NAT. HIST. BUL L. SIAM Soc. 54(2): 239-260 ，2006

SA VING A FOREST: THE COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF A DECIDUOUS FOREST UNDER COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT IN NORTHEAST THAILAND

Md. Enamul Kabir and Edward L. Webb 1

ABSTRACT

百lis study investigated the composition and structure of a 560 ・.ha deciduous forest in Northeast Northeast Th ailand 白紙 has been under community protection and management since 由e 1980s.ηle site had a long history of timber harvesting for local and regional needs until the 1970s ，wi 出町ict protection against 回 e cutting beginning 泊 the late 1980s. We ωtablished 31 31 temporary circular plots in the forest to sample 田 es 10 cm diameter (dbh) (0.97 ha) ， saplings saplings 2.5-9.9 cm dbh (0.09 ha) ，seedlings 2.5 cm dbh (0.01 ha) ，and vines/woody climbers.

We recorded 97 species in 48 families. Sindora siamensis var. siamensis ，Xylia 巧Ilocarpa v釘. kerrii ，E. ηIthrophloeum succirubrum ， and 8auhinia saccocalyx were 血.e most important species in 出is forest ，and accounted for about 92% of all recorded stems 2.5 cm dbh. Le guminosae ， Papilionoideae Papilionoideae was the most abundant family in this fores t. Species composition and stand S官邸ture reflected 出 e forest's degraded condition from persistent disturbances. However ， the

forest forest appear 官d to be regenerating and the villagers had been able to harvest several non-timber forest forest pr 叫 ucts to supplement their livelihoods. We compar 官d species composition and forest 紺 uc 旬 re of Kh ok Bung Pre u forest with other similar forests types in 百lailand. Kh ok Bung Pre u was less diverse 由加 fo 問自 under protection m 組 agement in Th ailand. Without the initiative initiative of the community leaders ， the existing forest would have been converted to a. 割 culture 泊 the 1970s. As a result ，Kh ok Bung Preu forest contains a fairly diverse flora and apparently regenerating 町民commu 凶ty. Yet persis 胞nt disturbances and rarity of several sμcies ，combined with with the isolation of this 合'agment ，indicate that proactive management should be implemented. Protection Protection against encroachment ，illicit felling ， charcoal making ，setting fire ，grazing ，釘 ld hunting hunting wildlife should assist natural succession of the fores t. Moreover ，regeneration can be facilitated facilitated by planting indigenous 田 e species attractive to wildlife ，and by protecting seed dispersal dispersal agen 臼， particularly 合ugivorous birds and bats. Lo ng-term monitoring is needed to

demonstrate demonstrate both the trajectory 釦 d rate of fo 問 :st recovery or degradation ， and the effects of village village users on fo 悶 st condition.

Key words: Community fo 問唱位y ，disturbances ，diversity ， remnant fo 陀 :st ，structure ，Th ailand

別 TRODUCTION

Forest cover inτbailand has decreased substantially during the last 30 years due to heavy commercial logging of trees followed by large-scale conversion of forest land to non-forest uses. Forest cover in Th ailand has decreased from 53% in 1961 to 23% 泊 1995 (FAO ，1999) and 17% by 1999 (PRAYURASIDDHI ET AL. ，1999) ，which may have resulted

I Natural Resources Management ， School of Environment ， Resources & Development ，Th e Asian In stitute of Technology ， P.O. Box 4，Klong Luang ，Pathum Th ani 12120 ，Th ailand. Correspondence: E. L. Webb ， email: eweb b@ ai t. ac.th; Fax: 662 ・524-643 1.百 le authors have contributed equal1y to this paper. Received Received 25 Ju1y 2006; accepted 28 October 2006.

239 240 Mo. ENAMMUL KABIR ANO EOWARD L. WEBB

in in greatly reduced forest biodiversity. In particu1 訂， the northeast region of τbai1and h部 undergone undergone almost to 凶 conversion between 1960 and 1990 (WES 百 R & YONGVANIT ，2005) ， from primari1y deciduous forest cover to agriculture interspersed with degraded forest patches. patches. Conservation Conservation of bio1ogical diversity in 百lai1and requires not on1y protected 紅白 conservation ， but also efforts to restore and preserve remaining forests outside protected are 部 (VANDERGEEST ， 1996; WITTAYAPAK & DEARDEN ， 1999; JOHNSON & FORSYTH ， 2002). 2002). Local1eve1 community-based forest management (CBFM) is seen as one possib1e 紺 ategy for forest conservation ， as 10cal communities can contribute to conservation under the the appropriate conditions ，and when certain 1eve1s of contro1 釘 e vested to them (Os 百 OM ， 1990; 百 APA ， 1998; WEBB & KHURSHID ， 2000; WEBB & GAUTAM ， 2001). Traditional or informal informal (i. e. ， not state-sanctioned) CBFM is widespread throughout Asia (Asc 田 R，1995; PO 開 E悶皿GER ， 1999) and formalized commu 凶ty fores 町 programs are gaining popu1arity in in severa1 Asian countries (e.g. ，FISHER ， 1989; GLIMOUR ， 1990; BARTLETT ， 1992; VANDERGEEST ， 1996; ARNOLD ， 1998; POFFENBERGER ， 1999; WITTAYAPAK & DEARDEN ， 1999; 1999; CHAUDHARY ， 2000; SATO ， 2000; WEBB & GAUTAM ， 2001; DELANG ， 2002; JOHNSON & FORSYTH ， 2002; V ANDERGEEST ， 2003). h 官 lailand ，community management of forests occurs outside protected areas ， although often often the efforts of communities to protect or c1aim forests for their use has 1ed to confrontation ，conflict ，and in some cases vio1ence (MATSUMURA ， 1994; POFFENBERGER ， 1999; 1999; W I' π'AYAPAK ， 2002). Moreover ，血ere has been wide publicity and co 附 oversy surrounding surrounding the proposed Thai Community Forestry Bill since the ear1y 1990s (PO Fl司 ENBERGER ，1999) ，which has been under discussion and revision by a series of national national governments ， yet has fai1ed to pass through parli 創 nen t. In In order to evaluate whether CBFM c組 serve as a significant conservation too1 in 官lailand ，researchers need to investigate 出e impacts of CBFM on forest composition 佃 d 柑 ucωre. Given the high diversity of forest types ，biogeography ，cultures ，1andscapes ，and community management objectives in Th ai1and ，出 .e most reliab1e approach to understanding CBFM's potential con 凶bution to conservation is 白rough case studies and site-specific investigation. investigation. To date ， there has been very litt1e scientific investigation on the composition and structure of community managed forests in 百 ai1and (but see KI 口'E WACHAKUL Ef AL. ， 2004). 2004). 官邸 study investigated the vegetation composition and 紺 ucture in a community- managed forest 泊 Northeast τbai1and. Kh ok Bung Pr eu ，a remnant community-protected forest forest in Nakhon Ratchasima Prov 泊ce ， is an 加 portant compone 凶 of the live1ihoods of several several villages that access and manage it. It is a well-publicized forest in Th ailand because of of its history 泊 which 出 e villagers overcame significant-sometimes vio1ent-barriers ， and has 甜 ong 1eadership and e釘'ective managemen t. Th is forest is considered a “successfu1 communi 旬 forest" from a social perspective ， but requires quantitative 蜘 dy to ascertain the the bio1ogical succ 四 s of community protection and management. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF A COMMUNITY-MANAGED DECIDUOUS FOREST 241

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

Khok Bung Preu is a remnant, lowland deciduous forest located in Dan Khuntot District, Nakhon Ratchas.ima Province, Northeast Thailand (Fig. 1). It is an isolated 560- ha forest fragment surrounded mainly by agricultural land and settlements. The topography is flat and at an elevation of 240 m msl. The soil is a well-drained sandy loam. The climate is tropical seasonal monsoon with a rainy period from June to October and a mean annual rainfall of about 950 mm (Fig. 2). There are three seasons, namely hot and dry from March to April, rainy from May to October, and dry from November to May. The mean monthly temperature is 27"C with the mean maximum of 31 ·c in April and minimum of 23 ·c in December (Fig. 2). During the dry season, temperatures can reach 4o·c or more. The mean monthly humidity of the study area is 70%. The vegetation is highly susceptible to fire in the dry season.

