SN Holocaust.Pdf

Beiträge zur historischen sozialkunde • 1

Whereas in analysis and discussion adults predominantly concentrated on the diffe ren­ Introduction ces in the national perspectives of the Holo­ caust, the limitations of each respective in­ terpretation, the political interests and pe da­ gogical objectives, which flow into these, and contributed comparisons with other examples of genocide; pupils, as a rule, very directly hit The statements and opinions could hardly upon the inhumane core of the politically be more contradictory, which have been generated mass murder, which appears so dis cussed in the media and on specialist con­ overwhelmingly repulsive that further que­ ferences in the past months. The demands stions sometimes are not possible anymore. on the topic are mounting as well as critical One academic asked a group of pupils that voices warning of asking too much of both told about a visit to Auschwitz: “Has anything pupils and teachers. What would, therefore, caused you particular dis tress?” A schoolgirl be more obvious than bring together the then replied: “I just kept asking myself how participants in the learning process? something like this could happen.” And to the question about reapprai sal, about comparison and parallels to the present, whether the Pupils are tired of constantly dealing with the Third Reich, Kosovo would have also played a role, there Pupils hardly have secured knowledge about National Socialism, followed an astonished shake of the head and Pupils show great interest in the subject and want to know more; the answer of a female guide that a transfer Teaching about the murderous racism of the Nazis offers a com- had explicitly not taken place. pelling approach to prevent right-wing extremism and xenophobia As monstrous as the crime has been as as well as foster individual moral competence to judge, considerably different from one another are the adherents of Holocaust Education are consumers of the the methodical approaches, the selection Holocaust industry and serve the legitimation of political interests. as regards content, the time devoted to the topic during teaching in international com­ parison. Hardly anyone who places the topic To capture the reality of teaching, mutually in the history of our time fails to mention to inform each other of the diversity of the the universal importance of the National pedagogical situation and the materials at dis­ Socialist genocide; in contrast, the standing posal for teaching was the aim of a conference, it oc cupies in teaching, as is swiftly evinced which the Georg Eckert Institute for Interna­ by a comparative, matter­of­fact analysis, is tional Textbook Research in Braunschweig rather marginal. Special courses or project staged in the Buchenwald memorial. It took weeks are still the exception, not only in place as part of the German presidency of Ger man­speaking countries. Many teachers the international “Task Force on Holocaust fol low the guidelines whose precepts or re­ Remembrance” last year. Of the many con­ commendations on this teaching subject are tributions we include above all those, which extraordinarily different within Europe alone. concerned themselves with teaching projects In most countries they designate between and teaching experiences as well as with four and sixteen hours for the treat ment of critical reflections and conclusions for the National Socialism and/or the Holo caust. methodical­didactic modus operandi on the Yet – as Volkhard Knigge has pointed out part of memorials in the context of National in his critical reflections on the “imperative Socialist crimes and the integration of ey­ of memory” on the Buchenwald Conference – ewitnesses. Some contri butions have been the perpetrators’/ victims’ background is newly included, for in stance the one about the still essential on the one hand for the way of Jewish Museum Hohenems and the Museum appraisal in the various countries. However, of Con tem porary History in the memorial of this raises – in the context of countries like the former concentration camp in Ebensee, Germany and Austria – the question at the both of which relatively recent institutions in same time whether “prescribed negative Austria, which break new ground in dealing memory could make a lasting contribution with the National Socialist past, and thereby to democratisation and humanisation”. The increasingly place to the fore independent multi­ethnic composition of many school work of young addressees. classes necessitates a differentiated, inter­ 2 • Beiträge zur historischen sozialkunde

cultural approach, when one takes the Natio­ most of all, a self­imposition of limits are in nal Socialist crimes as the theme, today more a direct, proportionate relation to pedagogical than ever – a fact Angelika Rieber de voted success”. special attention to in her obser va tions. In Germany and Austria many of those, Teaching guidelines and schoolbooks as who bear responsibility in the educational well as teachers’ attitudes are shaped by the system today, have formed their attitude experiences of the respective adult gene­ towards National Socialism in the confron­ ration. Decrees of the ministries of education ta tion with the generation of parents and perhaps too little reflect the ways of percep­ grandparents, who have themselves still been tion of the young. Recurrent interventions witnesses and participants. This approach and attempts on the part of politics and the has become obsolete for the generation of media to make teachers and young people pupils today. The new generation is freer. discharge their duties – be it on account of It can thematically address resistance and current political events or the publication of colla bo ration, standing by or looking on in survey results about a lack of knowledge or the same way without touching taboos. This awareness – seem questionable in this light new open ness of the situation, which, how­ and counterproductive in their effect; Rein­ ever, at one and the same time gives National hard Krammer has referred to some Austrian Socialism its place in history, must be taken examples in his contribution, which has al­ into gro wing account in the future, in both ready been published before the Buchenwald training institutions as well as memo rials and Conference. mu seums, which adopt this theme. Memorials cannot spurn this situation, eit­ her, if they do not want, as Günter Morsch has Falk Pingel/Eduard Fuchs Oktober 2001 explained on the basis of results from visitor research at the KZ memorial Sachsenhausen, English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 to “animate active dozing”; and he summa­ rises in the face of exhibition con cepts that “clarity, structuredness, graphicness and,

Authors

BüRO DENKINGER uND FElBER, Wien EHMANN ANNEGRET, Regionale Arbeitsstellen für Ausländerfragen, Jugendarbeit und Schule e.V., Potsdam. FuCHS EDuARD, Verein für Geschichte und Sozialkunde, univ. Wien JENTJENS JulIAN, Youth exchange with Poland, Krefeld. JORDAN luTZ­W., VW­Coaching Company, Wolfsburg. KEREN NIllI, Kibbutzim College of Education, Tel Aviv, Israel. KHOuRINE DIMITRI, Youth exchange with Poland, Wuppertal. KNIGGE VOlKHARD, Buchenwald Memorial, Weimar. KöSSlER GOTTFRIED, Fritz­Bauer­Institut, Frankfurt a.M. luTZ HANNElORE, Verein wider das Vergessen e.V., Düsseldorf MORSCH GüNTER, Memorial and Museum Sachsenhausen, Oranienburg. PINGEl FAlK, Georg­Eckert­Institut, Braunschweig. QuATEMBER WOlFGANG, Zeitgeschichte Museum, Ebensee RIEBER ANGElIKA, Ernst­Reuter­Schule I, Frankfurt a.M. SCHlATTER HElMuT, Jüdisches Museum Hohenems. SEDlACEK DIETMAR, KZ­Memorial Im Torhaus Moringen, Moringen. THOMSEN DIRKO, VW­Coaching Company, Wolfsburg. TYCH FElIx, Zydowski Instytut Hystoryczny, Warsaw, Poland. WINKlER BRuNO, Jüdisches Museum Hohenems. Falk Pingel threat finding expression therein? To us born much later who have not lived through the Holocaust, Teaching the Holocaust in its own right – memory thereof is not possible. A Reassessment of current Pedagogical Orientations We reconstruct, piece together and assi milate history on the basis of the sources at our hands. Even for the eyewitnesses the past experience will soon be accessible solely through remembering; the present fuses with a past, which seemed as un ap­ The forming of a collective memory precedence. In view of the different proach able as it seemed indelible. If of the Holocaust or the Shoah, as standing, which the genocide of I do not recall the past it eludes me, is the Hebrew­Jewish term, or the the Jews occupies in the curricula if I do re call it, I transform it. genocide of the Jews, as is the ade­ of various different countries, and “It is April, 12th, 1945, the day quate German term, has been a labo­ con sidering the great variety of pe­ after the liberation of Buchenwald. rious and lengthy process. How ever da gogical methods of teaching it, we History is still fresh. There is no terrible the murder of the Jewish should remain conscious of the fact need particularly to strain the population under National Socialist that the respective level of instruc­ memory. Nor of credible, checked rule appears to us in retro spect, tion we have attained in our coun­ documents. Death is still in the however central its impor tance is try, in our school, is but the result present tense … regarded today for an un derstanding of a development in which many And yet doubt comes over me wh- of the National Socia list regime and factors have played a part: political ether it is possible to tell the story. genocide in the 20th century, it all balances and shifts of power and Not that the experience would be but went without saying that this ideologies, scientific research con­ unutterable. It has been un bear able, event attained a prominent place tri butions, the collected memories which is something entirely diffe- in historical tradition as well as of survivors, above all victims, and rent, as one will easily understand. historical­political edu cation. not least the pedagogical will and Something different, which does insights displayed by teachers. The not concern the form of a possible Memory – Remembrance – Lear­ compulsory institution school pos­ account but its substance. Not its ning from History? sesses certain characteristic forms structure but its den sity …only the of historical learning. Thus, we skilfulness of a con trol led account That the perpetrators, accomplices will ask whether the so­called “au­ can partly con vey the truth of the and the indifferent ones who had then tic” places like memorial sites testimony.” looked on or away did not want to allow different insights and forms of However, the account that the keep alive the memory of the ge­ lear ning from the classroom where writer Jorge Semprun, a former nocide, nor, what is more, want to textbooks still occupy a central stan­ prisoner in Buchenwald, snatched cast into the official, state­sanc­ ding. On the other hand, can we also from his memory “bit by bit, sen­ tioned form of a curriculum might bring “authentic” voices to school, tence by sentence” ate away at his at least appear understandable. But let eyewitnesses speak? We must life: “I knew with certainty”, he it was difficult for the victims, too, include the political background, later wrote, “that I would arrive at who had survived to speak about which influences the contents and a point where I had to acknowledge experiences deeply carved into their pedagogical objectives today. Does my failure: Not because I did not memory, to make them the subject a generalisation or universalisation succeed in writing: rather because of objective science and instructive of values, of intended moral learning I did not succeed in surviving wri- pedagogical endeavours. Could be from history, correspond with the ting.” (Semprun: Schreiben oder conveyed at all to the young what current trend of the glo ba li sa tion of Leben, p. 22/3 and 232) they had experienced? Was it of any communication? Does the Holo caust It was not possible for Jorge pedagogical use what they had to become an obligatory part of official Sem prun really to forget, since the tell? historical remem brance not only in sub stance of memory was the con­ The stages in which knowledge of Europe, but does it also lend once centration camp. But what this un­ the Holocaust unfolded and spread and for all to the world community surfeitable experience consisted of in both science and at school level I a fixed point of remembrance and can only be captured in an account. should like to outline with the help warning of ge nocide in its particular Thus, he eventually completed the of but a few examples, since current combination of the singularity of account from pieces of his memory teaching of the topic ought to take events and the universality of the and, in the year 1992, returned to 4 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

Buchenwald. up until today history as a subject interpretive phases can be made out: Oppressive as it may be to hold of historical education, as conveyed 1) For the teaching generation that a scientific­pedagogical conference by the state, is taught, essentially, had lived during National So­ at the place of events it is inevitable in most countries of the world as cialism – mostly as bystanders to concede that in the memory national history rather than as “his­ or even perpetrators, more infre­ of eye witnesses even this place, tory of mankind”. The adjacency quent ly as victims – it was ex tra­ like many other similar ones, has towards the own national history is ordinarily difficult to teach this become a place of remembering the guiding criterion of selection as subject. The monstrosity of the and com me moration, reflection, regards content; the periods of na­ holocaust was largely denied or assimilation of experiences, and not tional history structure large parts relativised by way of comparison merely of me mory and mourning for of the presentation in curricula and with the own victims. the vic tims. In their assignment to schoolbooks and often make up the 2) For the post­war generation it keep awake memory the memorials largest quantitative share. The em­ was relatively simple to distance in the suc cession of generations bedding of our subject, too, into the themselves from the perpetrator have become a place of pedagogy. respective national context is the re­ generation and demand extensive With this con ference we document ason also for the fact that for a long explanation. This demand was ourselves a piece of necessary and time no specific didactics of teaching frequently connected to visions thus accep table “historicisation” of the Holocaust developed. As long as of a new social order that would the Holo caust. the murder of the Jews was regarded render a repetition impossible. The account, however, in par­ as but one aspect of the crimes and Compara tive questions, which ticular when it is supposed to be events during World War II there would include other examples of passed on to coming generations was hardly any cause to examine the genocide, were asked neither by with the claim to pedagogical rele­ specific didactic chal lenges which, as science nor in di dactics. vance, which it had completely a rule, do not show until the topic is 3) The personal­instructive in volve­ lacked itself, since the experience of reserved independent space. ment in the sixties and seven ties the camp perfectly represented the When we take a look at the cur­ has rather given way to scep­ absurdity of human behaviour, so ricular situation in the countries in ticism amongst the following turns into an interpretation of an ex­ which the genocide of the Jews is generation to understand how perience, which seemed so original dealt with more extensively at all, National Socialism could become itself, that it did not require inter­ four different approaches can roughly possible. It belongs more and pretation nor was it capable thereof. be discerned. It becomes evi dent that more to a distant era that re­ We, however, cannot do without the contextual dependency within quires detailed, as “objec tive” as interpretation. This is pre cisely the the curriculum results in different possible, explanation. deeper reason why remembrance, focal questions and different forms b) In Israel the Shoah is the horrible ritual, retelling, the literary or, even of teaching and learning, respec­ low point of an extensive history of more so, poetical form have been tively: persecution of Jews in the Diaspora. to the fore at the beginning in the a) In Germany in the chrono logical The experience of the Shoah was societies of the victims – especial­ passage of history National Socia­ evidence of the failure of the Dia­ ly in Israel – and not the form of lism represents one of three central spora, Zionism the successful and description. It was about lending a periods of German contem porary forward­looking alternative. until collective expres sion to individual his tory (Weimar Republic/National the sixties remembrance and not hi­ grief, getting closer towards an Socialism/post­war period until storical instruction had been to the incommunicable experience in the the unification of Germany). The fore. Not until the Eichmann trial most diverse forms of remembrance Holocaust is a compulsory part of did the generation that had grown without ever being capable of re­ this era. The guiding principle for up in Israel ask questions over the construction. Only the generations the interpretation of the holocaust functioning of a murderous system that followed the eye witnesses asked up until the nineties has been the and the victims’ alternatives and op­ questions which necessitated a re­ ques tion about the continuity of tions. A greater scientific rigour and construction of his tory. They wanted German history. Did German history an objectivisation of the topic paved to acquire know ledge in order to run to wards National Socialism and the way for extensive pre sentations make remem brance possible. mass extermination, were there any of the Holocaust in school books. spe cial circumstances in German c) In Poland, France and many other history, did the perpetrators come countries occupied by National National History in the Fore­ from within society, did they belong Socialist Germany the holo caust is ground to the elite or were they only out­ considered within the con text of the siders who usurped power? Three respective national his tories (and as Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 5 a history of both vic tims and perpe­ Socialism are dealt with be cause necessarily confronted with such trators), but it did not and does not they represent a monstrous event inhumane and cruel events many stand at the centre of the treatment of world historical signi fi cance. pedagogues strove to explain in of heteronomy and re sistance, since From this view spring two, virtually which way such intricate a matter the Jews repre sen ted only a minority opposite, interpretative ap proaches: could be made accessible and assi­ of the popu la tion. They did not be­ – The Holocaust represents a sin­ milated in class – thus a separate long to the nucleus of the nation so gu lar, incomparable event in branch of the didactics of modern that their fate world history that ought to be history developed: Holocaust Edu­ 1) was either regarded as that of treated precisely for its unique cation, a research movement which one amongst many groups that dimensions. even in the present day still does not suf fered in a similar fashion as – An understanding of the Holo­ exist in most European countries, the entire nation and thus hardly caust is possible solely by way of although the Holocaust is treated de served special mention, as was comparison with other examples in schoolbooks, classes and separate the case especially in the former of genocide. It is perhaps the materials and youth books. So cialist countries. most atrocious yet only one 2) Or regarded as a very specific a mongst several examples of Universal Relevance kind of persecution and thus sin­ the fact that even in the modern gled out from the main flow of world inhumanity can take the Presently two, as a rule contrasting, national history (predomi nantly upper hand. tendencies dominate the didactic in France where the fate of the Both approaches can be encoun­ dis cussion: an increasing genera lisa­ Je wish population did not fit the tered today especially in American tion of learning aims and the histo­ long prevailing heroising view of course materials on the Holocaust. rical context on the one hand and a the résistance). In books on American history for cri tical examination of the hitherto In history textbooks in countries a long time the subject was either relevant national historical interpre­ such as England and France for neglected altogether or merely re­ tation on the other hand. Which is to instance the Holocaust was hardly ferred to few and far between; the say: on the one hand the Holo caust mentioned at all in the first de­ latter holds true also for history is increasingly regarded as one of the cades after the war. It took lengthy books on “Western Civilisation” central events of the 20th century, research work and continuous and “European History”. It was from whatever view one seeks to pub lic discussion to raise general only for many years of concerted approach it, on the other hand es­ a ware ness that the ex termination efforts by Jewish communities and pecially the respective references to of the Jews had been an event of organisa tions that they succeeded in one’s own history must be re thought. World War II at least as memo­ sprea ding the insight that one of the The latter applies in parti cular to the rable as the bombing of london, grea test mass murders in modern Eastern European coun tries which the invasion or the resistance history should at least be optional in most cases are only becoming move ment. until the pre sent day part of classes. Today, the holocaust receptive to the topic as of now. the sub ject is intro duced in a rela­ is treated extensively in courses, An unbiased and extensive treat­ tive ly abrupt way; in the school­ which are compulsory only in some ment of the Holocaust encounters books there are often but one or states, though. particular difficulties there. two doub le pages, which confront Precisely because the topic was a) The mass murder of the Je wish pu pils with the inten ded annihi­ not part of obligatory education in population – especially where lation of an entire people. Only American history, it required social Jews formed a considerable share ra rely are the emotional shocks didactic considerations to introduce of the total population – stands in ta ken into consideration the pupils and teachers to the topic. Cur­ the way of the current yet to be treat ment of the subject might ricula were developed which right over come heroic presentation of cause, or moral and poli tical from the outset drew comparisons World War II, which stresses the conclusions addressed which the with other attempts at extermination self­sacrificing struggle of the pupils could draw. in world history, since what hap­ oppressed population against the d) The Holocaust essentially stands pened in Europe otherwise had to occupying forces more sharply outside the own historical expe­ seem to the pupils largely foreign, than suffering and pain. The rience, it does not have any, or me­ incomparable and thus not repea­ Holo caust, however, did not pro­ rely indirect points of contact (e.g. table as such. Some curricula drew duce heroes; it is not suitable for through emigrants who survived the comparisons for instance with the heroisation. Holocaust) with the own national annihilation of Native Americans. b) In virtually all countries, which history. Here, persecution and anni­ So as to counter possible protests belonged to the sphere of Com­ hilation of the Jews under National on the part of the parents who did munist dominion, the Jews have not want to see their children un­ 6 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

been an unpopular minority Teaching about the Holocaust at Academic and School level in who have always led a somewhat Contemporary Poland marginal existence in national his to riography. They remained Feliks tych largely excluded from national There is a general rule that in those countries, which were most affected by the historical awareness. Holocaust – like Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Byelorussia, Hungary, Slovakia – c) The National Socialist dictator­ Holocaust education is still in its infancy. ship was followed by the far lon­ This is not only due to the communist legacy and its taboos. ger and for the non­Jewish popu­ While research on the Holocaust and its findings is of international nature, its lation often also harsher Soviet transmission to the level of popular historical consciousness, which concerns rule. Both systems of oppression above all the school system, depends to a large extent on wartime experiences are viewed together, as is evinced in each country affected by the Holocaust. In the case of Central- and Eastern European countries we are talking about by the Hungarian government’s societies steamrollered by the Holocaust, and that means teachers‘ and textbook new pro gramme on the memory authors‘ very own societies. A clear resistance persists to the introduction into of both dictatorships. general education of those scholarly findings already taking place in internatio- As to counter these difficulties in­ nal research, which – in the opinion of the authors of school textbooks – offend struction must choose a wider ap­ the national “ego” of their given society and its self-perception. So far, the proach. First of all possibly still emphasis in historical education about the times of World War II has been on the heroic exploits of one’s own nation, its suffering and its resistance to the standing prejudices or stereotypes occupier. However, there is more to history than that, there was also collabora- towards Jews must be broken up tion, indifference to the fate of Jews, denunciations and in some countries, like for empathy with the victims of Lithuania, Ukraine, Slovakia, Latvia, Hungary, Rumania, Croatia – even direct per secution and an understanding complicity with the «Endlösung». for their largely hopeless situation For several post-war decades this problem escaped any public debate. By now to arise. Otherwise instruction runs such problems are already raised in the media. The taboo is broken but those other aspects of war time history are making their way into history textbooks the peril of corroborating old preju­ only with difficulties. dices, for, ultimately, nothing less Some textbook authors writing about Poland in World War II are still almost is demanded than Jewish victims completely ignoring the fate of Jews, the Holocaust. Many historians still do not at tain an equal standing alongside consider the annihilation of Polish Jews by the Nazis as part of Polish national those amongst the non­Jewish po­ history and the Holocaust is still portrayed merely as an element of the Ger- pulation. It is definitively a long mans‘ policy in occupied Poland, rather than as a genocidal plan of civilisational way to go until then, as surveys in dimension and with universal implications. But the number of such authors is diminishing. Po land for example show, where a Finally – as is the case in Poland – there is the absurd competition between majority of the population is still of victims: who suffered more, the Poles or the Jews? the opinion that “the Poles” suffered In communist times, the official number of victims of the German occupation more than “the Jews”. and the war was calculated in a purely political manner. The official number of Apart from this specific situation Jewish victims could not exceed the number of Polish ones. As a matter of fact, which came about from the collapse only the aggregate figure of victims (“6 million Polish citizens”) was given, as a rule, in the textbooks, so that the Holocaust phenomenon would not appear of the socialist system and the ma­ as a special topic of universal dimension. terialist interpretation of history the Paradoxically, the principle that there could not be more Jewish than ethnic different initial conditions in the Polish victims is still prevailing in school textbooks, despite the fact that Polish va rious countries will presumably historians have already come up with true figures many years ago, different gradually decline in importance. from those from communist times, when political censorship has served as a Mile na Santerini writes about her guardian of lies and concealment in history teaching. Many if not most history textbooks are written not by scholars, but by people project “Education after Auschwitz”, who are teachers themselves. In those history textbooks that were written by she views the Shoah as an event academics, the problem of the Holocaust is usually presented in a way that is on the basis of which the pres sing closer to the historical truth than in the case of textbooks written by other au- problems of our day would be re cog­ thors. Nevertheless, both groups of authors carefully avoid some topics. History nised in school. One comes a cross a in school textbooks and in classrooms is still presented in a highly ideological growing number of didactic intro­ manner, upholding some old and new national myths. This also applies to ductions into this topic that share Holocaust education: Textbooks authors are rather reluctant in presenting the real proportion of this view. Some factors can indeed wartime attitudes: they have a tendency to multiply the population of rescuers be listed which increasingly shape and to underestimate the degree of denunciation and collaboration. the pedagogical situation and cover The lessons following from the civilisational catastrophe called Holocaust that up national specificities: would awaken a special kind of sensitivity among the young against any danger a) Everywhere in our schools pupils of repetition of genocide are not present in most of the Polish textbooks. are learning about the subject for In Poland there was one Jew for every six ethnic Poles before World War II. The Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 7

