A Manual of Educational

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION

reMMINIM

BULLETIN, 1926, No. 22

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A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL

LEGISLATION t f

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PREPARED IN THE RURAL EDUCATION DIVISION UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION

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WASHINGTON GO G OFFICE 1927 11 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING ()Irma WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY

.41 O. .4

CONTENTS ok

Page. Letterof transmittal V ChapterI. Purpose and scope 1 The State and the schook 2 A State program for education 8 Illiteracy in the United States___._____ 4 Chapter II. General analysis ofschool organizationand administration 5 State educational organization 5 State boards of education 5 Composition of boards 7 Methods of appointment 8 Size of board, term of office, mode of retiring members______8 Powers and duties of well-organized boards 9 State departments of education 10 The chief State school officer 11 Method of selecting 12 Titlenumber of assistants 13 Powers and duties 1.1 Organization for local management of schools 17 The district unit__ 18 Town and township units 19. The county unit 19 Larger units of organization 19 An effective county organization 20 Subdistrkt trustees ______._ 22 The county superintendent of schools 22 Consolidated districtsándconsolidated schools 24 Standardization of rural schools 27 Chapter III. School wsts and school support______30 Why School costs have Increased 33 Sources of school funds__ 34

State taxes and appropriations. Ma .MM r ON .MM 36 Newer types *ofStáste taxes 3fs Equalization funds__ 38

Local tpxation moo map . Moo gm. =1. M ow. . 40 Chapter IV:- School attendanceaid compulsory attendance laws 41 Effectiveness of a school systemdetermined by itsuse 41 A school censusimportant 43 important provisions of compulsory education and child labor laws__ 43 Illiteracy ...... 47 Children-in isolated homes 47 Chapter V. Health andphysical education 48

Object andscope' ftm 1. =0 em 49 Legislative provisions ...... 51 Iv CONTENTS

Page Chapter VI. Kindergarten legislation 52 Permissive Jaw in New Jersey 52 Some provisions of present kindergarten laws 52 Mandatory-on-petition law in Wisconsin 54 Essentiels ofagood law for kindergarteneducation 54 Chapter VII. Teaching staff 55 Reasonable standards forteachers 55

Salary trends and schoolterm fl 57 Chapter VIII. Certification ofteachers 59 Agencies which issuecertificates 59 Methods of securing certificates 60 Chapter IX. School textbooks 63 State uniformity______63 Free textbooks 63 Chapter X. School grounds andliandinr:s 66

FIGURES

Page Per cent of total population,rural andODfarms 6 FIG. 2.Kind of provisionfor the office of chiefState school officialin each of the States, 1923 12 FIG. 3.:-Increase in totalcurmnt costs of education inUtah, 1913to 1925,

shown in dollarspaid and in 1913dollars 31 ; Flo. 4.Percentagedistribution of totalrevenue receipts by States, 1924_ 35 FIG. 5.Length a session,andaverage days attended, 1923-24 44 FIG. 6.The widegapbetween the salariesof country teachers andsal- . aries of elementaryteachers in the cities 58 -

st.

LETTER OFTRANSMITTAL

DEPARTMENTOF THEINTERIOR, BUREAUOFEDUCATION, Washington, D. CDeice er19, 1926. SIR:Interest in Constructivelegislation for improvgState school systems in the United Statesapparently increasesyearbyyear. While each Statesetsup a systemof publicschools responsiveto its needs and adaptedto itsresóurces,thereare manysimilarities in the legal provisionsunderlyingthe establishmentof schoolsystems of the different States.Since itsestablishment theBnreau of Education haspromoted desirableunity andassisted school systems considering fundamentalchanges inorganizationorpracticesto follow those provedsuccessfulin othersystems, when adaptableto their needs. Thishas been doneby the bureauacting in its capacity isaclearing house ofinformationonmatters of educationalmoment. ParticularlyareState officialsand othersinterested inschool legislation desirous offamiliarizingthemselves withprogressive practice in otherStates in generaland concerningspecial provisionsalong given linesof interest.Theaccompanyingmanuscript hasbeen preparedtoservethepurposesindicated duringthe legislativecycle of 1927,when themajority ipfourStatelegislatives willmeet.I recommend itspublicationas abulletin of theBureau oftii----uCation.

JNO. J.TIGERT, Commintioner. The SECRETARYOF THEINTERIOR.

-sr A MANUAL OFEDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION

Chapter I 1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE

Thismanual is printed primarilyto present to educationalcom- mittees of the Statelegislatures, educators, legislators, andinterested citizens, the essentials ofa programof educaticinal legislation,state- wide inscope,baseduponthe experiences of the variousStates during thepast several decades. A largeamount of proposed educational legislationis presented at each legislative session.Some of it is desirable,butalarge part. isnot.It is with difficultythat those unfamiliar withschool admin- istrationcan pass uponit and know what oughtto be enacted into law and what discarded.It is hoped that this publication willbe of assistance in determiningaction.Topicsarediscussed in the light of experienceof the States withdifferent systems and ofthe best Tat

ideas of authoritiesin school administration. . Each of the 48 Stateshas itsowndistinctsystem of education. The Federal Governmentassumes nocontroloverthe public schools throughout thecountry except with referenceto the special. Federal appropriations for specificpurposes, asthe Smith-HughesAct for assistanceto vocational education and the Smith-LeverAct f9r assistance Wagriculturalextension education.Nevertheless, because of proximityand interchange ofideas, the Statesystems havemany i)ointsof similarity.Conditions affecting thekinds of schoolsystems do not differ fundamentally;therefore, each Stateprofitsflythe experiences of others, and throughthe adoption of whatprovesgood the Statesaretending towardsystemsmoresimilar thanin thepast. We have, therefore, whatmaybe designatedasthe "trend inthe school development " in theUnited States,anexpression meaning the forward movementgenerallytoward similarityinsystems and 'practices. w e In enacting schoollaws legislaturesmaybe guided inpart by the experiences sof other States.For instance,in ône State legislation toprovide that the'`Stateprepareand print itsownteitbooksis recommeRded. Beforeiction is takenthe experiences of'California and Kansas hilly wellbe studied.In another the adopt:ionofthe

0 . 2 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

v.county unit of admunstration andsupport is proposed;astudy of the experiences of Statesorganizedonthat basis will be helpful. When it is evide4t thatnew orrevised school lawsareneeded in anyState it is wiseto follow the swcessful experience ofother States which have tried theproposed plans, if suchmaybe found. Ifrea ons are evicentthat wouldma ethisprac teeundesirable, or a p anis proposed whichseemsbetter thananyyet tried,tereview ofteexperiences of otherStates solving thesameproblems in othewaysisti11 desirable. Inther words, school legislationshould be passed in thelight of what has been provedeffective in other Statesand with the knowledge beforeoneof what has been triedand discarded andof

thereasonsinfluencingsuccess orfailure.' %

A This bulletin isabrief résumé ofwhat has been found desirable find acceptable.It aimsto show the trend in educationalsystems and legislation adopted alterexperienw and study.It gives refer- encestomorecomplete iriformationonthe subjects discussed.