N A

00 100 1m 1~ 100 200 0 200 400 Kilometers

Figure I. Study area. Black clot show in g the location of Khok Bung Preu forest in Nakhon Ratchasima Province in Northeast Thailand. 242 MD. E NA MMU L K AB IR AND EDWARD L. W EBB

50 .------r 3500 --+-- Temperature 3000 40 -+-- Rainfall u 0 2500 .­ E ~ 30 :::J 2000 E ~ - Q) ~ 0.. 20 1500 c E ro Q) 0::: I- 1000 10 500

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month

Figure 2. Meteorological data (1981- 2001) from meteorological station number 431201 based in Nakhon Ratchasima. Source: Meteorological Department of Thailand.

Survey Design

To understand the history of the site and contemporary management patterns, key informant interviews and opportunistic informal group discussions were held with people living in the vicinity of the forest. Key informants were purposively selected among elderly villagers, village leaders, township administrative officials, local forest officials, and members from the forest management committee. Informal group discussion and key informant interviews provided us the inf01mation on site history, history of community forest forn1ation , forest management practices, and forest resources use. We investigated the vegetation composition and structure ofKhok Bung Preu community forest by using a 3-stage random sampling method to establish 31 0.03-ha temporary sample plots. Using GPS combined with mapping of the existing forest patch from an orthorectified Landsat ETM+ image (acquisition date February 18, 2002), we established a temporary transect that bisected the forest in a N-S direction. Subsequently we randomly selected 31 points along the transect. At each point, we randomly chose a direction (east or west) by flipping a coin, randomly selected a distance between each point and the edge of the forest using a random number generator, and then entered that coordinate into the GPS. After finding the coordinate on the ground, we established the center of each vegetation plot. In this way, every point in the forest had an equal chance of being selected as a plot location. The final plot locations are shown in Figure 3. Vegetation plots were concentric circles of 1, 3, and 10-m radius, totaling 0.01, 0.09, and 0.97 ha, respectively. In each 1-m plot all woody stems with a diameter at 1.3 m height (dbh) 2.5 em or with a height less than 1.0 m (referred to as seedlings) were identified and tallied. In the _3-m plots, aU woody stems with a dbh 2.5-9.9 em (saplings) were identified, and the dbh and height recorded. In the 10-m plots all trees with dbh 10 em were identified and measured for dbh and height. In all plots, vines/woody climbers were COM POSITIO N AND STRU C TURE OF A COM MUNITY-MANAGED DE C ID UOUS FORE ST 243

00刊 OHma 。 2 Kilom e te rs V ρ n 免 ' p obハし E nu- vし U uL d、

Figul 巴 3. Landsat ET M+ WRS 2- til e il11 ag 巴of pat h 1 28 出 lcl ro w 50 (acq ui siti on clal e Fe bruary 18，2002) show in g Khok Bung Preu fore st (p urpl e) in Norr heasl Thai land . Whit e point s are lh e location s of 3 1r ancl ollll y S巴lec tecl salllpl e plol s. Thr ee p lols ar e very ciose in th e nonh e rn 1ll 0S1 parl of Ih e for es l，a nd two plots

are w it hin 50 111 of eac h olh er an d 出 e rep rese nt ecl by a sin gl巴 po in l. Y 巴1I 0w po in ts 出 e th 巴 loca li ons

of of lh e thr e巴 m 山 n ll se r and m ana ge m 巴nl gro up villa ges. Ag ri cultural lan cls surrouncl the w 巴sl ancl so ulh

sicl e of Khok B un g Preu; d巴gracl ed barr en lancl s ancl se tll elll ent s ar e 1" 0 th e north 巴ast of th e for es t. 244 Mo. ENAMMUL KABIR ANO EOWARO L. WEBB identified identified and tallied. Tree diameters were measured using a diameter tape and heights were calculated using a SUUNTO Ol clinometer. Voucher specimens were collected and identified identified by J. F. Maxwell ， and deposited 泊 the herbarium of Chiang Mai University ， Th ailand. The field work was conducted during November and December ，2003 ，after the rainy season season and during the beginning of the dry season. 百lerefore ， our results underestimate the total total density and diversity of the ground flora. To verify the adequacy of the sampling effort ，we calculated the average species-area curves curves (Osτ 'R OM ， 1990) of 位'ees ，saplings ， and seedlings separately. The mean curve suggested 由at our results provided a very good picture of the composition and structure of of the fores t.

Data Analysis

Abundance ， basal area ，frequency ，and importance values for trees and saplings of each each species were computed (Cox ，1990). 官le import 佃 ce value index (IVI) is 白e sum of relative relative abundance ，relative basal area ， and relative f詑quency. Rarefaction curves were constructed constructed to express the expected number of species from a randomly selected number of of individuals from the fores t. Presence-absence data for seedlings and vines/woody climbers were were analyzed to compute species relative frequencies in the fores t. Diversity Diversity indice s- mathematical measures of species diversity in a community- provided provided information about community composition taking the relative abundances of different different species into accoun t. Tree and sapling diversities were determined using species richness richness indices N o (absolute richness) ，R 1 (MARGALEF ，1958) ， and R 2 (MENH 凹 ICK ，1964). We also calculated two widely used measures of species diversity indices ，Simpson'sλ

(SIMPSON ，1949) 佃 d Shannon' s H' (SHANNON & WEA VER ， 1949) as well as two species dominance 泊dices ，N 1 (number of dominant species) and N 2 (number of very dominant species) species) [HILL ， 1973]. Two evenness indices ，Pielou's J or El (PIELOU ， 1975; 1977) and

Es Es (HILL ，1973) ， were also computed. The BASIC progr 創 n SPDIVERS.BAS (LUDWIG &

REYNOLDS ， 1988) was employed to compute the indices using stems ha-1• The composition and s甘ucture of Kh ok Bung Pre u forest was compared with other published published studies from Th ailand. However ，one difficulty with comparisons is that nomenclature nomenclature for forest types in Th ailand differs among researchers. MAx WELL (2004) has identified identified the ambiguities of forest type nomenclature for 百聞land ，and he suggested a simplified simplified vegetation classification for the country. After considering MAXWELL' s (2004) classification ，we used studies that we were confident to be similar to the Kh ok Bung Preu fores t.

RESULTS

Site Site History

The original Thai Kh orat and Lao settlements in the study area were reportedly established established around the 1830s ， through migration from Da Nok and Da Nai in Nakhon Ratchasima Ratchasima Pr ovince. 百le population in 2004 in Tambon Sra Charokhea (Sub-district) was COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF A COMMUNITY-MANAGED DECIDUOUS FOREST 245

5678 (males 2816 and females 2862) with a density of 67 people /km 2 and unevenly dis 凶buted around the fores t. Approximately 90% of 出e people living around the forest 釘 e farmers farmers growing rice ，corn ，chilies ，cassava ， and rearing animals such as chickens and cattle. cattle. Th e average land holding of each household is 2.4 0 ha. Ol d houses ，temples ， shops and other 柑 uc 伽 res 泊 the 訂 'ea 紅 e constructed of wood ， whereas new structures are made from from bricks and concrete due to depletion of timber from the fores t. 百le history of the forest ， as told by the elders of the villages ，is one of continuous forest forest destruction leading to collective action to protect the rema 泊ing degraded forest 合om conversion conversion to agriculture. Aside from the immediate conversion of the initially vast and intact intact forest to agriculture by the original settlers ，血 e histories we heard were only able to to confirm that the forest had continuously shrunk since the original settlements were founded. founded. In tensive harvest 泊g of forest trees was prevalent in Kh ok Bung Pr eu since the 1950s ， mainly for producing charcoal ， railway sleepers ， 'and wood for buildings in 由e surrounding surrounding villages. As population density increased ， the conversion of forest to permanent agriculture agriculture escalated. 百le idea of conserving the forest arose in the 1970s when the remaining forest covered approximately approximately 1520 ha. One of the conservation-oriented village headmen opposed conversion conversion of this forest to agriculturalland. He was later assassinated by unknown killers who were reportedly hired by someone outside the villages to encroach on this forest for agricultural agricultural conversion. After the assassination ，approximately 900 ha were converted to agricultural agricultural fields. Local village leaders ，realizing the danger of deforestation ， began a process process of convincing the other villagers of the importance of sustainable forest protection and and established themselves as a “self-defense village" ， which included both active Pt:O飽 ction of of the forest as well as the establishment of various committees supporting forest protection.