country had the highest percentage of Jews among the population in the world. mans stand as exemplary of the In towns, this percentage was even higher; on average there were four Jews for possibility of genocide in the every six Poles. This means that the Holocaust in countries like Poland was modern world. not some marginal affair taking place out of sight of the Polish population: It The tendency towards a generalising happened right in front of their eyes. And here another important factor comes to interpretation is certainly strength­ the fore: the moral devastation produced by the Nazis among the local majority ened by the circumstance that populations by the sole fact of making them a direct witness to the genocide, to an unpunished murder of a whole population. This switch in the morale of ap proximately from the beginning most direct witnesses to the Shoah is not mentioned in any Polish textbook. of the nineties all important me­ This, despite many credible Polish and Jewish testimonies and other archival morial places have been offering sources, which explicitly describe the phenomenon. peda go gical seminars on Holocaust Some taboos have been broken in Poland (and elsewhere) during the last years. in struc tion which turn to an inter­ Some authors have blown apart some myths that served to paint an idealistic national audience and thus necessa­ picture of attitudes of societies in occupied countries towards the extermination of Jews. Breaking up such taboos, even if only occasionally, leads to the emer- rily convey approaches and compare gence of a new situation. The old “perpetrators-victims” dichotomy is slowly experiences which are no longer becoming a triangle: “perpetrators – attitudes of societies in occupied and related to one country alone. With dependent countries towards the extermination of Jews – victims”. the passing away of the generation Now, we are far from the situation we had a decade ago in Poland, when the that can still appear as witnesses extermination of the Jews was not mentioned in history textbooks. The presen- the time seems to have arrived to tation of the Shoah is gradually approaching the historical truth. be looking for applicable insights For the time being, there are only two (both non-university) institutions, which systematically conduct Holocaust research and Holocaust education for tea- to be utilised in the transportation chers on a scholarly level: the Institute of Jewish History (ZIH) in Warsaw and of the history of the Holocaust. The the Auschwitz Memorial Museum. Special courses for teachers are organized con ference in Buchenwald as well as in both places at least twice a year. The teachers participate in these courses the paper published here both serve on a voluntary basis. The Ministry of Education, despite the fact that Holocaust this objective. At political level the Education was introduced last year into the national curriculum, has not yet international Task Force on Holo­ commenced with systematically – through special and obligatory courses – pre- paring teachers for their new task. A program (the first of this kind in Poland) caust Remembrance and Research containing some basic methodological instruction for teachers was published pur sues the goal of enlivening the a few months ago. But not a single textbook on the subject has been published respective national discourse on till now. At least two are in progress now, but not before autumn 2001 will the one hand and accentuating such they reach classrooms. perspectives that underline the uni­ This does not mean that teachers would not be able to find the necessary infor- versal or at least special relevance of mation on the Holocaust in Polish bookstores and libraries. Several important the holocaust for an under stan ding books on the subject have recently been translated from English (Christopher Browning, Martin Gilbert, Israel Gutman). At least two Institutions, the Institute of contemporary history in ge neral. of Jewish History and the Auschwitz Museum keep producing scholarly works on the Holocaust each year (mostly annotated and scholarly commented sour- Critical Guiding Questions ces from their own rich collections), dozens of Jewish memoirs are available. The problem is that teachers are busy people. They do not usually have enough History curricula in Europe are chro ­ time to do historical research on their own, even if based on printed material or nologically structured as a rule on information available through the internet. They need historical information, th which would be easily accessible and ready to be used in the classroom. Not and reach the 20 century during historical “fast food” but still something which will take into consideration the the time of compulsory school in amount of time available to an average teacher. In other words: teachers need the eighth, ninth or tenth forms good textbooks, not extensive and meticulous anthologies of source material in most countries. This means a (containing documents, statistics, memoirs, diaries and maps), and they need maxi mum of ten to twenty lessons compatible methodological manuals as well. There is no doubt now that in a can deal with National Socialist rule year or two such material will be available in Poland. of which in turn only a part – and most ly the smaller at that – is de­ voted to the Holocaust. In view of whom National Socialism re pre­ or anti­Jewish sentiments a mongst the scarce tea ching time, and thus sents a far distant period about the own population. the limited space at disposal in the which they can be instructed less c) With the mounting gap in time schoolbooks for treating the murder and less through personal expe­ towards World War II and Ger­ and perse cution of Jews under Na­ rience and memory. many’s integration into the Eu­ tional So cialist rule, the corres pon­ b) National taboos, which have not ro pean and also the world com­ ding chap ters tend to concentrate on been taken up by historiography, munity the holocaust is less viewed the worst phases of this history and or only by outsiders, are being as a specific of German history; have little opportunity to depict the broken up, such as collaboration the crimes perpetrated by Ger­ various steps from discrimina tion 8 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde and ex clusion to extermination. examples of genocide? Can I been predisposed thus far. For, as a From the outset Jews and National also concern myself with victim rule, our pupils do not require the Socialist society are presented as groups other than the Jews with­ negative example of the holocaust adversaries. However, German – as out relativising their fate at one to gain insights into democratic well as to some extent also many and the same time? values and the observation of human Austrian and Italian – history text­ – How do I express myself when I rights. The example at best serves to books represent a notable exception, tell about the process of murder? corroborate and remind of what to since they also consider the history Do I take refuge in the apparently this point seemed perfectly natural. of eman ci pa tion and anti­Semitism “realistic” and cogent language In moral outrage National Socialist in the time prior to National Socia­ of the perpetrators or do I let dictatorship is easily trans ported so lism. unfor tunately, however, these the victims come to word? For, far away from contem po rary history parts are frequently skipped in the my les sons ought to make pupils that principally no foun dation can concrete situation of teaching, pre­ articulate so that they themselves be laid for an understanding as to cisely be cause some teachers believe are capable of speaking about the how terror can unfold in a modern they will get to talk about the Jews Holocaust. society. The example, therefore, any way to a sufficient extent in the – How do I avoid the danger of “vic­ remains a purely historical one. context of “National Socialism”. timisation”, i.e. viewing the Jews Instruction only rea ches the present Thus, the murder of the Jewish po­ solely as victims of per secution? when the violation of human rights pulation is often introduced without also shakes the confidence in their being able to fall back on previously Are the Goals within Reach? being “given”, in their belonging to acquired knowledge about the histo­ “our” world. Through the examina­ ry of the Jews in Europe. A number let us start our critical assessment tion of the past we make somewhat of difficulties and fore shortened by taking a look at the teaching aims, easier accessible for ourselves the perspectives, which criticism of which stand in striking contrast to present, which in this case may textbooks as well as a thorough look the actions of inhumanity on which mean, though, that we also discover at the available re ports of classroom the textbook presentation concen­ the possibility of inhumanity in our practice dis closes, result from this tra tes. The pupils are expected to day. Only then are the insights gai­ predica ment. I should like to clo­ draw positive conclusions from the ned from the National Socialist past the this criticism in the following negative example of a dictatorship, applied to our present. The question questions: which had negated human rights in a will then be whether we hold firm – How can I prevent pupils from sin gular fashion, and reject systems enough to counter comparable pe­ being emotionally paralysed by that are not based on democratic rils of today and to this very question the confrontation with the terror, fundamental rights. Holocaust edu­ pupils often enough answer but from not daring to ask questions cation is, there fore, human rights hesitantly, if not with a no. and form their own opinion? How and de mocracy as well as anti­racist Such a process can only be got must I prepare lessons when I edu cation all at once. A classification going if the Nazi regime is not por­ speak for instance about the gas of mankind into races or cultures of trayed as a system of oppression, chambers? How can I create an different value is naturally out of the which did not allow the individual atmosphere in which discussion question in view of the conse quen­ any scope for action or decision. Ad­ and reflection are possible? ces, which resulted from the racist mittedly, “frontal teaching”, which – Who comes to the fore of tea­ National Socialist ideology. Surveys can frequently be encoun tered, can ching, victim or perpetrator? amongst pupils and teaching studies rarely provide insights into the com­ Can I take both groups into equal confirm that this objective, as a rule, plicated mechanisms and conditions account? On the one hand it is es­ can be fulfilled; this, how ever, might in a dictatorship; this can probably sential to individualise victims as be but a superficial re sult over which only be achieved by way of debate well as perpetrators. On the other upon closer inspection a question and discussion in class, for which, hand I must not inad mis sibly per­ mark must then be put. moreover, one must have sufficient sonalise the group of perpetrators On the one hand it is certainly piece of mind and time. Especially but must let syste matic terror as true that most pupils in a class when it comes down to deriving well as the sup port by broad sec­ spon taneously reject the murderous conclusions for the own behaviour tions of the population become atrocities of the Nazis and feel emo­ in the present day the reality of the clear. tionally gripped by the brutality of “Third Reich” seems very distant – Do I treat the Holocaust only National Socialist policy. In this and foreign for the young people of with in the context of National case the confrontation with the mass today. The ambitious teaching aims Socialism or shall I draw com­ crime in all probability merely mo­ are hardly ever realised in practice. parisons with other dicta tor ships/ bi lises attitudes, which have already Project work, which ought to be the Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 9 rule with this topic, remains the cians or administrative officials, are excep tion. It is to be recommended, hardly ever mentioned, shown on Not only in Germany and Austria but should the circumstances not be sui­ photographs or quoted in their zeal also in the united States and Italy tea­ table for project teaching, at least to towards the murderous system. A chers report that pupils increa singly include as many elements as possib­ figure like Eichmann for example, show defensive reac tions to wards le, which distinguish project classes, of whom we have trial testimonies dealing with the Holocaust in class, also in “normal” classes oriented aplenty, which led Hannah Arendt for they share the opinion of being towards the timetable. As to provide to coin her controversial term “ba­ already overfed with the said topic. such impulses we present various na lity of evil”, scarcely attracts the We must keep in mind, there fore, concre te projects in this reader. In attention of schoolbook authors that the topic is indeed not only any case, in addition to the textbook while Auschwitz commander Höß addressed in history lessons but fur ther teaching methods should probably still remains most quo­ often also in religious and literary be employed such as excursions to ted when it comes to depicting in struc tion. Moreover, schoolbooks me morials, films, encounters with the killing process on the basis of and les sons are by far not the sole eye witnesses etc. Biographical and “original sources”. This takes me media that provide access to the to­ micro­historical approaches ought to an other critical comment on the pic. Television fea tures and newspa­ to round up the introduction into pre sentation in schoolbooks: per re ports also comment on current the political and economic system. In many countries, in particular deba tes of con temporary history and in Eastern Europe a factual account pu blic com memoration. Films play Language of Perpetrators versus dominates. To attain “objectivity” in the time of National Socialism. Voices of Victims? and authenticity National Socialist “Inno cent Jews” and brutal men in SS reports are quoted most frequently uni forms are stylised as stereotypes of The schoolbooks in many Western yet we also have at our hands notes defenceless victims and sadistic per­ European countries often offer from prisoners’ diaries or messages pe trators. The pupils get the feeling separate sections, which present by resistance groups. With the they already know the his torical roles. different interpretations and show sour ces of the perpetrators their However, as a rule, it is not difficult to alternatives ranging from “parti ci­ lan guage and concepts also become convince them that they possess but pation” to “resistance”. The pupils established in the schoolbook at one a superficial know ledge and opi nions can thus reconstruct in a system­ and the same time so that rather and have incongruous pictures in inherent manner constraints and often there is mention of “extermi­ their heads. The confrontation with alternatives and put themselves at na tion”, “Judenfrage” (Jewish ques­ individual bio graphies or ques tions least to an approximate degree in tion) and above all “Endlösung” as to how the process of perse cution constellations of that time. This (final solution). These are National could gain acceptance in most may help understand why this terror socialist coinages, which we should cases yield a swing in opinion and met little opposition, but it does not not employ uncritically and without reveal curio sity and commitment. ex plain why the Nazis devised their comment when we talk about the How ever, it would be wrong to murderous policy in the first place genocide of the Jews today. shrink from comparisons with other and subsequently translated it into Many authors find it extremely examp les of genocide either from reality. The most intricate problem hard to give even approximately history or the present of the pupils. appears to consist in giving reasons correct figures of Jewish victims The media report about politically for the National socialist genocide. and accurately describe the fate of motivated mass murders in Rwanda, The implicit connection of German other groups such as for instance former Yugoslavia or Indonesia to settlement plans and “starving” or the disabled or gypsies who also be­ name but a few cases of recent years. murder of the local population is came victims of mass annihilation. Pupils in ethnically mixed societies addressed only rarely in school­ As a rule it will be asking too much per haps contribute very different books, and then above all in those of both teachers and pupils to take ex amples of historical traumati­ of Eastern European countries. The all groups into equal account. It is sation to class, which must not be texts in schoolbooks explicitly name appropriate, therefore, to focus on dis missed with reference to the sin­ almost exclusively the anti­Semitic, the largest group, the Jews. But then gularity in di mension, and method racist ideology as the decisive factor. textbooks should at least pro vide of the geno cide of the Jews. Pupils’ As a result only the ideologists, i.e. the opportunity to gain additional accounts about projects on the to­ most notably SS and the National information about the suf fering pic as well as their contribution to Socialist party, appear as the actual and hardships of other victims of the Buchenwald Conference show perpetrators whereas technicians persecution as well. that young people are scarcely in­ and administrators of terror, be they terested in aca demic debates about generals or soldiers, judges, physi­ Surfeit of the Topic? the “singu larity” of the Holocaust. They are so captured, as a rule, by 10 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde the monstrosity of what happened instruction. We should instruct and culture and free the occupation with that they seek fully to get involved in inform about the National So cialist the Jewish community from the this case without, however rejecting genocide above all because it hap­ trammels of the ghetto of a history at the same time that in both history pened. It swept away Jews, gyp sies, of hardship. and present comparable cases can the disabled, political adversaries It is not possible to formulate a be found, which would allow a com­ and the socially un derpri vi leged, conclusive assessment of pupils’ parative introduction into the topic but it also threatened us all in our reac tions on Holocaust instruction or generalising conclusions. humanity. It stands as a symbol of even in only one country, let alone First and foremost our pupils the fact that the fundamental va lues through out Europe. Perhaps many inhabit the present. Their moral and on which we build our living together teachers will accept the assessment, political opinions are formed pri­ are called into question and need though, a German pedagogue gave marily by current experiences, only permanent pro tection. at a further education course on the seldom in historical reflection or by To think the memory of in struc­ Holocaust: way of the historical example. The tion about the Holocaust functions “… Genuinely nationalist mo- examination on the basis of history like a mechanism which makes tives are not widely spread among constitutes the second step. This young people immune against right­ students. Their orientation, on applies even to those who do not wing radicalism and xenophobia the whole, is more universal than disapprove of National Socialism, would mean generally to attribute eth no centric, rather cosmopolitan but regard it as a model for the ra­ to history a power which it no lon­ than national … Questions of eco- cist and xenophobic attitudes they ger possesses, at least in the Western logy, peace, and poverty in the Third adhere to. One should not primarily Eu ropean societies and the uSA. World, thus questions pertaining to look for the reasons for this stance Wher ever in Europe historical tra­ humanity, weigh heavier on their in the fascination a system of vio­ dition is still capable of effectively life perspectives than national va- lence pertaining to the past might determi ning present demeanour, lues.” exert but in the inability to attain Jewish history has never been a nu­ On the other hand, the teacher and see secured for the future an clear part of an officially, nationally claims, “in some cases, collective acknowledged place within society or ethni cally­culturally shaped cul­ iden tifications and a feeling of be- by peaceful means. History in the ture of me mory and the Jews have longing are strongly apparent, and form of National Socialism offers been so thoroughly eliminated from are voiced in nationalism on the a clue to the discontented fantasy and driven out of these societies that soccer field, or in sometimes xeno- to envisage a belligerent, idealised re mem brance alone can neither re­ phobic intolerance of for ei gners.” ho mogenous society. Holocaust trieve them nor attribute to their Even though the expectations of instruc tion, therefore, can hardly history a prominent place in the offi­ most students were rather sceptical undo right­wing extremist attitu­ cial view of history. For the moment on the beginning the teacher soon des, which have already become it will suffice when this history is not sensed, “how the views of the stu- es tab lished. Here, social­political ignored or even disowned anymore. dents chan ged during the course mea sures must yield supportive of a teaching unit, and how the effects, and in the context of school Jews as Part of Society – not only students’ interest increased instead pro grammes for “awareness groups” as Victims of Persecution of diminishing, how feelings of must be implemented in which pu­ responsibility grew, and ques tions pils learn to control and adapt to This takes me to my last point. Pre­ became more intense. Smart re- moral standards their behaviour in cisely because Jewish history hardly marks as well as relativising re- an interdisciplinary fashion through­ anywhere occupies a central spot in marks about other crimes in his tory out all grades. national tradition and, where and ebbed away.” Against Abuse as Pedagogical when it is indeed considered in co­ English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 Panacea dified tradition in school and official commemorations, is narrowed to a Teaching about the Holocaust is not history of discrimination and per se­ a direct educative means. It could cution, the impression young people run counter to the pedagogical sense can form of “the Jews”, necessarily, of this instruction to utilise it in an remains deficient. Jews remain out­ overriding manner so as to reach be­ siders and have no recognised social havioural patterns on the part of the position and standing. Holo caust pupils currently in demand, and ex­ instruction would, therefore, have pect for instance statements a gainst reached an important goal if it can xenophobic tendencies – as an inevi­ give rise to interest in Jewish life and table result, as it were, of Holo caust Nili Keren The historical narrative has also undergone important changes: As a narrative of all human society, history is no longer the province of politicians, ideological leaders, Shoa – A Journey to Memory army generals and priests, but of ordinary citizens, ar­ A textbook on the Holocaust for High tists and writers, men, women and children. This change School Students is especially meaningful when applied to the teaching of the history of Holocaust. The way in which events of the Holo caust were engraved in the memories of the survi vors often impacts us more profoundly than official In 1980, Holocaust studies became a mandatory subject in documents, even if the latter are considered as more “au­ the upper classes of Israeli high schools; the program has thoritative”. After all, what is more meaningful for us as undergone many changes over the past two decades. The human beings: the fact that these events really happened, Ministry of Education now mandates an intensive course or the ways in which these events affected the people who of 30­40 lessons for all students. were part of it? Perhaps both perspectives are neces sary Teachers and Holocaust educational centres have deve­ in order to exemp lify the complexity of the pheno mena loped many new programs on the Holocaust, and a great we are dealing with. deal of enrichment material has become available. The Many disciplines other than history try to “understand” development of educational technology and the spread of the Holocaust: Sociology, social psychology, li terature, interactive learning through computer com mu ni cation theatre and plastic arts are considered impor tant tools has facilitated greater access to many interesting learning in the process of dealing with the events and their me­ products dealing with Holocaust issues, some of them of mory. literature created during the Holocaust as well as high quality. Furthermore, Israeli students are exposed paintings drawn by the victims may be extre mely valuable to Holocaust­related issues through the mass media, documents in our attempts to deal with this chapter in both electronic and written, and through feature films human history. on television and in the cine ma. In some cases, as with In approaching the Shoah, we also do so as Jews. Even Spielberg’s “Schindler’s list”, some institutes, such as the today, more than two generations after the end of the Ministry of Education, pre pared educational materials for war, the Jewish people has not succeeded in recon struc­ teachers and pres cribed follow­up activities to the film. ting their lives as other nations have. The second and lately, the Inter net has become one of the most popular, third generations are still looking for effective ways of if not always beneficial, references for Holocaust issues. coping with the residual tension of the past. The study of The trips to Poland, which are steadily gaining in po­ the Holocaust is a very meaningful part of the process of pularity, have increased the interest and the emotional in­ shaping the memory of this event. The compre hen sion volvement of the students in the events of the Holocaust. of the events that took place during those years affects Participants’ exposure to the historical sites and the oral the way this memory will be passed on from generation testimonies of the eyewitnesses add a very meaningful to generation. dimension to Holocaust studies, which usually take place Any textbook must take the above­mentioned changes within the framework of the class room. At the same time, into consideration, while maintaining a historical frame­ the intensity and immediacy of the students’ lived expe­ work. My personal credo is that the main task of a textbook rience on the voyages compli cates and problematizes the is to present the events and facts in an or ga nized, balanced discourse on the Holocaust within the study of history in and clear way, in a language accessible to stu dents, wit­ Israeli high schools. hout ignoring the broader historical contexts. In recent years, the curricula of Israeli secondary schools in general, and the history curriculum in parti­ The Structure of the Book cular, are going through important conceptual changes. The main concept behind the new history curriculum “Shoah – A Journey to Memory” tells the story of three integrates Jewish history into the context of general major groups: the perpetrators, the victims and the by­ history. This means that finally, the ideology that for years standers. The main “heroes” of the Holocaust story are considered Jewish history as apart from and beyond ge­ the victims. Very few of them have left us fragments of life neral historical processes, has surrendered to a new one. stories, shattered memories, sometimes only their names. The current approach recognizes that Jewish history is Those who have survived have withstood years of horror an integral part of the cultures, countries and nations and agony, during which they struggled to main tain their among which Jews have lived for hundreds of years. Jews human dignity, while surrounded by alienation and dehu­ and gentiles have had a mutual impact on each other; it manization. After liberation, they had to struggle for many is hardly possible to grasp the full meaning of most events years with memories which often left deep and painful in Jewish history in isolation from the wider world arena. scars in their tormented souls. This applies to the processes and events that prepared the As for the bystanders – their silence and indifference ground for the Holocaust as well. 12 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde helped the murderers accomplish their mission. Yet their socio­economic environment was in tended mainly among them there was a small but an extraordinary group to harm the Jews, but it also accustomed German citizens of “Righteous Gentiles” , who were unable to “stand by (and later, the population in the occupied coun tries) to and watch”. They endangered their lives in order to rescue the Jews’ separation and isolation. Jews from the claws of the Germans (Nazi Germans?). The decision to murder the Jews in death camps was in­ The book examines also the phenomena and the events itiated through the network of concentration camps built that preceded the Holocaust as an introduction to the by the SS in 1933. But it was facilitated by the experience Holocaust itself. A second mandatory textbook deals with acquired by the Germans in the “Euthanasia” operation, these issues on a wider scale without touching on the Ho­ at the beginning of the war, when many disabled and locaust at all! Separating the Holocaust from the general mentally ill German citizens were mur dered. history of that time was based on an administrative­ It seemed to us that in order to achieve a better com­ ideological decision taken by the Ministry of Edu cation. prehension of the German policy against the Jews and its The chapters included in the first Section, “An Intro­ genocidal character, it was necessary to present a complete duction to Genocide” present the general course of the picture of the process. The Shoah is, above all, The murder events that preceded the Holocaust, focusing on Germany, itself. This emphasizes the under stan ding that the Jews as well as the course of the Second World War. The se­ had nothing at all to do with what was done to them. quence of events is also presented by a detailed timeline It is for this reason that the next heading, “The Mur­ that accompanies all the chronological chap ters. dered”, which deals with the responses of the victims, is This graphic aid presents the central relevant events also presented within a chronological framework (chap­ and thus anchor them within the wider historical context. ters 7­14). Each chapter presents the Jewish behavior vis­ In order to illustrate the isolation of the Jews and the a­vis the changing reality at each stage of the Nazi policy separation between them and the rest of the world, we towards them. We truly believe that knowledge of the chose to show certain events that happened at the same various processes which led to the “Final Solution” and time thousands of miles away. For example: The Warsaw of the mechanism and tools developed in order to achieve Ghetto uprising began on April 19, 1943, precisely on the this ultimate goal will enable students to comprehend opening day of the Bermuda Confe rence. It now becomes the differences in Jewish response at different places and clear, based on the present state of Holocaust research periods, and arrive at a fuller under standing of the Jewish that by that time the Allies knew of the mass murder of situation. Students will also appreciate how, at each stage, the Jews in Europe. Did the world leaders relate at all to Jews demonstrated creative powers, spiritual and physical the Jewish tragedy? This is merely one illustration of how energies, and a deep faith, which enabled them to cope use of the timelines can help students achieve a wider view with their deteriorating situation. of the various processes and human responses. In recent years, Holocaust research has attempted to Following the introductory chapters, the book is di­ familiarize itself with the daily struggles of various popu­ vided into three major headings: “The Murderers”, “The lations under German occupation. Scholars have explored, Murdered” and “Thou Shall not Stand by Your Brother’s not only different peoples under different conditions, but Blood”. The first heading deals with the per petrators and also different groups among the Jews themselves. The their helpers; the second, with the victims of the Holo­ Jewish youth had its own particular needs and concerns; caust – Jews and other groups like the Sinti and Roma, Jewish women had special pro blems and found their own while the third heading deals with the responses of the particular ways to solve them. likewise in the case of free world, including the Jews of Pales tine. This heading religious Jews. Jews fol lowed many different vocations. also discusses the world after the Holocaust – the Jewish Among the many groups, we chose to focus on Jewish people and the memory of the Holocaust. doctors, because of the unique character of their vocation Each of these headings is composed of chapters which and the weighty professional and ethical responsibilities follow the chronology of the relevant events. The first they faced. chapter of the first heading, “The Murderers”, is Chapter These issues seem relevant to the world of adolescent 4, “Separation, Isolation and uprooting”. It describes the students, who often raise questions concerning their processes from their inception until the creation of the identity, their sense of belonging, their beliefs, their view ghettos in Poland, and also describes the living con ditions of the world and their future. We believe that many stu­ in those ghettos. Chapters 5 and 6 analyze the pheno­ dents will be stimulated to research one of these spe cific menon of the concentration and death camps from their groups, as part of their attempt to understand the Jewish beginnings in 1933 until their climax, the mass murder responses in general. of the Jews in the death camps in Poland. The Title Thou shall not Stand by Your Brother’s Blood The main principle guiding us was the need to present begins with an inquiry into the rescue possibilities and the Nazi policy and its implementation as a process that rescue attempts in the free world, as well as in the occu­ combined various components which gradually developed pied and annexed countries. We chose to emphasize the from one step to the other. The separation of Jews from rescue attempts on the part of individuals and groups Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 13 who merit separate discussion (chapter 15). Chapter 16 paganda and had an impact on the onlookers’ at titudes. exposes the students to the complexity of the responses The drawings we included always serve as sour ces of of the Jewish community in Palestine towards the news information (visual text) which are not less important from Europe. This is a very complicated issue which has than written documents. The drawings may also help to been a subject of public discourse in Israel for many years. bring out the deeper meanings of an issue. For ex ample, The last two chapters (17, 18) are dedicated to the world there is a drawing of a German board game (“Juden after the Holocaust. Chapter 17 deals with the attempts of Raus”) – “Jews Out!”, which serves as an illus tra tion of the the Jewish people to rebuild a new life after the Destruc­ Nazi educational system. later, there is an illustration of tion, while living with the memory of their horrible coll­ another board game – a Monopoly game created by edu­ ective and personal experiences. Chapter 18, which closes cators in the Theresienstadt Ghetto, in order to cheer up the book, attempts to understand the universal impact of and encourage the children, and to guard their childhood the Holocaust and its increasingly lengthening shadow. as much as they could. Education versus education! The book emphasizes the human aspects and human Most photographs show human beings in various dilemmas present in almost every event or phenomenon situations: German civilians and Nazis in uniform, Jews we chose to discuss. We believe in the utmost educa tional at various stages of the occupation, children and others value of presenting issues that express personal choices, (perhaps another word, “and others” is a bit weak). When personal and collective responsibility, and de monstrate we look at these pictures we are often disturbed by the values of morality and ethics. question: What drove the photographers to document Many documents and sources are woven into the text these people and these events? This important question as an integral part of the narrative. Among them, there may provide students with another key to understanding are excerpts from basic research works, personal diaries the murderers’ way of thinking and modes of operation. and memoirs, poems, etc. They appear in a different font Still more important is the motivation of the Jewish pho­ so as to make it easier for the reader to identify them; tographers who endangered their lives taking pic tures, in we consider them, however, as an integral part of the order to leave authentic documents of the most atrocious nar rative of Holocaust events. Our purpose in including crime in human history. the sources was twofold: first, they add authority to the In this textbook, we decided neither to present the main narrative and provide an unmediated view of the students with tasks or assignments, nor to pose any relevant issues. Second, they give personal and au then tic ques tions. Only in the introductory chapters did we raise expression to the many ways in which these events affec ted several questions alongside some of the illustrations, in human beings as individuals at different times and places. order to help students combine the verbal and visual texts. For example, when the book presents the mass mur der The idea was to have them read the chapters free of any in the occupied areas of the uSSR, we wove two per sonal assignment, free of the demand to look for ready­made testimonies into the text: One – a report of an of ficer of answers to this or that question. We hope that students one of the Einsatzgruppen – Karl Jäger, who informs his will raise relevant questions of their own, and share superiors about the mass murder of the Jews in lithua­ with us what really bothers them. In this way, we may nia. The second text is the personal testimony of a local facilitate discussions of issues that go beyond the written farmer, who has seen the murder with his own eyes. The material, and stimulate the students to look for answers two are eyewitnesses, but the juxtaposition of their reports in other sources. There is great educational value in demonstrates the dehumanization of the murderers, as making students equal partners in establishing the opposed to the more humane attitude of an ordinary discussion agenda, through posing their own ge nuine non­Jewish eyewitness. Excerpts like these appear also as and heartfelt questions. We do, however, offer a variety subtitles of many illustrations. For ex ample, the picture of assignments and learning tasks in the Tea cher’s Guide. of the barbed wires of Auschwitz is accompanied by an excerpt from the diary of Rudolph Höss, the commander of Auschwitz, in which he des cribes his comfortable fa­ mily life in this camp. (Höss’ family cottage was located 100 meters from the gas chambers). By the picture of the Gypsy girl Stella Steinbach, at the entrance to the cattle­ wagon that trans ported her to Auschwitz along with her mother and nine brothers, we put a poem by the Israeli poet Dan Pagis “Written in Pencil in the Sealed Wagon”. We did not consider illustrations such as maps, graphs and photographs as an esthetical component but as an integral part of the narrative. Photographs and posters, which document the event in real time, are of major im­ portance. Posters played an important role in Nazi pro­ Volkhard Knigge place of inner sympathy. Reflections on the Insti tutio nali­ sation of the Memory of NS in Remember or Reappraise? Germany Critical Comments on Memorial Pedagogy When I indicate that pedagogical re­ flection in Germany these days does not only have the task of asserting negative memory but at the same time also that of observing its effects and dealing with them, it is not least for the very reason that over the past First: I will not present a paper on stands for the examination of and years we could expe rience a pre­ the methods of memorial peda go­ reflection on perpetrated crimes, or viously unknown thrust towards the gy. Second: I will not speak about such crimes the Germans are at least institutionalisation of the memory me morial pedagogy in normative responsible for, as opposed to the of National Socialism in Ger many. terms, thus neither formulate edu­ comprehension of suffered crimes. The marks hereof are – to cite but a cational aims nor present reasons In that memorial work in Germany few examples – the de cisions by the for memorial work as such. My differs fundamentally from the si­ Bundestag (the Ger man par lia ment) con cern is rather to reflect on some tuation in other countries – with to comme morate January 27th as gui ding categories of our work, the possible exception of Austria the National Com me moration Day which dominate the public dis­ and Italy, which have their own Na­ of the liberation of the Con cen­ course all the more undisputedly tional Socialist and Fascist his tory, tration and Exter mi nation Camps and are consi dered indubitable, even res pectively. Coming to terms with (more commonly: Holocaust Day) self­evident, guidelines the more suf fered crimes is the tradi tional and erect a memo rial monument widely critical appraisal of National form of the creation of me mory and for the murdered Jews (more com­ So cia list crimes against humanity one that can look back on a long mon ly: Holocaust Memorial) in appears to be accepted so cially and/ history, whereas the lasting creation Berlin as well as a memorial for the or politically. Eventually, on the of a negative memory – which is how murdered Sinti and Roma; a further Stockholm International Forum I should like to refer to it with regard sign hereof is mention for the first on the Holo caust, which took place to its content – is historically un­ time in a coa li tion pact of a German in January 2000, follo wing an invi­ pre cedented. I men tion this to call govern ment of the necessity to pro­ tation by Swe dish Prime Minister at tention right away to two points: mote memo rial work and translate Göran Pers son, this has been decla­ first that, despite all the inter na tio­ this claim into reality. This has been red a type of global agenda in the nalisation of the comprehension done within the framework of a me­ presence of many heads of state. In and study of the history of National morial promotion concept, which Germany the con cept of memory, So cialism and its count less victims, since the beginning of the year not respectively of what might be called there is and will con tinue to have to only yields positive effects on the the self­evi dence of the imperative be a specifically German perspective financial situation of memorials, but of memory, lies at the core of this on this history, and second that the­ whose actual content comprises the reflective examina tion and debate. re are no long­term experiences with prin cipal recognition of memorial My principal the sis – paradoxically the effect of negative memory. Whe­ work as a genuine pillar of German formulated – is that without a criti­ ther it makes a lasting contri bution his torical culture and political edu­ cal reappraisal of this imperative and to the demo cratisation and huma­ cation, which needs to be furthered without a re flected paradigmatical nisation of so ciety or whe ther – and and supported by the state. Con­ change there will be no future for under what circum stan ces – it can sidering furthermore that the study memory. also backfire remains open, respec­ of National Socialism has been a tively a ques tion, which should also mandatory part of curricula in every Stressing the German Perspective be appraised from the perspective German province for many decades despite Internationalisation of pedagogy. The expe rience in the one will have to say that the critical GDR, how ever, teaches us that pre­ appraisal of National Socialism has Before I get to talk about my subject scribed memory eventually runs become a part of national education in the stricter sense I should like to coun ter to its own aims, i.e. it ossi­ in Germany. This must principally outline the situation in Germany. fies in routine pro cesses, provokes be welcome, it does, however, not Memorial work with regard to Na­ disinterest, produces rejection or ne ces sarily have to entail results, tional Socialism and its victims here makes outward assimilation take the which are solely on the positive side. Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 15

