Phd Thesis Title: the Roles of African States in Affecting Soviet and American Engagements with Mozambican National Liberation, 1961-1964
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PhD thesis title: The roles of African states in affecting Soviet and American engagements with Mozambican national liberation, 1961-1964 Petr Labrentsev Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the College of Business, Arts and Social Sciences Politics, History and the Brunel Law School Brunel University London, UK 1st supervisor: Dr. Martin H. Folly 2nd supervisor: Dr. Kristian Gustafson December 2015 Contents Contents …….…………………………………………………………………………1 Acknowledgments ……..………………………...……………………………………4 Abstract ……………………...……..…………………………………………………6 Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………….7 Chapter I Introduction ..………...…………………..…..……………………………………..10 Literature review Section I ……………………...………………………………………........………... 16 Key limitations of the literature……………………………………………………...21 Section II Schools of thought and analytical problems…………………………………………29 Reassessment of the roles of small political actors during the Cold War………...….36 Objectives and motivations……………..……………………………………………38 Methods Archival research Archival research - Organization, processing, and limitations……………...………39 Archival research in Portugal and the United States…….………….………………40 Methodology …………………..……………………………………………..….…. 42 Research questions……………...……………………………………………………43 Chapter II UDENAMO and Pan-African Cold War polarization: 1961 Geopolitics, foreign actors, and Mozambican nationalist movements….………...…45 Gwambe and UDENAMO……………………………………………………………49 The CONCP Casablanca Conference……………...………..……………………….53 The role of the UAR………………………………………..…………………………62 The role of Morocco……………………………………….…………………………64 UDENAMO-Tanganyikan relations………...……………………………..…………66 Mozambican nationalist aspirations in Pan-African affairs………...……………….75 1 Understanding Gwambe in the broader political context……...…………………….78 Conference of the Non-Independent States, Winneba, Ghana…………….…………81 Soviet explosives for Southeast Africa……………………...……..…………………87 Soviet vessels in Southern African waters………………………...………………….98 Gwambe declares war………………………………….…………………………...101 The fall of Gwambe and the failure of Soviet-Casablanca plan……………..……..104 PIDE covert actions……………………………….………………………………..112 Gwambe – a Portuguese agent?.................................................................................116 The Soviet approach to Third World partners…………………………….………..118 Chapter III - The US policy on Mozambique and Mondlane: 1961-1962……..126 The US and Portuguese Africa: 1961……………………………………...…….…127 US assistance programmes to Mozambican nationalists…………………...………138 Conclusion…………………………...……………………………………………...147 Chapter IV FRELIMO, Tanganyika, and the UN Committee of 17: 1962………………….150 Thwarting UDENAMO’s political return………………………………….……….151 Tanganyika’s deception of the UN Committee of 17……………………...…….…..154 Towards a united Mozambican front………………………...……………….…….161 The formation of FRELIMO………………...…………………………..…………..167 Conclusion………………………………………..…………………………………172 Chapter V – Nyasaland, Ghana, and the UAM……………………………….…175 Nyasaland (Malawi) and the Portuguese covert operations……………………..…176 Nkrumah and dissent within UDENAMO………………..…………………………185 Gwambe vs. dos Santos……………………………………………..………………185 Ghanaian aggressive policies………………………………...…………………….188 The UAM, national liberation movements, and US roundabout tactics………...….194 The UAM: background…………………………………………….………………..197 The UAM and Gwambe’s political offensive………………………….…………….200 The UAM: from conciliation to radicalization……………………….……………..211 2 Chapter VI Uganda and the superpowers’ competition in the process of Mozambican national liberation…………………………………………………………………219 Obote: from cautious neutrality to pro-Western standing………………...………..221 The Addis Ababa Conference and the leftist pressures…………...……...…………228 Support for UDENAMO: a matter of Sino-Soviet competition?................................237 UDENAMO vs. FRELIMO: the struggle for OAU’s support……….…..…………..241 Radicals’ counterattack and moderates’ retaliation…………….………………….244 Conclusion………...….……………………………………………………………..254 Chapter VII - Conclusion…………………………………..…..…………………258 Bibliography and sources……………..…………………………………………. 271 Appendixes………………….…………………………………………………….. 