In In 1988 the vi1l agers agreed to stop cutt 泊g trees in the forest for 佃 y pu 甲 ose. In 1992 ， the the communities proposed 白紙 the forest be registered as a community forest 泊出e Community Forest Office of the Royal Fores 町 Department ， which reco 伊 ized 血is forest as as a community forest under the management 阻 d jurisdiction of the local communities in 1998. 1998.

Forest Forest Management Practices

Several Several village headmen in consultation with villagers along with the technical assistance from from provincial forest officials formed the Kh ok Bung Pre u Forest Management Committee ， which consisted of 310 members headed by a president. 百rree villages ，namely Ban Lung (moo 1) ，Ban Non Boad (moo 乃， and Ban Trai Tong (moo 12) of Tambon Sra Charokhea (Sub-district) ，consist of a total of 310 households and were the main user groups of Kh ok Bung Preu fores t. An yone accessing and using Kh ok Bung Pr eu forest out of those 310 households households was designated as an outside user. 百le head of each household from the villages villages w 儲 by default the member of the Management Committee.τ 'h e head of 血e Tambon Sra Charokhea (Sub-distric t) was selected as the president of the Management Committee for life. Rules and regulations related to access ，use ，care ，monitoring ，and sanctions sanctions were formed by the Management Committee. An y member of the Management Committee can propose a change in 出e rules and regulations related to forest m 佃 agement ， development ，conservation ，and utilization during the general meeting of the Management Committee ， with a fmal decision made through a vote. A team of 6-- 8 persons voluntarily 246 Mo. ENAMMUL KABIR AND EOWARO L. WEBB

pa 住ols the forest on a basis daily during the 命y season ，when there is a high risk of forest frre. frre. During the remaining months ，patrolling is not da i1 y but at regular interv a1 s. Th e persons persons designated for patroll 泊g were given technical 位aining 泊 forest pa 住olling and on 白e use of frrearms by the provinci a1 forest office. Later each trained person was given a licensed licensed frrearm by the loc a1 government. Approximately 100 volunteers (1 oc a1 1y ca1 1ed losoatohpo) losoatohpo) among the main user groups a1 so have been trained by the provincial forest office office to assist the Management Committee in forest protection and conservation activities.

Trained Trained volunteers 紅 e supposed to provide sim i1 ar training 泊 forest protection and conservation conservation to other community members in collaboration with the Royal Forest Dep 釘 tmen t. Operation a1 rules govem 血e use of the Kh ok Bung Preu forest by both the main and outside outside user groups. As a standard rule ，collection of a wide variety of non-timber forest products products is a1 10wed for both consumption and sa1 e by members of the main user groups. Outside Outside user groups are only a1 10wed to harvest certain non-timber forest products for subsistence subsistence pu 中oses ，and 釘 'e forbidden to car 可紅白cutting equipment 凶 o the fores t. Th e operation a1 rules prohibit encroaching on forest land ，illicitly cutt 泊g forest trees ，making charcoal ，collecting timber for commercial purposes ，setting frres ，gr 沼恒g or browsing cattle ，and hunting wildlife. A monet 釘 y fine from 500 to 10 ，000 Baht upon the recommendation 企'om the Management Committee is charged to any first-time 0百ender who fells timber ，makes charcoal ，carries 回 e cutting equipment or hunts w i1 dlife. A 2 ，000 to to 10 ，000 Baht fme is charged to any first-t 加 e offender who encroaches forest lands for person a1 or commerci a1 use ，gr 但 es cattle ， or st 紅 ts frres. Second-time 0百enders are to be taken taken to co 町 t for the addition a1 punishment along with the fme issued by the Management Committee. Committee.

Forest Forest Resources Use

A wide v紅 iety of non-timber forest products were harvested on a reg u1 ar basis 合om Kh ok Bung Preu community forest by bo 血 main and outside user groups. Two varieties of of mushrooms ，loc a1 1y ca1 1ed het langoo and het khun ，were harvested primarily for sa1 e by the main us ぽ groups. Tender leaves of “'phak wan" (Melientha suavis Pierre ssp. suavis [Opi1i aceae]) ，were mainly harvested for self-consumption with no restriction on 出 e quantity h紅 vested 阻 d consumption pattem. An t eggs were harvested by the main user groups mainly mainly for selling as food and as fishing bai t. W i1 d 企uits of ton khop (Flacourtia indica Meη よtakhrao (Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken) ，som kung (A mpelocissus martini Pl よ nom wua (Fissistigma latifolium Merr ふ kuyetao (Pueraria thomsonii Benth よ and ting ωng (Getoniafloribunda Roxb.) were collected by the main user groups mainly for selling ， with with no restriction on quantity harvested and sa1 e. A loc a1 vegetable called phak sam sip (Asparagus (Asparagus racemosus W i11 d) was commo n1 y harvested for consumption. Makham poam (Phyllanthus (Phyllanthus emblica L よnoo taiyang (C li. ω ria hanceana Hems 1.)， hat 加， khun (Micromelum minutum (0. Fors t.) Wight & Amよ and khat khao (Randia horrida Roem. & Schul t.) were 血.e major herbs harvested by most people for medicin a1 use. Toads and frogs ，lizards ， rabbits ，w i1 d chickens ，birds ，squiπ'els ， and bamboo shoots were harvested mainly for food. Yana ，a climber ，w 部 used to make rope for roofmg. In In addition to non-timber forest products ，there were sever a1 other products 白紙 could be harvested under 印刷 in restrictions such as timber ，firewood ，and honey ， for which COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF A COMMUNITY-MANAGED DECIDUOUS FOREST 247 outside user groups had no access. Harvest of timber without permission was also banned for the main user groups. With approval from the Management Committee, timber could be harvested during stressful periods due to natural disasters such as fire and storms or for building and/or renovating public buildings such as the school, temple or community center. Fuel wood could be collected only for household use. Honey could only be harvested without causing any damage to the vegetation of the forest. The only non-consumptive use of the forest was utilization of a place in the forest called the ' house of spirits', locally "san chao", which vil lagers would occasionally visit to pray.

Species Composition and Diversity

A total of 97 species in 48 families were recorded: 39 species in 23 families were trees, 31 species in 21 families were saplings, 48 species in 30 families were seedlings, and 10 species in 8 families were vines and woody climbers (Table 1). Families with the most species were Leguminosae, Papilionoideae (8), Rubiaceae (7); Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae (6), and Gramineae (5). Approximately 23% of the total number of families (11/48) had more than 3 species and the remaining 77% of families (37 /48) had only 1 to 2 species each. Approximately 26% of tree species were represented by 1 individual ha- 1 and 39% of the sapling species were represented 11 individuals ha- 1 (Figure 4). Sindora siamensis var. siamensis, Xylia xylocarpa var. kerrii, Erythrophloeum succirubrum, and Bauhinia saccoca/yx were the 4 most common species in this forest, accounting for 92% of the stems 2.5 em dbh. Shorea siamensis var. siamensis and Dipterocarpus gracilis represented the only 2 species of Dipterocarpaceae. The tree community was dominated by X. xy/ocarpa var. kerrii and Sindora siamensis var. siamensis. The sapling community was dominated by Sindora siamensis var. siamensis, B. saccocalyx, and E. succirubrum (Table I).