Even if there is still opposition to About the Terms Holocaust and Shoah this development: for young people dealing with National Socialism – in The terms “Holocaust” and “Shoah” for the National Socialist genocide of Euro- contrast to my generation or even pean Jews have found their place in our general usage, as well, over the past two decades. They are employed as subject-specific terms, without examining their older people – is a more or less meaning any longer in the respective context. These me taphorical terms, which conventional issue. The history of sacralise historical events, may be used in an in ter pretively relevant manner National Socialism does not hold the by Jews themselves as terms denoting the atrocities perpetrated against their sta tus anymore of an issue, which people or group, respectively, much as Sinti and Roma call the experience of had to be wrested from the covers of genocide “Porrajmos” in Romanes, their language. si lence, an issue, which to exa mine One must be conscious, however, that the use of these terms excludes other parts requires a firm and resolute attitude, of National Socialist genocidal policy from examination that are in dispensable to gain a general understanding: it is treated in an obligatory manner 1) The murder of the physically or mentally disabled, euphemistically referred to instead, i.e. with more, less or even as “euthanasia”, the first state-planned and state-camouflaged mass murder no enthusiasm or commit ment at all. on the part of National Socialism, which at one and the same time served Naturally, everybody who has as trial case and model for the expansion of the method to other racially experienced this process of the discriminated groups. insti tutionalisation of the memory 2) The genocide of Sinti and Roma. of the National Socialist crimes 3) Not least also the murder of millions of Slavic civilians in the course of the Generalplan Ost, that is, the strategy of the war of extermination in Eastern in Germany, outlined in merely Europe. an exem plary fashion here, knows Germans in particular, from whose nation the perpetrators emerged, but also that this process was by no means a others who do not belong to the mentioned victim groups cannot call the ge- straight forward one and not exclusi­ nocide of the Jews a “fire sacrifice” or “catastrophe” – which are the adequate vely “intrinsically” motivated – the translations of the metaphors – since both contain religious associations, which Holo caust Memorial is also the must be considered out of the question from other perspectives – especially that price Hel mut Kohl had to pay for of the perpetrators’ society. The image of the Jews as a sacrifice brought before God is as perilously false the “Neue Wache” (literally: new as the idea that the industrial mass murder would have come over them as a vigilance), and the federal memo­ fateful catastrophe. rial concept is a result above all of The use of these terms not only excludes the remembrance of other victims of the “Survey Com mission on the National Socialism – alongside European states, not forgetting – but also creates Reappraisal of GDR­Injustice in a morally problematical hierarchy amongst the victims. At the same time it the Process of Ger man unity”, and impedes the necessary insight into the common ideological reasoning behind thus a sort of crafty re flection and the mass extermination, even though the respective victim groups assumed different political roles. effect of the anti­to talitarian reflex Above all Jews, Sinti and Roma and the physically and mentally disabled were of the early FRG, when criticism killed because of their belonging to a biologically determined group. The core of Communism was held to be cri­ of National Socialist ideology was the premiss of human inequality as opposed ticism of National So cialism at the to the principle of equality in the human rights declarations of the American same time – but in this context this and French revolutions of the 18th century. The National Socialist racial policy is not what concerns me. The cir­ turned against groups of people who were defined as “inferior” and “unfit for life” and eventually persecuted and eliminated as disruptive factors, since there cumstance that the norma lisation was no room for them amidst the National Socialist utopia of a genetically and and historicisa tion of the negative physiognomically homogenous competitive community. The National Socialist memory coin cide, when what I have planners of genocide substantiated the extermination of “unworthy” life with referred to at the beginning as the the purpose of fostering and safeguarding the life of the “worthy”. The annihi- imperative of memory is maintained lation was propagated throughout the Reich as a public health programme for at the same time is far more impor­ the recovery of “the body of people” and all over Europe as a programme for tant from a pedagogical per spective an “ethnic relocation of land” and a reorganisation of Europe, respectively, on a racial-biological foundation. The vehement reactions to the “Wehrmacht ex- than an ideological­critical appraisal hibition” may serve as an example that this comprehension of National Socialist of the depth and dimen sion of these population policy is largely not extant. changes in view of the political past. When, as in the German edition of the “Encyclopaedia of the Holocaust”, the exclusive reference to the genocide of the Jews by the term “Holocaust” is justi- Historicisation and Normalisation fied by the argument that this genocide alone was “an attempt at utter and im- and its Sideeffects mediate extermination of an entire people” “based on the principles of racism”, as opposed to “measures against ethnic groups, which the Nazis regarded as harmful from social, political and military viewpoints and, ultimately, sought to Historicisation addresses the cir­ eliminate”, then National Socialist ideology is fore shor tened to anti-Semitism, cumstance that we presently ex­ which was but one, albeit central, component of an extensive racial-ideological perience how contemporary history concept. What is more, with this distinction plau sibility and justification are turns into history and commu ni­ conceded at one and the same time to the mass murder of other victim groups, 16 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

as though these had been emotive acts or “normal” atrocities, as warfare escalated. The reduction of interpretation not least means that examining the theses derived from it of the “uniqueness and in- comparability of the Holocaust”, of the “civilisational rupture” (Dan Diner) – quotations, which are never likely to be absent in any commemorative speech these days –and inquiring into these theses in view of their problematic nature and logical coherence is tantamount to a sacrilege. Nonetheless, for obvious reasons this raises the question: if something was unique it cannot happen a second time, which is precisely why warning of a repetition is as absurd as demanding to draw lessons for the prevention of a repetition. For the sociologist Zygmunt Bauman the question about the repeatability of the Holocaust always remains a question about genocide as such, and thus rhetorical, for genocide is a daily reality in the world of today. Between 1960 and 1979 there have at least been one dozen genocides or genocidal massacres around the globe – in distant places with un pronounceable names but also right at our doorstep, in former Yugoslavia. Bauman counters the thesis of the “civilisational rupture” by asserting that genocide per se is not a modern invention; the “Holocaust”, however, a modern further development in so far as the cruelty and inhumanity of this mass murder was perpetrated in the name of humanity and civilisation, with the use of the most advanced technology, a technology, which actually facilitated this mass murder in the first place. This is the best known, most thoroughly researched and most discussed genocide, because it happened in the midst of Europe, which had undergone a century-long civilisational process. The specificity of the National Socialist mass murder and genocide referred to as “holocaust” was that it was planned and executed by a state authority, which possessed and exerted unlimited power of definition by excluding parts of the popu- lation as “unfit”, “dangerous”, “useless” or “redundant”, thus depriving them of their rights and, ultimately, physically anni hilating them. The terms “Shoah” and “Holocaust” are foreign words. Their usage in German veils this reality. “The adoption of the term Shoah by non-Jews, who have no command of Hebrew, appears plump, even in search of currying favour”, German-Jewish hi- storian Michael Wolffsohn rightly points out. The attempt at identification with the victims is but falsely understood empathy. Historical-political learning and a pedagogy of remembrance commence with the clarity of language. I, therefore, argue for using the terms “mass murder” or “genocide” instead of “Holocaust” or “Shoah”, and I argue for relinquishing the category of “uniqueness” and “singularity”, respectively, altogether, since it is unproductive even from a pedagogical perspective, because thereby a ban on thinking is pronounced. The pedagogical appraisal of National Socialism and the mass murder and genocide in the educational system as well as in memorials and at historical places in Germany, that is the perpetrators’ and their descendants’ country, must necessarily take place from a different slant and, as already explained, must involve a broader spectrum of themes than in any other country. Coming to terms with the perpetrators, i.e. also the emotional assimilation of the perpetrator role of the generation of parents and grandparents, cannot play but a subordinate role. After all, all victims and their history of persecution must be remembered, since a hierarchical classification of victims into more or less important and lamentable ones, would mean but to continue the presumptuousness of wanting to measure the worth of each human.

annegret ehmann, Pädagogik des gedenkens, Bundesministerium für unterricht und kulturelle angelegenheiten (hrg.), erinnern in gedenkstätten, Wien 1998, pp. 38 (english Version: stefan Menhofer, 2001)

cative becomes cultural memory, sonal memory can be remembered or even a pitfall: to exhort a twenty­ respectively. The embodiment of this at all and second in the way that the year­old of today she/ he should re­ process is the ever dwindling number imperative of memory in the history mem ber the NS crimes means – if of members of the eye witness gene­ of the (west)­German creation of the one is not inclined to take psit tacine ration on both sides – victims as well memory of National Socialist crimes repe tition or second­hand accounts as perpetrators. With this gene ration was linked extremely closely to the for memory – to demand the im­ does not only die away the living denial of these crimes, in particular possible from her/ him, re spec­ veto instance against purely histo­ amongst the generation of parti ci­ tively to mobi lise resistance, when riographical forms of the pre sen­ pants. “Remember!” in reality meant personal recri mination is inscribed tation and interpretation of this past or still means, respectively, against implicitly to the concept of memory. but more so also the last ele ment of this background: “Admit your ac­ Therefore, it appears to be the order direct presence. The imperative of tions or your personal share of re s­ of the day with regard to memory memory, which has be come ubiqui­ pon sibi lity!”, respectively, “Confess! to adopt the practice of replacing tous and omnipresent on ac count of Do not deny! Do not act as if you had the “memory of the past” by the the normalisation outlined above, for gotten!” In the rudimentary sense “critical appraisal of the past” and loses its meaning at this point at of memory as the process of evoca­ comprehend memory as a con tent of the very latest in two respects: first tion as well as in its subcutaneous awareness with the aid of a concept in terms of the very rudimentary semantic sense of the acknow ledg­ of historical aware ness, which must notion that only what has been lived, ement of personal guilt the concept be far from cogni tivis tically restric­ experienced and preserved in per­ of memory becomes unproductive ted, in the sense of developing an Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 17 understanding of how past, present On the other hand this histori ci sa­ tory” implies the preservation of and future are inter related or could tion must also be evaded, in that documents, realities and his torical (should) be, respec tively. This all the the moral­ethical appeal, which is relics in the sense of his torical more so since memory – although it in herent in every critical examina­ vestiges, whose concrete historical is compre hended a priori and con­ tion and appraisal of this past, must reference and impor tance must ventionally, as it were, in the context not be historicized. This dual atti­ be deduced and re vealed in order of NS crimes as oriented towards tude is only plausible – be yond the for them to set in motion definite the va lues of an anti­anti­Semitic scope of superficial mora lising or a historical pro cesses of acquisition or uni versally hu manistic perspec­ prescribed (victim)­iden tification – and apprai sal, and not merely tive – does not have to be oriented when core elements of NS crimes function as symbols without a towards the values of this perspec­ like the con tempt for de mocracy, precise his torical context, whose tive at all. This is evi denced by the anti­Semitism, biological­political history of tradition and signi­ history of the political functionali­ or nationalist sub stan tiations for ficance be comes more and more sation of the memory of National claims to supe riority and power, obfus cated. Socialist crimes as well as the cir­ trust in authority, blind obe dience, 4. Abandoning the notion that there cumstance that Auschwitz can also greed, uncaring indiffe rence, lak­ are types of documents and rea­ be remem bered – see the in crea sing king active humanity and active lities, respectively, or ways of neo­nazi visits to KZ memorials resistance against civil and human pre sentation (photographs, films, openly clai ming responsibility – so rights violations, respec ti vely, in the eyewitness accounts, new media as to repeat Auschwitz. Besides, the­ form of German National Socialism and the internet), which guaran­ re has been and still is – far beyond from 1933 to 1945 are considered tee eo ipso a direct and authentic the scope of National Socialism – a as overcome on the one hand and at contact with the past as well as a long tradi tion of remembering wars the same time regarded as a histo­ successful mode of presen tation – and other atrocities not for the sake rical possibility that still exists – in i.e., which would be more than of recon ciliation but for the sake of whatever shape – on the other. But mere stimuli for the re flec ted use the sta bilisation of enemy concepts, what would then be, so as to para­ of one’s own imagination, in itself re venge and vengeance. The fighting phrase the problem indicated above, but the prerequisite for empiri­ and the atrocities on the territory the prerequisites for a pedagogy that cally meaningful empathy – as of former Yugoslavia are fed not to treats Auschwitz as both a closed opposed to momentary dismay. an inconsiderable degree by such chapter in history as well as a still 5. Dealing carefully with the fact me mories. existing historical possibility, which that dismay has two meanings, should never be repeated? which are not entirely congruous Memory needs Knowledge and a 1. The creation of transparent, dis­ and yet through their interre­ Horizon of Values cursive places of documentation: lation lend the concept its full i.e. for instance KZ memorials as meaning as a didactic category. The result is, formulated in the style modern museums of contem po­ First: I am dismayed by some­ of the old paradigm: memory needs rary history, which do not have thing, i.e. an emotion of sym pa­ knowledge equally as much as a us forget that they are authentic thy is provoked. Second: some­ horizon of values. Without precise places of atrocity and suffering thing concerns me personally in historical knowledge, which must and graveyards at the same time so far as it has real consequences be imparted and cannot simply be and still face humanitarian tasks. for me. These, however, can only e voked, memory remains an empty 2. “Transparent places” means pla­ be recognised, when the com­ concept that will increasingly turn ces where the (social) criteria of parison between the own present on itself. Without embedding know­ the interpretation of the National and the NS past, between own ex­ ledge into a horizon of values every Socialist past are revealed. Places, periences and the historical facts form of knowledge remains dead and which do not have us forget that is an elementary part of dealing without practical relevance. If one one cannot have the past directly with the past. From this point of takes this at face value me mo rial but only in the form of ideas view memorials are open places pedagogy is confronted to some ex­ and notions about this past, the precisely for the reason that ex­ tent with a reverse, double task. On constructional princi ples and periences of wrong and violence the one hand it has to forestall, as it contents of which are not inde­ made by (young) people in the were, the historicisation of the NS pendent of one another and must world of today must have their past caused by the passage of time be well­founded and legitimised place therein, not only to keep with the help of a carefully con si­ and may be called into question alive a practical reappraisal of dered development of new forms of and criticised. the NS past but also to clear up representation and com mu nication. 3. “Museums of contemporary his­ ana chronisms and inap pro priate 18 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

pro jections. tical as regards memorial work. proaches and methods, is to be 6. The replacement of the paradigm Memorial pedagogy is ultimately viewed critically from the per­ of guilt by the paradigm of re­ only as credible as the society spective of historiography preci­ sponsibility, to which concept affording it. Scepticism with sely because it presupposes his­ the atrocious past is a negative regard to memorial work must torical decontextualisation. This ho rizon, which to pull away from be examined in terms of its real must be criticised all the more time and time again remains ab­ (po litical, social) back ground. from the perspective of the Ger­ solutely crucial. From this per­ 9. Memorial work like other scien­ man negative memory, which spective the past is not a bur den tifically reflected forms of histori­ must preserve the preconditions (as is so often claimed in Ger­ cal presentation is just one way of for and the history of National many) but rather an opportunity. dealing with the NS past along side Socialism as a crime of society in It must be permissible to de ter­ multiple others. It should not its entirety, as a narrowed view, mine and formulate both – pro­ imi tate mass­cultural modes of without thereby calling into ximity and distance – to this past pre sentation of the NS past but question that the mass murder on the basis of precise, con crete rather differentiate. Discarding of the European Jews constituted social examples. ste reo typical ideas, notions and the central crime of National So­ 7. For the endowment with mea ning, clichés will probably be as im­ cia lism. no matter of what kind (po litical, portant for the future as initial 2. It is extraordinarily dubitable that religious, national), the central information. “Holocaust Education” is the glo­ crime of National So cia lism, the 10. Resistance and objections a gainst bal “ideal way” for human rights genocide of the European Jews, dealing with the National Socia­ education. The historio graphical proves to be entirely inadequate, list past will have to be viewed and qualification of e vents – in this when taken seriously as a civi­ analysed in the future as a result case the sin gula rity thesis and the lisational rupture. In this light also of inadequate pedagogical judgement of the Holocaust as a the examination of the NS past strategies, as a con sequence of radical evil – does not auto mati­ means developing an a ware ness negative experiences with the cally affirm their didactic quality. of the radical fact that the good presentation of history – e.g. Whoever makes experiences of (as exemplified by free dom, soli­ moralising instead of in forming, social violence and injustice darity, tolerance, human dig ni ty, the combination of in formation today, per haps even genocidal human rights and demo cracy) and message, pres cribed attitu­ ex periences, must have the right does not come na tural, does not des or identifica tions, imposed to bring these experiences as go without saying. Suc cessful pe­ speech or silence for reasons of such before the eyes of the world, dagogy from this view is first and political correct ness, taboo que­ and will want to deal with them foremost peda gogy of distress and stions. Automatically to qualify di rectly rather than by way of insecurity when it comes down this as “sup pression”, as deni­ sub sti tution with the Holocaust. to appa rently self­evident civili­ al, disregards that virtually no When taken seriously the concept sational certainties. Rejection, one in Germany has not made holds the danger of the he ge­ growing discomfort, the loss of some sort of ex perience with the moniali sation of the experi ence speech can be indi ca tors of a suc­ “subject” National Socialism, at of violence and suffering, with cessful mode of pre sen tation and least in school. The same goes all the negative con se quen ces. must, there fore, not be dismissed for the mass­cul tural overuse More over, the history of the FRG but thoroughly reviewed and of the issue and the socially and tea ches us that there is in fact an examined instead. A discursive politically im plau sible approach, inner connection between nega­ cul ture of inter pre ta tion belongs respec tively. tive memory and sub stan tial – as to the culture of pre sentation as opposed to merely formal – de­ a necessary coun terweight, in Holocaust Education at Risk of mo cratisation, but only in so par ticular as regards apparently Decontextualisation and Hegemo­ far as the own criminal past has anti­scholarly, abstruse forms of nialisation been received and tho roughly ap­ acquisition and dea ling with NS praised. One will have to as sume history. Two closing comments against the this holds true for other coun­ 8. Today’s visitors to memorials are backdrop of the Stockholm Con­ tries as well, accor ding to their largely aware that the survivors’ ference and the globalisation of respective history – without the “Never again!” has at best been “Holocaust Education” that has intention of thereby exone rating par tially realised and only in cer­ been demanded. Germany. tain regions of the world. They, 1. Holocaust Education, notwith­ therefore, have a right to be scep­ standing various respective ap­ English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 KNIGGE VOlKHARD, Buchenwald Memorial, Weimar. Günter Morsch the visitors by employing the terms “cultural window­shopping” and “active dozing” respectively. The Authentic Places of KZ­Crimes usual visit to a museum is motiva­ Chances and Risks from the View of Visitor Research ted by the desire for as complete an experience of sensory stimulation as possible and to some degree for plain, excitable entertainment. The request for the presentation of know ledge on a general level, as expressed time and again by visitors, The demands on a new historical The conditions, however, for the originates merely from a diffuse, a wareness, as are formulated by development of the historical a ware­ culture­related dis play of curiosity. modern Holocaust Education, in ness in demand appear to be espe­ Intrinsic motives, that is, a distinct comparison to the connotations, cially favourable at the authentic interest in the ac qui sition of speci­ which the previous concept of me­ places of National Socialist crimes. fic, subtly differen tiated knowledge, mory en compasses, have at least not The historical testimonial character influence only a very small degree become less ambitious. On the con­ and the quality of aural semblance of visitors to mu seums. The beha­ trary, ac cording to these demands, produce a combined effect. The viour of the average visitor is similar the pre sentation of knowledge must great opportunity of the authentic rather to other forms of mass­medial come to the fore increasingly. The­ places of Nazi crimes, in principle, information assimilation. The pre­ reby, mass­cultural forms of presen­ is the old idea of the integrated dominant re quest made by visitors, ting the National Socialist era ought ex perience. Sensory perception, to see as much as possible in the not to be imitated, but memorials emo tional aural semblance and the amount of time at their disposal in should rather take a differentiated cognitive presentation of knowledge combi na tion with the high surplus approach. In the following pages I can blend into one impression and of infor mation, which is typical of should like to try to view these aims, thus achieve a particularly em pha tic exhibi tions, leads to a form of per­ most of which I share, against the effect. The authentic places of Nazi ception not at all dissimilar to what backdrop of present results in the terror ap pear to facilitate inte grated is known as zapping in the face of the field of visitor research in museums expe ri ences of history, from which electro nic media. As a result, only and memorials. However, I will not springs an especially distinct, high­ a very small share of exhibits and look at the effects on school class level form of historical awareness. contents, visitor research claims no visits to memorials, albeit a fairly po­ In a time of mounting xeno pho bia, more than five per cent, is received pular subject for the time being, nor ra cism and anti­Semitism society at all. The impressions gained in the at the effects of didactic projects, but con tinues steadily to raise its ex­ course of this process are connected I shall instead confine myself strictly pectations of memorials. Pre ven­ on a cog nitive level only very rarely. to interviews conducted with “nor­ tive immunisation strategies, to a The presented attractions and sti­ mal” visitors to the Sachsenhausen cer tain extent even hidden expec ta­ mulations are linked associatively, in memorial who though make up by tions of re­education, are linked and accor dance with their emotional and far the largest share of the millions associated with the concept of the sen sory appeal, rather than discur­ coming to visit the memorials eve­ “open learning place”, which most sively. The concept of the “learning ry year. let me say right away: the memorials lay claim to. place”, as Treinen succinctly sums prototypical visitor to memorials, In Germany, visitor research – up the results of visitor research as is the ideal target of memorial above all the names of Graf, Klein at museums, is an illusion and a peda gogues, has yet to be produ­ and Treinen deserve mention here – wish ful projection on the part of ced. This type apparently does not has thus far been focussed exclu­ exhi bition makers and, especially, exist, or at least not in sufficiently sively on the various types of mu­ peda go gues who inadmissibly seek relevant num bers. On the contrary, seums. However, industrial and to equate museums with educatio­ there might even be good reason to open­air museums are comparable nal institutions at school level. fear that with the gradual decline of indeed to most of the memorials Owing to the lack of own research traditional cognitive, structural and since they also combine an authen­ work, memorials could hitherto but discursive forms of perception and tic set of buildings with historical speculate about their visitors whose communication this ideal visitor museums. Treinen attempts to numbers also go to the millions. will get lost more and more amidst cha racterise the, according to repre­ Sub jective impressions resulted the “chatroom” of the flood of mass­ sentative evaluations, prevalent from personal expectations. Even medial information. behaviour patterns on the part of visitor books, an instrument largely 20 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde unsuited for the documentation of visiting the memorials are friends learning place might eventually be visitors’ reactions, have been ana­ and ac quaintances and the average realised for certain sections of visi­ lysed and evaluated. Occasionally time spent amounts to round about tors. The degree of intrinsic motives some of the staff at memorials felt a two hours. Thus, it hardly comes and impulses rises with the so­called sense of distinct unease. On the one as a surprise, what with so many repeated visitors, the selection of hand they fought against society’s simi larities, when statements on museal departments be comes in­ over­demanding attitude towards both cause and reason for visiting creasingly specific, more time is memorials, which they felt misused and behavioural patterns become spent by the various exhibits and as a sort of “antifascist geysers”. ever more identical as well: the vast the connections established with Some expressed their more or less ma jority of visitors perceive the knowledge acquired in advance unconscious forebodings with re­ memo rial as an authentic area of become denser. At the same time gard to the limits of exhibitions by expe rience. They are looking for a the profile of the repeated visitor in dismissing, mostly only among col­ sen sory approach towards the ma­ compa rison to the first­time visitor leagues, the majority of visitors as terial traces and desire a palpable is shif ting towards older age and “terror tourists”. But perhaps, and vivification of their own personal a higher level of education. The such was indeed the hope, me mo­ knowledge. The expectation of an open­air mu seums in particular rials are faced with a different sort of aural, emotional experience is com­ can be pleased to report that about crowd from the visitors to mu seums bined with an overall, unspecific in­ half their visitors decide to come who, moreover, would also change terest in the history of the National back again. Thus, it is fairly evident, and adjust their otherwise typical Socia list era. Intrinsic motivations es pecially for memorials with their forms of reception in the face of au­ are the exception, though. Only specific educational­political ob­ thentic places of Nazi crimes? Over five to seven per cent of all visitors, jective, to work purposefully towards the past five years Sigrid Müller and for instance, are interested in the an in crease of the share of repeated Christiane Quadflieg, both working second part of Sachsenhausen’s visi tors and perhaps even develop in Sachsenhausen, have contributed history, its existence as a Soviet a so­called regular crowd – which a number of different studies on the special camp. The vast majority of in open­air museums amounts to a behaviour of the roughly 300.000 visitors express their utter content­ respectable 25 per cent – supposed annual visitors. Included are not ment a bout what they have seen, to be both attracted and educated only the basic data elementary for a scenario not unlike after a visit at the same time by special ex hibi­ every evaluation that wants to be to a museum. Between 70 and 80 tions. The result of our evaluations, taken seriously. They also worked percent state that the memorial however, shows a percentage of out various longitudinal surveys was completely worth the visit. Be­ repeated visitors that is sharply be­ that treated, inter alia, the specific hind this sweeping ap proval visitor low average, not even reaching the behaviour patterns at a selected new research, and quite legitimately so, 25 per cent mark, and a mere six museum, Barracks 38, teachers’ ex­ suspects as a motive people’s dislike per cent are regular visitors. In this pectations of and atti tudes towards to admit to themselves that their re spect the subject presented at NS the memorial as well as the decisive undertaking has been a failure. For, memorials proves to be a main hin­ factors for repeated visits. Without if conversely one asks those who drance, for the visitors of open­air similar studies at other memorials it have no intention of paying another museums, according to their own is bound to remain uncertain in how visit for their rea sons they primarily statements, are motivated chiefly by far these re sults may legitimately be list dashed expec tations as regards expectations of “sensory pleasure”, genera lised. However, the outlines the “ex pe rienceable” quality of the i.e. sharing an experience perceived of re cent visitor research in Dachau place, which was perceived as too as entertaining with family, friends su ggest similar results. The average inno cuous on the whole. Summing and acquaintances. The most im­ visitor to memorials, therefore, is up, the high expectations of the portant motive for a repeated visitor scarcely different from the average aural semblance of the authentic to Sachsenhausen was his intention visitor to historical museums in places of Nazi crimes cause both to show the memorial to others and terms of age (16 to 35), gender dis­ the at traction as well as the rejec­ not any intrinsic interest in the ac­ tribution (a slight majority of men), tion of visits to memorials. What is quisition of more in­depth historical (high) level of education and middle­ more, this connection becomes all knowledge. Even the regular visitors class background. Most other basic the more forceful the younger the are interested in an aspect that has data also tally: single visi tors out­ visi tors are and the sketchier their little to do with the history of the number larger, organised groups, previous knowledge turns out to be. concentration camp or the Soviet the visitors come from more distant However, visitor research in his­ special camp. They return, albeit re gions rather than the immediate to rical museums has in fact raised intermittently, primarily to have pro ximity, the main medium for a spark of hope that the idea of the a close look at what has changed meanwhile at the memorial in terms Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 21 of concept, creative and architectu­ a disturbance. In their conception particularity of percep tion should ral design. For the vast majority of the Ger man memorials are largely find reflection in an in tended and repeated visitors special exhibitions the pro duct of commissions of hi­ carefully considered par ticularity are not a cause for visiting, though; storians who attempt to transfer ar­ of concept. It is further more es­ in this aspect they are not different gumentative and critically distinctly sential to appraise the rela tion from visitors to open­air museums. apprai sing, extensive and discursive of importance and redundancy. The authenticity of the place turns forms of presentation characteristic Change and recognition, produc­ out to be, thus can these results be of this country, forms, it should be tion/design and cognition, variety recapitulated in my view, both op­ said, which are quite positive inde­ and reduction must be integrated portunity and burden at the same ed, to the entire memorial and the into an overall concept, which en­ time for the memorials. This is pre­ con nected exhibitions. However, we com passes the entire place as well cisely the main reason for millions have to become more acutely aware as the various different exhibitions. of people every year to visit the KZ that partiality and the associative Clarity, structuredness, graphicness memorials. The somewhat exces­ charac ter of perception on the and, most of all, a self­imposition of sive expectations of the sensory, huge areas of KZ memorials, which limits are, as visitor research clearly emotional and aural quality of this still have, despite the demolition shows, in a direct, proportionate ex perience which lie at the heart of mentality of years past, plenty of re lation to pedagogical success. A these visits in the first place restrict authentic edificial testimonies, ma jority of the activities on the part the possibilities on the part of me­ remain inevi table. The roughly two of memorials have to be directed at morials, which view themselves as hours spent on the many hectares producing the desired effects prior learning places, of fostering and of memorial ground by the average to memorial visits. This holds true promoting a critical and discur­ visitor has to be taken note of. In this especially for class excursions where sive historical awareness. They span of time one can not properly voluntary participation, preparation even tually also conflict with the see a major part of the exhibitions and also further study are the de­ development of a growing section and museums with the necessary cisive elements to didactic success. of repea ted visitors who consciously amount of attention, let alone a The overdue paradigmatical change utilise the offerings of places that combination of both which is the re­ of memorials from places of sorrow consider themselves museums of gular case at most authentic places. and dismay to museums of con­ contem po rary history to enrich and Whoever tries to justify the sheer tem porary history must be brought expand their knowledge about the scope of the exhibitions by saying and transferred into society. This struc tures of the exertion of power the design is to attract re peated lies to a large degree within the and force on the part of the SS in visits, according to the re sults of respon sibility of the media, which con cen tration camps. our survey, only fools him self. Only have previously covered large and My article shall not come to a clo­ a diminutive share of ap pro ximately new exhibitions at best in their se on this somewhat sceptical note, one per cent of repeated or regular domestic affairs sections as opposed though. Surely you will not expect visitors return with the intention to to coverage in the (inter)national me to come up with patent remedies go and see special exhi bitions. The arts and culture section, thereby for dealing with the re sults of visitor contextualisation of relics, which adop ting a well­meaning, patroni­ research, we, too, are still searching like all monuments do not speak sing instead of an objective­critical and have not quite got there. Howe­ for themselves, is a de mand, which atti tude. The schools and teaching ver, the refusal to accept reality is to heed and incor po rate into future staff who frequently still adhere to not a feasible way, either. The me­ planning is essential. lacking con­ unre flected forms of “consternation morials must reach an agreement texts of the main exhibits, the relics, pe da gogy” also bear responsibility as to how they wish to cope with at authentic pla ces on the one hand with regard to the memorials. This the challenges posed by millions of and exhibitions, which demand way includes above all not having au­ visitors in our leisure society. Either too much of their visitors in terms of thentic places overfraught with conceptional conclusions for ways scope, differentiation, covering texts un realistic expectations and objec­ of representation and presentation and intel lectual structuring, on the tives. The lack of efficiency of such must be drawn from the analysis other on ly further “active dozing”. deductive educational concepts lies of the visitors’ re ceptive behaviour, A middle course between catching plain for everybody to see since the or the me morials deliberately con­ exhibi tions that reproduce the so­ end of state­organised and state­ centrate their con certed efforts on called “icons of extermination” on controlled antifascism in the former that small minority of visitors who, the one hand and sophisticated, communist countries. A large part following intrinsic motives, seek the detailed mammoth programmes of a generation that participated in presentation of historical knowledge on the other must be taken. The ritualised commemorative events at authentic places. If so, the huge knowledge about the inevitable and routine one and a half hour gui­ numbers of visitors will prove to be 22 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde dance tours around memorials mi­ much worse, reversed into their English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 sused as temples of antifascism show anti­emancipatory oppo site; this, alarming dimensions of xeno phobia and may we take it as a warning, can and prejudices. The chances which also happen. lie in the authenticity of these places have not only been squan dered but,