THE STATE AND THESCHOOLS

Practice in the United Stateklswellasconstitutionalorstatu- tory provisions, charges the "Vial Statelegislatures with the resporisibilityof providingasystem af schools for all the children of the State adequateto their needs and efficient in fulfilling the educational ideals of thepeople of the State.Education withusis admittedlyaState responsibility.It follows, therefore, that it is the duty of the State legislature(1) to formulateaconstructive . policy for theeducation of all the children of the State;(2) toprovide theadministrativemachinery foraschoolsystem adequate to carryout.this policy; and (3)to make such changes from time to timeaschanging conditions and educational needsrequire. It is well known that after-warconditions have broughtabout fundamental changes in idol* foramodern educationsystem. Progressive States, therefore,'areproviding for such changesin administrative drganization; insources,amount,ailddistribution of funds; and in school and curriculumreorganizationasthe needs of modern life require-.Theprogramof adjustment ofthe school system to the growing needs and expectations of the people.involves manyproblems which State legislaturesmust help solve. Among the most pressing of those whichcairrorlegislative actionat this timeare:(1) Tosecure morenearly equitable adjustment within the State of tax burdens and educationalopportunities for all children.(2) To providesystems tof school support which will enable the schools of the Statemoreadequatelyto meettheexpansion necessaryin the provision of school facilities conuilensirate with 1 -1-) PURPOSE AND. SCOPE 3 thenewideals for schoolbuildings; school organization,enriched curricula, and increasedcosts of instruction andgeneral school administration.(3) To providesuchadministrativesystemsaswill 'insure professional administraiionand efficient and economicalman- agement of the schools.The State,assuch, is responsibleforpro- vidinganadmirkistrativesystem which makes possibleanelementary and secondaryeducatiorífoiall childrenitt the State.(4) Tosetup certain minimumstandards whichall sphools andschoolsystems must meet, andto provide for suchsourcpsofsupportaswill 'enable all communitiesto maintain schools satisfyingestablished standards.

ASTÁtEPitOGRAMFOR EDUCATION The legislativeprogramforanyState will differfrom that in others becausejtmust provide for particularand specific State-needs andmust be consistent withthe existingadministrativesystem and traditions andideals of thepeople.Thereare,however, certain considerations andproblemscommon toall States which willdoubt- less be the subjectof considerationin formulatingeducationalpro- grams.InmanyStates the firststepshbuldbeto takeaninventory or surveyof theéducationalassets and liabilities of the State,and onthe basis ofthis studytoformulaea programof educational legislation extendingover aperiod ofyears.Sucha programwould include,amongother things,someprOvision for thefollowing: 1. A businesslikeStatesystem of school organization,administration, supervision,andsupportaprofessionally staffedand adequate State department ofecification. 2. Establisimhentofaneffective unit forthe greatest,efficiencyin local schoolAdministration,orsuch changes inexisting unitaswill addto its pr.actical efficiency. 3. ReadjusFment ofelementaryand secondary educationto include (a) education forhealth, (b)education for citizenship,(e) education for lifeoccupation, and (d)education for leisure. 4. A liberalsystem of schoolsupport, including sources.whichsup- plement income fromproperty taxation, if possible;ascientifically distributed equalizationfund;orhn equitable mettod ofdistributing established fundsto equalize 'educational opportunitiesandat the sametime provideane'quitable distributionoftax burdens. 5. Provision whichinsures sanitary andappropriate schoolgrounds and buildings,preferably under Statesupervision andinspection. 6. Preparation ofanadequate staff ofteachers. 7. Provision fora'modernsystem of certificating teachersbased on agradual increasein professional reqiiireniOnts. 8. Adequate provision tor liviugsalaries for these teacher's,longer tenures, and retirement pension. 21279°--27 2 AMA1MAL OP EMICATIONALLEGISLATION 61 9. A liberal planunirwhichto provide textbooks and equipment in the schools.

TABLE1. Illiteracy:Numberandpercent ofilliteratm in population10years ofageandovert by United Sta trx Census of 1920Numberunable tospeak English

IV Native white White Foreign:born A 11 classes Negro popula- Nativepar- Foreign-or white Iwn 10 State entage mixedpar- years entage andover .. unable to speok A

I Num- PerMini-PerMinis Per Num-ParNum- 1 PerEnglish

ber , ; cent ber cent ber cent ber cent ber ¡ cent

Contineutal 1 Isms United States.4, 031, 905 8. 0 1, 100, 875 2. 5 132, 6970. 8 1, 763, 740 13. 11, 842, 18122. 9 1 488, 918

I , . 1111/ Alabama.. 278,08218.1 64, 9/56. 4. 4891 1, 89310. 9'210,690131. 3 724 A .a. .ra. SDma Owlalea 39,131 1 5.81 1, 454 L 3, 1, 779 4.6! 19, 291¡ 27. 5 338;4. 6 38, 352 Arkansas. 121, fk37 9. 4 40, 753 4. 6 658 2. 0. 1, 1451 8. 3 79, 2,451 21. b 697 California_ . ------95, 592 3. 3 5, 359 .411 3, 388 .6It 69, 7681 10. 5 1, 579;4. 7 69, 570 1 Colorado.__ _ 24, 208 3. 2 7, 65.5 1.7' 969 . 14, 22412. 4 619L 6. ` 10, 650

1 Connecticut._ __ _ _ 67, 26,5 6. 2 1, 532 . 1, 39 .4 63, 13117. 0 1,078!8. 38, 068 Delaware. _ _ 10, 508 5. 9+ 2,295 2.01 132, .6j 3, 37317. 4 -4, 70019. 1 2, 733 District of Colurnli¡a 10, 509 2. 8 564 .31 76 .2 1, 728 6.1 8, 053 8.6 779 Florid& 71, AU 9, 6 12,6b1 3. 1 508 1. 1 2, 6571 6. 3 65, 63921. 6 7, 918 Oeorgia_ 32S, 1& 3 66, 537 5. 5 269 1. 1 861 5. 4 261, 11529. 1 285

;Idaho. _ 4, 924 1. 5 654 .3 260 .3 2, 501 6. 5 44 5. 41 1, 9.56 Illinois- ...... 1 73, 987 & 4 24, 437 1. 1 6, 470 .4 131,99611. 0 10, 476 6. 7 121, 965 Indiana 52, (44 1 2 24, 981 1. 4 2, 984 1. 0, 17, &5511. 8 6, 476 9f 6 13, 200 Iowa 20 1. 1 5, 921 .5 3.4. 11, 004 4. 9 1, 283 8. 1 9, 550 7.4., Kansas 821 1. 6 5, 835 .6 1,345.4 11, 29110.5. 4, 228 & 8 12, 027

Kentucky. 1M, 014 8. 4 110, 902 7. 1,30411.3 2, 244 7. 3 40, 548 21. 0 688 Lot ialana______- 299, ea221. 9 78, 81 1L 4 3, 1393. 5 9, 70721. 9206, 730 3& 6 3, 683 Maine 2o, 24 3 5, 1 1. 3 3, 2902. 9 11, 60411. 1 64 5.9 10, 333 Maryland.....______64, 434 &6 13, 884 2.04 1, 4841 13, 57513. 4 0, 404 1&2 7, 765 Massachuset La..... _ _ 14& 607 4. 7 2, 926 .3 4, 854i 135, 72012. 8 2, 565 6.8 98, 4 26 (.* Michigan A 88,048 & 0 7, 580k .6 6,5921 .7 70, 5359. 0 2, 203 4. 68, 103 Minnesota. 4$7 1. 1, 988 .4 8, 967 .5 28, 242 5. 4 241 3: 1 28, 311 Mississi pi 229, 73417.2 21, 881'3. t 361 2. 3 ,05713. 3205, 813 29. 3 455 M issouri_ _ . 83,4 1 0 43, 031 2. 2 035 .9 11,6 9.0 18, 528 12.1 11, 126 Mott tans 9, 544 1 3 659 .3 3981 .3 5, 1 5. 6 87 6. 3, 008