30

25

Q) ctl 20 ro -Trees TIc --o- Saplings .a::l ro 15 Q) w> Qi 10 0::

5

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Species rank

Figure 4. Species-rank plots of trees and sapl ings of Khok Bung Preu forest in Northeast Thailand. Total area sampled for trees 0.97 ha and for saplings 0.09 ha. MhF Table Table 1. List of species found in Kh ok Bung Pre u Forest in Northeast 百 ailand. Herb 但)， S駐日 b (S) ， Tree (T) ， Vine (V) ，Woody climber (W C). A ， abundance (ha- I ); BA ， ∞ basal basal area (m 2 ha- I ); IVI ，importance value index; NP is 血巴 number of plot(s) in which the species w ぉ found; RF ，relative frequency.

S戸ci 凶 Family Habit T 悶 S Saplings Seedlings Vine /W oody c1 imber A BA l V1 A BA lVl NPRF A RF NPRF 舵 Acacia Acacia csesia ι) Willd. var. subnuda (Craib) Niels. Le guminosae ，Mimosoideae vTTHTTTTTHHTTTTHTHHTHTTTHTHTTH 2.06 3. 4 5.3 Aganosma 刷 rgina ωG.Oon A戸cynaωae 1. 03 1. 7 5.3 Alangi 醐， salviifolium (1.f.) Wang. ssp. hexapetalum (Lmk.) Wang. Alangiac 帥 1. 03 0.02 1. 3 Albizia Albizia odoratassima (1.f.) B血. Le guminosae ，Mimωoid 伺 e 1. 03 0.01 1.1 33 .3 3 0.1 1 6.2 Ampelocissus 脚 rtini Pl. Vi 胞ceae 0.7 窓口・閏 Antidesma Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. Euphorbia 関節 22.22 0.04 5.1 'l'O7'A Aporusa Aporusa octandra (Ham. ex O. Oon) Vick. var. octandra Euphorbiaceae 1. 03 0.01 ・・・・ 勾 Z Azadirachta Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae 4.1 2 0 .1 8 40 〉冨玄 ツ Bauhinia Bauhinia saccocalyx Pi erre Le guminosae ，Caesalpinioideae 10 .3 10 .1 1 ・内 200. ∞ 0.59 37 .5 3au CF Bombax Bombax anceps Pi erre var. anceps Bombacaceae 2.06 O.ω 『 nunUAUt7司 関〉国岡田〉 Caesalpinia Caesalpinia d，砂 naRo 凶. Le gum 面白 sae ，Caesalpinioideae --- C勾'an 凶 scarabaeoides (1.) 百10U. var. scarabaeoides Le guminosae ，Pap 出onoid 蹴 ，司， Ca ，聞 rium subulatum Guill. Burseraceae 7.22 0.1 4 6.9 Z Careya Careya arborea Roxb. Lec帥 idaceae 1. 03 0.01 1.1 11.1 1 0.03 2.9 ロ関口当〉同 Cassia Cassia fistula L. Le gumino 伺 .e ，Caesalpinioideae 3.ω0.04 2.8 Ca 印刷regam ω'mentosa (B l. ex OC.) Tirv. Rubiaceae 13.40 0.1 6 12.4 55.56 0.1 8 11. 8 Cissus Cissus repens Lmk. Vitaceae 0.7 UF Cratoxylum Cratoxylum thorelii Pierre ex Gagnep. Guttiferae 3.09 0.05 3. 0 44.44 0.1 8 11. 2 ・ 4 Crotalaria Crotalaria goreensis Guil l. & Peπ. Le guminosae ，Pap i1i onoideae 3 2.0 宅開園田 Cyanotis Cyanotis cristata ι.)0. Do n Commelinaceae 8 5.2 Dalbergia Dalbergia merican Graham ex B白. Le guminosae ，Pap i1i onoideae 3.09 0.1 6 4.1 Digitaria Digitaria setigera Ro 血 ex Roem. & Schul t. Gramineae 2 1.3 1111l-Il Diospyros Diospyros bejaudii Lec. Ebenaceae -- 0.05 3.3 Diospyros Diospyros mollis Gri 丘 Ebenace 温E o.ω 2.5 11 Diospyros Diospyros merica Roxb. Ebenaceae 1. 03 0.01 • nununu司''司，，司，， Dipteracanthus Dipteracanthus repens (L.) H ぉsk. Ac 組曲a閃 ae --- D伊'terocarpus gracilis Bl. Oipterocarpaceae 4.1 2 0.06 2.7 55 .5 6 0.25 10.7 Elephantopus Elephantopus scaber L. ssp. scaber var. scaber Compositae Ellipanthus Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz var.ω men ω sus Connaraceae 9.28 0.1 2 7.9 Erythrophloeum Erythrophloeum succirubrum Gagnep. Le guminosae ，Caesalpinioideae 38 .1 4 0 .4 7 28.2 133 .3 3 0 .3 7 25 .4 Eupatorium Eupatorium odoratum L. Compositae 6 4.0 Species Species Family Habit Trees Saplings Seedlings Vin e/W oody climber A BA IVI A BA IVI NP RF A RF NPRF 。。玄明。切口同 HHTTTSH Evolv u/ us alsinoides (1.) var. decumbens (R. Br.) Oos l. 0.7 Fimbristylis Fimbristylis smitinandii T. Koy. 2 1. 3 Gardenia Gardenia sootepensis Hutch. 1. 03 0.01 1.1 OZ Gmelina Gmelina arborea Roxb. 1. 03 0.04 1. 6 nununυ勾''司，，円，， Grewia Grewia eriocarpa A. Juss. --- 〉 Grewia Grewia merica V油l ZU Hapal ，初e bentahmiana Schott 舵 臼・同 Harrisonia Harrisonia mericana (Blanco) Me 町. SHTHHTTTSTHTTTHTTTTTTHHTVT1. 03 1. 7 5.3 imcq Helicteres lanata lanata Helicteres (Teijsm. & Binn.) Kurz 9 5.8 Heteropogon Heteropogon contor ωs (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schul l. 3 2.0 CMN『 Hymenodictyon Hymenodictyon orixense (R oxb.) Mabb. 88.89 0.1 3 14 .1 開。明〉 Hypserpa Hypserpa nitida Miers 4 2.6 Kaempferia Kaempferia siamensis Siri 5 3.3 gerstroemia La gerstroemia cochinchinensis Pierre ex Gagnep. 3. 09 0.03 77. 78 0.25 15.0 .5 3.5 AUO gerstroemia La gerstroemia j1 0ribunda Jack. v釘 . brevifolia Craib 1ω0.03 2.7 宮室 'nnea μ'nnea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. 15 .4 6 0.23 14 .1 33 .3 3 0.1 2 9.1 0.7 Leea Leea aequata L. 2 1. 3 CZHIHad? Limonia Limonia acidissimo L. 22.22 0.09 4.9 Lindernia Lindernia mericana (L.) F. Muell. v紅 . mericana 5 3.3 Litsea Litsea glutinosa (Lo ur.) C.B. Rob. v訂 . glutinosa 0.7 玄〉 Markhamia Markhamia mericana Seem. ex K. Schum. v訂 . stipula ω 11.1 1 0.01 2.3 Z 弓 44aanHvrnv Memecylon Memecylon scutellatum (Lo ur.) Naud. 77 .7 8 0.1 1 13.0 37'••••• 〉。開 Merremia Merremia mericana (L.) Hal l. F. 民p. orientalis (Hal l. F.) Oos l. マ ・ AU司 UU Microcos Microcos paniculata L. 2.06 0.03 1. 8 22.22 0.05 3.9 laa--a''rnu 内 Micromelum Micromelum minutum σ'ors t. f.) Wight & Am. 4nu 問。問。 弓，， Min 凶 'a velutina (Dun.) Hk. F. &百 1. 1. 03 0.01 1.1 Millettia Millettia xylocarpa Miq. 8.25 0.1 2 5.6 coc 1111l-Il Mitragyna Mitragyna rotundifolia (Roxb.) O. K. -- 0.05 3.3 臼司 Morinda Morinda coreia H畑. 5.1 5 0.1 0 5.1 0.01 2.2 ZJo''司、句、 d dO来 om Murdannia Murdannia nud if1 0ra (L.) Bren. ，、••. Murdannia Murdannia spectabilis (K urz) Fad. dnHUU 開印、『 ・ 勾，， Oc 加a integerrimo (Lo肌) Merr. 2.06 0.02 1. 6 22.22 0.03 4.8 1 Pachygone Pachygone dasycarpa Kurz 1. 03 1. 7 5.3 Mhp --ll Pavetta ωmentosa Roxb. ex Sm. var.ω men ω'sa • 0.01 2.2 。 NUO Species Species F細川 ]y Ha bit T悶 S Saplings Seedlings Vine /W oody climber A BA IVI A BA IVI NPRF A RF NPRF HTTTHTVTTTHTSTTVHTTHTHHWHSTTWWWH Perotis Perotis indica ι)O.K. Gramin eae 3 2.0 Phyllanthus Phyllanthus emb /i ca L. Euphorbiaceae 1. 03 0.01 1.1 弓 Polyalthia Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) B曲. ex Bedd. Ann onaceae 11. 34 0.1 5 7.6 66.67 0.1 6 13.5 41 1. 3 ・ Polyalthia Polyalthia evec 旬(Pi erre) Fin. & Ga gnep. Ann onaceae 'o 0.7 Por ωlaca pilosa L. Portulacaωae 3.9 --ll Pterocarpus Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz. Le gumino 蜘， Papilionoideae 3.09 0.08 3.5 • 0.01 2.2 Rhapidophora Rhapidophora peepla (R oxb.) Schott Ar aceae 1. 03 1. 7 5.3 勾‘。。勾 Rot 肋，ωnnia wittii (Craib.) Brem. Rubiaceae 5.1 5 0.06 d••• 宮口・開 内，，“内4J3au11 1 1 Schleichera Schleichera oleosa (Lo ur.) Oken Sapinda 悶 E 2.06 0.02 0.02 2.6 Senna Senna garrettiana (Craib) Le guminosae ，Ca esalpinioideae 3.ω 0.03 守 Z Setaria Setaria parviflora (p oir.) Kerg. Gran由 eae 8 5.2 〉玄玄巴 Shorea Shorea siamensis Mi q. var. si 鵬 nsis Dip 胞rocarpaceae 23 .7 1 0.44 17 .7 22.22 0.1 2 7.0 /i 6 F Sida Sida cordifo a L. Malvaceae 3.9 同協同開〉 Sindara Sindara siamensis Teysm. ex Miq. var. siamensis Le伊凶 nos 飽，白es 叫.pinio 泌総 90.72 1. 31 58.0 377.78 1.1 5 63 .4 Spondias Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz Ana cardi 脱却 5.1 5 0 .1 4 5.0 Stemona Stemona merican Lo ur. var. tuberosa Stemonaceae 1. 03 1. 7 5.3 ZU Streptocaulon Streptocaulon juventas 仏our.) M 巴町. Asclepiadaceae 3 2.0 関口 Strychnos Strychnos nuxvomica L. Lo ganiaceae 11. 11 0.01 2.4 l1 45 Suregada Suregada multiflora (A. Juss.) Bail l. var. multiflora Euphorbiaceae 1. 03 0.01 • 11.1 1 0.03 2.7 同 UF Tephrosia Tephrosia kerrii Drum. & Cぬib Le gum 泊 os 鶴， Papilionoideae 4 2.6 Terminalia Terminalia mucronata C凶b & Hutch. Comb 児観閲ae 2.06 0.04 2.6 33.33 0.04 4.5 ・者包囲 Uraria Uraria campanulata (W all. ex B曲.) Ga gnep. Le伊凶 nosae ，Papilionoideae 2 1. 3 Urochloa Urochloa panicoides P. B関 uv. v 訂'. panicoides G 百凶 E 伺 E 5 3.3 Uvaria Uvaria rufa Bl. Ann onaceae 8.25 13.6 3 15.9 日 0AMaa. Vietna 脚 'sasa ciliata (A. Cam us) T. Q. Nguyen Grami neae ，Bambusoideae ••.. 411内，nuw， Waltheria Waltheria mericana L. S伽 culiac 伺 B --nHvnHV 伺''勾，， Wr 句， htia arborea (De nn.) Mabb. Apocynaceae 3.09 0.06 3.9 11.1 1 0.01 2.4 Xylia 砂locarpa (Roxb.) Taub. var. kerrii (Crai b & Hutch) Niels. Le guminosae ，Mimosoideae 83. 51 1. 44 60.4 33 .3 3 0.06 7.6 F 川刑川訓wu1 A。 Zizyphus Zizyphus cambodiana Pi erre Rh amn 前 eae 」 8 42 .3 FLPU L1ωω，守 Zizyphus Zizyphus nummularia (B urm. F.) Wight & Am. Rhamn aceae A・・'1A 1 5 .3 弓 Zizyphus Zizyphus oenoplia Mil l. var. oenop /i a Rh amnaceae d 1 5 .3 Zo rnia g幼bosa Sp 釦. Le guminosae ，Papilionoideae 0.7