Gottfried Kößler camps and in mass executions in the East were victims first and fo­ remost of National Socialism and Participation in Trauma? its anti­Semitic and racist policy of Eyewitnesses in the Pedagogical Approach to the Histo­ anni hilation. They can no longer ry of the Holocaust bear testimony, our remembrance goes out to them, and this should always be present in the background of work on this topic: the mass mur­ der has also eradicated the memory of all these people. Thus, virtually all survivors of the camps, and most of those, who managed to escape or Eyewitnesses of the Holocaust: first phase eyewitnesses from the survived in sanctuaries, compre­ Problems of Differentiation resis tance were interviewed, then hend themselves as the represen­ one attempted to reconstruct the tative voice of the dead. The encounter with people, who living conditions of ordinary people. have their own memories of the Since the end of the eighties the ac­ Spectators time of National Socialism and counts of the victims of persecution especially of the events, which are are at the centre of attention. Not only the victims of persecution summed up by the term Holocaust, have been witnesses to the events is comprehended today as a parti­ Victims of murder, the development in the cularly suitable approach to this era. German Empire from the discri mi­ In schoolbooks and curricula eye­ Many pedagogues virtually take nation in the first years of the Natio­ witness interviews are recommen­ it for granted that “eyewitnesses” nal Socialist regime until the mur der ded time and time again. However, must belong to the group of victims during the war. All inhabitants of it often remains all but clear what of National Socialist persecution. the Reich and the coun tries occu­ persons with what perspective are The encounter is seen as a chance pied by Germany could become and actually meant by the term “eye­ to experience the victims’ perspec­ indeed often were wit nesses of the witnesses”. tive. This is certainly one of the most Holocaust. Here, the prepared ness The cooperation with eyewit­ important tasks of work with eye­ to recount is much lower than with nesses in pedagogical processes goes witnesses in the pedagogical field, the victims of per secution, but with back to the oral history move ment. but here, in particular, one faces a the growing distance in time there In the uSA it was part of the process wealth of didactic and, most of all, are more and more people, who find of self­comprehension of the ethnic methodical problems. Since eye wit­ it makes sense to share with young minorities, of the quest for their own ness interviews are often con ducted people their view of these expe rien­ history. Thus, positive identification especially with Holo caust survivors, ces, which were traumatic for them, offers were made with the recounted and this requires parti cular dili­ as well. The task of pedagogues is life histories, a collective memory gence and caution at one and the entirely different here, however, was recons truc ted. In Germany the same time, these will be discussed from interviews with former victims. reception of oral history commen­ in more detail from a me thodical Nevertheless, there are extensive ced in the se venties in the context of perspective below. parallels. The mediation between the search for family accounts about At first it seems important to the young audience and the old the National Socialist period. Since differentiate amongst this group narra tors requires precise fac tual these did not take place in most fa­ itself. It should not appear a banali­ know ledge here as there, which must milies – or remained overshadowed ty to point out in this context that be acquired beforehand. The teacher by adven ture stories of the front – those, who were murdered in the must also be aware, though, of the this offered an alternative. In the concentration and extermination possible range of emotional reactions Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 23 on all sides. the eyewitnesses – make in such a to it proving to be impossible. (…) It would be a mistake principally confrontation? So far, there are no since events have not been fully to characterise the account from the empirical studies going into this integrated in their course, the event perspective of “average Germans” as question. Psychoanalytic research cannot … be come a “narrative me­ that of perpetrators and place it in in some points of view pursues simi­ mory” embedded in the closed histo­ stark contrast to victims’ memories. lar questions to those pedagogues ry of the past”. Du ring the narration Pupils’ compassion with victims should ask of the encounter with a struggle for memory unfolds, in does in fact not result from an eth nic eyewitnesses. In a recently pu blished which the lis teners assume a central appraisal, which teachers asso ciate volume of essays I came across some role. Of ten young people are the first for themselves with the speci ficity of references. It is titled “No­one bears addres sees of this account, which the fate. Moreover, it can only be the witness for the witness”, a quotation could not even be passed on to the result of a process of re flection on the by Primo levi, the Italian writer, own children. In this con stel lation part of the pupils. The pedagogical who assimilated in literary form his the teacher recedes to the back­ function of such an encounter with testimony as a survivor of Auschwitz ground. He belongs to a different the memory of people from the “ma­ in novels and essays. The subjects of generation and stands closer to the jority society” offers the oppor tunity the book are the problems of testi­ events than the young people. Even to change one’s point of view. Howe­ mony to a traumatic expe rien ce. It so, the teacher – according to the ver, in the pedagogical context this is presented from a psycho analytic image of the role – is expected to presuppo ses that these eyewitnesses view: “Testimony to trauma involves supervise and present the process have critically reflected on their the listener in that the listener func- of com mu ni cation. experien ces and their world­view tions as an empty sur face, on which There are very many eyewitnes­ from the time of National So cialism the event is inscribed for the first ses, who frequently tell their story and have dissociated themselves time. (…) the person that listens to school classes and discuss about from their attitude at the time. must … at one and the same time it with young people. This brings become both witness to the trauma about a “professionalisation” of the Perpetrators witness and witness to him/herself”. narrators, which, however, must Transferred to pedago gical contexts not be mistaken for disso cia tion The active participants in the murder this means not only listening at­ from traumatic memories. Espe­ are direct witnesses of their acts – but tentively to the narrator but at the cially in conversation with these they are not “eyewit nes ses” in the same time also conside ring and – ex pe rienced eyewitnesses time and pedagogical compre hension. The above all – didactically controlling time again tricky situations surface, didactic problems of such a con­ one’s own reaction to the story. The when subjects are addressed, which frontation could not be surmounted eyewitness needs a listener who is tough upon the severest injuries of in the daily school routine. Such “there for him”. The pupils need a the old people. Such subjects more people’s accounts, which are part of teacher who steers their learning often than not are not those, which a docu mentary adaptation in films process and absorbs where and when one, from a lay point of view, might or lite rature, should absolutely be possible emotional overburdens. expect to evoke strong emotions; it part of the pedagogical occupation Thus, this is both cog nitively as is an everyday situation rather that with the Holocaust. The memories well as emotionally an especially can open access to buried feelings, of perpetrators are an essential straining form of nar rating, from which are hard to control then. aspect of eyewitness testimony; it is the view of the peda gogue, listening, I do not want generally to warn of a central task of teachers to convey which entails unusual demands. inviting eyewitnesses to class. For this view. For, an answer to the As a teacher listening is devoted the integration of eyewitness ac­ question why the murders could professionally to the pupils. In a counts into the situation of teaching actually happen cannot be derived conversation with an eye witness in these problems mean the necessity from the suffering of the victims of front of class it becomes necessary to of a multiple qualification of tea­ persecution, but only be circumscri­ split this impor tant stance into two chers, though. They must at one and bed in the ap praisal of the motives of different forms. The teacher must the same time assume towards the the per petrators. listen, as it were, with each ear to eyewitnesses the position of thera­ a different story. In the account of pists, as it were, who cannot and do The Ambivalence of Recounting traumatic events this situation can not wish to treat, and on the other and Listening trigger emotional cri ses on both hand as pedagogues must take to sides, let alone the emo tional strain the pupils. This is an arrange ment, What happens in class, then – what on the teacher. “In trau ma the capa­ which seldom comes off. Thus, spe­ experiences do the participants – city to regain the past is closely and cial offers in this working field are that is, the pupils, the teacher and paradoxically linked to the approach of crucial importance. 24 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

which a survey about National So­ ception. However, they lie in the Working Field School cialism amongst eyewitnesses was in termediate world of school lessons offers for the integration of eyewit- conducted in Germany in 1980. and private expression on an em­ nesses into learning in school Many schools took part in the com­ pirically precarious level. petition for the Federal President’s One of the focal aims of teaching Today, as a result of a long process Prize, which the Körber Foun da­ about the topic National Socialism of research and local historical exa­ tion, held for the first time on the is creating heightened sensitivity to mination, we have a divers array of topic everyday history in National human rights and tolerance. Here, oral memory accounts. In the sixties Socialism. Emphasis shifted more practical suggestions revolve a round this development started with the and more distinctly towards the the transportation of the capacity for radio broadcast of National Socialist victims of persecution, which even empathy (compare the examples in trials, above all, how ever, with docu­ led up to harsh criticism of con cer­ the literature list). Reaching this mentary theatre. In particular “The ning oneself with the memory of the goal presupposes many and diverse investigation”, a play, which Peter majority society. processes of lear ning and practice Weiss culled and arranged from the In public initiatives, which suc­ for individuals and groups. The protocols of the Auschwitz trial in ceeded in having memorials erected stan ding of his torical instruction Frankfurt, met with a broadly po­ at the places of National Socialist is different from one programme to sitive response. The gradual rise of persecution in West Germany, sur­ the other. In school practice there the willingness to be confronted with vi vors fulfilled an entirely different still seems to be the hope – or such the memory of the Holo caust began function. They became active in the I conclude from the experiences in in West Ger many with the anti­Se­ phase of enforcing the demand for further tea cher education – than mitic occur rences at the end of the memorials as experts on the history “authentic encounter” with eye­ fifties. One of the conse quences was of each place and as proponents in witnesses or a visit to a National the in tro duction of social studies as the struggle for memory. So cialist me mo rial might produce a school subject and the activation Today the use of eyewitnesses is some thing like a leap of insight. of the Bundeszentrale für Politische associated with the expectation of Going into accounts about the for Bildung (Federal Centre for Political a certain efficiency of the authentic all parties traumatic experiences of Education). However, the proximity confrontation so as to have memory the World War II generation already in time to the events of mass mur­ take effect. Correspondingly, there is presupposes a capacity for emphatic ders and World War II was still so general helplessness what about the listening. It is the prerequisite for an palpable that a didactically reflec­ change of generations. The feeling understanding of the other, for the ted approach to memory stood no surfaces that with the death of the acceptance of foreign per spec tives chance of success. Instead, fierce eyewitnesses of National So cialism as equal. When the encounter with controversies took place between the presence of the ac count of its survivors of camps or with former the generation of participants and horrors – and thus the war ning of a Hitler youths or BDM girls takes their post­war children. repetition – may also get lost. Once place in the sign of hope for the pe­ The tradition of the integration public awareness of anti­Semitism dagogical force of authen ticity this of eyewitnesses began in the FRG within society rises, once right­ social qualification, as a rule, is not with the first post­war generations wing extremist criminal offences prerequisite but only too often aim turning their backs on the con­ are adequately prosecuted, poli tical of the pedagogical process. flictive confrontation with the guilt and thus financial support for pro­ Here, one must consider that – as of their parents. An identificational grammes on the encounter with described above – the demands on occupation followed with resistance eyewitnesses and on memorial visits listening are very high from a psy­ against National Socialism and the increases alike. choanalytic view. What can we ask role of the workers’ movement at of young people – and, to be exact, the time the Nazis seized power. In school Practice of the old narrators as well? Geoffrey East Germany the glorification of Hartman follows Dominick laCapra political resistance was a firm part The expectation of a political – or when he calls “voluntary testimony of the central forms of self­repre sen­ perhaps rather moral – influen­ a sort of work”, a “work of listening tation of the SED regime. The feasts cing of listeners to such interviews and attention, which exposes the self of Jugendweihe, the bestowing of can not be proved from experience, to an empathic understanding and adult status on fourteen­year­olds, though. We know too little about thus at least to an attenuated form always contained a ritual element of how young people digest and as­ of trauma” (Hartman: 2000, 39). veterans’ reports about their struggle similate these encounters. letters After more than ten years of practice against Fascism. Everyday history young people wrote to eyewitnesses with eyewitnesses of the Holocaust was the keyword, in the name of after their visit to class are the ex­ it is about time didacti cally to con­ Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 25

Geoffrey Hartman’s Concept of “Intellectual Testimony” as Impulse for a Didactic Alternative

The question as to what actually constitutes authentic memory be comes especially pressing in the face of the function of eyewitnesses for learning contexts. There is an event, which has made palpably visible the question about the “reality” of me mory. In a television debate Elie Wie sel and Jorge Semprun recall the liberation of Buchenwald. Both had been prisoners there and both had experienced that day. During the debate it emerges that they do not have a shared, common memo ry. Semprun, as member of political resistance, was near the entrance gate at the time of liberation, where as Wiesel, as one of the doomed, who had been deported to Buchenwald from Auschwitz, was in the “small camp”, physically unable to grasp the situation. Both survivors have assimilated their memory in literary form and belong to the most important witnesses of the Holo caust. What exactly is authentic memory, then? Not only this obvious incom pa tibility of memories remains a pro blem against the pedagogical back drop. Moreover, we also face the afore mentioned psychodynamic di mensions of the encounter with eyewitnesses. At the same time it is precisely this, the realisation of the traumatic nature of the memory of genocide and the individual quality of each experience, that is a central end of teaching about this topic. It cannot be that on the one hand we strive for a closer approach towards the horrors of the Holocaust and on the other we keep out of the lear ning context its manifest conti nuous effect and impact on the souls of the victims, perpetrators and of course also those born much later. In this dilemma of authenticity the analysis of the aesthetic forming of memory, as presented by Geoffrey Hartman, could lead the way: “As to have something to op- pose the dissipation and dissociation characteristic of trauma and the resulting brittleness of tradition, it takes a medium, which is more durable than indi vidual memory. Art and collective memory exert an influence on one another to attain this goal.” (Hart man 200:40) Following Habermas Hartman speaks of the claim of the murdered to the “frail anamnestic power of solidarity, which those born much later can only exercise in the me dium of continuously renewed, of ten desperate, in any event aimless, memory” (Hartman 2000:48). The great problem here – didactically speaking – is the threatening loss of distance, which result either in unreflected identification with the victims or in equally spontaneous rejection. For the pedagogical con ception of testi- mony a great oppor tunity lies in the conscious assump tion of aesthetic distance. Hartman writes with regard to Primo Levi: “I suspect that aesthetic distance seeks to come to terms with or convey an originally traumatic dissociation and create a balance between too little and excessive identification” (Hartman 2000:48). Here appears a key term, which takes the words from the mouths of history teachers – irrespective even of the topic Holo- caust: “discursive recreation of hermeneutical pa tience” (Hartman 2000:49). Recons tructing, even looking, at first re qui res practicing patience, and thus turning towards the topic, and per haps the discovery of empathy can be built thereon.

cern oneself with this observation. past two years in Frankfurt. In the tacts between the learning group This means to account to oneself Youth Meeting Centre Anne Frank, and the eyewitnesses can develop, for what preconditions and what an institution, which com bines the much as would be the case with aims the arrangement has, which remembrance of Anne frank with conver sa tions in the setting of daily one puts together as a pe da gogue. activities in the field of conflict me­ teaching in school. If, however, And – first and foremost – what diation and intercultural education, one side feels the need to keep the consequences it might entail for all an eyewitness interview and discus­ encounter with out obligation, this participants, which one is not quite sion with the focal point National can happen with out any particular capable of regulating in the role as Socialism is offered each month. difficulty. One of the collaborators teacher. A didactic arrange ment for Experienced presenters con duct recounts in an es say of the dramatic encounters with eyewit nesses of the the conversations; the eyewit nesses develop ment of such a discussion, Holocaust must provide for separate come from different groups (victims which turned in to a great gain and experts each for both narrators and of persecution and survi vors, former benefit for the learning group due to listeners alike, experts who are able HJ and BDM members, resistance the professional assistance provided compe tently to guide and attend activists). For teachers this concept by the Youth Meeting Centre Anne an assimilation and appraisal of means: the discussion takes place at Frank (Fech ler 2000). the event. This is certainly not the an extracurricular learning place, Another example is the prepa­ case in the same way, where work the contact with the eyewitnesses ration and realisation of meetings with eyewit nesses on emotionally lies within the respon sibility of the with former citizens of Frankfurt, less straining topics is concerned, a presenters, and the teacher can emigrants who are invited over to differentiation, how ever, is urgent­ concentrate on the side of the pupils. Frankfurt every year since the be­ ly necessary here all the same, as The purpose of this arrangement is ginning of the eighties. Here, the with other media em ployed during to keep track of without making an thorough preparation of teachers teaching. issue the described psychological for the encounter with the predo­ These demands are not un rea listic problems of eyewitness interviews. minantly Jewish former citizens obstacles. I should like to outline If the en counters pass smoothly and for their encounter with school the essentials of two initiatives, for all par ticipants long­term con­ clas ses proves to be crucial. It has which have been on offer for the 26 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde be come a focal issue to organise a dissociates itself gradually from the scrutinise the product and give their meeting of generations. Together real person and becomes the subject assent. The use of such videos can with the former inhabitants of the of work. The chances of using di­ thus be a pragmatic alternative to city their children – meanwhile dactically pre­structured material, an encounter in reality. a dults the age of the teachers – come which is at disposal as video or CD The publication of eyewitness along every more often. The un­ ROM, must be regarded separately re ports on CD ROM makes acces­ derlying theme to the background each. sible the accounts in a completely of this meeting has become more The methodology of using videos different fashion. Here, a single user and more evidently in the course of must principally be conceived dif­ a bove all can utilise the accounts years work on the alternate percep­ ferently from that of personal mee­ to pursue individual interests. In tions of descendants of victims and tings. It is a media­psychological the publication by the Spielberg perpetrators. However, the dynamic subject, a question about habits con­ Foun dation (www. erinnern­online. of the encounter of former citizens cerning the reception of tele vi sion. de) the eyewitness accounts are with the multicultural present of Here, the psychological dy namic embedded in a diversity of possi­ their city of birth cannot be faced plays a far lesser, or at least entirely bilities to obtain information on without adequate preliminary pre­ different, role. In most cases the topics, which can be derived from pa ration, either. Thus, an offer for account was recorded in a specific the accounts. Thus, a learning field in­service training for teachers and atmosphere, frequently not neces­ is created, which ought not to be a careful cultivation of corres pon­ sarily with the intention of being compared with a narration and least dence with the visitors in advance brought to use in classrooms. Thus, of all with an encounter with real to their visit lie at the core of this a didactic analysis of the material is people. As with most CD ROMs the project. Correspondence between the first and foremost prerequisite. difficulty of using them in learning the visitors and young people often Most memory ac counts are incor­ groups holds true for this one, as unfolds as a result of the emigrants’ porated into documentary films well. This is a dialogic medium, visits to school classes. and edited according to their con­ which can be put to incomparably The offers by many regional me­ cep tion. One must clearly estab lish, productive use by small groups and mo rials go into a similar direction. therefore, whether the entire film individual users. With larger groups, I should like to cite as an example falls in place with the subject of however, it threatens to turn into a the long­standing efforts under­ teaching and the group’s state of monologue of whoever is in control taken in the commemorative and knowledge. It stands undisputed, for of the mouse and thus the sequence memorial place Düsseldorf and in instance, that Claude lanzmann’s of research steps. the memorial Old Synagogue Essen. “Shoah” is something like the docu­ The banal yet fundamental truth Both can be contacted through the mentary account of the Holocaust, for the planning of pedagogical homepage of memorials in the pro­ which is compulsory for tradition. processes holds true here, as well: vince of Nordrhein­Westfalen (www. The film, which lasts several hours at first one must considerwho is ns­gedenkstaetten.de/nrw). and demands prolonged concen­ ac tual ly supposed and able to learn tration from its viewers on the va­ what. Only then must one contem­ “Genuine” Witnesses and Electro­ rious narrators, can only be used in plate what ways and means there nic Documentations excerpts for teaching. Finding such might be. The electronic recordings of excerpts requires exact knowledge memory accounts are such a means. The encounter with eyewitnesses is of the film and at one and the same It could be, however, that for example authentic as such; this is the social time raises film­theoretical ques­ fictional forms of the assi milation of reality, the perception of the other. tions. The teacher creates his own the memory of National Socialism Thus, moments of sympathy are product from an interconnected might be employed far more produc­ created, moments of rejection, of work of art. The use of video inter­ tively for a learning pro cess. deep emotion and insight about views, which have been produced the persons that meet. These are specifically for use in pedagogical Résumé dimensions, which cannot always work, is to be regarded differently be functionally related to learning (Moses Mendelssohn Centre, Fritz The encounter with people, who in school, and which can have their Bauer Institute, memorials). Here have their own memories of the time own quality that goes far beyond. the attempt is made to portray a of National Socialism and especially Electronic recordings of memory person and at the same time capture of events, which are cir cumscribed accounts are entirely different from the general theme as concisely as by the term Holocaust, is compre­ a pedagogical specialist and aca­ possible so as to provide material hended today as an extra ordinarily demic view. First, these recor dings for teaching. The eyewitnesses have suited approach towards this era. In are historical sources. The account the possibility in such projects to schoolbooks and curricula eyewit­ Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 27 ness interviews are re com mended makes on all participants. listening in parti cular, to obtain a change in time and time again. to the memories of trau matic expe­ be ha viour in the direction of more What exactly happens in class, riences as a many­layered demand sym pathy is viewed sceptically. The then, what experiences do parti­ is described as a demand for both oc cupation with memory texts in cipants – that is the teacher, the teachers and pupils. literary form is suggested as a pos­ pupils and the eyewitnesses – make Ways of working are presented sible, albeit modest, alternative. in such a confrontation? There are with the aid of project examples no empirical studies at our disposal that seek to go into and explore the English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 thus far. The author attempts to a fore mentioned difficulties. derive approaches transferable to Finally, the question is raised pedagogical observations from the in a didactic perspective about the field of psychoanalytic trauma re­ justification of the pedagogical search. The central question is that hope for the effectiveness of the of emotional and cognitive de mands, au then ticity of direct encounters which an eyewitness con versation with eye witnesses. The expectation,

Angelika Rieber teachers

The majority of teachers today be­ “I could comprehend many things from long to the second generation. Their parents were mostly young adults my own experience” in the time of National Socialism, The Topic Holocaust in Multicultural Classes and thus personally involved in a variety of ways, for instance as Hit­ ler youths or BDM girls, soldiers, party mem bers, spectators, or also as members of the opposition. Only rarely did the parents talk openly The topic National Socialist era is a leagues from Israel, America and honestly and reflectedly about their firm part of specialist history curri­ England experiences during the era of Na­ cula as well as the corresponding – Project “Jewish life in Frank­ zism with their children, who were textbooks. No young person leaves furt”, in which historical re­ born after the war. Often this silence school without having come – in search aside, encounters with led to fantasies on the part of the most cases repeatedly – into some eyewitnesses are at the centre of children about “skeletons hidden in sort of contact with the subject. interest. the cellar”. Frequently accusation Even so, studies prove alarming – Extracurricular youth work and and recrimination dominated the gaps in knowledge. At one and the German­Israeli youth exchange relation with the parents, which, in same time in the context of right­ turn, led to defensive reactions and wing radicalism doubt is cast on the The participants in the learning attitudes of justification. This often effectiveness of teaching process caused a conscious or unconscious In this article I shall concentrate repre sen tative acceptance of guilt on problems of teaching and disrup­ First I shall take a look at the par­ by the chil dren. Problems with the tive factors, which impede the lear­ ticipants in the learning process: identity as Germans have been and ning process as well as possibilities – What attitudes, prejudices and still are involved, which find multi­ to combat these. The question is, images, questions and reserva­ faceted expression. what forms of presentation and tions do they contribute to the con tents of teaching might provide learning process? Pupils an appropriate answer. My personal – How do teachers assess the si­ experiences, which I refer to, come tuation of teaching and the pro­ The young people of today are the from various different fields: blems in dealing with young grandchildren of eyewitnesses of – Teaching and project work in people? National Socialism. The relation school (at secondary level I and II) – How do the young react? What to their parents, consequently, no – Further education for teachers, problems do they see? What ques ­ lon ger revolves around the question including encounters with col­ tions do they ask themselves about their parents’ own personal entanglement in the crimes of 28 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde the National Socialist period, but young people, again, are particularly countries where they or others are a round the assimilation of these strongly represented, the share of or have been victims to persecution. crimes by the second generation, young people from migrant families which the young people react to. increases even further. In the Ernst origin, adjacency or distance The generation of the young, too, Reuter school in Frankfurt, a secon­ is ill at ease with its identity as Ger­ dary grammar school, where I am Origin, adjacency or distance to the mans; the forms of expression of teaching at, the “share of foreig ners” historical events as well as personal the second and third generation are officially makes up 38 per cent. upon experiences has its repercussions different, though. closer examination one quickly rea­ on attitudes towards the Holocaust. One must take into account that lises that by far more than half the A whole range of forms of reactions a mounting proportion of young pupils come from families of non­ can be observed. The two poles of people today come from migrant German origin or from bicultural behaviour for teachers lie between families. In Hessen the share of in­ families, respec tively. They live as avoiding the subject altogether and habitants without German pass port a minority with a different origin, “overactivity” and for pupils in paral­ amounted to 13,2 per cent in 1998, religion, culture or colour of skin lel between rejection and espe cially and to 28,6 per cent in Frankfurt. in Germany. Irrespec tive of their high motivation. Considering the high amount of passports they predominantly define What problems do teachers and young people amongst this group themselves as “for eigners”. Many administration officials cite? What of the population and, furthermore, come from war­shaken regions and added problems do I make out? let the number of naturalisations, where About Pedagogical Work with Pupils and Young People

In the house of the Wannsee Conference for instance the groups individually picked their subject for one or more days of study from a broad spectrum of themes and problems about the history of National Socialism, the history of the Jews, but also of that of the other victims. Motivation and interests on the part of the pupils take precedence to those of the group guide or teacher, respectively, or the necessities of a syllabus or seminar curriculum. Tests after studying in the memorials should also be excluded. Methodically independent work in small groups with documents visual and acoustic sources and the offer of subject-specific literature of the house library is the preferred way of work. The range of topics is openly and flexibly geared towards interest in recent research findings and current debates. For the preliminary planning of the field trip to correspond with the interests of the group, an extensive conversation with the group guide about the previous knowledge and learning conditions of the group remains necessary. Pupils preferentially tend to select topics that can somehow be linked to their patterns of life, such as “Conception of Man and Education”, “Youth in National Socialism”, “Fascination of Power and Violence”, “Reasons for Right-Wing Extremism Today”, “Racism and Anti-Semitism”. Very positive experiences have been made in this context with eyewitnesses, who critically and honestly account of their time as Hitler youths or BDM girls, respectively, and how they experienced “fascination” and influencing by National Socialist propaganda. Despite encouraging examples from the practice of current memorial work I should like to tone down expectations that through the proper didactic transportation of National Socialist crimes participants would come out of the memorial better humans in an act of catharsis, as it were, after a day of studying. I do not only consider this pedagogical hybris but also overcharging young people in an unjustified manner with moral devices, which the adult world by no means credibly enacts. There are only very few empirical studies available thus far about the long term impacts of the confrontation with National Socialism on historical and political awareness, especially with young people, as well as general information about the reception of exhibitions in memorials. Equally, we do not know reliably about the emergence and, above all, transfor- mation of historical-political attitudes on the part of the young. Whether these young people after an “intensive course” in the Holocaust, respectively a memorial visit – be it even for an entire day, when as a rule, however, this takes no more than two or three hours – are indeed so persistently “morally armoured” that in ten to fifteen years’ time they will shape a better world in their respective jobs – provided they find any, given the wretched situation on the labour market – may well be doubted. At one and the same time there cannot be any shade of doubt that this history must be learned in schools and memorials. It is an essential part of our history for all coming generations, as well. Furthermore, I find the almost exclusive focus of offers provided by memorials on young people, at best still at the age of puberty, not only problematic; I think that this is also a form of repression. In the seminars for adults the experience has often been made in the house of the Wannsee Conference that adults a very interested in offers for historical-political further education and look forward to taking the opportunity to improve their sketchy and outdated knowledge of history. They seek such opportunities not least better to be able as parents and grandparents to discuss with their children and grand- children, when they are confronted with the topic in school, about the history of National Socialism and about being born into a complicated political-historical background. Memorials can and must react far more decisively to these transformed conditions than they have until now.

