The Development of the British Army During the Wars with France, 1793-1815'

1 ABSTRACT Keith Bartlett, 'The Development of the British Army during the Wars with France, 1793-1815' . The British Army that fought the engagement at Waterloo in 1815, was outwardly little changed from that which was engaged in the initial campaigns of the Wars, twenty-two years previously. Line upon line of red-coated, musket-armed infantry, manoeuvred as chess pieces across open fields, deciding the issue by volley and bayonet, having spent a hungry night exposed to rain and cold. The cavalry were still beautifully and often impractically clad, and were always seeking the decisive charge, on their unfed and often sickly mounts. The Army's commander still viewed his troops as 'the scum of the earth', who were rarely paid, and predominantly enlisted for life. It would therefore appear that little had altered from 1793 to 1815, and that this will be a study of continuity rather than change. However, this thesis will show that despite outward appearances, the Army that took the field at Waterloo was intrinsically different from the one that entered the conflict in 1793, being modernised in line with other institutions of state, and other European armies. This thesis is first and foremost intended to be a contribution to the history of the British Army from the outbreak of war with Revolutionary France in 1793, to the reduction of the forces after the battle of Waterloo in 1815. It proceeds from an assumption that the understanding of not only that history, but the history of the developing British state, will be significantly advanced through a study of the operation of, and the changes which took place within, the Army during the Wars with France. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRITISH ARMY DURING THE WARS WITH FRANCE, 1793-1815. BY KEITH JOHN BARTLETT The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the written consent of the author and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Submitted for the Degree of PhD, at Hatfield College, University of Durham. Research conducted in the Department of History. Submitted 1997. - 2 JUL 1.138 ABSTRACT Keith Bartlett, 'The Development of the British Army during the Wars with France, 1793-1815'. The British Army that fought the engagement at Waterloo in 1815, was outwardly little changed from that which was engaged in the initial campaigns of the Wars, twenty-two years previously. Line upon line of red-coated, musket-armed infantry, manoeuvred as chess pieces across open fields, deciding the issue by volley and bayonet, having spent a hungry night exposed to rain and cold. The cavalry were still beautifully and often impractically clad, and were always seeking the decisive charge, on their unfed and often sickly mounts. The Army's commander still viewed his troops as 'the scum of the earth', who were rarely paid, and predominantly enlisted for life. It would therefore appear that little had altered from 1793 to 1815, and that this will be a study of continuity rather than change. However, this thesis will show that despite outward appearances, the Army that took the field at Waterloo was intrinsically different from the one that entered the conflict in 1793, being modernised in line with other institutions of state, and other European armies. This thesis is first and foremost intended to be a contribution to the history of the British Army from the outbreak of war with Revolutionary France in 1793, to the reduction of the forces after the battle of Waterloo in 1815. It proceeds from an assumption that the understanding of not only that history, but the history of the developing British state, will be significantly advanced through a study of the operation of, and the changes which took place within, the Army during the Wars with France. 3 CONTENTS ABSTRACT 1 TITLE PAGE 2 CONTENTS 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 6 ABBREVIATIONS 8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Introduction to the Development of the Army 10 1.2 Historiography and Methodology for the Development of the Army. 10 1.3 Sources for the study of the Development of the Army. 17 1.4 The question of the Development of the Army. 20 1.5 The British Army in 1793. 21 PART I ADMINISTRATION CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURE 2.1 Introduction. 24 2.2 The Commander in Chief. 24 2.3 The Secretary at War and the War Office. 30 2.4 The Adjutant General and Quartermaster General. 34 2.5 The Secretary of State for War (and Colonies). 39 2.6 Commanders in the Field. 41 2.7 Army Organisation. 46 2.8 Inspection. 53 2.9 Boards and Commissions 58 2.9 Conclusion. 61 4 CHAPTER 3 FINANCE 3.1 Introduction. 