Nebraska.._ _ _ _ _ 13, 784 1. 4 2,1184 .4 1,176/ .4 9, 4686. 4 5543 4. 8 9, 1 86 Nevada...._ __--- 3,; or 5. 9 11 4 381 .2 1, 241i & 5 16 5. 1 1, 509 New Hampshire__ _ 1 5, 4. 4 1, 023 .6 9501 1. 1 13, 746 15. 4 33 6. 7 11, 339 New Jersey. - -- 127, 661 5. 1 6, 797 .7 2,809! .4 111, 59515. 3 5,910 6. 1 73, 409 New Mexico_____ 41, 637l&6 23, 75711. 9 1, 7621 & 2 7, 250 27. 1 , 228 4. 3 13, 225

New York_ 425,022 5.j 16, 1 .6 12, 256 .5 380, 603 14. 2 1 290, 200 North Carolina.._ _ _ _ 341, 13. 1 104, 673 & 2 1 71 10 47 6. 81g,67424. 5 190 North Dakota_ 9, 937 1 1 335 .3 972 .5 7 5. 6 18 4.0 10, 189 Ohio 131, 2. 8 28,53. 10 8,191) .6 84, 38712. 6 12, 715 8. 1 81, 161 Oklahoma.______- 56, 864 &8 29,4131 4 1, 006 1. 2 5, 45814.0 14, 20512. 4 5, 632

Oregon 9, 317 15 1 5 .4 461 .3 5, 1725. 1 89 4. 7 3, 34 2 Pennsylvania_ _ _ __ 31 2,699 4.6, 29, 977 8, 803 .6 258, 81118. 9 141645 6. 1 162, 240 Rhode Island 31, 31 & 5 094 . 1, 561 .9 28, 160 16.5 839 10.2 21, 620 South Carolina_. _ 220, 6671 8. 1 38, k &6 103 1.0 391 6.2181, 422 20. 3 116 South Dalcotti _ 81 1 1. 7 .a . 3, 84 4. 7 35 5. 2 4, 861

Tennessee 182, 62910. 3 101, 31 7. 4 4 1.61 f, 263& 3 70, 532 22. 4 506 Texas 205, 844 & 3 84 42412 30, 219 9. 4 112, 417 33. 8102, 053 17. 172,057 Utah 6, 304 1.9 535 .3 3._. .3 3, 501 6. 3 69 4 2, 303 Vermont 8, 488 3. 1, 904 1. 1 1, 709 2. 4, 83711. 3 28 6.2 3, 065 Virginia 196,1 e 11.2 70, 081 6. 1 394 10 2, 1i 7. 1 n,3 23.b 1, 135 j5rr1 Washington 1. . 7 1,4 3 751 .3 11 i 4. 7 24 t 7, 796 West Virginia_. _ 69,413 & 4 43, 5734. 751 1. 6 14, 548 24,0 10, 613 16.3J 11, 121 Wisconsin 80, 397 1 4 3. 7, 1 .808, & 4 1 t ) 44, 481 Wyoming.. ______3,14 2. 1 101 .a 1,2339 i 6.3 -0 , 2,GICS ;$

"alb do SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 7

Chapter II t GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION

STATE VDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION

The State'sprograniof educationmusthave fwstalegaltiksis resting"upon its constitution and the duly approvedacts of itslegis- lature.In certain instances this legislation charges, the perform- anceof certain educational duties directlyto localcivil governmerits ortospecial school units; usually, however, it is carried out through certain State officers.In most States there isaState board of educa- lion, in allaState department of education.The board usually has general supervision of the State's educationalprogram asdetermined

in itsconstitution and laws.It acts onlyas abody.#Its actsaDo, legislative,the .execution being the function oftke Stat:cuef school officer and the State department of educationoverwhich this officer presides. In other words, the State department of education is the functioning body for the State board. Thenewand enlarged conception .of education is addingnew importanceto the chief educationalofficer in the several States-- i.e.,the State superintendent of public instructionorcommissioner of education andto the Statedepartment of education of which he isapartand the heaa.The office,asoriginally creatod in the older States,wascjiiefly clerical and statisticalonuch like theold county superintendency.Almostany personchosen from the general elec- torate could then fill the positiOn tothe satisfaction of flip public. But the demands of to-day requirea newtypeof educational leader- ship, able to ,adniinister the manifold problemsof modern sclool organization 'and administration, general education,school sanitation,industrial and vocational tducation, interrelationof the elementary and higher schools, andeducational legislation.

.4 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION1

Modn educational developmentis-toward provisionilbraState bottledoieducationasthe administrativeheadof the State's educa- tionalsystem,Forty-two States have suchboardswith functions relatingtothecommonschools.Two States havenosuch boards. In several States boards have beenortranizedsince thepassageof

I Bee &leg U. 8. Bu: of Educ.Bullet*, 1920, Np.481 and 1924, No. 5. 6 A MA NUZ.75fPEDUCAilONALLEGISLATION

the Smith-Hughesvocationaleducationact to administerthe funds nr(117;dellPn'inr thisact.Their duties,like thoseofmany f exorricio

PERCENT QFTOTALPOPULATION RURAL AND ON FARMS

DATA ARE FROMTHE . P 920 CENSUS REPORTS 11111-170TA.....VIAL 11ON rA Rms PER CENT 1 0 0 2 0 3 0 40 50 40 70 80 90 RU RAL FARM A LABAMA 76 57 ARIZONA es 2 7 , ARKANSAS 03 04 -CALIFORNIA 3 2 15 . .amossommire COLORADO 52 IS CON NECnew 3 Z 7 MD DELAWARE 46 23 FLORIDA 63 29 . 0e0R0411 15 514 IDAHO 11111111101111111111111111 7 2 .47 ILLI1406 3 2 1 7 PIMANA 49 3 I IOWA 64 4 1 REM= KAMA 3 65 42 t. KENTUCKY 74 54 LOUISA A NA 455 44 MAINE 6 1 28 MARYLA ND 40 19 MASSACHUSETT5 5 3 ICI WHOAN 39 23 LONE SO TA 56 31 MISSISSIPPI 97 71 MISSOURI 2 55 36 IOW MONTANA ee 4 1 NE BR ASKA 69 45 N11110111MINIP11111110.1111180.1..1111111 rainemos 1 1411 1ADA 00 2 I NEW HAMPSHIRE 37 17 NEW JER SE Y t2 S 31.0 4 NEW AM X/CO 82 48 NEW Y ORK 1 7 6 MOM NORTHCAROLINA e l SO 111MMIN NORTH DAKOTA IN SI ramlot OHIO 36 20 . !MI OKL AHOM A 73 SO OREGON SO 17 11111111111111111

PENNSYLVANIA 345 1 1 RHODE 1 SLAW 3 _ 1111=Wi' SOUTH CAROLINA -111.111111IN SOUTHDAKOTA 04 57 _ LT] TENNESSEE 74 54 01111111111MIS amp MAI :simemmuir es 49 . , .D VTAM sz 31 VERMONT 09 as 11=1111111111111 moli-vmen nowinsinGA= VIRGINIA 71 44 WA SP49NCITON 45 I 1 WESTVIRGIN A 73 13 saws WISCONSIN 53 38 , WYOMING 71 a 11111MS , UM TIEDSTATES 4 SO

yomb Mo.1.Percent of totalpopulationrural andon farms hoards,are nominal.In othersthe Stateboards ofeducation administeronly thehigher educationalinstitutions,asthe university, , agriculturalcollege,andnormal schools.