To 凶 :97 48 3側.35 6.05 1555 .5 6 4 .2 9 60.82 COMPOS ITI ON AND STRUCTURE OF A COMMUN ITY-MANAGED DECIDUOUS FOREST 251

Table 2. Diversity indices for trees and saplings of Khok Bung Preu forest in northeast

Thailand. Trees dbh 10 em and saplings dbh 2.5 to 9.9 em. N 0 is absolute richness. R (MARGALEF, 1958) and R (MENHINICK, 1964) are the two species 1 2 richness indices. Simpson's A (S IMPSO N, 1949) and Shannon's H' (SHANNON & WEA YER, 1949) are the two species diversity indices. N and N represent 1 2 the number of dominant and very dominant species (HILL, 1973) in the forest.

Pielou's J or E 1 (PIELOU , 1975; 1977) and E5 (HILL, 1973) are species evenness indices.

Life Area Richness Diversity Evenness forms sampled (ha) No Rl R2 A H' Nl N2 El Es Tree 0.97 39 6.43 2.03 0.12 2.81 14.37 8.06 0.73 0.53 Sapling 0.09 31 6.07 2.62 0.09 2.67 16.05 10.72 0.82 0.62

40 en Q) "(3 Q) 0.. 30 (J) '+- 0 0 20 z -+-Trees ""0 -o- Saplings ...... Q) (.) Q) 10 0.. wX 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Sample Size

Figure 5. Rarefaction curves of trees and saplings of Khok Bung Preu forest in Northeast Thailand showing the expected number of species from a certain number of nmdomly selected individuals.