65 3.2 Army Finance. 67 3.3 The Paymaster General. 71 3.4 The War Office. 74 3.5 Regimental Paymasters. 78 3.6 Agency. 82 3.7 Comptrol and Audit. 92 3.8 Commissariat Accounts. 96 3.9 Conclusion. 100 PART II MANPOWER CHAPTER 4 COMPOSITION 4.1 Introduction. 104 4.2 Expansion. 104 4.3 Intervention. 111 4.4 Recruiting. 129 4.5 Inducements 131 4.6 Officers. 146 4.7 Conclusion. 162 CHAPTER 5 TRAINING 5.1 Introduction 164 5.2 Drill 164 5.3 Experience 168 5.4 Light Infantry 171 5.5 Progress 179 5.6 Education 184 5.7 Conclusion 187 5 PART III LOGISTICS CHAPTER 6 SUPPLY 6.1 Introduction 188 6.2 The Commissariat and the Contract System 189 6.3 Stores and the Storekeeper General 198 6.4 Clothing and Equipment 202 6.5 Weaponry 214 6.6 Conclusion 221 CHAPTER 7 TRANSPORT 7.1 Introduction 222 7.2 Shipping 222 7.3 Transport Overland 229 7.4 Marching Regiments 235 7.5 Horseflesh 239 7.6 Maps 241 7.7 Communication 243 7.8 Conclusion 252 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 8.1 The Most Complete Machine? 255 8.2 Epilogue 262 APPENDICES 1 Reports of the Commissioners of Military Enquiry 265 2 Office Holders, 1793-1815 267 BIBLIOGRAPHY 268 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This is the part of the thesis that I have been looking forward to writing for some time. I owe thanks to so many people who have assisted me along the road to this finished piece of work, that 500 words of my gratitude seems somewhat inadequate. For without them the Development of the British Army during the Wars with France, 1793-1815, would have remained an idea for a book that was never written. First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisors. Jeremy Black agreed to be my mentor, and never accepted an excuse or an inadequacy. The vast amounts of his valuable time and knowledge he gave to me, constitute a debt I will find it difficult to repay. Duncan Bythell, who took over as my supervisor when Jeremy moved to Exeter, deserves a medal for enthusiastically reading my work, and trying to grasp the intricacies of a military thesis, in what was his last term before retirement. The idea for this work first took shape during conversations with Stuart Pied, for which I owe him my sincere thanks. Ian Beckett gave me so much encouragement, by reading my initial chapter drafts, commenting upon their contents, and suggesting they might be suitable for publication in his series. This was much-needed encouragement. David Sweet was the member of the Durham History Department who gave me my first foot on the ladder, and has continued to be supportive along the way. For that I am very grateful. Duncan Tanner, and the staff of the Department of History and Welsh History, welcomed me unreservedly as a fellow academic and a friend. Their encouragement and enthusiasm is taken for granted by all except this author. Roger Schofield and the fellows of Clare College Cambridge, offered me a forum to discuss my work over many pleasant dinners, teaching me how to argue my thesis, and never once dismissing what I had done as mere military history. Since completing this thesis I have learned of the tragic death of John Pimlott. His work has been my starting point, and his friendliness and encouragement are memories that will never fade. Since moving to the Public Record Office I have become indebted to several friends and colleagues. Ruth Paley has encouraged numerous students to achieve their potential through the records at Kew - I am one of the many who owe her thanks. William 7 Spencer is a mine of knowledge concerning the military records within the PRO, and I would hope to reciprocate the support he has given to me as he embarks upon the same path. My parents have always been the rock on which my whole new career has been based. Without their support I could never have started this project, and without their constant and complete understanding and affection, the road to its completion would have been much longer and contained many more obstacles. Various friends have helped along the way. I must thank: Geoff Brown and Lindsay New-Rogers for their true friendship, essential wit and constant cynicism; Helen Berry for her support, understanding and impeccable style; Elizabeth Cunliffe (and Tom) for our mutual affection, and for always being there when I craved sanity; Angela Essenhigh and Gerry Embleton, for almost making it to the end; and Nick Barratt and Sarah Price for being new-found kindred spirits. And finally, but completely, and without reservation, I owe the greatest thanks to my partner Elizabeth Foyster. Her love, friendship and academic rigour are as much a part of this work as the reforms of the Duke of York.

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