-s to; ;LIN" Set.ozz

t .11iE SCHOOL OrANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 7 rt TAnLE 2.Composition of Stateboardrof education'

Ex officio members In Appointedor elected ntembers

8 C.) to+ States M IE Appointed ii V V .1 or . 0-t-Igg Vs-g elected by s *.a '14;0E ti i E- E--

Alabama _ am.M. MMI, 6Governor ...12 2 6 8 Arizona _ 1 3 M MM. do 11) 5 3 8 a a. 1 Arkansas .. 7 MD do .. 7 7 8 IMP California .. Whe 4 .___ edo 4 0 7 7 Colorado 2 1 eeeCtCaeeee.eeSC 3 0 3 1 1 mt, w, ' - _ Connecticut...... 9Governer M 6 2 9 11 a, Delaware._ ..... _ a IMP 5....ado _ 5 0 5 6

_ OD,MM. 1 5 Florida...... - 3 or ...... a 0 5 Georgia , MM. 3 1 GovernOT 4 2 4 6 Idaho 5 M. CO do- .. 5 1 5 6 Indiana 3 3 2 1 .-__do... 4 7 6 13 Kansas.s. 3 1 40 Om 4IMMOMM do . 2 6 3 9 Kentucky- _ M 2 4 3 o 3

Louisiana _ _ OP 6 Governor 5 1 5 6 Maryland_ ..... Wo- M. 1 7_____do______7 0 7 7 _ Massachusetts._ MP m mm ow MO. 1 5 _ _do__ ...... _3 1 6 7

Michigan ..... - m m a i CM 011401. MD Mamma 3 Popular wow_6 1 3 4 Minnesota 5 Oovernor-__ 5 0 5 5 Mississippi...... 2 OP e e. cease e l 8 o 3 M issouri _ 2 4 4 o 4 Montana_ ...... 1 1 8Governor 4 8 8 11 Nevada___ ...... 1 eI 8 o 3

New 11 am pshire___ 1 -a Mo a -MD atm m M. 5 Governor _ 5 1 5 6

NewI ersey.._ _ - - m. No m m m MD MP OD .0 a. a AD 8_____do_ eeeeee 8 0 8 8 New Mexico _ .m. a a 8 M 2 do _.. 4 2 5 7

elk New York ...... VP a...... a 1 emo. 12 AM e State legislature_12 012 12 1 North Carolina_____ 5 a e a a ow e ...... a 7 o 7 North Dakota __._- -- 1 3 Governor_ 6 2 3 6 _a..2 _4_ Oklahoma. leeCe 4....ado _ .....6 1 6 7 Oregon. 1 1 e OD lb OD Oa e e a o 3 p. Pennsylvania__ 4.1or MD MI. M. 1 M MmIMm .M MD M. Ma, 11M 3 M. MM 3 Governor 6 1 6 7 lihode Island 1 1 I e 6State legislature_8 2 6 8

mit MD 1 South Carolina 1 ewe.. is , 7 Governer.._ 4 2 7 9, Tennessee _ 1 M 10...... MP IM I M Ma am. MI aM 9 do 6 I 9 10

1 1 Texas 1 2- .. e m Oeee ..... dflo a o 3

IMP MO 1 1 Utah . 1 GB 8 Governor__ 6 3

_ _ MI Vermont. a ...... OD 01. 5 do__., 5 % 0 6 1 f State senate, 3 CB 4 Virginia. I 1 1 e 5 M, MI 5 1State board, 2...2 8 Washington _ 1 1 1 3' Governor _ 2 .4 a 7 West Virginia.____m m e 1 _ 3 3 ____do. 6 1 6 7

1 1 MP 4 5 ,Wiseonsin - - - MI. M. 411. 8 (I) 2 8 10 _ ID M 1 4 6 Wyoming dB MI Ws 110 6State superin- a 7 tendent.6

I From U. 8. Bur. of Edue. Bul.1920, No. 46. Indefinite. I Governor appoints 5 members,university board of regents 1, normal schoolregents 1, vocational educe- tion board 1. 4 Governor's appdntees. I With approval ofgovernor. 4,11. Composition of State boards of educatiomStateboards of edu- catin aremade'upin the followingways:Ex officio membership, composed of State officials, usually including thegovernorand chief State school officer, and of other members selected fromamong other 'State ofDcials,asthe attorney general,secretary of state, State treasurer;exofficio education officers,aspresidents of higher institutions,incltiding universities,colleges, and normal schools(insome

Ef . s A kAlitTAL bietartATIOÑALLEdIgLATIÖN

casesthe law providesthat these boar:dsincludeonerepresentative who isacity superinten(lent,onewho isacounty superintendent, orsimilar regulation);membership,confinedtopersons notengaged in educational work;membersmay or may not be engaged in edu- cationalwork;and various,combinationsof the above.(See Table 2.) Meth,ods of appointment.In33 Statessome orall of the members of Stateboardareappointedorelected. In28 of thse thepowerof appointment isvested in thegovernor,subject insome .ases toap- proval by the Statesenate.in 3 the Statelegislature makesthe selection, in1 State the board is electedby popularvote, and in1 appointment is leftto the State chief schoolofficer.In the other States appointment ismade, inpart by thegovernor,inpart bycer- tain educationalboards, and in1 State inpart by the senate. The tertdency inthe selection ofmembers of Stateboards of edu- cationseemsto be toward appointmentby thegovernor.Two methods of selection,(1) appointment bythegovernorand (2) election by thepebple, receive theapproval of authoritiesonschool administration.The first method,appointment by thegovernor, has-these merits: (1) Itcentralizes fullresponsibility forall the departments of publicservice, incluaing themanagement of schools, flikheexecutive head of the State.This tendsto unity andeconomy in administration.(2) It*itsbelieved that thismethodprotects the board froni undue politicalinfluence.Selection is oftenrestricted toaaeligible listorlimited insomeothermanner.The advisability of thegovernorbeingamember of the board heappoints is doubtful. Electipn by the people isfavored bymanyauthoritiesonschool administration because:(1) Itcenters responsibility definitelyon a groupofpersonselected specifically forone purpose,namely; that of having general charge ofschools.(2) Itrepresentsmorenearly adirect expression by thepeople of their wishesin themanagement of school affairs than doesappointment.(3) It followsourcustom of making those intrusted with legislativefunctions directlyrespon- sibleto the people.(Administrativeauthoritiesaregenerally agreed that the chief functions of'a Stateboard of educationarelegislative rather than executive.) Sizeof board,term of office mode of retiringinember8.:---The present tendency is towardaState board ofeducationcomposed of from fiveto nine members, each of whom holdsoffice foraterm of from fivetoseven years.The time ofretirement issoarranged thatamajority of the board remainsconstant; that is,onemember retires eachyear, or two orthree each alternateyear.%The smallest boards,as nowconstituted,arethose whicharecomposed ofex officio members.Theterm of office of members ofexofficio boards