Trees and saplings in Khok Bung Preu forest were similar in species diversity (Simpson A= 0.12 for trees and 0.09 for saplings, Shannon H' = 2.81 for trees and 2.67 for saplings), evenness (Pielou J' or E = 0.73 for trees and 0.82 for saplings, Hill's E = 0.53 for trees 1 5 and 0.62 for saplings (Table 2), and in rarefraction (Fig. 5). 252 MD. ENAMMUL KABIR 刷 D EDWARD L. WEBB

Abundance ，Dominance ，and Size' Classes

百le mean plot abundan 印 and ba 叫釘'ea values for all stems 2.5 cm dbh were 1936 stem stem ha- I and 10.34 m 2 ha- I，resp 即 tively. 百le mean plot 回 e abundance was 380 stems ha- I 釦 db 出 al 紅 ea of 6.05 m 2 ha-I• For saplings ， abundance w 儲 1556 s飽ms ha- I and basal 紅 ea 4.29 m 2 ha- I (Table 1). Approximately 75% of the trees were less than 15 cm dbh with only only 1% of 紅白s > 30 cm dbh. S加 ilarly ，64% of all trees were < 10 m height ， with only 1% of the 住'ees > 15 m height 佃 d the rest (35%) between 10 and 15 m height (Table 3). Vietnamosasa Vietnamosasa ciliata was the most common herbaceous species 加 the forest followed by Helicteres lanata and Murdannia spectabilis. 官 le me 佃 abundance for vines and woody climbers was 61 individuals ha-I • Zizyphus cambodiana was 血e most common species 創 nong vines and woody climbers followed by Uvaria r~向 (Table 1). Comparable Comparable quantitative vegetation studies of deciduous forests in Th ailand include community-managed forests (KIJTEWACHAKUL ET AL. ， 2004) and protected forests (BUNYAVEJC 田 W 別， 1999; MAROD ET AL. ， 1999; BUNYAVEJCHEW 別町AL. ， 2001; VAN DE BULT&G 即日MANs ，2006;VVEBB ，Sl 吉郎脇田'Z， V AN DE BULT ，SEUATURIEN ，& C HUTlP ONG ， unpublished unpublished data). Kh ok Beung Pr eu exhibited species richness for all stems simil 紅白 commu 凶ty-managed forests (bo 白 of which had historical disturbances) and a disturbed watershed watershed plot (Y ARWUD 凹 ET AL. ，1996) ， but lower richness values for trl 閃 s 5cmdbh 出an protected forests with li 岱le or no recent history of major disturbance other 白an fire. In In contrast ， stem abundance values for Kh ok Bung Pr eu were at the high end of the spec 回 m ， being much higher 白.an the other community ・managed forest and some protected forests. forests. Basal area values for Kh ok Bung Pr eu ，on the other hand ，showed the same pattem as as species richness: similar to community-managed forests and well below protected forest values. values. Particularly notable is the basal area of 紅白s 10 cm dbh ，which w 部 about one- 出ird 白紙 of typical protected deciduous forest of Th ailand (Table 4). Taken toge 血er ，出 e biophysical biophysical p紅 ameters of Kh ok Bung Preu indicate 白紙出.e prolonged history of human- induced induced disturbance has resulted in a degraded forest with reduced species diversity and virtually virtually no 1紅 ge trees. However the forest appe 釘 s to contain substantial levels of regeneration regeneration indicating a potential for structural recovery.

Table Table 3. Height and dbh class for trees of Kh ok Bung Pr eu forest in Northeast Th ailand. A total of 369 individuals of 町田s( 10 cm dbh) recorded 合om 0.97 ha 紅 'ea sampled. sampled. Percent of the total number of individuals of 佐田s is in parenthesis. Height Height (m) dbh (cm) 。< 10 10 < 15 15 < 25 Total Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency 。< 15 201 74 。 275 (75) 15 15 < 30 34 52 5 91 (24) 30 < 45 1 2 。 3 (1) 45 。。。 0(0) Total Total 236 (64) 128 (35) 5 (1) 369 Table Table 4. Compositional and structural comp 釘 ison of Kh ok Bung Preu community forest with other similar forests inτbailand. 。。宮司。∞司同OZ〉ZU2HNC A m伽 附m nn飴 J出 側 Mm S制dy Forest type Management Are a samplω (h a) Abso1u 胞 diversity 5 5 cm 10 cm 2.5 cm m m-o m 一一切一 2.5 cm 一釦 一 一。5 Th is study Deciduous Community 0.97 (10 cm) 47 39 1936 10 .3 4 0.09 0.09 (2. 5-9 .9 cm) 0.01 0.01 (2.5 cm)

V 飢 deB 叫t& Greijmans ， 2006 Deciduous Di p也roc 紅 p Pro tected 釘切 0.2 33 364 22.28

V 釦 de Bu1t & Greijm 畑 s，2006 Deciduous hardw ∞d Pro tected area 0.2 64 534 16 .7 7 wi 出 bamboo 伽伽附・凹・剛一蹴川畑白川同一.凶向 角川『 応ijtewach 紘u1 et al.， 2∞4 Mix ed Dry Deciduous -m 103 339 144 9.27 (1) cm 白 知 開。司〉のO冨冨CZコ〈・冨〉Z〉。問。。関門川 mmm 醐蜘蜘一蹴引 vaaea--a 333 171 7.52 i1l CC ηβ一附 566 566 159 9.08(1) 一一 436 227 14 .5 5 (1) nn-nD叫一叫 w-w・m 加一 h 一 防 y Evergreen 50.0 1613( 羽 30 .4 5(2 1 -m 匂，'huu"AnvvnfnHV、， S蹴 onal 防y Eve ゅ'een Pro t印刷 1. 0 1168 (3 ) 29 .1同 HHau町、，nn 1356(3) env 加Inmen 阻lre 鶴田:h sta 幅削(4) 1. 0 ，、 29.8 (3) 1. 0 d 1115(3) 29.4(3) 引 川川川げ nnη 1. 0 U HL 1499(3) 28.9(3)

Gii Ui son 佃 d Li swanti ，1999 De ciduous 0.02 94

M 卸'od et al. ，1999 Mi xed Dec iduous Pro tected water 百hed 4.0 93 171 17.2 rese 釘 ch station

Yarwudhi Yarwudhi et al. ，1996 Dec iduous 知otec 飴 d forest 4.0 76 204 17 .1 7 watershed watershed research station Bc Dis 加rbed forest watershed 4.0 36 254 1. 76 。C

research research station 臼明 Webb ，Steinmetz ，v組 Mixed deciduous 針。旬 cted 釘ea ， 4.0 86 73 601 343 21. 6 20.6 om de de Bult ，Seuaturien and grassland annual fires 同盟 &αIUtipong &αIUtipong unpublished da 飽 Mi xed ever: 伊 en plus 針。 tected area ， 1. 0 78 53 判。 220 18.5 17.9 deciduous deciduous occasional frres aMU

一凶 (1)加 cludes bamb ∞ ;ω 1. 0 cm dbh; 問> 4.5 cm dbh; 拘 Results 間関peated me 制 res from 出es 叩 .e plot over several years. 254 Mo. ENAMM 札 KABIR ANO EOWA 即 L. WEBB