annegret ehmann, Pädagogik des gedenkens, Bundesministerium für unterricht und kulturelle angelegenheiten (hrg.), erinnern in gedenkstätten, Wien 1998, pp. 47 (english Version: stefan Menhofer, 2001) Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 29 me give some examples: or a teaching unit, respectively, complaints of Pupils – Many teachers complain about which mostly leads to disappoint­ dwindling interest and growing ments. What do pupils complain about? attitudes of rejection on the part – Many teachers remain stuck at What attitudes towards the subject of the pupils. the level of complaints, be it do they express? – Many colleagues fear or observe a bout problems with young peo­ – At first it is essential to state that pupils no longer feel con­ ple, colleagues or those politi cally that I myself have no experience cerned due to the growing dis­ responsible. Often they lose sight with right­wing radical thoughts tance in time. of what has already been achieved crop ping up massively, nor do – Treatment of the subject would and the questions buil ding the­ my colleagues I work with report also be increasingly difficult, since reon. The absence of a realistic about anything in this vein. “foreign” pupils on account of perspective leads to a false defi­ – Many young people, however, give the lack of personal, familial­his­ nition of tasks. After a German­ voice to a feeling of satiation, in torical involvement showed little English seminar in london (The the course of their school ca reers interest. Often these young peo­ Aftermath of the Holocaust on they have been confronted re­ ple would demand that sub jects Both Sides) the state ment by a peatedly with this topic in various be dealt with, which affect them female colleague that she had subjects. It was simply too much personally, such as the si tuation been surprised we had not only for them. On the other hand their in their countries of origin or done some learning but were knowledge is still found wanting. ex periences with racism and also capable of giving, trig gered – Moreover, classes are perceived as xe no phobia in Germany. Fur­ a vehement counter reac tion by boring and somehow always the ther more, many Muslims are per­ one of her colleagues. same. ceived to harbour either open ly or – Taboos as well as the effort to ap­ – Many feel exposed to a pressure latently anti­Semitic ten den cies. pear political correct some times of dismay. – Teachers as well as authorities prove to be an obstacle to an open – Others again complained about occasionally complain every so and constructive exa mination of never having properly dealt with often that the perspective would form, content and extent of the the topic. be backward looking. It would be occupation with the past. What – Most young people expressed a more important to turn to the teachers and school administra­ desire for normality. They do not present rather than keep “rum­ tors say and what they really want to be viewed as the guilty maging the past”. think, at times seems to be poles party but as normal humans. – The endeavour to update on the apart, which in itself par tially Thus, they insinuate or suspect other hand frequently leads to makes work more difficult. that they are held responsible by problematic comparisons with – The second generation is hardly others (teachers, abroad, Jews) questions of the present day, which recognised as a potential ad­ and an imprint of guilt is stamped often intensify or awaken young dressee group, for instance for on them. people’s feelings of guilt. (“We’re fur ther education or exchange – Time and time again young peo­ there again”) pro grammes. ple report about personal expe­ – On the other hand the Holocaust – On the other hand there is huge rience of verbal abuse abroad. is often placed outside historical interest on the part of teachers – Time and time again pupils refer contexts for fear of relativisation. in further training seminars, to the fact that not only the Ger­ – At the same time I note that ex change programmes and pro­ mans but other peoples had also the assimilation of the National jects geared towards the second perpetrated historical crimes. Socialist period is occasionally ge neration. – Occasionally a hardening of at­ dele gated to the young by both – Countless teachers have also been titudes between migrants and tea chers and those who are politi­ involved over the past years in Germans can be observed (“Why cally responsible or/ and the own projects with eyewitnesses and do the Germans always feel at­ motivation is concealed behind state that from such encounters tacked when the topic is ad dres­ pupils’ interests (“I have already not only the young but also they sed?”) occasionally the mi grants fought in 68”. “Now it’s the young themselves derived a personal act as conscious or un con scious people’s turn”. “The pupils have gain. pro secutors. (“You Ger mans are entirely on their own …”). – Many local historical research still racists!”): – Often excessive expectations are activities would not have been – A general problem of school, placed into an immediate change undertaken without the initiative which comes to the fore espe­ of behaviour after talking to eye­ and commitment by teachers. cially, though, in dealing with witnesses, visiting a memorial National Socialism is the sense 30 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

of insecurity felt by many pupils, by many pupils relates to a pro­ fashion, when democracy is acted who do not know what they may blem, which needs to be taken out. say or ask. Therefore, they express seriously, and demands from us This calls for pupils as subjects what the teacher wants to hear to subject the forms and scope of rather than objects of the learning or presumably wants to hear and discussing the Holocaust to cri­ process. When teaching is seen as a why they regard as politically tical scrutiny. Nonetheless I ga­ mutual learning process an atmos­ correct, respectively. This is evin­ ther the impression that the focal phere can develop, in which all par­ ced for example by the following problem is not the quantity of the ticipants – teachers included – learn statement, when I – prior to talks subject but rather young people’s from and with each other. with eyewitnesses – ask pupils apprehension in the face of real This takes openness, honesty to prepare themselves for these or presumed recrimi nations and and mutual respect. When hidden encounters and think about ques­ how the second gene rations re­ ta boos, as described above, impede tions. sponds to these preset attitudes the learning process, it is essential “Can I really ask this question?” and fears. to take into consideration attitudes, this is a familiar concern for many – Despite the described problems I preconceived opinions and images, young people in advance. What is should like critically to relate the also prejudices, to take them up behind is on the one hand inse­ complaints about young people’s and address young people’s fear, curity and awkward ness on the lack of interest in the assimi­ embar rassment, anger, questions other hand, however, frequently lation of the National socialist and interest and deal with them. also the endeavour to be poli­ pe riod and the apparent failure of When we encourage young people tically correct. education after Auschwitz to the to formu late their problems with And it finds even clearer expres­ perception that hardly any other the topic and take seriously the sion in the remark: “I do not issue interests and stirs young broached concerns and questions know what you want to hear” or people more than the holocaust. (e.g., their request for normalisa­ when the pupils asked me before This applies especially to the tion) and do not interpret these as an interview: “Can we tell her young migrants. a stance of rejection, in most cases what we really think?” we will have already won them for Conditions, Forms and Contents mutual lear ning. conclusions of Learning Instead of hidden taboos the boun­ daries of free speech and personal – Mostly the desire for norma li­ My impression is that under certain behaviour, respectively, ought to be sation is taken by teachers as cir cumstances pupils and their tea­ open and clear and defined together fundamental rejection and the chers feel insecure. This raises the as far as possible. com parison with other countries following questions: When different personal back­ as relativisation.  What conditions, forms and grounds – experiences, attitudes, – In contrast, I suppose that behind con tents of learning can foster a opinions, origins – are recognised by this there are problems of coming constructive appraisal and exa mi­ the participants in the learning pro­ to terms with the identity as Ger­ nation of the Holocaust? cess and incorporated into tea ching mans. Which is to say, the young  What conditions and prere qui­ everybody can profit and make some people are not unin te res ted but sites are thus necessary? sort of contribution. The prin ciple seek and need open and honest My reflections include observations of such an attitude is subject and answers to their ques tions and and experiences in my own classes biography orientation. Taken as a concerns. as well as feedback by my col leagues. general principle of teaching, which – Obviously, both sides have pro­ enables pupils to contribute their blems in dealing with each other. learning conditions experiences to the various sub jects, Each generation has its own ex­ attitudes of re jec tion on the part of pe riences, patterns of reactions, At first I regard it as important to migrants to wards the topic National questions. What with other to pics state that teaching on the Holocaust So cialism, in my impres sion, can be is seen in everyday life as a “nor­ is about a shared experience of lear­ prevented or at least attenuated. mal” generational problem, here ning rather than about teaching A further abovementioned pro­ turns into an explosive poli tical itself. The imparting of knowledge blem is the fact that migrants, even controversy. Both gene ra tions about the Holocaust and, hand in if they hold a German passport, perhaps project their own fears hand with it, the “never again!” in pre dominantly define themselves as and anxieties on their respe ctive my view, is credible only, when the “for eigners”, and are also regarded opposite number. forms of presentation are designed as such. The question of the in­ – The feeling of satiation expressed in a democratic and value­oriented tegration of people of non­German Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 31

Teaching in multicultural classes

Another problem is dealing with different images transported in the family or surroundings and the con tents taught in school. What grand parents tell or what is com muni cated in migrant families is more often than not poles apart. To take these discrepancies as a theme and make them the object of learning is certainly no mean feat. I would like to but outline some aspects. They come down to the relation of subjectivity and objectivity, to the classification and appraisal of sub jective perception and memory. In this context great importance must be attached to a critical reflec tion of our role as teachers. We can not expect openness and honesty on the part of the young when we our selves do not display these qualities. Wherever insecurity is looming large the danger exists of hiding behind our knowledge instead of contributing our experiences, ques tions and self-consciousness to the learning process. When we comprehend ourselves as learners, too, we need not hide behind the pupils or use them as pre texts or frontlines, when it comes to presenting projects and results. What young people work out always remains a joint project, in which we, the teachers, equally participate. We have interests, pro vide the setting, ask questions, pro vide help, stimuli, suggestions and impulses and, in due course, learn a thing or two ourselves. Perhaps such an attitude on the part of the teachers is more likely to give pupils the feeling of being called upon to think for themselves, ask their own questions and find their own answers. A schoolgirl of Kurdish origin formulated this as the fore most aim of dealing with the Holo caust in the context of right-wing radicalism. For migrants the en tangle ment of the grandparents and related questions seldom ply a role. Nonetheless most pupils’ coun tries of origin are affected by the events of World War II in one way or the other, as a result of which a personal point of reference might develop. However, for the time be ing there is not e nough research and material, which would enable us adequately to con sider this as pect. Mostly, young people from mi grant families show a special in terest in dealing with the topic owing to their own personal si tua tion. Since they live in Germany as a minority or/and have their own experiences with persecution and emigration time and time again they establish connections and re ferences with personal expe riences in classes on the National Socialist past. The abovementioned schoolgirl, after talking to an eyewitness, who lives in Israel today, wrote: “I could comprehend many things from my own experience, for example immigration into an entirely foreign country and the difficulties involved in the beginning. Many circum stances have become clearer to me.” She then considers the question as to whether her counterpart feels hatred and notes: “I do not bear any hatred within me, either, because I believe that amongst every nation there are good people as well as the so-called «black sheep»”. As this example illustrates, the young people establish connections of their own accord to themselves, their lives, their experiences and questions. The intricate task we face as teachers lies in providing support so that they can establish these connections, while simultaneously making clear the differences bet ween the Holocaust and problems of today. From such a view this is less about topicality and not about parallelisation, but about the ques tion of the relevance of histo rical expe- riences for those learning in the present.

origin, which has yet to be satis­ unit on the Holocaust with a se­ re spected within the boundaries that factorily re solved in our society, in quence about the life of minorities have been defined together. lear­ this context now and then exerts a in Ger many. The following pro blems ning from the past in this con text disruptive ef fect and might result spring to mind: means learning to work to gether in mutual com partmentalisation. – The topic becomes overcharged with peo ple of different political po­ At teaching level we cannot solve as regards content sition, ori gin, culture, religion and this problem, though, but must seek – The perils of parallelisation personal experience and constructive­ adequately to cope with it. On the – An intensification of feelings of ly to cope with differences. one hand this involves accepting guilt in young people of German and respecting differences, on the origin learning contents other it is about defining a common – Excessive expectations placed in ground, a consensus. For the mi­ immediate behavioural changes The selection of learning contents grants the feeling of being received I have made positive experiences is determined on the one hand by and respected is highly si g ni ficant with working on the topic mino­ the historical subject and its con­ and an important basis of the wil­ rities in a different context (e.g. in sequences and on the other by the lingness to develop common ob­ the teaching units “Democracy in question as to what pupils ought to jec tives and strategies, for instance Germany” or “Melting Pot Ame ri­ learn in order to understand what combating right­wing radicalism. ca”), and creating connections from happened. On the other hand the Here, openness, honesty and a con­ there and then. relevance for our present life is of flic tive capacity are also essential, It appears more important to me crucial importance. An essential since it is crucial to find forms for to take a look at learning conditions criterion for the selection of tea­ a constructive acknowledgement of during lessons and reach an atmo­ ching contents in this context is what multicultural diversity. s phere in class, in which being pupils contribute on account of their Nevertheless, I do not necessarily different and thinking differently is origin, culture, religion and per so­ find it advisable to close a teaching 32 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde nal experiences. – The crimes of the Nazis did not of National Socialism and the With reference to the afore men­ take place somewhere in outer occupation with the past in those tioned problems in the daily routine space, but they are the result of countries should be seen as a va­ of teaching I should like to mention People’s decisions and actions. luable addition in terms of con­ some aspects, which are especially To the objection that this change tent rather than as rela ti vi sation: important in this context: in direction towards a closer ins­ – Here, too, a whole variety of pection of human decisions and further alternatives can be found: Biographies and Situations of wrong decisions might lead to a military intervention, resistance, decisions banalisation of genocide one can collaboration, taking up refugees reply that rather the opposite as well as the approach towards The occupation with life accounts is the case. When the origin of the topic in the various coun­ and everyday life is of great im­ these crimes is seen in society and tries in the present day (inter portance for various reasons. human behaviour this un derlines alia by way of such projections as – Biographies of victims of perse­ the danger such developments young people vociferously com­ cution place the perspective of hold and the possibility of re pe­ plain a bout). those affected, their self­con­ ti tion. “Buchenwald has also de­ – Relevance is created on account ception, fears and hopes, their monstrated me that such a thing of the fact that today we concern dilemmas and their attempts at a can or could indeed be trans lated ourselves with comparable ques­ solution at the core of atten tion. into reality” a pupil commented tions (e.g. the role of bystander in They depict them as thin king and his thoughts after a visit to the international conflicts, the right acting persons and not as passive memorial place. of asylum). victims, who “let them selves be – A further element is the occu­ led like sheep to the slaughter”. Multiperspectivity pation with the pupils’ countries They evince the di mension of of origin. In this context it is about human tragedies. They show the Additionally, I should like to con­ the role of these countries during victims of terror as human beings, tribute further reflections on the the Nazi era on the one hand and give them a name and a face and, importance of a multiperspective the assimilation of these historical thus, create empathy. view of the topic Holocaust, and experiences. It would seem to be – Biographies facilitate the look at thereby directly and indirectly refer appropriate to cast a look at for the years before and after National to the aforementioned complaints instance the presentation of World Socialism. Continuities as well as voiced by pupils. War II in the schoolbooks of these discontinuities and breaks become Multiperspectivity is important res pec tive countries. On the other evident. when taking a look at society in Ger­ hand the question also hangs in – Biographies provide insights into any and embraces, amongst others, the air as to how Ger many reacts situations of decisions, de ci sions victims, perpetrators, bystan ders, today in the face of human rights taken and dismissed, as well as onlookers, conformists, spectators, vio lations or con flicts in these into the respective scope for ac tion crowds, dissenters, lateral thinkers, coun tries. (amongst other things hu ma nity, objectors, helpers, re sistance acti­ contradiction, opposi tion, re­ vists, etc. Consequences sistance). What can we learn from that? – Biographies provide insights into – The question of guilt and res pon si ­ The mounting distance in time to the social structures and processes, bility becomes considerably more vents, the transformation of society which involve a broad spectrum differentiated and more com plex. in Germany and the in creasing glo­ of different groups (neighbours, – We can discover a variety of balisation of worldwide co­operation colleagues, superiors, autho­ alternatives, which contradict as well as of diverse problems and rities, etc). the view frequently conveyed by phenomena result in the National – Biographies and situations of pa rents or grandparents that one Socialist period being viewed more decisions relate to fundamental could not have done anything and more distinctly in the context of ques tions of human coexistence about what happened. European and international history. (e.g. the relation of majority and – Who realises that there was scope Comparisons with other genocides minority, civil courage, the role of for action in times of terror in the are thus called for, whereby the bystanders, etc). Questions of the past, might possibly broaden his clas sification into his torical contexts present, which we seek ans wers spectrum of eventual decisions un derlines the spe cific importance and solutions for (e.g. dea ling today. of the holocaust rather than relati­ with right­wing violence), create – The examination of the beha viour vi sing it. The Holo caust has become relevance for us. of other nations during the period a worldwide sym bol of inhumanity Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 33 and terror, and at one and the same misunderstandings between people of Subsequently, the girl explains how time universal questions come to different coun tries.” she views Germany. the fore in crea singly. like this pupil, many young Both schoolgirls were pleasantly people feel relieved after such en­ surprised to learn how many com­ Methods and Forms of learning counters. The feeling of being ac­ mon points they could discover in cepted as partners and regarded as the course of the conversation. Teaching methods and contents normal humans creates openings Even if the Holocaust assumed a should create an atmosphere of for co ming to terms with the past focal role in these encounters, the esteem for each individual, a pre­ and its consequences. The schoolgirl, quotations above and further letters condition for the willingness on the from whose letter I quoted above, illustrate that the perspective was part of the pupils to contribute their was delighted all the more, when not backward but forward looking. own experiences to the lear ning pro­ she realised that her English coun­ What possibilities do such en coun­ cess. The corresponding of tea ching terparts occupied themselves with ters offer? should establish a close relation to questions, which are important for – Examination of the question of each person, the other par ticipants her, as well. guilt and responsibility, of fears in the learning process and to the “I was pleased, as I realised that and reservations, of prejudices contexts of the subject. there are people who put their inte- and images I shall go into three forms of lear­ rests on things like: How could that – Perception of individuals who are ning, which are suitable for creating happen and how do people at that part of a collective at one and the such a close relation: time and later handle their life or same time what to do to stop the pain of those – Appreciation of the respective Encounters who were refugees or children of perspectives refugees?” – Connection of past, present and Encounters open up the way for a A girl of Tunisian origin realised future dialogue, in which there are those after the same conversation much to – Building a relationship that con­ who ask, those who listen and those her surprise that her opposite num­ tains both elements, which set who tell, who exchange experiences, ber was confronted with similar pro­ apart, and those, which bind to­ mutual images, fears, anxieties and blems to those she had had to face, gether. hopes. such as the parents’ immi gra tion I should like to emphasise, however, We will not much longer have the into a foreign country, their pro­ that careful, diligent preliminary chance of speaking to the eyewit nesses blems in adapting, life as a mino rity and further didactic assessment and of the National Socialist era, but we in this country, etc. The emo tions of evaluation are a necessary prere­ could and should continue this dia­ her English counterpart showed her quisite for the success of such en­ logue with their children and grand­ how deeply the second generation, counters. This also calls for taking children, i.e. the second and third too, is affected by the past. as a theme in advance expectations, generation (for example against the “It was also very interesting and images, fears or one’s own awk ward­ backdrop of German­Israeli ex change sad to hear or see your emotions ness and, subsequently, reflecting programmes, Euro pean school or while you were talking to us.” on impres sions, irritations, surprise further educa tion projects, etc.). I Additionally, this girl compares and a change in images, respectively. should like to stress the im portance her own picture of Jewish history and educative function of such en­ with the information received from Regional References counters by quoting from letters her counterpart and eventually re­ written by two school girls after an flects on the English woman’s ima ge Furthermore I would like to outline encounter with two English wo men of Germany. the importance of regional re ferences: of German­Jewish origin, who both “But there was one thing which I – The familiarity of places (school) belonged to the second ge ne ration. wondered about. I recognised that furthers the willingness to ask “It was very important for me to you didn’t know before that there questions hear the opinion about the topic of are a lot of foreign people living in – Regional history specifically calls National Socialism and Nazis from a Germany today and that you won- for an occupation with the fate person that does not live in Ger many dered that we were many foreign and behaviour of people who or is not a German. It takes some of pupils in the group. But I can totally either lived or still live there in my fear away, because my fear is / understand why you wondered. I the present day. was always to come to a country and think after all what happened in – The proximity of the places estab­ to be called a Nazi (…). I think to Germany it is a little bit hard to lishes ties between the past and speak to each other like we did is the ima gine that foreign people are so the present (e.g. memorial plates, best way to avoid such prejudices and brave to live in such a country.” exhibitions, etc …) 34 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

– Researching and discovering lear ­ About the Function of Memorials ning is an obvious option – Authentic places (synagogues, The primary function of most memorials, especially such at former con- ce meteries) create proximity centration camps, still remains that they are large cemeteries, that ceremonial Many teachers have been using commemoration takes place and will probably continue to take place there in the future on remembrance days, as well. Yet, one must consider how this can materials on regional history in happen in the future. For today’s young people ritualised, pathetic remem brance their lessons for years and they often appears incredible. report about positive experiences. A further function is that of the documentation of events at the authentic place, To some extent they themselves or even if – through delapidation and conceptual intervention – often not much is their pupils participate in the ex plo­ authentic anymore. The artistic design of memorials generally takes as its theme ration of local and school history, death and destruction, the iconography of memorials is that of a death cult. At many places research had to and still has to be caught up on. This task, respectively. however, is manageable in its dimensions and does not change a thing, where fundamental insights, which must be imparted, are concerned. To turn me- Memorials mo rials into academic research institutes would be deceptive, since research presupposes emotional distance, which will be problematic in a concentration Memorials are authentic places, camp memorial. The function of memorials as learning places, which again does which exercise an especially stirring not concern teaching in schools, points far stronger into the future. These places are about transporting knowledge but not about informing and instructing the effect on young people – given that visitor by way of cleverly devised curricular strategies, which is what school and they are adequately prepared. university must and mostly manage to achieve. They are rather about making I shall not go into the following history individually cognitively and emotionally ex perienceable. This can help questions, which I regard as im­ each one become conscious of him/herself, his/her national identity and the state por tant in this context, but merely of being involved in historical contexts and a resulting responsibility – not guilt. men tion them in short: This cannot be achieved by way of one to two hour guided tours of exhibitions – Regional historical connections for large groups, as happens predominantly in memorials, but only by offering possibilities of a deeper individual approach and appraisal. between Frankfurt and Buchen­ Such questions and comments, which can often be encountered in visitor books wald at memorials, as “How could it happen?” “How could humans do such a thing – Importance of eyewitness re ports to fellow humans?” or bold and simple appeals, such as “Never Forget!” “Never by survivors of concentration Again Fascism!” all these helpless phrases, never absent also in speeches at of- camps or victims’ bio graphies ficial commemorations, in my view, are the result of diffuse perceptions, which – Integration of the memorial visit are caused not least by the ways of illustration in memorials. Mostly, visitors are exposed above all in concentrated form to shocking photos and accounts into teaching as well as pre limi­ of humiliated and abused humans and the atrocious conditions in ghettos and nary and further assessment concentration camps, all of which remains stuck in memory. The confrontation – Arranging and organising a visit with this “horror” occurred and occurs time and time again in good intentions. to a memorial Exhibition makers and pedagogical offers by memorial personnel aim especial- – Importance of the authentic place ly at young people as addressees of a moral instruction. On an international I shall restrict myself here to a few conference in the memorial Yad Vashem in Jerusalem in October 1996 the expectation was expressed that “Holocaust Education” ought to enable young questions, which arise in the course people to “create a better world”. of further assessment of a visit to Little critical reflection is devoted meanwhile to the question whether by looking Buchenwald in September 2000. at violence and brutality and eyewitness accounts from the victims’ perspective, I come back to the problem that where the presentation of hardship and cruelties is to the fore, the proneness to many young people fear dismay of prejudices and latent racism is in fact persistently broken down. Insight into some sort would be expected from the reason for and causes of injustice and suffering are scarcely furthered by them. Precisely for this reasons I this form of presentation. Young people react defensively to a pedagogy of shock and consternation, much as to the conventional forms of transportation, lecture find it particularly important du­ and guided tours – as well as to uniform repetitions of ever the same subject. ring a visit to a memorial top give In contrast to school a memorial is free from curricular constraints, marking the participants the possibility to and examinations. Thus, opportunities present themselves for and emanci- search and find their own points of patory, participation-oriented educative approach. Through less common, not re fe rence and forms of expression. schoolbook-conform, introductions into National Socialist history – from the As sessment, therefore, commences history of technology, science, art and aesthetics, biographies to everyday histo- ry – the syndrome of satiation frequently to be observed with pupils, which finds with the question what touched each expression in ostentatious disinterest, can be tackled and overcome. participant most deeply during the visit to Buchenwald: The me mo rial annegret ehmann, Pädagogik des gedenkens, Bundesministerium für unterricht und plate with all the different na tions, kulturelle angelegenheiten (hrg.), erinnern in gedenkstätten, Wien 1998, pp. 46 (english the warmth of the memo rial plate Version: stefan Menhofer, 2001) and its symbolism, the emp tiness of the appeal square, the cold they felt Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 35 both outside and with in, the con­ dual and collective action are not field of content should, therefore, trast between the private zoo and the abstract here but result directly be intensified. We have to face two camp, the instal lations for executing from the questions, with which the im portant tasks: inmates with a shot through the base learning group and each individual a) Reflection of one’s own, indivi­ of the skull, the crematory, the arrest member, respectively, are con fron­ dual relation to the topic and cells, the clock, which has come to a ted in daily life. dealing with one’s own self­con­ stand still, or the huge entrance gate. sciousness Each pupil developed an emotio­ Conditions and Preconditions b) Expansion of professional com­ nal connection with a different spot petence, since demands surpass and also individually appraised the I shall concern myself here with two the knowledge acquired at uni­ importance of the excursion to the aspects, curricula as well as teacher versity and during initial teacher memorial very differently. The fol­ training and further education. training lowing statement gave me particular There are the following main points cause for thought. curricula particularly suitable: “Buchenwald has also made me – Encounters think about my rights and my life It is a fact that curricula partly still – with eyewitnesses in a “foreign” country, respectively, take as their starting point a com­ – with the second generation (e.g. since I feel at home in Germany – I position of classes, which no longer German­Israeli teacher ex change, have never been to Eritrea – and exists in reality. The question of German­American or European regard my rights here as a matter guilt, shame or responsibility for exchange projects and seminars, of course. But the visit to Weimar the “own” history is often still at the etc.) has also taught me that I began to core here (e.g. structural course cur­ – Development and testing of new entertain slight doubts, since I did ricula for history in grammar school approaches in seminars and in not feel at ease there, for all the upper forms in Hesse). class stares I got, which affected me more Here, an adaptation is in urgent – Exchange of experiences about than once.” demand, where the definition of successful projects as well as In Buchenwald and in Weimar teaching aims ought to take into a bout problems this pupil felt his being different and account the change in composition To conclude with, let me quote saw where racism and intolerance of society and classes, respectively. ludwig Marcuse, who adapts a well­ can lead to in the extreme case. His In my view this is about a common known proverb «Time is a healer»: anxiety and distress showed him that responsibility for both present and “Time does not heal everything, rights are not simply a given matter future, which includes dealing with but perhaps it distracts the focus of fact but have to be fought for time the past, rather than about the ques­ from what cannot be healed.” and time again. tion of guilt. Apart from re working Possibly this development has “People must learn to be tolerant, the curricula, the development of already taken place. The Holocaust, for who is not tolerant, lays the new materials is imperative, corres­ admittedly, is still ever­present for foundation for hate and the use of pondingly. young people in our day, but maybe violence.” no longer central. It is perhaps a This is the conclusion drawn by Further teacher education and teacher problem of the second generation another pupil of Afghan descent. training to understand that. Perhaps we must These pupils have established a simply learn to cope with that. con nection between Buchenwald Instead of delegating the appraisal and their own experiences, which and examination of National So­ English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 gives them food for thought, makes cialism to young people alone, at ten­ them insecure or serves to exa cer­ tion should be focussed more stron­ bate their own positional stances. gly on the group of disse mi nators. These issues attain their relevance, When teachers do not suc ceed in as the afore mentioned statements coming to terms with their own self­ illustrate, by way of personal im pres­ consciousness and cannot manage to sions, emotions, associations and understand themselves, an unsolved thoughts, and at one and the same potential for tension hangs in the time questions form about a com­ air, which is a con si derable obstacle mon responsibility for the fu ture. to work with the pupils. Tasks and conclusions for indivi­ Further teacher education in this Hannelore Lutz the region, developed into the centre of Jewish scholarship and became the meeting point of various diffe­ “… Disappeared in Izbica” rent cultures shall not be for gotten. A Search for Traces … The “Jewish Oxford” was fa mous for its schools, universities and rabbi seminars. Isaac Horowitz, the seer of lublin, was one of the foremost scholars. Numerous visitors, most of them from the u.S.A, still come to see his grave on the largely de­ Study trip and German-Polish further transport on to the exter­ stroyed Jewish cemetery in lublin Seminar/Youth Exchange 02.10.99- mination camps of Sobibor and Bel­ to the present day. 11.10.99 sec, in a few cases also to Maj danek. Today lublin is a provincial town Lublin-Lublin/Majdanek-Sobibor- “The Germans brought Jews from where 22 Jews still (or again) live, Wlodawa-Kazimierz Dolny (Po land) all over Europe to Izbica. Most of the youngest of whom 65 years old. Concept, realisation and report by them came from Czechoslovakia. There is nothing left of the flou ri­ Hannelore Lutz, Düsseldorf, 1999. The various groups were held at shing Jewish culture; the Jewish Organised by: Izbica for several days at a time quarter is destroyed. Begegnungsstätte Alte Synagoge (sometimes for up to ten days), The “new” town is characterised Wuppertal primarily to the end of depriving and influenced by the two univer­ Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Abt. Ge- them of all their valuables. In con- sities, a large number of schools and sellschaftspolitische Information, versations with Jews I learned that many young people who live and Bonn prior to the transport the Ger- study here. Verein gegen Vergessen – Für Demo- mans had told them they would kratie e.V., Bonn be used for work. There fore, the Preparation Jews took along with them every- thing they possessed, especially The continuous updating of the Here in this transport their valu ables”(1) Wuppertal Memorial Book and the I am Eve Whereas Auschwitz is present in commemoration of 63 Jews from With my son Abel memory not only as an exter mi­ Wuppertal who were deported to If you see my oldest son nation camp but also stands as a Izbica in a mass transport on April Cain, son of Adam symbol of the mass murder of Euro­ 22nd, 1942, provided the impetus to Tell him that I pean Jews, the camps of Majdanek, plan a study trip to Eastern Poland (Dan Pagis: Written in Pencil in the Treblinka, Sobibor and Belsec are with young people. Sealed Wagon) largely unknown. Majdanek, named In the course of preparatory work after a suburb of the town of lub lin, for the study trip and the search for Introduction situated at the thoroughfare to Za­ traces in lublin, Izbica, Sobibor and mosz, was infamous for its uni ma­ the archives of the Majdanek me­ In 1941 the deportations of Jews “to ginably horrid living conditions. For morial a second focal issue involved the East” begun all over Germany. the Polish non­Jewish and Jewish meeting and working together with To Poland, latvia, Belarus and to population in the lublin region young people from lublin. Here the the ghettos and, later, to extermi­ and for Jews in Western Eu rope the attempt was to be undertaken by nation camps. Jews from Wuppertal con centration and exter mina tion dealing with and reappraising the were also amongst those deported camp is a symbol of the deepest past to build a “bridge” to the pre­ to lódz, Riga, Minsk, Terezín and humi liation at the hands of other sent, with regard also to a com mon Izbica . The name Izbica can be hu mans. Alongside the exter mi na­ future in Europe. read frequently as the final stage of tion camps of Belsec and Sobibor, Youths aged 16 to 19 were wel­ trans port, it is there that the traces both also in the lublin region, come to participate and, teachers of nearly all arrivals vanish. After the the concentration camp Majdanek and educators at youth institutions Jews from the region around lublin played an important role, signi fi­ were asked to supply the young predominantly Czech, Dutch and cantly, in the mass murder of the people with information. Partici­ German Jews passed through this Je wish popu lation in the so­called pation should take place exclusi­ town. The small town in Poland Generalgouvernement (“Aktion vely on a voluntary basis. Further which is still virtually unknown Reinhard”). prere quisites included an interest to day was the “collection point” for The period when lublin, capital of in historical and political subjects Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 37 and the willingness to take part Lublin together, helped dispel some of the in the (extensive) preliminary and initial bias. Four, instead of the ini­ final ana lysis and debate. Study trip It was not “love at first sight”, but tial twelve polish participants, all of and Ger man­Polish exchange were there was both an interest in and an them young girls, eventually took sche duled for the first half of Oc to­ inquisitive curiosity about the town, part – the boys had withdrawn their ber 1999. its population and the young people commitment. Besides, it emerged Sixteen young people from Wup­ whom the German group wanted to that the young Polish girls could pertal and Krefeld listed up; and the work with, go about town, make ex­ hardly speak German or English group was not intended to be larger cursions and go out in the eve nings. although they learned both lan gua­ anyway since we expected about the Even on the journey from Warsaw to ges at school. In the following day same number of interested polish lublin they were astoun ded, despite communication between the groups youths. The participants got to know the theoretical prepa ration, to see became better, our inter preter and each other, expressed their ideas the rural character of this part of the only Polish­speaking boy in and requests concerning the trip to the country we were going through. the German group helped clear up Poland and the planned activities. At our accommodation in lublin, eventual misunderstan dings and In small groups they worked with an old monastery at the foot of lub­ diffi culties. sources, materials and documents, lin’s old town, we were imme diately The tour of “Jewish lublin” made photos, literary texts and memoirs confronted with the town’s Jewish all participants at least to some and witness reports. They learned history. This mo nastery had been extent envisage the old lublin. A about the “Generalplan Ost” and deserted for many years until it was memorial plate on a house of the for­ “Aktion Reinhard”, Jewish culture bought from the Catholic Church mer Szeroka, today’s Castle Square, and some of the predominantly Je­ by a Jewish businessman. He let re minds of the “seer of lublin”. An­ wish small towns in lublin’s vicinity the monas te rial cells to the poorest other plate reminds of the former (Zamosz, Kazimierz Dolny). Je wish families in town for little Je wish quarter and the large syna­ Preparation also included a city mo ney and his heirs continued this gogue. Somewhat irritated and in tour of Wuppertal along the traces of tra dition until the year 1940. After silence the young people had a look Jewish life in the city to the rail way the clearing of the ghetto, which was at the four­lane through road, Castle station of Wuppertal­Steinbeck from nearby the monastery, the building Square, the large area of green with where the deportation to Izbica took was uninhabited until some years trees here and there and tried to place. With the help of Dr ulrike ago when sisters of the order mo­ imagine that right where they were Schrader the participants learned ved back in. The house for religious standing there had once been houses about the memorial book project exer cises is now an accom mo dation and about 40.000 people had lived and together with her they picked open for groups and single visitors here. A Jeshiwa, today a technical the names of the persons whose from Poland and abroad. college, and the old Jewish cemete­ biographies they wanted to take The ghetto and the large syna­ ry are still preserved. Compared to along to Poland. gogue were destroyed, the old town, the photo graphs we had seen back In lublin twelve young Poles predominantly inhabited by poor Je­ in Ger many the cemetery was in a wan ted to participate in the ex­ wish families, is still preserved, as was rather sorry state. change and joint work experience. the Jewish orphanage. Non­Jewish Preparation, programme and re­ Polish families moved into these Majdanek quests for changes were discussed houses – there were no Jews left. and arranged with Mr Wieslaw Similarly to the situation in Kazi­ “I saw watch towers and row after Wysok, a pedagogical consultant of mierz, the Jewish quarter of Craców, row of ugly barracks. Huge gates the memorial museum at Majdanek. people who existed at the fringes of swung open on us and when we During a seminar in lublin and society lived in lublin’s old town for passed though we set eyes on men Majdanek I had managed to present many years as well. The houses are in prisoners clothes (… Suddenly our concept to Mr Wysok and con­ dilapidated, there is no money for I began to recognise faces. They trived in winning him as a partner renovation, and property rights are were no criminals. Some of them for the realisation of our pro gramme not quite clear. However, for some even were from my own home- in Poland. This made work much years visible efforts have now been town. I saw businessmen and easier since he could establish con­ undertaken to restore the old town; store-owners, gage proprietors, tacts with eyewitnesses there and it gained in image and – much to teachers and li brarians (…)”(2) then and prepare the archive work the delight of the local young crowd – We had planned three days for joint in Majdanek that had been arranged there is an under ground disco now. work in small groups at the archives between the groups. An “exploration of town”, under­ and the library of Maj danek. The Encounters in Poland taken by German and Polish youths polish girls knew the grounds but 38 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