alb SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 9 is fixed by law andrangesfrom twoto fouryears.The members usually retire simultaneously. Thismaybe regardedasrepresent- 'ingapassing type.In 25 of the 42 States having State boardsof education the number constitutingaboardrangesfrom 7 to j3 members.Boards of this size, with continuity of service provided, aregenerally consideredassatisfactory in size for working efficiency.Neither too largenor toosmallaboard is desirable. Powers and dutie8 ofawell-orga.nized State board of education. According to authoritiesonschool administration the State board of education, like the city board, shouldbealay board representing the larger educational policies of the public,delegating theprofessional side of educationand the administration of its general policiesto its appointed executive official, the Statesupesrintendent of public instructionorcommissioner of education, andto the heads of the several highereducational institutions, ifany,under itssuper- vision. The board should becomposed of from fiveto nine members appointed by thegovernorby and with theconsent of the senate, the term of officeto be five toseven years, onemember to retire eachyear, ortwo in each biennial period, thus perpetuatiug the board's policies and giving it stabilityandadegree ofpermanency. Vacancies should be filled by thegovernor.The appointment should be for absolute worth and without regardto residence,.occupation, party affiliation,orsimilar considerations.The members should servewithobt remunerationexcept forareasonableperdiem and actual traveling and othernecessary expenses.The maximumnum- ber of days for which suchperdiemmaybe paid should be fixed by law. The generalpowersof the State board should includethe following, keeping in mind that the Stateboard isalegislative body,the State 8uperinfttendent of public instrixtionorthe commissioner of education actinga$it8 executive officer: 1. To know the educational nee& of the State andto determine itseAcationalpoliciessofarasauthority is conferred upon- itto dosoby the constitutionorby acts of the legislature. 2. To have general oversight and control ofthe public-school system of the State 2as maybe determined by law, and ofother schools insofarascharged by specific legislation. 3. To select the chief State school officer,who becomes its executive head;to determine hispowersand duties; and the function of the State department of educationunder his direction. 4. To adopt thenecessaryregulations andsetupstandards for educatioriin the State relativeto compulsorrtducation, school build-

Insome of the States the proOoaed State boards of educationmay beorganisedto hare controlof all the schools, including the higher Institutions.This would particularly betrue of States whichseefit to enlarge thepowers of the board now in vintrol of higher education to include also thegeneral oversight of the elementary and secondary schools. '4 10 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION AC. ings, school equipment,coursesof study, qualifications of teachers, physicaledu'cation,medical inspection of children, school records gild reports, etc. 5. To have general controloversuch educational institiitionsas the- State schools for the deaf and blind, industrial reform schools for boys and girls, and educational work in State reformatories and penitentiaries, and State hospital& 6. To have general regulatory control ofortoestablish cooperative relations with all teacher-training institutions conduc.ted by, the State. 7. To actas aboard of control for the State library and historical collections. The following quotation from " Supplemental Report of the Organization and Administration of School District No. 1 in the City arid County of Denver," by Ellwood P. Cubberley,professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University,expressesprinciples equally applicable toadefinition of functions of State,couy, or local district (city)boards of education: t. A board for school control for a city schooldistrict should be distinctively abusiness boacl, closely analogous to a boardof directors forabusiness corporation. The direction of the educational affairs of any large city has to-day become soimportant and Ao technical, and now involves such a degree of expert knowledge and nicety of adjustmentif the best resultsare tobe obtained, that noboard of laymen, however worthy orwilling, isany longer competent to handle the detaiN ofthe work of school organizationand administration. These should be turned over to competentofficers, and the board should confine its attention to the largerfeatures of the administrative problem. These larger features relate,first and most important, to the selection, from time to time, of the executive officer orofficersupon whom the board is to depend for advice, and for theexecution of its policies; to the determination, after listening to therecommendations and the advice of its executive officers, of the educational andbusiness policies for the school system. Proper city schoolorganization and management call foraclear separation *kafthe work of schoolcontrol into legislative, executive, and inspectional functions.All sound theory and the resultsof both business andeducational administrative experience callforaclear separation of legislative andexecutive functions.It is tbe prime business of the board of school control to hearre- ports, to listen to theadvice of Its executive officers, and then to legislate; itis the prime business of the executiveofficers to execute the legislation enacted and to report the rqsults tothe board; and it is the function of the board in turn to Judge tsie resultsof its policitss and the work of its executive officers by inspecting the resultsobtained. STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION' The State departments of education have,as arule,developed more orless independently, paralleling the several State boards

1111Mb I See U. S. Bn. of Edw.Bulletins, 1920, No. 46, and 1924, No, 5, SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION il of education, with functions centeredin the administration ?f the elementary and secondary schools of the State. The executivehead of this boardthe State superintendent-of public instructionor commissioner of educationwas formerlyapolitical official in nearly all the States.Greater. efficiencyin school administrationnow demandsachange. The superintendentorcommissioner is beginning to bq recognizedasthe chief educational officer inthe State, whose task it isto organize and direct the educational forces within the State.The office requires the largestability.It is indeed hard toconceile ofamoie important officeor a moredifficult position tofill well.At all times it calls fortact, initiative, and executive ability. THE CHIEF STATE SCHOOLOFFICER

Provision is made Jor theoffice intwoway-s:(1) By constitution and -(2) bystatute.Thirty-three States providefor the office in their constitutions, by givinginstructions therein forthe legislatures to create and sustain it.AmongtlieseStates the constitutional mandates for the establishmentand maintenance ofthe officevary somein detail, but ingeneral theyare verysimilar. The remaining 15 Statep,onthe other hand,do not mention the office in theircon- stitutioils;these havestatutory provision for it.The kind ofpro- vision whicheach State makesmaybeseenfrom themaphere given. The prevailing method ofselecting the chief schoolofficerorState superintendent is by popularvote.In six States theseofficersare appointed by thegovernor,in eight by the Stateboard of education.' The last of thesemethods is in line with acceptedprinciples of school administration and hasthe most to commend it. The chief State schoolofficer should be selectedby the State board of education from thecountry at large because of professionalprep- aration and administrativeability, and if possiblebecause ofsuccess in other positions requiringsimilar ability andinvolving similar duties. Manyable and efficient chief schoolofficers havecomeinto office by popularelectionorby gubernatorialappointment.Both methods havesomeadvantages, but nedher isas sureand' reliableas appointment byanonpartisan board. Noother method of selection is rational, if this officer isto be responsible to the board. Theterm of office shouldhavenoreferenceto the change of officers connected with the partisangovernment of the State.It should be indefinite orforaperiod ofyears,long enough to make possiblethe consistent development of administrativepolicies!'

11111.011.1. ../, .111111 111141...... =1M 4111M. Bee Table 8. 4- g U. B. Bu. of Educ.. Bulletins, 1920, No.46, and 1924, No. 5,,ahould beconsulted for further informationonthis subject. 21279*-27-8 " =- - i---- _ 12 A MANUAL OFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

If the chiefState schoolofficer° isselecfed bypopularvote, the officemaybecomeapoliticalone,subjectto the fluctuations ofparty

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. 46 and factionalpolitics. Theterm is short,two to fouryears,reelec- tion isuncertain, andthe lack ofcontinuity in theservice isahandi- Seven differenttitles for this officerare used in the 48 States."Superintendent of PublicInstruction "isnow used bymoreStates thanany other, but thetendency la toward that of "Commissioner of Education."

- - ---*. - _ SCHOOL ORGANIZATIONAND ADMINISTRATION 13 cap tothe officer, however capable. Theterm and salaryarefixed by . law andcannot be adjusted to fit thepersondesired. The field from which to choose is limitedto the State, and the qualificationsare sometimes limitedastoageand citizenship.Under the appointive method. the chief State schoolofficermaybe selectedas arepresidents of universities, citysuperintendents, andother importantschool officials, from thecountry at large.