DISCUSSION

Kh'O k Bung Pr eu F 'O rest has al 'O ng hist 'O ry 'O fl 'O gging ，frre ，and grazing. Selective l'O gging and repeated fires in the decidu 'O us f 'O rest has resulted in reduced diversity ，l'O wer density ，and altered s加 C伽re characterized by l'O wer average tree heights and diameters. Similar Similar results have been seen in 'O ther studies (STOTI EI AL. ， 1990; UHL & KAUFFMAN ， 1990; 1990; MAXWELL ， 1996; MILLER & KAu 開 MAN ， 1998; BUNYAVEJCHEW 町 EI AL. ， 2001; RAMIREz-MARCIALEI AL. ， 2001). Alth 'O ugh we c創 m 'O tc 'O nfidently state what the ‘'O riginal' species species c'O mp 'O siti 'O n 'O f the f 'O rest was ，we are c'O nfident 白紙 l'O gging has heavily impacted the the p'O pulati 'O ns 'O f Shorea siamensis ，which in decidu 'O us f 'O rest 'O ften C'O・'O ccurs with Quercus species species (MAXWELL & ELLIOπ ， 2001; Webb ，Steinmetz ，van de Bult ，Seuaturien ，& Chutip 'O ng ， unpublished data; J. F. Maxwell ，pers 'O nal c'O mmunicati 'O n). Repeated disturbances such as frre may fav 'O r 問 generati 'O n by species 出at gr 'O w best in in degraded c'O nditi 'O ns ， such as legumes (BRAK 聞HlE LM & L 町， 1998). In deed ，b 'O th the 紅白 and sapling c'O mmunities were d'O minated by several species 'O f legumes. Our results 'O f relatively high sapling abundance ，small 位'ee height and dbh class dis 釘ibuti 'O n (Table 3) ， l'O w basal area ，and d'O minati 'O n by legumes ，suggests 白at Kh'O k Bung Pr eu f'O rest is heavily degraded degraded fr 'O m its 'O riginal state after c'O ntinued l'O gging ，frring ，and graz 泊g. Despite 白 e relatively p'O'O r physical c'O nditi 'O n 'O f the f 'O rest and its is 'O lati 'O n ，it is still an imp 'O rtant rep 'O sit 'O ry 'O f bi 'O diversity and c'O n甘ibutes t 'O species c'O nservati 'O n and livelih 'O od supplementati 'O nf 'O rl 'O cal villagers. F 'O rest fragments 'O ften c'O ntain rare species subject t 'O l'O cal exti 甲 ati 'O n (THEBAUD & S 百 ASBERO ， 1997) as we f'O und in the case 'O f Kh'O k Bung Pr eu f'O res t. Of p釘 ticular interest is Vietnamosasa ciliata ，a bamb 'O'O species b即'O ming unc 'O mm 'O n 泊 f'O rests 'O f Th ailand because it is generally 'O nly f'O und 'O ns 'O il that has n'O t been tilled (J. F. Maxwell ，pers 'O nal c'O mmunicati 'O n). Li velih 'O'O d 'O f the l'O cal c'O mmunity was supplemented thr 'O ugh the sustainable harvest 'O fn 'O n-timber pr 'O ducts ，p 紅 ticularly mushr 'O'O m ， phak wan ，wild 仕uits ，and ant eggs fr 'O m the f 'O rest. Kh'O k Bung Pr eu faces several challenges t 'O l'O ng-term regenerati 'O n. L 'O gging 'O f1 紅 'ge trees trees in the p出 t had severely reduced the abundance 'O f seed-bearing m 'O ther 甘'ees ，which may deteri 'O rate the genetic quality 'O f the pr 'O pagules (CORL 町 T & TURNER ， 1997). Repeated frres frres reduce accumulated litter 'O n the f 'O rest fl 'O'O r which leads t 'O dry and nu 凶ent-p 'O'O rs 'O il (ZHUANO ， 1997; RAMIREZ-MARCIALEI AL. ， 2001). Fires ，gr 沼恒g，and 佐'ampl 泊g by livest 'O ck kills kills seedlings ， depresses seed germinati 'O n，and changes s 'O il m 'O isture and temperature ， .p 'O tentially altering l'O ng-term species c'O mp 'O siti 'O n and s加 cture (GUINDON ， 1996). In additi 'O n， the f 'O rest is a highly is 'O lated fragment S 'O there is very little sc 'O pe f'O r seed dispersal 合om larger f 'O rest are 儲 (Gu 町 DON ， 1996; THEBAUD & SτRASBERG ， 1997; VIANA EI AL. ， 1997; LEMENIH & TEKETAY ，2005). 官lU S，p'O'O rm 佃 agement 'O f Kh'O k Bung Pr eu c'O uld lead t 'O l'O cal exti 中 ati 'O n 'O r genetic deteri 'O rati 'O n 'O fr 紅 e species ，and spatial is 'O lati 'O n all 'O ws little chance 'O f genetic 'O ut-cr 'O ssing thr 'O ugh p'O llinati 'O n 'O r dispersal. It It is imp 'O rt 組 tt 'O c'O nsider the r'O le 'O f the l'O cal village c'O mmu 凶ty 泊 f'O rest protecti 'O n， management ，and c'O nservati 'O n. 百le villages surr 'O unding Kh'O k Bung Pr eu f 'O rest t'O'O k 出e initiative initiative t 'O pr 'O tect the f'O rest from further encr 'O achment ，establish management rules ，and enf 'O rce them. It is n'O w widely ackn 'O wledged by s 'O cial scientists that c 'O llective acti 'O n and cally-initiated l'O cally-initiated f'O rest c'O nservati 'O n can lead t 'O successful f'O rest c'O nservati 'O n 'O utc 'O mes (OSTROM ， 1990; BALAND & PLATTEAU ， 1996; Ao 臥 WAL ， 1999; BANANA & Go MBYA- SSEMBAJ rwE， 2000; JOHNSON &FORSYTH ，2002;RJ 汀 EWACHAKUL EI AL. ， 2004; WEBB & SmVAKOTI ，2007) ，and b'O th the existence 'O f the f 'O rest and the species diversity 'O f Kh'O k COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF A COMMUNπY-MANAGED DECIDUOUS FOREST 255

Bung Pr eu dem 'O nstrate this. Well-defined pr 'O tecti 'O n and management rules appeared to be successful successful in protect 泊g the forest fr 'O m complete degradati 'O n and loss. In addition ，provision and implementation of graduated sanctions upon the violation of existing rules in use also appe 紅 ed t 'O be effective tools for f 'O rest conservation. Self-initiated protection ， given rights to to use ，and s住ong community leadership c 'O ntributed to the safeguarding of Khok Bung Pr eu fores t. Al though protected forests are usually more effective repositories 'O f plant diversity th 阻 forests under management for extractive use (BRUNER ET AL. ， 2001; SALAFSKY ET AL. ， 2001) ，community-managed f 'O rest is a vital repository of biodiversity values al 'O ngside the pr 'O tected area system. With 'O ut the 泊itiative of the community leaders ，Kh'O k Bung Preu forest forest would have been co 抑制ed to agriculture in 白 1970s. Resulting from the c'O mmunity effort effort is a forest that still contains a fairly diverse flora wi 由加 app 訂 ently regenera 出19 c'O mmunity 紺 ucture. Th is should be considered a near-term community-based conservati 'O n success ， even though the level of diversity and dominance was estimated l'O w compared to other other forests 泊Th ailand under m 'O re complete protection. Care Care must be taken when interpreting our results. Al though indeed in 血is case study the the community management did result in the retention of forest cover ， the future 佐'ajectory of of biodiversity and structural variables is not known. Moreover ，出 is single case study is not not necess 紅 ily representative of all c'O mmunity forests in Th ailand. Accumulation of l'O ngi 伽dinal case studies will be requir 芭d before we may generalize results like ours. Community forests may v紅 y greatly in biodiversity ，intensity of use ，and 甘'ends over time. Significantly Significantly more research is required on 出e impacts of community m 佃 agement on forest forest condition in 百lailand ，and in Asia.

RECOMMENDED ACτ10NS

Al th 'O ugh the 'O verall results suggest 白紙Kh ok Bung Preu forest still retains enough structural structural complexity to give a good st 訂 t to secondary succession ，it is still difficult to estirnate estirnate h'O w long it will take t 'O recover to ‘mature' conditions. Given the challenges to long-term long-term regeneration discussed above ，action should be taken to assist in the restorati 'O n of of Kh on Bung Pr eu. We recommend two investments that should increase the probability of of long-term forest restoration. First ，forest regeneration needs to be facilitated. Restoration of biodiversity impr 'O ves with with manual enrichment of native plant species (PARROTTA ET AL. ， 1997; ZHUANG ， 1997; BLAKESLEY ET AL. ， 2002) and has been the focus 'O f long-term efforts in Northem 百 ailand (FOREST REs TORATION RESEARCH UNπ ，2000). Well-p 加 med enrichment planting of native species species wo u1 d reduce fire hazards ， improve soil conditions ，attract seed dispersal agents (p 訂 ticularly birds) 叩 d create microenvironments favorable for the natural establishment of of native forest species (Co 乱 Eπ& Tu RNER ， 1997; JOSEPH & WUNDE 乱 E， 1997; LAMB ET AL. ， 1997; BRAKENHIELM & LIU ， 1998; BA' 甘 AGLIA ET AL. ， 2004). We recommend 23 native native forest species suitable for enrichment plan 血 g in Khok Bung Preu forest ， based on their their presence 泊 the forest ，leafing phenology ，and potential to contribute to the immediate and long-term mechanisms 'O f forest rest 'O ration (Table 5). Enrichment pl 佃 ting would require require a major human resource investment by the communities as well 出 generous technical backstopp 泊g and dis 住ibution of appropriate seedlings by the Royal Forest Department ， but could could po 飽ntially have significant and positive impact on forest conditi 'O ns. M 凶 Table Table 5. Native species recommended for enrichment planting in Kh ok Bung Pr eu forest ， with the justification of the selection. A 凶