had neither been to the archives nor The suggestion by a young girl to to the library. light candles to gether and lay down The German group knew about flo wers was accepted, but they all the dimension and location of the wan ted to think about it. Majdanek concentration camp from During our tour we met an Israeli their preparatory studies but still group with film cameras and re­ they were taken aback by the sight corders; our German­Polish group itself. Even back in Germany they and the Israeli group were the only kept saying they could not imagine visitors at the time. The Israeli se­ a camp of such dimensions, a con­ curity staff thought we were Czechs; cen tration camp as such alongside a when they heard we were Germans a heavy used through road. Now they strange “race” around the barracks saw that the public bus we took eve­ unfolded. As soon as we were about ry morning to get to Majdanek stops to set foot on an exhibition room our almost directly at the con cen tration group was either denied en trance or camp’s former main gate. they tried to “drive us out”, re spec­ “Reality, however, the first look at tively. All of the sudden a strange, a camp in operation, filled me with tense atmosphere was building; the terror even though in thoughts I polish girls reacted angrily and were was prepared (…) It was the entire appalled. A fiery de bate arose bet­ horrible atmosphere at such a ween the instruc tors and the young place I felt was so utterly revolting; people. We cal med them down and it got up my nose like the stink of agreed to in clude this situation in con gealed blood” (3) our subsequent a nalysis and dis­ The first day began with a gui dance cussion. We chose a different route tour around the camp grounds. The for the rest of our tour in accordance with Mr Wysok, who accompanied and gui ded us through the ex hi bi­ tions and a round the camp grounds, be cause we sought to avoid confron­ tation and could not find a way of com mu ni cating pro perly with the Israeli guides and security staff. The Israeli group fol lowed us with quick strides in an al most mili tary forma tion with flags flying along the for mer camp streets. We decided to put off dividing the young people into groups for ar chive and library assignments till the next day. The German group, apart from one or two of them, had been for the first time on the grounds of a former concentration camp. They needed time to digest their impressions and talk about them with others. Contrary to the common practice Majdanek: former camp grounds, crema- tour, which took se veral hours, we did not start the second day with tory and trenches. Young people during and the discussions along the way, a documentary about the Majdanek group work in the library. but most of all the visit to the gas camp. The film would eventually be © Hannelore Lutz et. al., Düsseldorf cham bers, the cre matory, the tren­ shown during the evaluation period ches where people were shot and in the afternoon. the sight of the huge pile of ashes The forming of the groups that lying under a stylised urn by and wanted to work together went very by let the group fell silent. Almost swiftly. The young people had al­ eve ry body ex pres sed the re quest to ready agreed on what subjects they visit the camp a gain, on their own. Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 39 wanted to work with each other the showed slight symptoms of fatigue ported to Izbica. That we did not day before. Two Polish girls sum ma­ so that we postponed the remaining simply want to accept and live with rised (unpublished) diaries of former presen ta tions till the next day. the fact that they “disappeared in prisoners and translated them with For the evening we had invited Izbica”. There had to be at least some the help of our inter pre ter. Other Mr Gorski, an eyewitness from lub­ vague clues, traces also as to the work groups con cerned them selves lin, who had survived Majdanek, whereabouts of tens of thou sands with material on the subjects “per­ Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen and of Polish, Czech and Dutch Jews petrators”, “camp ad mi nistra tion”, Dachau. The eyewitness we had ini­ who had passed this town. And to “hygiene and social condi tions”, tially invited who had also tes tified the Jews who once had lived here in “the women’s situation in Maj danek” in the Majdanek trial in Düsseldorf Izbica, at least three to four thou­ and on the Majdanek trial. Two par­ could not come because of illness; sand of them, about 40 per cent of ticipants searched the archives for the journey from Warsaw to lublin the town’s entire population. information about de portees from would have taken too much out of The Pole Jan Karski recalls a se cret Wuppertal. They had with them a her. visit to Izbica and the horrors he en­ list of the 63 Jews that were deported All the young people were deeply countered there in his me moirs (5). to Izbica. In the ar chive they did not impressed by Mr Gorski’s accounts. He describes the ramp at the station find any of those names, nor other I had long hesitated to invite him and the terrain, which was warded clues. They asked a member of the since I had already experienced him off with walls and barbed wire fences pedagogical depart ment and learned in conversation several times. Then where new arrivals sometimes were that of a transport containing 1.500 he had never gone into the ques tions forced to vege tate for up to ten days to 2.000 people thirty to forty men of his audience. Thus, I asked him to until they were eventually transpor­ capable of hard work at the most make a break after his ac count this ted on to the extermination camps of were brought to lublin and on to time and give the young people time Sobibor or Belsec. The small station Maj danek. to ask questions. A lively discussion buil ding is still the same; now a hea­ On the third day of work all par­ developed in the course of which vy used road cuts through the slope ticipants walked around the camp­ Mr Gorski explained a lot about the (which was part of the former ramp) grounds either on their own or in situation in lublin and the camp falling down sharply to the station small groups and visited again all itself. grounds, and the adjacent pastures the places important to them, took were the terrain surrounded by bar­ notes in their diaries or took photo­ Izbica bed wire. graphs. We had agreed not to hold Our tour takes us along the road a memorial ceremony together. “We came through formerly Je wish up to the former house of the Je­ Everybody who wanted to should small towns. Garwolin, Leo pien nik, wish Council. The house is derelict, light candles and lay down flowers Krasnystaw, Izbica. Bleached a midst a row of similar small houses for himself. plas ter, dirty wet pat ches. Fallen that seem to support it. It is the pa­ On the day there was also an Is­ down wooden houses at ground rental home of Tomasz Blatt, one of raeli group around. A German girl level. (…) Bet ween lumps of brick the survivors of the Sobibor re volt. met the Israelis when she laid down grass was growing. The face of His father had been appointed the flowers in the former crematory. these towns was faded and with- chairman of the Jewish council by The Israelis placed their lit candles ered, distorted by exhaustion or the occupants. around the flowers, had the young fear.” (4) “My dear ones! This is where we girl between them and sang and In Izbica we left our bus at the small got after the long and exhausting prayed together with her. A con ci­ station. A look of surprise and dis­ journey. We have to recover first liatory, positive end we were all very comfit on the faces of the Polish from the terror, all expectations relieved about. girls, slight irritation on the part are exceeded, we may have little The groups presented the results of the Germans. Then the question parcels and money, soap and tooth- of their work in the afternoon in the which the young Poles had con­ brushes are very much re ques- workroom of our accommodation. templated several times in the past ted …(…) Everything is missing Some of the young people were few days was asked out loud: ”What because our belongings have not utterly fascinated by the wealth of do you want here? There is nothing yet arrived.”(6) material and the opportunity for going on here, it is not even a nice There are no Jews in Izbica any more. once to work with documents in place to be. What are you looking Neither are there remains left of the an entirely different atmosphere; for?” As during our work in Maj­ synagogue or the school. The entire others again took relatively little danek we explained again that we place conveys the impression as time to complete their assignments. were looking for traces of the Jews though there had never existed a How ever, virtually all participants from Wuppertal who had been de­ Jewish population here. If it were 40 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

of gravestones, for any signs that people lie buried here. Some few stones are to be found: the gravestone for instance, erected on behalf of a Polish priest, with his name and that of his brother living in Israel on it. Both had spent their early childhood days in Izbica, sur vived in hiding places and found each other again many years after the end of the war. They wanted to be buried together here in their hometown. The overgrown mass­graves hold the ashes and the mortal remains of the dead who had been shot at the cemetery. On a small stone plate at one of the mass­graves a son had put up to the memory of his mother who had been murdered in Izbica we read that German Jews were also killed here. The way to the market square is a short one, Izbica being a very small town. “On the market square travelling musicians played and sold the texts of their latest hits for five pen nies. Tojwele bought “Mada gas car” – Hej, Madagascar, hot country, black country, Africa …” (7) On the market square the Jewish citizens of Izbica had to report for transports, later on their successors as inhabitants of the ghetto. In a side street, near the market square, there was the commandant’s headquarter. In vain we searched for a sign, attri­ bute to the memory of the deported and murdered Jews who lived or partly lived in Izbica. We found a large wooden cross and a monument to the memory of all the Poles killed in the wars of freedom and revolts. And old man talks to us: “Whom are you looking for? Do you come Izbica, railway station, ramp and mar- not for the Jewish cemetery, or from Israel?” Anna, our interpreter, ketplace with war memorial. rather what is left of it, at the edge of translates our question concerning © Hannelore Lutz et. al., Düsseldorf the village up on a hill. The access is the Jews of Izbica, all the humans difficult to find, it leads past a small that passed this small village. He farmyard, between the house and shrugs: “Do you know names of the garden fence along on a small people from Izbica? Then I might be dirt path. This path across the old able to tell you something”. With a ce metery is also a short cut to the vague gesture he points towards our neighbouring village. group, utters a few names, points at The talk and chatter amongst the the building where the Gestapo had young people gradually subsided their headquarters, talks about the along the way. On the cemetery they owner of a public house who was were silently looking for the remains Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 41 shot by Germans. Time is pressing, our bus is wai­ ting, and the guide urges us to hurry up. (In later conversations in lublin and also back in Germany we won­ dered why we did not take our time, and what we could have asked. And why we did not ask.)

Wlodawa, Sobibor

On we went from Izbica to Wlo­ dawa – our guide could not quite be convinced that we wanted to visit Sobibor first… In Wlodawa, too, a small town near the ukrainian border, almost half of the inhabitants were Jewish. The synagogue – although it has been restored in the meantime – the rabbi’s house and the Jewish school still stand here. The synagogue has become a simple museum where the history of Wlodawa’s Jewish com munity is presented on a few show tables and some cultic objects, which were found at excavations, are at display. The young people were impressed by the inhabitants’ commitment at whose initiative the museum was launched and who look after it. In Wlodawa there are no Jews any more, either; they were murdered in So­ bibor, some thirty kilometres away. “Before the war Sobibor was a very small insignificant railway station, between Wlodawa and Chelm in the east of Poland. (…) Almost dai ly transports of 1.500 to 2.000 Jewish deportees from Poland, Cze choslovakia, Holland, France, Austria and other occupied coun- tries reached Sobibor. Apart from day” (8) Sobibor, hill of ashes, former ramp and the large number of SS men and One of the two employees of the entrance to the memorial. © Hannelore Lutz et. al., Düsseldorf Ukrai nian assistant police who museum in Sobibor accompanied guarded the camp from within, us and showed us a small exhibition Sobibor was also surrounded by on the former campgrounds. Our four rows of barbed wire fences, ten Polish partners did know the name feet high, a gorge filled with water Sobibor as a concentration camp and a mine field. In July Himmler but they were here for the first time. arrived him self to inspect the ope- We were the only visitors of the me­ rations. As a re sult of this visit the morial at the former extermination “produc tion” was increased and camp. During our guidance tour at time reached a figure of 15.000 around the camp and during the bodies that were burnt on a single expla nations some of the young 42 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde people were talking about their remains of a castle high above the on took place amongst and between plans for the evening, the weather, River Vistula. We learned a lot about the groups. Arising conflicts were the evening before. Now it was the the history of the town. re solved in such a fashion and only turn of the supervisors to get irri­ Christoph, who does his alternati­ very rarely did a participant ask for tated, and I myself wondered whe­ ve service at the Majdanek memorial, me diation on our part. ther the complete transformation showed us the large old Jewish ce­ The entire group discussed the of the place and the extinction of all metery just outside Kazi mierz. A wall behaviour of the Israeli group on traces of the former extermination of smashed grave stones, which can the first day during our guidance camp were indeed not much good be spotted from the road leading to tour around the campgrounds in to the young people. Some trudged the cemetery, had been erected after Maj danek. “They act as if everything around the piled up hill with the the end of the war. The preserved belonged to them” one of the Polish ashes of thou sands of murdered gravestones are ar ranged to form a girls angrily remarked. The refe­ humans, others stood before the field of graves. In the forest, up to rence on our part to the countless smashed urn, others again went the hilltop, we found gravestones on murdered Jews was not of much back to the bus. our way: bro ken ones, knocked over avail. “Why do they not talk to us? The journey back to lublin was ones, but also some well­preserved We made every effort!” Moreover, very quiet. In the evening the par­ ones. Chris toph took us around they expressed their fear that the ticipants poured out the questions town and told us about the 400 years attempt to seek an understanding that had not been asked during the of Jewish history. between our group and the Israelis day. How can one eradicate so tho­ In the inner city he showed us the might be dubbed “Polish anti­Se­ roughly all traces of human beings? small synagogue, which was erected mitism”. We could not come up with What were those people thinking in the 16th century in the traditional a solution for future encoun ters of who had the campgrounds blown style from stone. Today there is a this kind. up, rails torn out and all separate cinema. There are no Jews in Kazi­ They also extensively discussed parts removed? Who had all do­ mierz Dolny anymore. the visit to Sobibor. Should one cuments destroyed, trees planted visit memorials where “there is and all prisoners who knew mur­ Analysis and Discussion in nothing to see”? Almost the entire dered? Had there not been the Poland Polish group found Majdanek more revolt with the ensuing flight from informative, as did two of the Ger­ Sobibor no one would probably have Together with the Polish par tici­ man youths. The same held true for been able to tell about the camp pants we assembled the results of Iz bica although this assertion met and its atrocities. Today Sobibor, our search for traces and the work with some opposition. The general like Belsec, still ranks amongst the assignments in Majdanek. It emer­ opinion was that in some way one “for gotten” camps. Hardly a visitor ged that, even though some Polish should there and then remember the group comes here, “there is nothing participants had already mentioned many murdered humans. to see” after all. this in between as a remark in pas­ To some participants the three An additional problem is that sing, they had only scarce, if any, seminar days in Majdanek were too the Sobibor memorial is linked knowledge of the Jewish history of long; they thought one day would admi nistratively to the museum in the lublin region. Through our se­ have been enough. The majority Wlodawa therefore lies within the minar, the persistent search al most of the group, however, found the res ponsibility of the Wojwoda. There all Germans participants took part a mount of time appropriate or too simply are not sufficient funds for in, the young people from lub lin short. the maintenance of the memorial became inquisitive, too, and occu­ There was a little surprise shortly and research work. Closure and total pied themselves with history in turn. before our departure. The young oblivion are imminent threats. Our choice of form, a seminar, i.e. people from lublin asked whether How much information the young a mixture of presentations, self­study we would not like to return and work people “processed” in their heads (e.g. with the help of the ma terial with them again. They would be very showed in the discussions in lublin – in Majdanek), reading literary texts interested. And the next question and also in conversation after our and diaries, discussion and films, was about a return visit to Germany return to Germany. was taken up positively by almost all on their part … Kazimierz Dolny participants. The offer on the part Final Analysis in Wuppertal of the supervisors and instructors On this day the Polish schoolgirls to be amenable to all sorts of que­ During the first session of further were in their element. They showed stions at any given time was felt to analysis and discussion it showed us the magnificent renaissance be conve nient and reas suring. The that all participants took up very po­ town; we visited a church and the predo mi nant part of communicati­ sitively both the study trip and their Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 43 encounter with young people from happened, of what could have hap­ “The last Jews of lublin”. At the Poland. They regarded their stay in pened” said one girl. “It made the request of the participants we ar­ Poland as a unique oppor tunity to whole place uncanny for me. I would ranged to watch more films after appraise history, gather experiences have needed more time.” There our return to Germany. On three and, above all, come to know the lives were similar statements on Izbica. Sunday afternoons we watched the of young people there. They viewed By then they could give expression films “The Trial” by Eberhard Fechner the “lublin Thea tre Days”, which to their dismay at this apparently on the Majdanek trial in Düsseldorf, they par tici pated in as far as possible, innocent little village and the fact “Flight from Sobibor”, based on the as an element of re laxation and an that a stone or an inscription to the memoirs of Tomasz Blatt and “Ja cob, additional experience. Since most memory of the people driven away the liar” by Frank Beyer. of the actors were also put up at our from Izbica and those for whom the Some of the young people pre­ monastery vivid conversations deve­ town was but the transitional stage sented the work they had done loped at meal times. to death was nowhere to be found. in Poland to their classmates and The visit to the former concen­ “More time, also to talk to the town’s teachers, or worked out papers. tration camp Sobibor still, or even inha bi tants” was the general com­ “… Disappeared in Izbica” is the more, occupied almost all of them. ment and request. theme of the evening at the Wup­ “I have pictures in my head of what In lublin we watched the film pertal Old Synagogue community

Dimitri Khourine, Wuppertal

When I was six years old, my father told me about concentration camps. I found it very interesting and it made me read about them. I had a big book about the Holocaust, in which there were various photographs. I looked at them again and again. I could not imagine how everything could have happened. That is why I took part in this project. I went along to Poland because I wanted to have a look at everything and feel for myself how things were at that time. I wanted to get to know the Polish youths. I saw a lot of things there. Of course, I liked everything a lot. The first concentration camp we visited was Majdanek. There we did most of our work. At the end of the visit we had to write a paper. Afterwards we visited the other concentration camps (Sobibor). In each concentration camp we attended a guidance tour by trained historians. I could not sleep peacefully for a long time after all I had seen there. I kept thinking I am lucky that I live in the world of today. Had I lived there and then I could have also died in a gas chamber of any given concentration camp. I was asked by a teacher what my father thought about my taking part in this project. He said: “Well, you must go there in any event. You must know how some of your relatives have been murdered”. I must never forget. After the trip we met again several times. We watched the films that deal with this topic. All participants brought along photographs. With this photographs we staged a public display. We invited people to come and have a look. There were not that many visitors but the exhibition was well made. In school I discussed about it. It was very interesting for everybody. All teachers and pupils made a project six years ago, “School without Racism”. Our motto is “Everybody is equal!” I feel at ease in my school. I think I have told everything. I want to apologise for every mistake you have found. I have only been living in Germany for three years. I am not so good at dealing with the German language. However, I will master it.

Julian Jentjens, Krefeld

I liked the study trip very much. During preparation for the trip we learned a lot about the original Jewish community in Wuppertal at the community centre at the old synagogue. We made a tour around town and were looking for the houses Jews had lived in. every one of us chose the names of two Jews from Wuppertal who were deported to Izbica in Poland. The names, dates of birth and information about their occupation we took with us to Poland, because we wanted to find out whether they might have been brought from Izbica (this is where they were deported to in the first place) to Sobibor or Majdanek. And whether we would find additional information. I have learned a lot about the extermination and labour camps of the Nazis in Poland throughout these two weeks, beginning with the days of preparation that preceded the trip. We received a reader with plenty of information and data. I have not completely read it; it was simply too much for me. Perhaps I will finish it anyway. Prior to the study trip I had never visited a concentration camp. When we went by bus to both Izbica and Sobibor all in one day I was rather exhausted in the evening. We were also in Wlodawa and did get some time off there but it was not enough to come to terms with all the information. Therefore, I found it particularly important that we did many things together with a group of Polish schoolgirls. We did not only work together with them but we also went out with them a lot in the evenings in the old town of Lublin. We used to have lots of fun and I think it is very important that you have time to relax when you work critically on the Holocaust. Moreover, in Germany there are scores of prejudices against Poland and her citizens. I think at least those of us who have been to Lublin know that they are untrue. In school I gave a paper on the trip because everyone was rather interested and wanted to know what we did in Poland. I am glad that I went on this trip. Despite all the work. I would have never learned that much in history lessons in school. 44 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde centre when participants will tell a com memorative celebration for that have developed and even at such about their study trip and the search the anniversary of the deportation an early stage are al ready continued for traces. of Jews from Wuppertal to Izbica and deepened by way of correspon­ We could not find any traces of on April 22nd, 2000, at the memo­ dence and private invitations. the Jews from Wuppertal who were rial stone at the Steinbeck railway deported to Izbica but we received sta tion. English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 plenty of impulses for thought, Almost all participants want to ga thered many useful experiences. embark on another trip to Poland Most young people have expressed to pick up work where we /they left their wish actively to participate in or had to leave, respectively. The the Wup pertal Memorial Book, to profound impact of this trip to Po­ con tribute their knowledge gained land created by the encounters there in Po land. A small group prepared is evinced also by personal contacts

REFERENCES

(1) karski, Jan, einer gegen den holocaust – e. t. Wood/s. M. Jankowski. gerlingen 1997, Bleicher Verlag (2) VrBa, rudolF, als kanada noch in auschwitz lag. München 1999, Piper tB 2290 (3) VrBa, rudolF, a. a. o. (4) krall, hanna, tanz auf fremder hochzeit. Frankfurt a. M. 1996, Verlag neue kritik (5) karski, Jan, a. a. o. (6) Postcard sent from izbica by adele und harry r., source: Begegnungsstätte alte synagoge Wuppertal (7) krall, hanna, a. a. o. (8) report of alexander Pechersky, survivor of the sobibor-revolt, taken from: “they Fought Back. the story of the Jewish resistance in nazi europe”. new York 1967, schocken Books

On their self-designed homepage pupils and teachers of the vocational college Herford account of their excursion to Auschwitz ({HY- PERLINK “http://www.european-migration.de”}). Young people and teachers of this school also gave an account of their excursion on the Buchenwald conference Dirko Thomsen find spoons, heels, ci ga rette­holders or coins. Also, they have conversations Memorial Work and Youth Exchange at with former inmates and follow the lives of perpetrators and victims in Volkswagen the archives. Whenever their profes­ sional know­how is in demand, be it at the Meeting Centre, the partner school or in the city, the lend a hel­ History and Current Involvement the graves” in Belgium and Fran­ ping hand: to build a door, lay wires ce, Volkswagen’s youth exchange or install a pneumatic test stand. At the centre of our memorial work has made understanding between The foundation of exchange and me­ are young people who are not con­ na tions a personal concern of the morial work is its evident, tan gible fronted with the subject “Holo caust” en tire staff. use to the benefit of the part ners. on the horizon of school or study Since the eighties youth ex change The nearer these encounters inch but in professional training, i.e. in has further developed in three di­ towards everyday life the qui cker a their work place, trade unions or rections on account of the concern’s common ground of interests is rea­ youth groups. internationalisation and the ope ning ched. In Auschwitz and the young Since 1986 Volkswagen PlC has of Central and Eastern Europe: people’s other hometowns trainees combined its financial commitment – Technology and Mobility in Eu­ and instructors meet citizens and to the building of the International rope politicians, pupils and masters of Youth Meeting Centre in Auschwitz – Mobility at Concern level the partner country. Germans and (IYMC) and the historical research – Memorial Work Poles live and celebrate together. into the history of the Volkswagen These three lines of development For a few days they share their lives works in the period of National So­ of the Volkswagen youth exchange in their work places, at home and cialism by Professor Hans Momm­ pursue the same goals: meeting other at the International Youth Meeting sen also with a pedagogical initiative people, working environments and Centre. Thus Auschwitz becomes a and assignment. forms of life, learning and prac tising meeting place. Today, three groups of about 15 understanding and tolerance and Against the background of youth trainees from all German Volkswa­ developing a sense of res pon sibility exchange memorial work also in­ gen sites visit Auschwitz every year. towards a common future. cludes further extensive discussion Pupils and trainees from Poland Today memorial work in Poland and analysis and a five­day return and Germany work together to help counts on the efforts and activities visit by the Polish group to the Ger­ main tain the concentration camps, by instructors at trainee workshops, man trainee centre. Here activities in particular Birkenau. In the last department managers, youth re­ are discussed with the participants: ten Years the pedagogical focus has presentation groups and the works what the stay meant to them per­ shifted visibly from educational committee. Trainees of various back ­ sonally, the resonance within the work in seminars to a mutual Ger­ grounds, occupational groups and family, amongst friends, at the local man­Polish exchange, including professional qualifications come bar, in their work place. working assignments in the me­ together in these programmes and morials. measures. Participation is neither Pedagogy in the Rear Mirror The young people themselves an “incentive” nor an obligatory provided the direct impetus for component of professional training. Part of the pedagogical dimension practical work at memorials. In of the exchange is the experience 1992 they saw a news item on tele­ Practice of Memorial Work that young people who are firmly vision about the delapidation of the embedded in their working lives memorials and wanted to utilise Since 1992 common maintenance acknowledge abstract values like re­ their labour and specific know­how work in the camps at Auschwitz has sponsibility, understanding bet ween for memorial maintenance work. developed as the core of youth ex­ nations, tolerance and hu manity This commitment could build on change within the IYMC. Trainees only when they involve a tan gible the experiences and the consensus from Wolfsburg, Hannover, Emden, personal benefit for the participants. of the Volkswagen Youth Exchange. Braunschweig and Kassel join for ces For young people in particular it Originally funded by the “rest penny” with pupils from Bielsko­Biala at the is only the tangible use ful ness of of wages and salaries, initiated as a junction of peoples and reli gions a measure and the chal lenge of a war graves maintenance programme from Eastern, Western, Nor thern concrete task that awaken personal to the end of “reconciliation across and Southern Europe: they mend commitment – both in the works fences or uncover camp streets and 46 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

of living to ge ther and the curio sity about foreign lives. Conversely, trainees are quick to see through and disenchant, as it were, of pedagogical concepts, aca­ demic verdicts or political rituals that do not rely upon a personal ex perience and attitude. The reason for this scepticism lies mainly in the divergence of theory and practice even in professional training and at school: they do not learn for life but for the examination commission. It is a very different process of learning in the works that leads to real mas­ tery of everyday life. How young people react to con­ cepts like “understanding between nations” or “coming to terms with history” depends on their “patterns of life”. If a trainee in the building pro fession encounters guest wor­ kers from Ireland and Poland in his work place it is an approach towards multiculturalism entirely different from a student of sociology seeking refuge and enlightenment in Tibet. Volkswagen’s memorial work has developed without the support of a detailed pedagogical concept. Youth exchange and maintenance work at Auschwitz are subject to a self­re­ gu lating learning process on the part of all participants. In practice Youth exchange: renovation and mainte- and at the me morial. After all nobo­ this successful leaning process in nance work, museum visit. dy wants to produce “high­stan dard memorial work is not very different © Dirko Thomsen et. al. scraps” as it were, that are discarded from those in professional training once the object of training has been or working life. attained. It is determined by: It is only joint work on a project – a policy of small steps that makes comprehensible the fo­ – transparency reign working environment, com­ – being free from the pressure of a mon discussions and celebration high production quota make transparent other, different – possibilities of repetition for the patterns of education: “The Poles acquisition of routine are really not that …” both the wil­ – “breathing space” for experi­ lingness to personal commitment ments and continuous improve­ and the own self­esteem are heigh­ ment tened when an instructor sen ses that – instructor­guided individual and participants eagerly await work. The group learning development of the own per so nality In the field of memorial work there becomes apparent in re tro spect are no formulated learning aims, when the trainees take a look back learning methods or even learning on the problems overcome during media, let alone means of con trol ling project work. Tole rance and huma­ all of the above. The challenges may nity amongst the trainees grow with lie in both the National So cia list past each success of joint work, the joy Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 47