TABLE 3.Chief state whoolofficerand approximate numberof assistants .. Num-

ber of I Num-

Term spe- 1 ber of State Title I . in By whom selectedSalary Icialistq; clerks years! in de- in depart-partment 1 ment

Alabama Superintendent of education 44 People $5, 000 20 15 Arizona Superintendent of publicin- 2 do 3, 300 5 i struction. 5 ______Arkansas do 2 do _ ...... 2, 500 11 3 California_...... do 4 do 5, 000 14 25 Colorado _ ...do 2 do__.______... 3, 000 3 5 Connecticut _ Commissioner of education____ 6 1 Stateboard of 9, 000 18 49 education. Delaware Superintindentof public in- ____do _ ..... 5, 000 O 2 struction. Districtof Columbia_ Superintendent of schools._ ... 4 Florida_ _ _ _ _ Superintendent of public in- 4 People 3, 600 10 struction. 2 Georgia...... Superintendent of schools_____ 2 _ _do 4, r-00 14 2 Superintendent of public in- 2 b_ do ...... 2, 400 Idaho struction. 2 4 Commissioner of education.. (1) Stateboard of 6,000 7 education. Illinois _____ Superintendent of publicin- 4 People 7, 500 . struction. 15 15 Indiana do A 2 do 5, 000 10 10 lows______do 4 (In 4, 000 12 10 Kansas _ do ...... 2 _ _ _(to_ .... 3, 000 6 5 ______a. Kentucky MI . 0, do e ...... - 4 4 do 4, 000 12 10 Louisiana Superintendent of public edu- 4 do 5, 000 cation. 15 8 Maine ..... Commissioner of education 3 Governor___ _ 4, 600 10 9 Maryland Superintendent of schools_____ 4 Stateboard of 14, 000 12 6 education. Massachusetts Commissioner of education.... 6 Governor.... 9, 000 33 73 Michigan Superintendent of publicin- 2; People-- ...... --- 5,000 16 17 struction. I Minnesota Commissioner of education.... 6Statehoard of 5,000 24 20 I education. M ississippi Superintendent of publicin- 4 People 4, 500 struction. 12 8 M issouri _ ...... Superintendent ofpublic 4 _-do-- . 3,000 17 6 schookk Montana Superintendent of publicin- 4 do 3, 600 3 struction. 3 Nebraska do _ ...... 4____do_. 01. .1M, M. a Nevada 5,000 4 7 do 4 do 3,600 1 1 New flampshire._ Commissioner oleducation (I) Stateboard of 4, A00 8 8 education. New Jersey do 5 Governor__ _ . 10,400 19 14 New Mexico 4 2 Superintendent of public in- 1 People 3, 000 4 8 struction. New York Commissioner of education....(s) stateboard of 12, 000 ao 78 ""I education. North Carolina_. ._ Superintendent of publicin. I 4 People 4, 000 27 struction. 8 North Dakota_ do 2_ dO _..... a,000 8 a Ohio Director of education 4 air Or 4Ir ..... Governor 6, 500 zI 6 11926 Educational Directory. I U. 8. Bu. ofUm). Bul., 1924, No. 5, "The ChiefState Schgol Official," by WardG. Roeder. 1Returns for the Educational Directory. Doesnot include deputyorassistant State superintendent:4 4 In Alabama, Kentucky, andNew Mexico the chid_State school oftermay not serve more than four years in sucoessiond sIndefinite.

- 4 1

14 A MAiTIJALOF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION .1

TABLE 3. -ChiefState schoolofficer andapproximatenumber ofassistantsContd.

Num-Num- ber cfber of Term State spe-clerks Title 'in By whom selectedSalarycialistsin de- years in de-part- part-ment ment a

Oklahoma i SuPerintendentof public in- 4 People struction. 2, 500 7 5 Oregon do I 4 do 4, 000 Pennsylvania do 4 6 4 Governor 12, 000 54 50 Rhode Island__el MO MI, . Commissionerof education__ .10_ 1 Stateboard of 6, 000 7 5 education. South Carolina__ ._ Superintendentof education_ South Dakota _ 2 People - 2, 500 13 6 Superintendentof public in- 2_____do__ _ struction. ______1, 800 8 6 Tennessee______Commissioner of education_ 2 Governor__ __41Ir M. 3, 600 Texas_ Superintendentof public in- 2 People struction. 4, 000 12 22 Utah do Vermont 4 ,_do 4, 000 8 3,4 ...... =1.Commissionerof education____ (1) Stateboard of 6, 000 4 3 Virginia education. Superintendentof public in- 4 People_ struction. 3, 500 11 8 Washington _ do 4 _ _ _ _ do alb .110 .0 at 3, 000 6 West Virginia___. alb Superintendentof schools_ Wisconsin 4 _do_ ------5, 000 18 6 Superintendentof public 4 do 5, 000 schools. 17 8 State superintendentof pub- Wyoming 4 do .. .. 3, 000t lic instruction. 6 a Commissioner ofeducation__ __ (1) Stateboard of 3, 000f . education.

6Indefinite.

.1.%"\'tWith the Stateorganized foreducationonthis basis, the position of chief,school officerstands first,in responsibilityand inopportu- nity to renderexecutive se'rvice.As executive officialhe administers the 'variousdivisions ofthe -Statedepartment of educationand also represents the Stateboardasits professionalrepresentative with the highereducationalinstitutions()titleState.The Statedepart- ment of educationshould becomprehensivelyplannedonlines of approved businessprinciples. Ifthe State isto get fullreturns onits educationalinvestment,the methods,means,andwaysout- linedmust be of themost approved knownto everts in school administration.There should beample provisi9nmade foras many subdivisions of thedepartmentas maybenwssaryto administer the officeto the best interest ofthe public.' There -isgeneralagreement byaúthoritiesonschool tidministra- tion, confirmedby practice inseveral progressiveStates, that this important officer shouldbe assignedat least the followingpowers and duties: 1. The chief Stateschool officer, theexecutive offici0of the State board of educationand executive head ofthe Statedepartment of education, shouldenforce rules and regulationsmade inconformity to law by the State board forschoolsoverwhich it haslegal juris- diction.

I Bee Table 4, s.

EA` e, N011YZIgyogo KOLITUISIHIFITY X X .111. X X X X X X X X X e community X X x X X II ...... - - . _ Pm - . *. education, a. .0. X OP Alb a. NW visual .0. X ).< X Ow 4111, p as - do it ID - 4 .ci X X _ co publicity, moo 8 or) . 4 - X -71 X 3 X X X.

statistics and A ps X X X X X X or ow A, X X -,-I ri co X X X . 1 I g CO a . z -E3 A" 4.1 42---' X X ... education' publications o _ onr - --. X X X of of lot Zio I . op - _ rii cl - . X X t 11 X X __. ; 11- . _.... e E o o O C, 4L) 9 g Divisions , X 75 .C) economics X X X X Cl X X X X X X X X X .X X X Household X - X are: ca. 4, X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X AgricultuNleducatiop X departments

s s I I X X X X X X X X

education X X X X X X X X X Trade XXXX XXXX XXXXX X: XX: X

XX Ma s interest 1 I I I s I 61%.- State X X

education X X X X X X X X X X X X X Vocational X OPM,Oboo ab in I co - - special .. - n 0 ...... a. 1 X .1 ap X -= - 7 ct - X

buildings School X do' of - _ I 0 c_. % - a %. c, ... -.*. "6 . X X X X X c '6 X X X 8 X 6"Zrt X X -- vs. wore) . ... .0-= .0 S' CC table, .. 1 ; ' : 41P t I. .4 0 23 -v or .1,1M - . X _ X ,34 g == X coz,) CI) CP this v -a ..:-. T. W. ' pi 1 ---e. _4._ in do e ?) 8 o 0 -- 'a .it ... = X tr.. ..7... of X X - u X X X X

teachers X X X (one X

Certification x PIP 1. - M. I .. rz L.::: 0 o 2 al 11, X Pc, X -

oducatie1a X - Z X X X finance. X Negro X -X - included .. 0 e = = . -g X r si

education X X X X X IZ X .2 X X X X X X X X not

Rural X X x x e mt z o eD z c>. 2 0 g e X 4.6 X v X X X education 41 _ X X .8 X X X