Specie 唱 Family Le afing Phenology C町四nt sta 同S Notes 也KBP

Albizia Albizia 0ゐ'ratissil 脚仏. f.) B血Le guminosae ，Mim osoid 蹴 De ciduous 町esent Canopy 伽 e，fast growing ，provides shade ，leaves usedωfodder Az， 仰 richta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Dec iduous Prese nt Fodder ，medicinal ，edible fn 雌 for 佃加als. Bombax Bombax anceps Pierre var. anceps Bomb 抑制E De ciduous Pre sent B凶・ a蜘 C出g flowers ，canopy Butea 脚 'nosperma (L I此) Taub. Le;伊凶 nωae ，Pap 迎。 noid ，悶 De ciduous Not present B凶御鉱山gflowers ，fire resilient Canari 肌， subulat 脚 Guill. Burseraceae Dec iduous R 曹関口 t 国 ible fruits for bo 由human and 組 imals Dalbergia Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pi erre ex UIlI es Le guminosae ，Pap 出onoid 蹴 Evergreenρeciduous Not pre 回nt Can opy tree ，provides shade ，∞ mmon 恒disturbed are 俗 窓口・開予冨 Dillenia Dillenia ova ωW aIl. Dill 個師ae Evergreenρeciduous Not 開 sent 研ovides sh 耐， often in s削抽rygro 耐 1 Di， ωrpyros 脚 Uis Griff. Ebenac 蹴 Deciduous Pre sent Canopy 悦 e，provides shade ，timber tree Erythrina Erythrina 抑制 aRoxb. Le伊国 nosae ，Papilionoideae Dec iduous Not Pres ent Canopy tree ，regesi 悶総 sin open areas ，bird-a 蜘 c 伽Ig flowers Ficus Ficus hi ，平ida L. f. v鉱 hispida Moraceae Evergr 聞 l Not present Under story tree ，加 its edible EF

Gmelina Gmelina arborea Roxb. Verbenaceae Deciduous 針路 ent E 白mmon in secon 伽rygro 叫 1，側ypropagation 関協同〉 Hymenodi c， 砂'on orixense (R oxb.) Mabb. Rubiaceae Deciduous pre 回目 t 拘置 tgrowing ，捌opy 蜘， provides shade Irvingia Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex Be Dl1. Irv泊 19i脱却 Evergreen Not 開糊t Can opy tree ，provid 凶 shade ，edible frui 包 gerstroemia La gerstroemia jloribunda Jack var. jloribunda L同即蹴 Dec iduoω Not present Often plan 叫泊drier and secondary forest ZU pre 回目 t 随 tsea Li tsea glutinosa (Lo町.) C.B. Rob. var. glut 仰， 'sa La ura 悶 E Deciduous Understory tree ，edible frui 開口当〉同 Mark 加，mia stip uJ ata Seem. ex K. Schum. v低 stipula ωBign， 叫蹴ae De ciduous 日芭 sent 白， mmon in under story of disturbed fores t， bat-polli 凶 .ed ， Oroxyl ，脚 i叫b馴(L.) KJ 四 Bigl lO uia 白鶴 Dec iduous Not present 白mmon in 蹴 0油 ry grow 曲， bat pollin ated， fruit edible UF Pteroc 仰山間， crocarpus K四 U 伊凶 no 蹴， Pap 出onoid 蜘 Dec iduous R 凶ent 臼nopy 臨， provides shade ，often pl 初制，自 nber 臨 Schleichera Schleichera oleosa (Lo ur.) Oken Sapinda 瑚 E Dec iduo 凶 日宮田:nt 国 ible fruits ，provi 伽 shade ，m叫 cinal ・ 4 Senna Senna siamea ιmk.)Irw恒& Bam. Le guminos ae， Ca 叫 p凶od 蹴 Evergreen Notp 関節目I Fぉtgrowing ，often planted ，unders 伽Y tree ，edible leaves 〈開回目

Spondi ω， pinna ωι.， f.) K四 An制 rdi 脱却 Deciduo 凶 Pre sent Fl ower ，frui 箇組d leaves 眠 edible for 加血組加als and hum 叩 S Sterculia Sterculia pexa Pi erre Sterc uIi ll 悶 E Dec iduous Notp 毘羽目t Common 加disturbed forest Terminalia Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combre 旬αae Dec iduous Notp 毘sent Canopy 悦 e，provides shade ，medicinal COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF A COMMVNITY-MANAGED DECIDUOUS FOREST 257

Second ， there needs to be strict implementation of operational rules ， a strengthening institutions of institutions for regular monitoring ， and increased authority to implement sanctions aga 泊st violators. violators. A strong core of concemed leaders and citizens in communities like those suπounding Kh ok Bung Preu benefits from increased authority 佃 d implementing power. Vested Vested interest 泊 the forest and its benefits ，combined with the capacity and authority to protect protect the forest ， should improve the outcomes of management and restoration by the communities. communities. Many degraded forest 企agments have been successfully restored 白血e 住opical regions regions after given certain protection against disturbances (CORLETT & Tu RNER ， 1997; ZHUANG ， 1997). If bo 出 forest restoration and vig i1 ant protection is initiated promptly ， Kh ok Bung Pr eu could be on a 回~ectory towards significant improvement of forest conditions. conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We 血ank the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis of the Center for the Study Study of In stitutions ，Population ，and Environmental Change ，In diana University ， for funding 血 e training programme on the In temational Fores 位y Resources and In stitution Research protocol protocol held at the Asian In stitute of Technology ，Bangkok ，Th ai1 and in September 2003. τ'h e IFRI training programme collected the data upon which we prepared this manuscrip t. structors In structors and p紅白ipants included Am bika P. Gautam ，Julie England ，Tran 官1I Mai An， W 叫 op Chutipong ， Astia Dendi ，Aru n Dhakal ，Ngo Tri Dung ， Shiromani Gyawali ，Bharati Joshi ，Ub olratana Suntornratana ，D 田 pshikha Talwar ， τ'ran Nam Th ang ，百世 la ，and Yonariza. EI 泊or Ostrom and Kri ster An dersson provided 住aining materials. Plant identifications 組 d comments on the manuscript were given by J. F Maxwell. Martin van de Bult con 凶 buted significantly significantly in pl 組 t habit classification and species selection for enrichment planting in Kh ok Bung Pr eu. Additional field assistance was provided by Nikom Asakati and Rachel Conejos. Conejos. Technical and adminis 回 tive support was provided by Kh anong Sumkhunthod ， the the village headman of village Ban Non Boad. 百le late Mr. Tong Sumkhunthod 組 d Mr. Yeam Shepaisan narrated to us the history of 血e fores t. Chumnan Suntkhunthod provided generous generous support with lodging during field work. Guidance during our field work was ensured ensured by 出ree community forest guards ， Mr. Sommay Saipaisan ，Mr. Tum Samkhunthod ， and Mr. Tawin Phuksungnon. Our sincere 白ank to two anonymous reviewers for their valuable valuable comments on the early version of 出is manuscrip t. 258 MD. ENAMMUL KABIR AND EDWARD L. WEBB

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