnel. Studies of the recruitment base, the attractiveness of armed forces and motives for joining and leaving is ever present, regardless of manning system.

Concluding remarks

Results from this thesis suggest that there are different incentives for staying in the SAF depending on the prevailing manning system. In a conscription system, personality is a more prominent predictor of retention than in a voluntary system. Conscripted soldiers also seem to assess themselves high when it comes to preferable traits and characteristics, for those wanting to do international military service.

The shift of values in society with youth claiming more personal fulfilment, personal development and self-satisfaction, also emphasizes the need for the SAF to provide more for their soldiers/future officers of today, more than was focused on some decades ago. Motivation for wanting a continued relationship with the SAF, either through international 56 military service, or through further employment, seems to vary depending on personnel systems. Ivtzan et.al (2013) comes to similar conclusions, where the need for self- actualization was low in a group of younger individuals, as in a conscription system, when older individuals (+ 30 years) seem to have more need for this, (e.g. in a voluntary system).

Finally - the orientation and nature of this thesis has shifted throughout the progress of the work. The SAF have gone through dramatic changes during the time this thesis was being written. Firstly, data was collected while there was a conscription system, a system that was inactive during some 8 years in favor of an AVF and at the time when this thesis was completed, a gender neutral conscription was introduced. These circumstances have made the work subject to some re-arrangements and re-considerations concerning the aim and research questions. The findings in this thesis also emphasize the possibility to get the best from the two manning systems; to use the compulsory military service as a pool for recruitment to officer programs and NCOs, and the AVF system’s work on improving the psychosocial working conditions in order to retain personnel. The Swedish Government has recently decided to activate conscription, but this time conscription will be general, gender neutral, but still based on voluntariness, trying to pick up the best bits of the two different manning systems.

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Official reports of the Swedish government

SOU 2016: 63 En robust personalförsörjning av det militära försvaret. (A robust Manning system of the Military defence).

SOU 2013: 33 Vägval I en globaliserad värld (Choices in a globalized world)

SOU 2014: 73. Försvarsmakten i samhället – en långsiktigt hållbar militär personalförsörjning och en modern folkförankring av försvaret (The Defence of Sweden – a stronger defence for uncertain time)

Johan Österberg | We want you as our new recruit | 2018:8

We want you as our new recruit

On 1 July 2010, conscription was made to rest in Sweden, in favor of an all- We want you as our new voluntary force, in so doing leaving a 100-year tradition. There were several reasons for this transformation of the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF), most important was the new security situation in Europe after the Cold War, which recruit led the SAF focusing more on participation in multinational missions abroad. Prerequisites for recruitment to and retention This thesis focuses on the recruitment and retaining of soldiers during the period when Sweden shifted the manning system for their armed forces. Results suggest in the Swedish Armed Forces that there are different incentives for staying in the SAF depending on manning system. In a conscription system, personality is a more prominent predictor of retention than in a voluntary system. The findings in this thesis emphasize the possibility to get the best from the two manning systems; to use the compulsory Johan Österberg military service as a pool for recruitment to officer programs and NCOs, and the AVF system’s work on improving the psychosocial working conditions in order to retain personnel. At the completion of this thesis, the SAF again changed the manning system, this time to a gender-neutral conscription, as the system with voluntariness failed in providing the SAF with sufficient numbers of soldiers with the right qualities.

ISBN 978-91-7063-837-4 (print)

ISBN 978-91-7063-932-6 (pdf) Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences

ISSN 1403-8099 Psychology

DOCTORAL THESIS | Karlstad University Studies | 2018:8 DOCTORAL THESIS | Karlstad University Studies | 2018:8