Elementary X OD _ e employment, 41.----Speeiali#t8 X X X

education x X X X Secondary XX; XXXX X X , and X. departments, _ _ pm 1., bcf X X 4., i A (14 X X X X .... X X m o ' meO TABLE labor 2 c State g.. = 44 *J X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X t X ),03 X X x X !I V ta P _ OM. child . . various it- the welfare, ..... in child a i. work of State _ field4 . __ _ _ artminbitzation, . Otber I Alabama_ . Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware... Florida Georgia Idaho Winds Indiana_ Iowa Kansas Kentucky__ Louisiana Maine Maryland_ Niassachttsette Michigan Minnesota =Burl Idontana__ Rebraaka work, rr tom+ AD . MI 1 X X X X e X ft X X 1P X X - - 74 X X X 9 . 4'.g4 X X 11. I.

statistics and .01. X. X X X

Research x X 411.

claws X Sped:d X X X X X X go . educatinContInued X X X X X of economics X X X X X X X Household X X. X

education X X X X X X X X

Agricultural X X Xi ))(( X X X X X X X I ; i departments a o 4r.) X X X X X X X X X X State X X X X X X in X X X X X X X X - X X X - X X X more) x of X X X X X X X teachers X X Certification X X x or ! ; e

education X X X

Negro X X (one

education X X X X X x X X X X X

Rural X X X

education X X

Elementary X X . X

education X X )> X X X X X X X X

Secondary X X X X X X X X training X

Teacher X X 4:Speciali8ts I I X X X X X . TABLE Artino li State _ - Island Carolina Dakota Carolina_ Dakota_ Hampshire Mexico York Virginia. Jersey Nevada New New New New Rhode North North Ohio Oklahoma °I.41111°11- Pennsylvania_ South South Utah_ Tennessee Tern Washington_ Vermont Virginia_ West Wisconsin_ Wyoming 0. SCHOOL ORGANIZATIONANDADMINISTRATI43N 17

.10 r. 2. Supervisionof all the different divisions of the State departmentof education responsible to the State boardfor theproper administration of the dutiesof each such division. 3. Incooperation with theteadsof the State's institutions for training teachers,and in conformity with law, he should prescribe coursesof study for these training schools-,standards for certification p. of teachers, and methods forthe validation of teachers' credentials from other States. 4. As theprofessional representativeof the State boatd of education, he cooperates withthe presidents and faculties of the higher educational institutionsof the State.8

ORGANIZATION FORLOCAL MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS' 4. As has been stated, eachStateas awhole is the legal unit in education, but for administrat.ivepurposesea0 State delegates certain responsibilities to smaller local units.The history of educational development in the countryprovesthis to beawise policy.There is not uniform practice inoragreement concerningthe amount of control and management the State should attemptthrough its State department of educationand the amount it should delegate tothelocalunits.In the earliest days of the Public school the States assumed that theywerefulfilling their full duty when they passed legislastion authorizingorrequiring local units to establish schools to provide at leastaminimum amount of 'education -for their children.Later,step by step,they have found it advisable to takefrom these local unitsonefunction after another because processis continu- theywerenotuniformly well carried out., This ing.It is called the "centralization "of authority in the State. Hates reached varying degrees ofprogressin various States; however,the balance of j)ower between the State and local unitsstill

"The relationship between the State chief school officer and the State board ofeducti- tion, reconnnended above and found by experience satisfactory, is that now existingbe- tween the president of the State university and the board of trusteesin the well-managed institutionsorbetween the city school superintendent and the city board inthe most progressive and advanced cities.The president, in onecase,and the city superintendent, in the other, are the most responsible heads ofthe'universityand the city school system, respectively, receiving their authority from the boards they representandreplaceable by the bcfards if not measuring up to the requirements of tile positions. In bothcasesthe boards determine general policies, authorize developments andactivi- ties, leaving the actual execution to their executive officers, the president orthe superintendent, and giving to their executive alters much freedom for initiative.In both cases board', when filling a vacancy in the presidency or in the superintendency,feel free to select the best person available from anywhere In the country or even outsidethe country. Indeed; the relationship is similar to that found in corporations.The general manager is selected by the board of directors.He becomes, when selected, the responsible head of the organizatioi, removable for cause, but while holding ()dice has authorityto carry onthe affairs of the corporation in accordancewith the general instructions of the board of directors to the best of his ability. An identical relationship should exist betweeff the countysuperintendent of schools an4 the county board of education in States with the county unitorgantution. ,t See U. B. Du. of Educ. Bulletins, 1914,No. 44, and 1922, No. 10. ls A MANUAL OFEDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION . remains with ihelocal units.While thelocal unitmust maintain schools;conformingto specifications ofthe Statedepartmegtof education, thereal worth of theschRol it conducts',is deteinmined by local conditions, 4rests,and actiiities. Fourmore orless distinctterritorial unitsof organizationfOr administering ruralschool's,arefoufidat thepresent time in the: United 8tates:The district, theNew Englandtown,.the township, and thecounty. In addition, inpractically allStates, incorporated citiesareindependent schoolunits.Thereare manyinstances of mixedttsystems inwhich the responsibilityfor theschoolrests partly onthe district and partlyonthe township,or on ii the districtand the county. These mixedsystemscomefrom thetransition fromthe old district systemto themoremodern townshipor county system. The smalllocal districtwasthe originalpioneerorganization,particularly in NewEngland, and itextended westwardandto the southwest.Itwassuitedto pioneer timeswhenalarger unit of organizationwasimpossible;Thetown stem riginatedin Massa- chusetts, replacingthe Ma-ssachusettsdistric, sysiem,andsoons'pread throughout NewEngland. Thetownship schci61unit habeen adopted byafew States, inwhich it isalsoanSmportantuit in civilgovernment.Countyorganizationoriginated inthSouth,. 'hugely becausethecountywasthe civilunit.It has spreadwest- ward andnorthward, replacingthe district systeMin severalStates. The di8trictunit.Theterm " district unit" isgenerally usedto mean asmall geographicalarea set apart forschoolpurposesonly and served byasingle school.Occasionally,however, itcontains twoor moreschools and insparsely settledportions of thecountry is oftenan area larger thanatownship.In theold disfrict unitthe school,orschools, if therehappenedto bemorethanone, wasunder the full charge ofalocalb*oardoftrustees.This boardhad general charge of allschool affairs,including thecareof theschOolproperty, the choice ofteachers, the fixingof salaries,and theestablishment of the policywhich.governed thework of theschool. Theboardwas amenable to theannual schoolmeeting, whichelected itsmembers, voted thetaxation, anddetermined thelength of theschoolyear. The districtunit has beendefendedasbeing "democratic."How- ever,it is generallyconceded byauthorities Aschool administration to be ineffective and isgraduallydisappearinginmanysections of the UnitedStates. ,Whereit is still leftlocal boardsmust conduct the school inaccOrdance withlaws andregulationsuf the Statede- partment of educationand subjectto adwinistrationand supervision, inmanyparticulars,onthbpart of thecounty superintendentof schools.Inpionetrdays itwasprobably theonly feasibleplan, but yfith the .. passing ofpioneerconditionsand thedeyelopmentof mod-