International youth exchange Auschwitz – Memorial Work

Oswiecim is the polish name for Auschwitz, which stands as a symbol of the biggest ever mass-murder in the history of humankind. Of course we had heard, read and seen films about Auschwitz in history classes. But it was just history to us – something we did not experience personally – in out thoughts Auschwitz was far away and, moreover, it was a very long tome ago. The International Auschwitz Committee in a two-day preliminary seminar on Poland past and present, the memorial itself and our trip prepared us in advance. We did have our own ideas about “Poland” and “the Poles”, though, it must be said. So, via Berlin we went to Forst at the Polish border. From there it is still some 400 kilometres across Poland to Oswiecim. We soon realised that everything was not much different from our own country – almost the same infrastructure of villages and towns. Only the road surface told us that we were going through another country. The journey went by with us eagerly awaiting what would expect us there: – How will we be put up? – How are the Polish exchange youths? – How will we be received? – Are we considered heirs to the Nazi crimes or will we be treated as normal young people? These questions were on our minds all at once. Now we realised that Auschwitz really was not that far away, for we had reached our goal, the international Youth Meeting Centre at Auschwitz. We were welcomed by friendly staff at the reception and in the dining hall. One could sense that we were well-liked guests – in Auschwitz. We immediately felt at ease – in Poland. We were very surprised and were already beginning to change our opinions about Poland. Now we were eager to get to know the polish group from Bielsko-Biala who were to share quarters with us her at the International Youth Meeting Centre for two weeks. On the very first evening together we soon realised they were normal youths just like us. There are not that many differences between German and Polish young people. Even the language barrier did not turn out to be an obstacle. – They like to go to discos – just as we do. – They listen to the same sort of music. – They dress in a modern fashion – just as we do. – They have the same hobbies. Later on our Polish friends told us that – just like us – they had also had prejudices against the foreign group. However, we all agreed that all these prejudices burst like a bubble on the very first evening together. How quickly our picture of the Poles changed. Only by talking to each other. The other day we began, supported by the International Auschwitz Committee, to look back on and appraise history there and then. For the first tome we faces the main gate of the former concentration camp in Auschwtz1, the main camp. Right before us we saw the infamous slogan on the gate, WORK LIBERATES. After a short while of silence we went through the gate and entered the campgrounds. Here, as would be the case in the following days, the history of this place was explained to us. We visited the blocks and exhibitions, we stood at Appeal Square, in front of Block 11 and we looked at the Wall of Death at Block 11. The next day we went to Auschwitz 2 Birkenau, which was the actual extermination camp. Here, everybody was overawed and bereft of speech by the camps sheer dimensions which no –one had anticipated. In the main camp there was only one crematory. Here there was another four. We stood on the ruins of the crematories, we saw the surviving barracks and we also stood before the monument. We could not comprehend nor understand. There was a sense of general helplessness. One cannot put into words what and how every single one of us received and attempted to digest what has happened at this place but we learned the following: Guilt for things past is not inheritable but responsibility for a better future certainly is. All of us became aware that what happened here was the worst atrocity that could be perpetrated on human beings. Auschwitz was a death factory. There and then we all worked together to uncover several camp streets, which, more than fifty years old, are overgrown with grass now. By making these streets identifiable the old structure of the camp shall be made visible again. At the end we remembered the countless murdered humans at Auschwitz and many other places by laying down flowers and lighting candles at the monument. We are all very glad to have participated in such a programme and, thanks to the support by the International Auschwitz Committee, to not only have learned but also grown up somewhat. Above all, we are aware that we have worked for others. Here we made our contribution for the many visitors from all around the world who come to see this memorial every year. We have been told time and time again that our work is much appreciated here. Auschwitz reminds us to let our behaviour be guided by the following principles: – A strong stand against xenophobia – against the destruction of Jewish institutions – against attacks on the disabled and on minorities in our society – against intolerance – for respect and human dignity – for humanity and mutual tolerance – for solidarity with the weakest and those in need of our help Not least also for the reason that a sense of responsibility, tolerance and mobility are qualities, which are decisive for a successful, working atmosphere in an ever-uniting Europe and in an internationally active concern. This fortnight of youth exchange has, therefore, been extraordinarily productive as regards a better understanding of the history of Poland, dealing with ones fellow people and getting to know our neighbour, Poland, so that no-one would have wanted to do without this trip. lutz-W. Jordan, Volkswagen coaching gmbh ndl. Wolfsburg 48 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde as well as a common Ger man­Polish It was not the original concept is generally assumed and also find future at the same time, in the in­ to include these personal and social expression in the eco no mic targets. stallation of an electric motor for references in memorial work but Thereby, companies and memorials a sliding door or also in the pain of it proved to be the foundation for can only profit from one another. separation from the girlfriend back suc cess in the development, which The inclusion of the complex en­ home. Experience shows that parti­ was actively pushed ahead by the vironment of young people keeps cipants find their actual learning trainees themselves. In memorial memorial work from musealisation aims only in the course of this pro­ work, too, we have to pick up the and historicisation much as the cess and in most cases they are not young people where they stand. inclusion of memorials saves in­ where that have been inten tionally How does the concern environ­ work training from only too rigid placed in ad vance. The real test does ment relate to the topic Holocaust? “professional blinkers”. not occur before an examination The Mommsen study “Das Volks- Work on the Holocaust at com­ commission but perhaps at the local wagenwerk und seine Arbeiter im pany level takes place within an enti­ bar when Poles are the butt of a joke Dritten Reich” or memorial work rely different context than in school, going the rounds. show that scientific and pedagogical without curricula, materials or tests. Pedagogical supervision is a de­ work on the Holocaust indeed goes However, it bears exactly the same cisive factor in a learning process to gether with the world of work. share of responsibility towards – for as flexible as that. Experience shows Memorial work should fond a the most part – the same young that this is asking too much of the supportable basis in the culture of people. The economy therefore is an instructors alone, and, therefore, the the company without economic tar­ appreciative recipient that neither cooperation with experts from the gets having to dictate the content of wishes to neither be ahead of school Meeting Centre, the international programmes and measures. With out nor lag behind the discussion. Thus Auschwitz Committee, former pri­ the support of each con stituent of the I hope that school and company will soners or the museum has proved to company memorial work is not prac­ stay in touch. be of irreplaceable value. ticable in the long run, and without conceptual and creative free dom and English version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 Concern Environment and Memo­ pedagogical openness there will be rial Work no educa tional success with young people. Memorial work takes place against Memorial work also indirectly the backdrop of professional trai­ fulfils a qualitative function for the ning within the horizon of working company as such. Not only does it life. The horizon of experiences trai­ foster political judgement, human nees take with them on their visit to tolerance and cultural openness on Au sch witz is that of their learning the part of the participating trainees and working lives at the company. but it also propels motivation, per­ It is perfectly natural, therefore, sonal confidence and professional that they should also apply their self­assessment during training. own suc cessful learning patterns Every single employee is a citi zen, to Au schwitz as a place of learning, husband and father, child or bowling just as they visit Auschwitz not mate at the same time. This is preci­ only with their fellow workers but sely the reason why in volve ment and in the back of their minds always commitment such as Volks wagen’s with their parents, godfathers and memorial work always find greater friends as well. support within the com pany than Bruno Winkler in the museum’s library and the ar­ chive. With half­day or all­day visits Helmut Schlatter the Jewish quarter and ceme tery are also included as additional sources Communicative Work as Memorial Work of information in the ex ploration Museum Pedagogy in the Jewish Museum Hohenems of the Jewish history of Hohenems. The product­oriented objective of such project works, as a rule, is a catalogue, an exhibition or a school event.

Apprentices’ Projects

Ten years ago the Jewish Museum and adults wor king in the educatio­ In the context of the project series Hohenems was opened. Nation­wide nal professions increasingly make “The useful and the Foreign” ten attention amongst specialist circles use of the per so nal communicative projects with approximately 200 and the press, the bestowal of the offers of the Je wish Museum. apprentices could be conducted over Austrian Museum Award and an im­ Accordingly differentiated and the past five years. pressive visitor statistics docu ment respectively appropriate com muni­ The project series is not a one­off the astonishing professionalism for cation programmes, conceived as cultural initiative. It pursues a con­ a regional museum, where concep­ a system of guiding questions, as a crete educational­didactic objective: tion, structure and management are rule, ought to further an effective to make cultural education a na tural concerned. visit to the museum according to part of training for appren tices, and The high standing, which per­ age, subject and interests. Indepen­ thus react to cultural po tentials of sonal communicative work has dent work and discovering learning, the apprentices, which possibly lie oc cupied in the Jewish Museum mostly in the stimulating social form fallow, and tie to already extant in­ Ho hen ems ever since its inception, of small groups, takes precedence ternal educational and re creational is also quite unusual. A professional to forms of transportation oriented offers at company or school level, post for museum pedagogy in a to wards the character of guided respectively. rather small regional museum, en­ tours. The museum is used hetero­ The conception is guaranteed in dowed with its own programme bud­ geneously and extensively. Not a each project by a team of ex pe rienced get, might well be considered a rari ty one­si ded transfer of know ledge, and competent staff and artists. in the Austrian museum scene. The but creative processes of thought are The realisation takes place in determination with which both the aspired at, researching and disco­ collaboration with various cultural director of the house as well as the vering lear ning is to the fore. institutions such as museums, art president of the maintenance society These open offers of transfer galleries, theatres, youth organi­ see to museum pedagogical affairs and communication are widely and sations, but also with several crea­ also quite probably possesses rarity most ly positively received by pupils, tive artists and cultural initiatives. value. since, contrary to the still frequently prac tised teacher­centred teaching, Brief description of three apprentices’ The Practice of Personal Commu­ they can largely determine for them­ Projects nicative Work selves their own tempo and con­ tents. However, it also happens that A FOREIGN HISTORY? A necessity­oriented use of the Je­ older pupils prefer dialogue to wor­ Screen Print Posters on a Visit to wish Museum seems possible for king in groups. This is no pro blem the Museum eight­year­old elementary pupils as for the staff, though, since they leave well as for students. Even as the sub­ this decision up to the young people. The project with apprentices of the jects history, social studies and reli­ company Hilti Thüringen began gion dominate visitor statistics, the Project­oriented Forms of Com­ with a visit to the Jewish Museum museum can still convey im pressive munication Hohenems, where small groups aspects from the field of art, local worked on Jewish history. The im­ economic history in Vorarlberg and, It is rather rare that a class, a group pressions gained were supposed to in particular, political edu cation. In or individual pupils plan the visit be cast into the form of a poster. In this context the cir cum stance is re­ to the museum in the context of a a large screen print workshop the markable that such addressees as the pro ject. All­day or repeated visits are project group was introduced to disabled, appren tices, youth groups taken into account as well as work screen­printing, a graphic designer 50 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

explained important design prin­ houses today. The Turkish girls in ciples. the project group were thus given Then followed the optical rea­ the task to establish the necessary lisation of each idea into useful con tacts while shooting was done. print drafts, partly through patterns, After developing a script acting partly through direct drawings and filming commenced with each and in scrip tions, occasionally also part allocated to a different parti­ through film exposure. The prepa­ cipant. This also included interviews red print drafts were exposed onto conducted with inhabitants of this covered screens and then printed, formerly Jewish quarter. Finally, the mostly in multi­colour. For some film was edited and sound­tracked apprentices the designs were also at the cutting table in the museum. printed at their request on T­shirts, One week later the project group which were intended as presents for presented their video during a press their respective girlfriends. conference at their school.

«TRÖDELTANZ» (SAUNTERING DANCE) A Theatrical Event with Workshop, Exhibition and Painting Perfor- mance

The core of the project and the common starting basis for all ap­ pren tices was an English play in a trans lation by Barbara Frisch muth, which the entire project group took to approach their work. This play deals with memories of the time of National Socialism. The main cha­ rac ter carries her trau matic me mo­ ries of this time in a suitcase, but she never opens her “memory suit case” throughout the entire play. Follo­ Project work with apprentices wing the workshop the ap prentices © Sammlung Jüdisches Museum Hohe- The final meeting took place a had the choice either to opt for de­ nems week later in an inn, and the Jewish signing an exhi bition or a painting museum staged a small exhibition performance. One group arranged displaying the project results. an exhibition form the suitcase, as it were, with pictures, text frag ments, «KAMERA ÄKTSCHEN» (SHOO- posters and objects, which were at­ TING ACTION) tached to magnetic tables. The time Search for Traces with the Video of National So cialism was ta ken as Camera in Jewish Hohenems the theme. In parallel a second group at­ The project group consisted of nine tempted artistically to visualise the­ chemists who concerned themselves se fields of themes. Cons ter na tion, professionally with hygiene and fear and aggression were rea lised body culture. Taking this as their pictorially and shown together with starting point they were sup posed to the results of the “exhibition group” examine the cultural his tory of this at their vocational school. complex of themes. At the end the topic “Memory” On the first project day the group was taken as a theme and discussed explored the Jewish Museum Ho hen­ in the Jewish Museum Hohenems. ems and the Jewish quarter. Many Turkish migrant families live in these Materials and Contacts Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 51

recent contemporary history and In order to prepare and further as­ cur rent tendencies. sess in school a visit to a museum in Every year further education terms of content the Jewish Museum events take place in cooperation offers materials on didactics for use at with the Pedagogical Institutes schools, which contain infor mation designed to make teachers from texts and source ma terial in three different school types and subjects booklets as well as teaching models familiar with the Jewish Museum for pupils of all school types. A slide and its museal pedagogical offers. series on the Jewish quarter and Furthermore, contacts with adult on Jewish religion complements education centres, the Pedagogical the didactic booklets as well as an Academy Feldkirch, social acade­ elaborated pro gramme for an inde­ mies and educational institutions pendent exploration of the Jewish are intensively fostered. Such ad­ quarter by small groups. dres sees are an especially appre­ ciated clientele in their quality as Display multipliers. contact Model school - Museum Extensive Communicative Work This newly developed communi ca­ tive model is designed to establish That personal communication en­ or facilitate contacts between pupils joys a high standing at the Jewish and the museum, and thus make the Museum Hohenems is manifested in museum’s pedagogical offers even particular by the circumstance that better known. Thus, a special dis play the Ministry for Education, Science with exhibition character was deve­ and Art finances the professional loped. Schools in Vorarlberg and the post of museum pedagogue, and Tyrol but also in the other Austrian thus invests an essential share of provinces are the addres sees. Museum pedagogy has hitherto already offered as open as possible forms of guidance for pupil groups in the museum. With the recently completed “display” interested pu­ pils are given an impulse inde pen­ dently to plan and organise visits to mu seums and other excursions. What is more, the display motivates to use the museum and its facilities for individual work and take ad­ vantage of the support provided by staff members. Representative for the diverse life stories of members of the Je­ wish community in Hohenems the dis play informs of the fate of Ivan landauer and his family. With this concrete picture the small touring exhibition permits a look into a Display: young people independently detail of the permanent exhibition. the entire expenditures for staff organise their museum visit. Eyewitnesses are also placed with directly in personal communicative © Sammlung Jüdisches Museum Hohe- nems schools throughout Vorarlberg as work, while the province Vorarlberg well as project impulses and project grants a full teacher’s waiting period materials of the Department of Po­ for this post. litical Education in the Austrian On account of the growing de­ Mi nistry of Education, Science and mand for guided tours several free Art, as a rule, on topics related to lances take care of adult groups 52 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde alongside to the museum’s peda­ gogical department. For special ex­ hibitions separate pedagogical pro­ grammes are developed, and artists, curators and scientific consultants also offer guided tours around their exhibitions. The claim also to comprehend the Jewish cemetery and Jewish quarter as part of the museum plays a signi­ ficant role in the transpor tation and communication of Je wish history in Hohenems. This happens in form of guided tours but also in form of excursions in small groups. Apart from the historical search for traces the examination and exploration of the quarter also takes as its theme the structural state of edifices and the circum stance that the Jewish quarter today is predominantly inhabited by Tur kish families. More than in the mu seum it appears to be commendable to develop a rela­ tionship of tension between past and present, to go into current, contro­ versially debated, questions and, if and when the need arises, address them thematically.

English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001

Kontakt: Jüdisches Museum Hohenems, Schweizer Straße 5 A-6845 Hohenems Tel.: 0043 (0) 5576/73989 E-Mail: [email protected] w3: http://www.jm-hohenems.at

Writing workshop Dance workshop Searching for traces Learning with audio guides Theatre workshop Guided tour around the old Jewish cemetery © Sammlung Jüdisches Museum Hohe- nems Bernhard Denkin- 8200 of whom died at this camp. The prisoners of the “SS labour Camp ger U lrike Felber Cement” – such was the pro ject’s Wolfgang Quatember cover name – had to build un­ derground facilities in forced labour which were designed to be used for Museum of Contemporary History and KZ­ the rocket production to be moved Memorial Ebensee from the research and production Examination of the Past in Historical Museums and at site in Peenemünde, which had been severely damaged by allied air the Authentic Places raids. The prisoners came from all over Eu rope, the largest national groups were of Polish and Russian origins, but numerous Hungari­ ans, Italians, French, Yugoslavs, In Ebensee, in the Salzkammergut, be limited to ritualised memory but Spa niards, Ger mans and Austrians a museum was opened in March under the ever­changing circum­ were also amongst the concentration 2001, which offers an extensive stances of patterns of life must be camp prisoners in this camp. About examination of Austrian contem­ oriented towards people and their one third of the inmates were Jews. porary history from 1918 to 1955. current needs. On May, 6th, 1945, American troops The museum’s objective is to pre­ even tually liberated the camp. sent Austrian history until the Inception of the Museum and the In the years immediately after the regaining of national sovereignty Memorial liberation treatment of the national regardless of a party­politically socialist past was dominated for motivated need of justification or Ebensee was the site of a concen­ various reasons by repression and attempts at har mo nisation, as can tra tion camp external command endeavours in practice to wipe out be frequently en coun tered with per taining to the complex of the the traces of terror, since the local presentations of regional and local Maut hausen camp. From November population perceived itself primarily history. Since the mid­eighties 1943 to the liberation of the camp as “victim” of a choice of location some two kilometres away from the on May, 6th, 1945 approximately do to with strategic criteria. How­ museum there exists a memorial of 27000 prisoners were deported from ever, the community as well as local the former concen tration camp at Mauthausen to the camp at Ebensee, enterprises and some individuals Ebensee with au thentic remains, a victims’ cemetery and a permanent exhibition as well as regular guided tours for visitors. Both institutions seek to take as their theme political disconti nui ties, social conflicts and economic problems in the region and facilitate an active look into and appraisal of the recent past that goes beyond the geographical confines of the Salzkammergut. In view of the fore see able future, in which the historical experiences of this period of Austrian history will no longer be pre served in living memory this also means an obligation and special responsibility to protect, preserve and make accessible to a broad pub lic historical knowledge on the basis of scientific examination. The The main entrance to the former con- mu seum and the memorial are both centration camp. On the former camp grounds a workers’ estate was built in committed, furthermore, to the the nineteen fifties. con viction that the occupation with © Oberösterreichische Landespresse, and examination of history cannot F. Linschinger 54 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde had gained considerable profit from was presen ted as a symbolically hibition design. In cooperation with the existence of the camp, amongst ele vated place of National Socialist the director of the planned museum, other events because the SS com­ atrocities. At one and the same Wolfgang Quatember, the initially mand regularly left prisoners at time numerous mani festations of envisioned theme “Resistance” their disposal as workers. National socialist ter ror, testimonies was integrated into an extended After being used as an American also to its hold on the normality of contemporary historical con cept of “POW­camp for members of the SS eve ryday life, dis appeared at various the portrayal of Austrian political Panzerdivision Hohenstauffen” other places. Focusing the re mem­ culture from the founding of the for a span of roughly six months, brance on Maut hausen permitted First Republic to the regai ning of displaced persons – survivors of an exterri toria lisation of the past national sovereignty. Ebensee and other concentration throughout the whole of Austria – a Parallel to the work on the fo­ camps but also displaced persons disen tangle ment of history from its cal contents of the museum of from the German­speaking areas authentic ties, its transfer to one sin­ contem porary history a permanent in the east – had been put up in the gle sym bolic spot of re mem brance, exhi bition – based on the research remaining barracks and the adjacent which fitted the self­con ception of re sults of and in collaboration with civil wor kers camp. This entailed an “a his torical” post­war society in­ Florian Freund – was developed in repeated protests by locals who, flu enced and shaped by the “victim Gallery No 5 of Area B of the former themselves suffering from a severe thesis”. concentration camp about the Nazi shortage of food, criticised the prefe­ In the eighties research work armament project at Ebensee, the rential treat ment given to displaced on the part of a new generation of system of forced labour and the life persons in terms of supply with food his torians led to a change in the ap­ of prisoners in the camp (concep tion by the American occupation au tho­ praisal and perception of National and design: Denkinger/Felber). rities. The buildings on the grounds Socialist rule in Austria. Viennese of the former concentration camp historian Florian Freund published Conception and Content were torn down little by little; of the volume “labour Camp Ce­ the original camp at least the main ment” in 1988 on the his tory of the Both content and design of the Mu- en trance gate was preserved thanks concen tration camp Ebensee. In seum of Contemporary History at to the commitment of the “KZ Ver­ 1988 a society named “Verein Wider­ Ebensee aim at information, which band Salzkammergut”. In the fifties standsmuseum” was constituted, seeks to impart the latest state of a workers’ housing estate was erec­ which pursued two goals: first to knowledge based on the findings of ted on the grounds of the Ebensee create a museum of contemporary contemporary research. As opposed concentration camp, the site of the history with the intention to in­ to the often ahistorical presentation former crematory was also used for struct and inform about local re­ of regional specificities in tradi tional development. On the initiative by sistance activities against National museums concerned with regional former inmates a memorial to the Socialism and thus further de mo­ and local history the museum in honour of the victims of National cratic awareness, on the other hand Ebensee displays a rich variety Socialist terror was erected in 1946, to secure as far as possible and make of sources pertaining to regional which was moved in 1952 from its accessible to the public the rem­ history (about 1000 pho to graphs, initial site at the old through road to nants and topo gra phical traces of posters, films and docu ments) in Bad Ischl to the less exposed area to the concentration camp. their connection to the development the south of the former camp. At first the idea of a museum was in Austria as a whole. unlike many The strategy of the community of founded on the documentations by of the more recent ex hi bition or Ebensee to make unrecognisable the Peter Kammerstätter – a survivor museum presen ta tions the Ebensee place, where the crimes were perpe­ of the concentration camp Buchen­ Museum carefully steers clear of trated during the period of National wald, who originally came from the temptations to create through Socialist rule, by removing the linz – about the resistance activi­ artistic approaches or graphically remains of the concentration camp ties in the region, which were to be illustrative stagings a “suggestive was furthered by the attitude on the incorporated to form an Integral climate”, which is supposed to per­ part of the young Second Republic, part of the exhibition “Resistance mit the visitor a “cognitive” slant. which focused its entire “memorial Against National Socialism”. The On the contrary, it considers it self work” on the former concentration original plan underwent some re­ a documentary centre that offers camp Mauthausen and did not take positioning after Viennese architect the visitors in formation on various into consideration the other sites of Berhard Denkinger and historian levels. Apart from the permanent concentration camps. The republic ulrike Felber were called in in 1993 exhibition which is founded on of Austria con centrated the re mem­ to develop a conception as regards extensive re search work in both brance of vic tims of National Socia­ museological issues, content and ex­ Austrian and international archives, list terror on Mauthausen, which Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 55 the archive and the library of the that deals with arms production and museum are at the visitors’ dispo­ the shortage of workers that is spa­ sal with their offering of extensive tially connected to the subjects for­ stocks of vo lumes on contemporary ced labour and concentration camp. history, including data files con­ Show tables with documents on taining the names of over 14000 the work of foreign civil and forced former pri soners at Ebensee, name wor kers in industry and agri culture lists of forced labourers in various rise up in narrow, vertical wall slits labour camps in the region as well in the parallel area on the history of as the labour camp for Viennese Jews the Ebensee concen tra tion camp, (1940–42) in Traunkirchen. From which was initially designed as a autumn of 2001 the museum will “labour camp”, where prisoners from offer pedagogical programmes adap­ Mauthausen were deported to build ted according to age, subject­specific underground tun nel installations. and thematic requirements. The use of audiovisual media is confined to a concept committed to Exhibition Presentation and documentation, which withholds Design from staging medial presentations. Shootings are shown, filmed by The design of the exhibition makes Ame rican soldiers, of the camp a few use of two different levels: first, in days after its liberation. the front, glass elements which dis play various exhibits – photos, do cuments, quotations from news­ papers, protocols and accounts – and secondly, at the back, a row of show tables, cement­coloured and made of unworked asbestos ce ment, which the accompanying com mentary – texts and captions – is at tached to. The natural light was incorporated into the exhibition; pictures arra n­ ged in the windows attain a floa ting quality and cha racter on ac count of the effects of sunlight in the back­ ground. Views of the place and the surrounding countryside are also integrated into the complete round of the exhi bi tion. Historical events are not sealed off hermetically in the museal show rooms but maintain Project work with pupils in one of the their inter active quality with social former tunnel installations in which a permanent exhibition is displayed now. life out side. At that particular junc­ The Reception of History in Mu­ © Sammlung KZ-Gedenkstätte Ebensee ture for instance in the exhibition seum and Memorial tour which shows how – after the liberation of the concentration camp Historical museums and especially in Ebensee – local National Socia­ memorials generally remain with lists were brought in to do clearing the impetus to represent a sort of and burial work a view presents it self prescribed memory. For pupils in of the village and the quarry visible particular, whose visit in most ca­ in the background, the site of the ses will be anything but voluntary under ground production fa cilities. and who quite naturally cannot Reference and turning points in possess any memory of the crimes terms of content become tangible of National Socialism, a climate of as breaks of the three­dimensional well­meaning moral indoctrination rhythm, as for instance in the area crea ted by teachers or partly also by 56 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