290 3 Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. Martin Folly and Dr. Kristian Gustafson for their great guidance and support throughout the making of this research. My thanks also go to my friends, colleagues at Brunel University London and Aberystwyth University, and other contributors. In particular, I owe gratitude and appreciation to Miles Spink, Carlos Santos, David Ross, Sara Ross, and Ana Lua Ross, João Cabrita, Dr. Michel Cahen, Dr. Elaine Tan, Kojan Takahashi, Sasha & Lia, Joelle Giappesi, Dr. Andrew Brunatti, Dr. Elisabetta Mocca, Sunhee Choi, the SOAS University of London library staff, Professor Odd Arne Westad, Professor Mark Kramer and the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University, the Lamont Library staff at Harvard University, Dr. Svetlana Savranskaya and Dr. Mary Curry at the National Security Archive at George Washington University, and Dr. Odete Martins and the Torre do Tombo staff. My special thanks also go to Professor Len Scott, Professor Martin Alexander, Dr. Gerald Hughes, Dr. Paul Maddrell, Dr. Jennifer Mathers, and Dr. Kamila Stullerova, who encouraged me to consider doing a PhD back in 2010. Finally, I would like to express my immense gratitude to my family for its support and encouragement. 4 In memory of my dear friend and an exemplary scholar, Dr. Chikara Hashimoto. 5 Abstract The early period of the national liberation of Mozambique provided a stage for superpower competition, and a means for different African states, groups of states, and organizations to advance their particular, and often conflicting goals and agendas. In so doing, both the superpowers and regional African actors were supporting different rival Mozambican nationalist leaders and their respective movements. More than being only a conflict between Portuguese authorities and Mozambican nationalists, the process of Mozambican national liberation was also a proxy confrontation between different foreign actors. The thesis examines the relations and power dynamics within the complex of superpowers - African states - national liberation movements, in the contexts of the Cold War, African affairs and the process of national liberation of Mozambique. It assesses the roles played by local and regional African actors in affecting Soviet and American interests and designs throughout their engagements with the process of Mozambican national liberation, from 1961 to 1964. 6 Abbreviations AAI African American Institute AID Agency for International Development (US) a.k.a. USAID ALC African Liberation Committee ASAF(s) Asian-African(s) [group/bloc of states at the United Nations] ANC African National Congress (South Africa) BOSS Bureau of State Security (South Africa) CAF Central African Federation (Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland) CAR Central African Republic CC CPSU Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union CIA Central Intelligence Agency (US) Comintern Communist International CONCP Conferência das Organizações Nacionalistas das Colónias Portuguesas (Conference of the Nationalist Organizations of the Portuguese Colonies) a.k.a. The Casablanca Conference COREMO Comité Revolucionário de Moçambique (Revolutionary Committee of Mozambique) COSERU Comité Secreto da Restauração da UDENAMO (Secret Committee for the Restoration of UDENAMO) CPHRC Contemporary Portuguese History Research Centre CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union DGS Direcção-Geral de Segurança (General Security Directorate; Portugal) also, see PIDE DIA Defense Intelligence Agency (US) DNSA Digital National Security Archive EEC European Economic Community FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation (US) FISB Federal Intelligence Service Bureau (Southern Rhodesia) FLN Front de Libération Nationale (Algeria) FNLA Frente de Libertação Nacional de Angola (Front for the National Liberation of Angola) FOIA Freedom of Information Act FonOff Foreign Office (UK) FRAIN Frente Revolucionaria Africana para a Independência Nacional das Colónias Portuguesas (Revolutionary African Front for the National Independence of the Portuguese Colonies) FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (Mozambique Liberation Front) FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States FUNIPAMO Frente Unida Anti-imperialista Popular Africana de Moçambique (Mozambique African Peoples Anti-Imperialist United Front) 7 GANC Goan African National Congress (India) GBAA Ghanaian Bureau on African Affairs GDR German Democratic Republic a.k.a East Germany GRAE Governo Revolucionário de Angola no Exílio (Revolutionary Government of Angola in Exile) GRU Glavnoie Razvedovatelnoie Upravleniie (Chief Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff a.k.a. Soviet military intelligence; USSR) KANU Kenyan African National Union KGB Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti (Committee for State Security; USSR) MAA Mozambique African Association MAC Movimento Anti-Colonialista (Anti Colonialist Movement) MANC Mozambique African National Congress MANU Mozambican African National Union (Tanzania) MDIA Movimento de Defesa dos Interesses de Angola (Movement for the Defence of the Interests of Angola) MDM Movimento Democrático de Moçambique (Mozambique Democratic Movement) MO Mezhdunarodnyi Otdel (International Department of the Central Committee of the CPSU; USSR) MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola (People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola) NAP