memorial pedagogues might well be to take the blame for the crimes of perceived as awkward and en courage National Socialism. This is an es­ refractory behaviour. Memorials sential pre condition as to how the have to concern themselves to an visua li sa tion of National Socialist increasing extent with this field of history ought to be tackled. Whereas tension of conveying the principal the victims and their descendants values of social life with out moral in Israel or the uSA must be per­ indoctrination. The examination mitted to give expression to their of the history of “negative places” memo ries, personal experiences, (V.Knigge) requires value horizons feelings and emotions in the form which correspond with pupils’ lives of sta gings, symbolism and artistic pro ductions, this kind of presentati­ on is to be considered inadequate as for Austria and Germany. Stagings and artistic variants of portrayal imply a suggestive interpretation of his toric reality; they represent accen tuation through symbolic elevation and attenuation through selective depiction. In Germany and Austria memorials and museums of contem porary history, partly also in those states where Nazi crimes and collaboration have occurred, a stringent historical documentation is what is required. The presentation must be confined to authentic pho­ tos, documents and other authentic materials. Every concept which goes further, every artistic stylisation is, The former prisoner and eyewitness and hold relevance also for the pre­ apart from memorials and monu­ Wladyslaw Zuk takes pupils on a guided sent day; however, the visitors (pu­ ments, inappropriate, all the more tour around the former camp grounds. pils) must also be granted scope to since the reproach is hanging in the © Sammlung KZ-Gedenkstätte Ebensee develop for them selves their own as­ air that we would resort to artistic sociations. For this very reason the means of expression so as to spurn designers of the exhibition in Eben­ factuality. see were con vinced that a reduction The aura of authentic con cen tra­ to the docu mentation of historical tion camp sites such as Auschwitz, facts at the authentic place of the Mauthausen or indeed Ebensee, concentration camp but also in the especially when, as is the case in museum itself without stagings of Ebensee, pupils can experience it whatever kind best meets and suits with a survivor of the camp, in evi­ educational demands. The exhibiti­ tably causes and evokes conster­ ons inform and instruct about what nation and dismay. Experience tells has been, has happened, that is all. that such dismay often stands in the They leave room for associations and way of cognitive comprehen sion and independent assessments as well as the direct willingness im me diately for establishing one’s own connec­ to acquire knowledge in the memo­ tions with personal experiences. rial, respectively. Dismay pre vents This conception is committed to communication, as is as pired to by one further objective: in Germany pedagogues and guides; in the face and Austria the political, scientific of eyewitness accounts a sense of and con cep tual responsibility for unquestionability pro li ferates and memorial places lies in the hands of paralyses. Dismay is a natural reac­ those who must ultimately answer tion and as such ought not to be for the fact that their countries have “talked over and over”. All the more Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 57 importance should be attributed, themselves hopelessly confronted each employee’s capacities and of though, to further de bate and ana­ with heaps of work ultimately pro­ voluntary par ti cipation. lysis of what has been experience in duce frustrated teachers and bored In how far the initiatives and the next few days in school. pupils as visitors to the memorials. moves towards reform devised in While activities on the part of the the past year, which contain the The Memorial and the Museum of state are confined to absolutely abovementioned points of criticism, Contemporary History in the Con­ necessary maintenance work to pre­ will be put into practice for the Maut­ text of Austrian Memorial Policy serve the historical building stock hausen memorial and the sites of and in vestments in “hardware”, former adjacent camps remains to The memorial and the museum of the deve lopment and realisation of be seen. contemporary history in Ebensee new di dactic exhibition concepts, might serve as an example of an the transportation of pedagogical English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 ambitious and committed project approaches and scientific research in Austria that is presentable at the in and around the memorials, which same time, nonetheless there is has been ne glected for decades, falls still no sound and secure financial by the way side. basis for continuous work. This Democratic and historical edu­ Kontakt: fact has much to do with the prac­ cation of the young in the memo­ Zeitgeschichte Museum Ebensee tice of Austrian memorial policy. rials which both regional and fe deral Kirchengasse 5, A- 4802 Ebensee In comparison to the situation in politicians eagerly demand on every Tel. 0043 (0) 6133/5601 Ger many the official Austrian me­ possible occasion needs a fi nancial email: [email protected] morial policy must be described foundation to employ qua lified pe­ www: http://www.ebensee.org as under developed. Apart from the dagogical personnel in the required memorial in Mauthausen activities numbers and produce ex hibitions Büro Denkinger und Felber Wien at the sites of other former concen­ on a solid scientific basis. These Arch. Bernhard Denkinger/ tration camps are limited to private requirements can only be ful filled Dr. Ulrike Felber initiatives by committed historians and realised when the republic of Ballgasse 4/9, A-1010 Wien and people with a special interest in Austria consciously ac cepts her re­ Tel.: 0043 (0) 1/5137437 the subject. And even in Mauthausen sponsibility and provides a suf ficient email: [email protected] itself the scarce federal funding does financial basis for the me morials, not permit modern and, naturally, which should be viewed as educative personnel ­intensive scientific and institutions alongside school, so that pe da gogical work. Motivated al­ professional work can be guaranteed ternative servants and employees which does not come unstuck in the at the memorial places who find tribulations of asking too much of noises and music (which, admit­ Dietmar Sedlaczek ted ly, can also be switched off). To­ ge ther with the optical and colour design a solemn yet menacing CD ROMs on National Socialism over all im pres sion is created; the confron ta tion with the Holocaust so attains an almost sacral component. How ever, the question arises if this type of aesthetics, which evokes am­ New media offer a good possibility to aesthetics. On must ask here whe­ bivalent reactions with the user – in convey the topic National So cia lism ther it does justice or whether it one case consternation, in the other especially to young people, since can do justice at all, respectively, to dis tance – facilitates or rather impe­ multimedia images par ticu larly cor­ this sensitive and intricate topic? So des an appraisal of the Holo caust. respond with the young generation’s that the design of a CD ROM does 2) With what perspective are habits of reception. A series of CD not dominate awareness, the form people presented, whose history ROMs has appeared on the market in should always be selected dependent is the subject of the CD ROMs? the last years espe cially on this topic, on the contents and the aesthetics What strikes the eye here is that which turn to addressees interested appropriate to the contents. How­ for ins tance very frequently there in contem porary history and provo­ ever, one must also warn of the is men tion of the Jews. Thus, one ke reflec tive appraisal. pe rils of an over­aestheticisation in tends to overlook that this is about In their conception, as far as this context. The CD ROM “Against the history of individuals, with their con tent, structure, addressees and Forgetting. A Documentation of the own respective life history and per­ func tion are concerned, they are Holocaust” may serve as an example sonality. This collective presen ta tion very different from one another. All hereof. Here, particular importance is is only rarely broken up, as two in all the offer ranges from mono­ attributed to aesthetics. Dark shades examples taken from the CD ROM gra phies, works with encyclopaedic like grey and anthracite, interspersed “Against Forgetting” will illustrate: character up to adaptations of co­ partly with green and blue nuances, (1) until a newly selected chapter mics. These works have generally are prevalent. Moreover, the surface appears, photographs of pri so­ been positively received, as a rule, by design is extremely lacking in con­ ners are regularly inserted. The public cri ti cism. The fact alone that trasts. The texts consists of white portrait of a prisoner is shown, this me dium deals with this serious typewriting on black, and it is a ccor­ both in pro file and frontally – like and intricate subject seems to be dingly difficult to make out and read a photo from criminal records – cause for a positive appre cia tion. the various pages. The appearance without listing the name or any However, with these CD ROMs, as is characterised by acoustic, optical further biogra phical informa tion. well, the question arises whether and colour elements pitched to The individual is thus dis paraged one is encouraged to form one’s own each other, which create a peculiar as a stopgap image. judge ment, or whether prefabri ca­ at mosphere. Whereas to the upper (2) In the chapter The Ex posure ted, respectively already existing, left area of the picture a non­stop of Horror a survivor recalls the images are transported or conso li­ loop of edited sequences taken from situation immediately after the dated, re spectively. The “desire for con temporary film material is run­ liberation of a camp. At this as much authenticity as possible, ning, different acoustic and optical one juncture the victims come for an illusion of time travel as elements are activated when the to word, as it were. Apart from perfect as possible … irrespective cursor touches the headlines. A faint some excep tions they otherwise of all con cerns for anachronisms swas tika is put to the headline Hitler only appear anonymously and or the loss of reality” is also proble­ Germany. At the same time one remain silent in this (and also ma tic (Wolf: 1996, p.537). “Serious hears a column marching in step, several other) works, whereas history teach ing in contrast ought whereas the headline The Holo- the per petrators – thanks to the to strive to make plausible decisions caust, for instance, is contrasted rich va riety of recordings of their taken by people or groups of per sons with a Star of David and background speeches and addresses – are in the historical con text” (ibi dem). sound effects, which consist of a per mitted to pierce our ears with In the following paragraphs two swirl of a hollering voice shouting forceful eloquence, for example aspects of the analysis of CD ROMs com mands, barking dogs and other Adolf Hitler’s bawling voice do­ on the topic National Socialism noises that are hard to identify, all minates as background noise or currently on the market shall be of which create a feeling of extreme speech excerpt in many works. broached tenseness and threat. Thus, the user In the CD ROM “Against For get­ 1) The new media go for a special is constantly exposed to background ting”, for example, like in a night­ Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 59

mare, our ears keep ringing with is still transferable to the context well as verdict and evaluation must always the same sen tence: “The in discussion here: “In view of be avoided. Not only perpetrators’ German does not like the Jew, the technical perfection and intensive sources but also victims’ sources Jew does not like the German …” efforts to provide factual historical should be considered. One must Despite all analysis of the design accu racy it is at times very regrett- cast an eye at how information is and presentation possibilities of able what old fashioned, long dated imparted (source documentation, multi media use, the conception as conceptions of history… become narrative presentation; or combi­ re gards content and reflection on resurgent. Even if data and pictures nation of both). In what proportion both the conception of man and hi­ might be correct (which is by no are text, image and audiovisual do­ story, which ought to be transported, means the case throughout), what cuments? An evaluation of language must not be neglected. In many historical simulations should ac- is also necessary. Are substantives works an adequate con si deration tual ly further in the first place, is and verbs employed, which tend to of (famous as well as lesser known) lacking in most cases: the capacity veil or play down? Are attitudes ex­ proponents of resistance and victims for historical empathy (Wolf 1996: pressed implicitly or explicitly? Are of perse cution and in ternment in p.547). Hartmann Wunderer follows bold and simple stereotypes used? concen tration camps – and by that a similar line of argumentation, Or is a contemporary diction used, I mean letting them come to word when he confronts the possibilities without making it identifiable as in the literal sense – simply does not of ideal­typical history teaching such and expounding its pro ble­ take place. What is more, most of with the use of computer simu la­ matic nature, respectively? these works do not feel committed tions: “History teaching feeds on The aim of using media should to an approach of everyday history, the ‘authentic conversation’, on ideally be to enhance the pupils’ and thus far too little attention is iden tification and critical reflec tion, ability to judge and criticise. This de voted to a pers pective oriented on precise scrutiny and not on a means that an integration of multi­ to wards the res pective scopes for ac­ broad, diffuse panorama and hec- media uses into teaching must be tion and hardships of the population tic leaps to further information. It connected to the development of and thus of various different social feeds on weighing up and sounding medial competence. By that I do not as well as political groups. The ques­ out discriminately the scopes of primarily mean the technical com­ tions for instance, as to how Jewish action available to people in their mand of the medium but an ability citizens experienced exclusion and his to rical conditions” (Wunderer critically to appraise transported persecution, how neighbours and 1996: p. 534). information and contexts as well as col leagues reacted and in what way Similar to history schoolbooks the way of presentation. This does they perhaps even participated in the new media should also be eva­ not only go for CD ROMs but in par­ the process of the so­called Arya­ luated according to such criteria. ticular also for the internet, where nisation, hardly find any attention. Thus: taking into account the ne­ all information enjoys equal access Furthermore, an approach oriented cessity for didactic reduction, in for­ and standing, and which, used as a more distinctly towards life history mation through the medium ought work of reference, pos ses ses a cer­ would seem a gain, in view also of to be as extensive as possible. The tain authority. the photo material employed in the presentation must in no way occur CD ROMs, and would additionally in a lopsided, foreshortened manner. English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001 have given a voice to the anony­ The documentation of historical mous mass of victims and thus have facts and events must be diffe­ personalised history. rentiated. A fusion of presentation as Peter Wolf’s position, albeit prin­ cipally related to computer games, Eduard Fuchs con tains materials and texts on the resistance move ment “White Rose”, including more than four hours recordings and approximately 500 pictures. These materials have been New Media on the Topic collected and selected in close cooperation with the “Weiße Rose­Stiftung” (White Rose Foundation). Specifically, you find the following ma terials on CD­ROM:  Preface by Franz J. Müller, chairman of the “Weiße­Rose­ Stiftung, München e.V.”  The White Rose – rororo­monography by Harald Stef fahn 1. CD­ROMs  Catalogue of the exhibition “The White Rose” – About the Resistance of Students Against Hitler in Munich the nuremberg trial, Berlin: directmedia 1999, isBn 1942/43, edited by the “Weiße­Rose­Stiftung” 3-89853-120-1, Pc-Version  Auch in der Tat Gesinnung zeigen ­ New Sources on the Collection of the official pre­trial documents, in dict ment, History of the “White Rose” by Michael C. Schneider und opinion and extensive minutes of all 218 trial days on the Wilfried Süss basis of the official publication by the International Military  Songbook, Diary 1933, Diary 1942/43 – Notes by Willi Court of Justice in 1947. Graf (Facsimile­Reproduction) An introduction into the edition of sources by Christian  letters by Alexander Schmorell (Facsimile­Reproduc­ Zentner additionally contains an overview of the course and tion) findings of the trial, portraits of the de fendants, a time chart  Allen Gewalten zum Trutz sich erhalten – A Radio Fea­ and numerous illustrations. ture by ulrich Chaussy (produced by Bavarian Television) http://userpage.fu­berlin.de/~history1/cda.htm# dig bib20  Conversations with Marie­luise Jahn, Anneliese Knoop­ Graf, Franz J. Müller, Dr. Erich Schmorell u.a. Wolfgang Benz et al. (hrsg.): enzyklopädie des nationalso-  Glossary: National Socialism – Excerpts from the work zialismus, Berlin: directmedia 1999, isBn3-89853-125-2, by Kammer/Bartsch Pc-Version This CD­ROM is a product from the beginnings of mul­ Work of reference on National Socialism, which covers this timedia uses for PCs. The user surface in so far hardly era as a whole as well as in its various specific as pects; The cor responds with up­to­date standards anymore; the self­ encyclopaedia, worked out by 132 authors, sums up – as chosen labelling “multimedial documentation” seems out laconically and objectively as possible, but at the same time of place in view of the strong emphasis on text. A benefit is as extensively and critically as necessary – the collected the fulltext­retrieval on all implemented documents. state of knowledge about National Socialism, and is thus http://userpage.fu­berlin.de/~history1/cda.htm#rose an indispensable aid to all those, who concern themselves http://www.ng.fak09.uni­muenchen.de/gfn/multimedia/ with that time. rezenswrose.html The encyclopaedia was envisaged by its editors as a com­ http://www.gedenkstaette­moringen.de/cd_fs.htm bination of a manual with essayist overview presen tations, a subject­specific lexicon and a commented register of names. lernen aus der geschichte. Projekte zu nationalsozialismus Part 1 – Manual (22 extensive articles, which amongst und holocaust in schule und Jugendarbeit (learning from other things shine a contextual light on ideology, poli tics, history. Projects on national socialism and holocaust in school economy, art, culture, science, technology and sport during and Youth Work), National Socialism. Resistance, emigration, war as well as Annette Brinkmann, Annegret Ehmann, Sybil Milton, sources are separately presented) Hanns Fred Rathenow, Regina Wyrwoll (Hrsg.) Ein wis­ Part 2 – Lexicon (approximately 1.400 articles on data, senschaftliches CD­ROM­Projekt mit Begleitbuch. ARCult names, terms, events, institutions and organi sa tions of the Media Verlag Bonn 2000 ISBN 3­930395­23­1 National Socialist dictatorship and its oppo nents) The project was made possible by: Presse­ und Infor­ Part 3 – Index of Names (1.100 short biographies with mationsamt der Bundesregierung, Berlin, Goethe­Institut basic data and functions of important persons, numerous e. V., München, Robert Bosch Stiftung, Stuttgart, För der­ illustrations, maps and tables) gesellschaft Kulturelle Bildung e. V., Bonn, specialist advice Book: © 1997 J.G. Cotta’sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger and support: united States Holocaust Memorial Museum, GmbH, gegr. 1659, Stuttgart. Washington D. C., Association of Holocaust Organizations, http://userpage.fu­berlin.de/~history1/cda.htm#dig bib25 New York “The CD­ROM is a unique presentation of German school ulrich chaussy: die Weiße rose. München: systhema 1995, projects on this specific complex of themes. To gether with Pc-Version the accompanying volume it shows in German and English A multimedial documentation of German resistance. how the topic is assimilated in current histo rical­political Archive, exhibition and monography on CD­ROM. With education in Germany. The CD­ROM also presents projects numerous texts. with relations to present phenomena such as xenophobia The CD­ROM “Die Weiße Rose” (“The White Rose”) and right­wing radi calism The entire project was developed by a group of edu­ Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 61 cationalists from Germany and the united States. Since results achieved in nationwide youth education since the 1997 extensive academic basic researches prece ded, as a unification of Germany 1990, and thus close a gap in know­ result of which 50 separate projects on the part of schools ledge led to the initial ideas for this project. As to guarantee and memorials in all German provinces as well as by inde­ greatest possible public acclaim and circulation for this CD pendent maintenance societies – as for in stance the Körber ROM the project was developed bilingually, in both German Foundation – are presented. and English. Straight away American experts were also The accompanying book to the CD­ROM in German and called in alongside their German counterparts, e.g. from the English shows users the process of the examination and united States Holo caust Memorial Museum in Washington occupation with the theme “National Socialism and Holo­ and the Asso ciation of Holocaust Orga nizations, New York, caust” in historical­political education since the end of repre sentative for Holocaust centres in North America but World War II in divided and, since 1990, unified Germany. also in other, mostly English­speaking, countries. Necessary background information on the importance of Tasks the so­called Holocaust Education in the united States in Authors and editors asked themselves the following ques­ its differences to Germany is also provided. tions upon beginning work on this project: About the Aims What tasks does historical­political education have in The CD­ROM for the first time permits non­specialists in Germany after the unification 1990? Germany and abroad a direct look at the work of learning How are the curricular guidelines with regard to the groups on National Socialism and the Holo caust. All 50 treatment of National Socialism and the Holocaust, which projects that have been selected by the international con­ are formulated by the Ministries of Culture of the sixteen sultants from a wealth of materials are based on authentic provinces, realised in school practice, and how was the reports by teachers and works by pupils. The often inter­ situation before 1990 in divided Germany – FRG and GDR? disciplinary projects are presented in their multimedial What thematic and methodical approaches do peda­ diversity on CD ROM. The users can print out the texts and gogues and young people choose for dealing with National pictures and also download them on the computer. The CD Socialism and the Holocaust? ROM can be read both by PC as well as by MAC. What problems are they confronted with? The CD­ROM consciously places young people to the fore, How do young people acquire history, and how do they who – representative for many others in Germany – attempt form political awareness? to tackle with great commitment the perhaps most difficult What do extracurricular learning places offer young chapter of German history. It is the wish of editors and sup­ people (for instance memorials)? porters that in this light the overall project “lear ning from What experiences do young people make in international History – Projects on National Socialism and Holocaust in encounters with young people their age from e.g. Poland, School and Youth Work” will be received as a contribution Israel or the united States ?” to intercultural under standing. From the online presentation by the die Förder ge- Contents of the CD-ROM sellschaft Kulturelle Bildung e. V., Bonn: In addition to the project presentations, further docu ments and historical photographs the CD ROM contains a wealth of Contact materials, which expound the broader spec trum of themes Further information on the CD-ROM and related pro jects: for users. Thereby, the CD ROM can also serve as a work of www.holocaust-education.de bzw. bei: Förder ge sellschaft reference in context with the treatment of the Holocaust Kulturelle Bildung e.V. Annette Brinkmann / Mario Solis, in school: for instance the state guidelines on dealing with Dahlmannstr. 26, 53113 Bonn, Tel.: 0228-24 22 829, e-mail: National Socialism and the Holocaust in the German sy­ [email protected] stem of education, addresses of German insti tutions, which concern them selves with the Holocaust in the pedagogical das dritte reich – daten, Bilder, dokumente, digitale Biblio- field, the addresses of all German memo rials in honour of thek isBn 3-89853-149-X, Pc-Version (the third reich – the victims of National Socialism, in formation provided by data, Pictures, documents) the Association of German History Teachers about history Daily chronicle by Manfred Overesch, Friedrich Wilhelm teaching in Germany, an extensive bibliography, film lists Saal, Wolfgang Herda und York Artelt; from the end of or original documents, amongst others the protocol of the January 1933 until the beginning of June 1945 infor mation Wannsee Conference and much more. is provided on political, economic and cultural events. The About the Emergence of the Project new edition also includes a collection of roughly 1800 con­ It is scarcely known internationally that this difficult chapter temporary photographic documents from the archives of of German history has been taught for decades in German Heinz Bergschicker, numerous illustrations as well as more classes. Apart from the specialist academic occupation with than 400 text documents (laws, orders, commands, etc.). the Holocaust the public debate has also been triggered by Inhalt: http://www.digitale­bibliothek.de/scripts/ts. artists, radio and television in the post­war decades. The dll?s=5&id=34713&ap=/pi/1/ artists themselves had often been victims to persecution and eyewitnesses of the Holocaust. erinnern für gegenwart und zukunft – Überlebende des holo- The aim to facilitate an exchange of experiences about the caust berichten, cornelsen Verlag, 62 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

Pc- and Mac-Version Centre of the foundation “Topo graphy of Terror” on the CD­ROM developed for use in schools, containing in ter­ for mer grounds of the Gestapo and SS headquarters as views in German from the archive “Survivors of the Shoah well as the Reichssicherheitshauptamt in Berlin; alongside Visual History Foundation”, which was brought into being infor mation on the permanent exhibition and current exhi­ by Steven Spielberg (http://www.vhf.org/ – there is also an bition projects and events the site also pro vides access to the English double CD­ROM available from this archive, titled me morial forum with an overview of German memorials in “Survivors – Testimonies of the Holo caust”, with the bio­ honour of National Socialist victims as well as a very detailed graphies of four survivors as well as additional infor mation). collection of links about relevant spe cialist memorials, Recorded documents by Jewish survivors, Sinti and museums and archives, li braries and research institutions. Roma, homosexuals, Jehovah’s witnesses and political op­ (http://212.68.78.12/gedenkstaettenforum/links.htm) ponents, rescuers and helpers of victims to perse cu tion are linked to a great number of original documents, explanatory house of the Wannsee conference – Memorial and educational texts, photos and film sequences. site The main focus is on the approach via the personal life http://www.ghwk.de/ accounts of the two Jewish survivors Irmgard Konrad und  Memorial Sites in different countries (Austria, Bel gium, Hans Frankenthal; the historical contex tuali sation of their Czech Republic, France, Germany, Israel, Netherlands, testimonies is facilitated by two time charts; events, ex­ generally) periences and testimonies of other eye witnesses are grouped  Educational and Scientific Institutes and Museums around their life accounts, and thus permit an approach to  Jewish Organisations the history of the Holocaust and its historical, political  links relating to Shoah/Holocaust and cultural context before, during and after the time of The site is, apart from English and German, also avail able National Socialist rule. The CD ROM was worked out by a in six other languages. team led by American histo rian Sybil Milton and Hamburg educationalist and historian Matthias Heyl. Museum of tolerance Accompanying materials can be found in the internet http://www.wiesenthal.com/mot/index.cfm forum of the Cornelsen­Verlag www.erinnern­online.de The Simon Wiesenthal Center, los Angeles, Kalifornien, uSA  Multimedia­learning Center (Jews, Nazis, Anti­Se­ das anne Frank haus, Mattel Verlag, für Pc und Mac mitism and “Final Solution”, Resistance and Res cue, Virtual tour of the Anne Frank House. Navigation through the World Response, Righteous among the Nations, After rooms of the house is possible, stories are told – partly in form the War (all topics structured along Places, People, of interviews (audio and video files) – on the basis of objects Organizations, General Topics) and docu ments –; these stories can also be reached by way of  Virtual Exhibits (Online versions of past exhibitions at a separate navigation set. The CD­ROM received the awards the Museum of Tolerance like “Visas for life”, “Dignity Milia d’Or 2000 as well as the Euro Comenius Medal 2000. and Defiance”, “And I still See Their Faces”)  Teacher’s Resources (glossary, timeline, bibliography, Materials on the Internet 36 questions about the Holocaust, curricular resour ces for Teachers, Genocide – critical Issues of the Holo caust lernen aus der geschichte. Projekte zu nationalsozialismus etc.) und holocaust in schule und Jugendarbeit  Special Collections (Collection of English, German and http://www.holocaust­education.de/ Hebrew documents along 93 topics) Compare: information on the CD­ROM of the same title shoa.de – ein Projekt zu shoah, holocaust und antisemitismus Fritz Bauer institut - homepage http://www.shoa.de/ http://www.fritz­bauer­institut.de/ Study Group Shoa.de, Stefan Mannes, Düsseldorf, Germany Fritz Bauer Institut – Study and Documentary Centre on Introductions into the topic: from “Anti­Semitism” the History and Effect of the Holo caust, Frankfurt am Main, and “GESTAPO” to “NS­Foreign Policy”; biographical and Germany. bibliographical review of “victims and perpetrators” (Anne General information on the Institute; overview of ex­ Frank, Oskar Schindler, Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels); links hibitions staged by the Institute, “Cine matography of the and literature on the topic. Holocaust” – research project to explore the central stock shoah-Projekt “gegen das Vergessen” of films on the histo ry of the annihilation of European http://www.shoahproject.org/ Jews; confe rence reports, reviews on the topic, overview of privately designed homepage by Birgit Pauli­Haack und Ralf publications, events and links P. Graf, Munich, Germany  Press review on current topics stiftung topographie des terrors(Foundation topography of  Online work on the Holocaust: “Das Gift der bewegten terror) Bilder” (The Poison of Moving Images), “Doppelmord” http://www.topographie.de/ (Double Murder), “KZ­Dachau”; information on the Internet page of the New Exhibition and Docu mentation “Weiße Rose”  Accounts by Holocaust survivors Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde • 63

 Interviews with Holocaust researchers on images of the post­war years and an index of literature

 Bibliography and reviews and photographic sources. Also available in English.

 Commented, partly also thematically arranged, col­ lections of links a look Back at nuremberg http://www.courttv.com/casefiles/nuremberg/ shoanet – ein deutschsprachiges informationsangebot zum Background information on the Nuremberg Trials in au tumn thema holocaust 1945, transcripts of various final speeches and testi monies http://shoanet.iuk.hdm­stuttgart.de/shoan.htm the nizkor Project home Page privately designed homepage by Bettina Brenner through http://nizkor.org/ the student web server of the uni versity for library and Internet page containing information on Holocaust and Information Culture, Stuttgart, Germany. Holocaust denial, Nuremberg Trials, glossary of persons German online information on the topic Holocaust with on Nazis and revisionists, revisionism on the Internet, information on the backgrounds, course of events and FAQs and answers; links; collection of documents that can impacts of the persecution and annihilation of European be copied (e.g. on the Eichmann trial 1961), com ments, Jews by the NS regime; suggestions for further reading etc.  Glossary of the Holocaust (Explanations of terms and important explanations on more than 300 entries) crosspoint anti-racism  Biographies of the Holocaust (more than 60 life histories) http://www.magenta.nl/crosspoint/  Chronology of the Holocaust (chronological outline of Hyperlink collection for each respective country dealing events and developments of the years 1933­1945) with anti­racism; topics: indigenous peoples, materials  Statistics of the Holocaust (figures on emi gration, de­ on Judaism/Shoah, human rights/refugees, Sinti/Roma, tention and extermination camps, Nuremberg Trial, disabled, lesbians/gays, women, etc. forced labour/reparations , the “righteous”)  Collected links (current debates (Finkelstein, Holocaust netz gegen rechts memorials, Walser/Bubis, Nazi gold, reparation, war of http://www.netzgegenrechts.de/ annihilation, films/literature, memorials/exhibitions, Information portal against right­wing extremism orga nised research/theory, Third Reich, Judaism) by German newspapers, TV stations and agencies News, forum, questions, answers u.s. holocaust Memorial Museum learning center http://www.ushmm.org/ internet resources on genocide and Mass killing Extensive collection of resources on the topic Holocaust; http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide.htm essays, pictures, photographs, films, eyewitness interviews, Very extensive documentation of genocides and mass charts and chronologies on such topics as Anti­Semitism, killings; documents, pictures, glossaries, biographies and the liberation of concentration camps, Jewish resistance, collections of links on topics such as “East Timor”, “Poles World War II etc.; full text search. in the Third Reich” or “Rwanda and Burundi”; discussion forum, full text search. cybrary of the holocaust – Voices of the shoah – remembran- crimes against humanity – Verbrechen gegen die Menschlich- ces of the holocaust keit http://remember.org/ http://www.kassiber.de/crimehum.htm Essays, photographs, biographies of survivors, extensive Extensive index of links on past and present war crimes commented biography, education fo rum and genocides (compare also the very detailed list of links on the page task Force for international cooperation on holocaust educati- “Holocaust & Genocide Studies” http://www. web ster. on, remembrance, and re search edu/~woolflm/holocaust.html) http://taskforce.ushmm.gov/index.html Mission Statement / Fact Sheet, Stockholm Declaration, Internet addresses with reviews or data files on NS/ Meetings, Projects and Working Groups, Calendar of Events, Educational Ac tivities, Directory of Archives, Remembrance persecution and extermination of Jews and other Activities ethnic, social and political groups, resistance, revi­ sionism War of annihilation – War crimes of the Wehrmacht from 1941 to 1944  Catalogue of CD ROMs und CDs for research and tea- http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/exhibits/WoA/map_g.html ching (A.E. Imhof / Fu Berlin) http://userpage.fu berlin. Information on the partisan war in Serbia 1941, on the de/~history1/cdcoll.htm#vermit campaign of the 6. Army to Stalingrad 1941/42, the occu­  Collection of reviews on CD ROMs on NS-related topics pation of Byelorussia 1941–44, the deliberate covering up of http://www.gedenkstaette­moringen.de/cd_fs.htm traces and the annihilation of memory, language, judicature  The Education Software Atlas is a non­com mercial offer, and the practice of killing of the Wehrmacht com mand and which is provided by the IBI – Institute for Edu cation in included Wehrmacht units as well as an in formation block the Information Society (Berlin) and by the IfB – Insti­ tute for Educational Media (Frankfurt a.M.). http://www. 64 • Beiträge zur historischen s ozialkunde

bs­atlas.de/ibi/ selection that can be reached via data file, containing  Data File of the State Institute for School Pedagogy presently 756 Internet ad dresses for his torical studies, and Educational Research Munich (ISB): pedagogues which takes special account of contem porary history. evaluate interactive, multimedial CD­ROMs resp. DVDs http://zis. uibk.ac.at/ for educational purposes. http://www.i­cd­rom.de/in dex. html English Version: Stefan Menhofer, 2001  FAS – Neue Medien (FAS – New Media) www.fasena.de  Reviews of History CD ROMs of the Histo ri cal Institute of the univ. Munich, http://www.ng. fak09.uni­muen­ chen.de/gfn/multimedia/cdrom.html  The Software Documentation and Information System (SODIS): catalogues and asses ses mul timedia products for teaching and further edu cation according to media techni cal, spe cialist, specialist didactic as well as media di dactic aspects. http://www.sodis.de/  Software Rating of the Medienberatung NRW: process­ oriented rating building on expe riences from school practice http://www.learn ­line.nrw. de/angebote/medi­ enberatung/software/170101gl.htm  Contemporary History Information System commented

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