'1/46.1 SCHOOL ORGANVATION ANDADMINISTIOLTION 119

ernindustrid-and agricultural life,alarger unit for school taxatiori isnecessaryandalarger andmorecentrally controlledsystemof organizationseemsdesirable. Town,didtownship units..The school tinitknownasthe "town" system in New England includes underonetaAation unit andone board ofcòntrolall schools inacivil township. Thesystem origi- nated in Massachusetts duringthe middle of the lastcentury and has become general throughout New Erigland. 1ierinitseemssatisfac- toryin New England, where thetown is also the unit in civilgovernment.Thetown unit contains all schools in the township,whether located in the thicklysettled sectionorin the rural sections. * New Jersey, Pennsylvania,Indiana,, West Virginia, .Ohio,and parts of Michigan, Iowa, andNorth Dakotaareorganizedonthe township-unit basis.In severalotthese States there isa strong movement to abandon thesystem in favor ofalarger andmore effective unit. Thecounty unit.The county unit is theterm applied to systems in which the schoolsin thecounty (city schools usually excepted) areorganizedas asinglesystem underoneboard of educationand supported largely bycoupty funds. T4preare many typesofcounty systems in operation.Real classiOcationis not atteriTted,asorgani- zations differ inmanyparticularsamongStates called "county unit States." Ten Stateshave centralizedto the extent that thecounty board of educationis theparamount board in theinanagement of the schools.These 10areAlabama, Florida,Kenucky, Louisiana, Maryland, New Mexico, NorthCarolina, Tennessee,Virginia, and Utah. In three offheseFlorida, Louisiana,and Marylandcity schoolsaswellascountry schoolsareunder themanagement of county boards.In the other States theincorporated citiesareinde- . II pendent in mostrespects.Five other Stateshave partly thecounty and partly the districtsystem,orsuch'adivision of authoritybe- tween district and county that theymaybe consideredasjnastate of transitionfrom district' to-ci)untysystem. These StatesareSouth Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia,Oregon, and Montana.Inanumber of other StatesArizona,Washington, andCalifornia, forexam- plethecounty is important in schoolsupport but not in adminis- t rat ivecontrol. v Larger units of organithon.--Theris unusual interest imany States organizedonthe district unit planin establishing largerunits (-4 organization in ordertosecurebettermanagementano alarger tale valuationonwhich to draw for schoolsupport.Inaumber of

these States thecounty, being the civil unit, is favoretal.. 8 as aunit apt to be efficient kr the administrationof schools.I meStates thecounty is at presentanimportant unit for sOkoourposes, par- 21279°4-27-4 20 A MANUA OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISIATION

ticularly for financing schools. In other Staies thecounty is notnow animportant unit for schoolpurposes.New York and New England

areoutstanding examples.Inanumber of Statesnoworganizedon . the district plan there isconsiaerablesentiment against 'centralization of schools to theextentof that involved inacounty unit.In responseto the need foralarger unitandin consideration of the sentiment against thecountyunitacommunity unit plan has been advocated by students of education in several States.It is believed by these advocates that itmayofferacompromise between theex- tremes,ofoverand under centralization of responsibility for thesup- portand control of schools. Thepfanis believedto have great merit. So far, however, it has not been tried out inanyof the States for which advocated. Asurveiof rural schools for the Stateof New York describes the plan and its merits in detail." Inalage number of States considering progr;ssive legislation looking toward larger and better administrative units, thecounty unit plan is being carefully studied.Because of the interest shown in many-States in this plan at the present time, and because the termcommonly used, " county unit." isanindefiniteoneappliedto administrative organizations which differ widely,adescription ofan effective county organization is here presented.

AN EFFECTIVE COUNTY ORGANIZATION

Practice in good systems already established indicates thata countyorganization to bemosteffective should make provision for awell-centralized business and professional administration, without depriving the people in each section of local initiative in schoolmat- ters.The county board and thecounty superintendent should ad- . minister the general ,school affairs and expend thecounty school fundsto'equalize educational advantagesamongall the children of the county.Each school community should havearepresentative appointed by thecountyboardor,if desired,' electedatantnnual school meeting, to represent the school before thecounty board. Support shouldcomeprincipally from county funds.The school funds of the county should be expended by thecounty board of eduration for the general maintenance of all the schools.The local school community should usually be given the rightto levy taxes and issue bonds for extraordinary schoolpurposes,suchasacquiring additional land sitesoretectingnewbuildings.This givesa measureof local autonomy.This should be permitted only aftera county-wide tax sufficient for all ordinary schoolpurposesfor the 4 entire county has been levied and collected.

Is Rural School Survey of New York State.Ithaca, N. Y., 1923. SCHOOL ORGANIZATION ANDADMINISTAATION 21

1 A goodcounty system hasanorganization for themanagement andsupportof its schools similarto that of the best city systems. The county board of education is electedfrom thecounty at large in thesame manner asthe best city boardsareelected.It should have practically thesame powersand duties.It determines thegeneral educational policies of thecounty.It familiarizes itselfwith the educational needs of the entirecounty and locates schools where nAlded.It employs thecounty superintendent of schools and author- izes the employnient of assistants.Thecounty superintendent is its executive officer inexactly thesame waythat the city superintendent is the executive officer of the 'city boardof education.In selectingasuperintendent the board should have authorityto employ the bestpersonobtainable regardless of whether he isorisnota citizen f the countyor evenof the State. The board shouldbe free, within reasonable limitations,topaywhatever salarymaybeneces- saryto obtain the most efficientperson.Thecounty superintendency requiresasmuch ability and professional experienceasthat ofa city of thesamepopulation.Itpresents difficulties in size of territory, placement of teachers,organizationof supervisory staff,school financing, location of building9,and the like whichare evengreater than city superintendentsmust meet. The salaryshouldbecom- mensurate with the responsibility. The size ofthe board determialce, somewhat its effectiveness.The tendency is towardaboad of five inembers, thoughverygood results areevidenced in States 'with boards -of threemembers and others with boards ofseven ornine.The membersareelected from the county at largeorfrom electoral districts,\spmetimesbutnot always on anonpartisan ticket. The individualsonthe board 'shouldbemen andwomenof high standing and ability,sinterest,edin education, but not necessarily selected froni those who have hadactual school experience.They shouldservewithoutpay, _exceptfor the'necessary ex- e penseswhen attending board meetings.Their dutiesarstrictly legislative, leaving all executive functionsto the countysu intendant. Among progressive States with moderncounty schoolsysteriisthe fol- kvingarerecognizedasduties of thecounty board of education: 1. To enforce the lawsrelatiN;eto education and the rules and regulations of the State board ofeducation within their respecti*e counties. 2. To select thecounty superintendent and allnecessarysupervisors and office assistants; alsoto select onedirector for each schoolcom- I. munity within their jurisdietion, whqkshallbe the custodian oflocal school property andrepresentlocal needs before thecountyboard. to 3. To have direct charge of allcounty schools outside of incorporated city districts, includingthe closing ofunnecessaryschools,

4,11% 22 A MANUAL OFEDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION.

buildingnewschools, consolidatingschaW,and conveyingchildren to school, andorganizing rural highschools. 4.To select allteachers needed in thecounty schools,onnomina- . tion of thecounty superintendent. 5. To .levyauniform schooltaxonall the taxableproperty of the county under legal limitationsandto expend the funds thuspro- curedto equalize educationaladvantagesamongall the schoolchil- dren of thecounty. 6. To exercise allotherpowersand dutiesnot enumerated above but whichareprescribed by law. Subdistricttrustees.In nearlyall Statesorganized withthe countyasthe unit foradministrativepurposes,subdistricttrustees,one tothree for eachschoolorschool district,areappointed by the boardorelected by the peopleto have general chargeof the school plant,to perform certainduties assignedeither by laworby thecounty board of education,andto act inanadvisory capacityto thecounty board concerningschool conditionsin theirdistricts. These subdistricttrustees a-ctaslocal representativesof the peopleof thecounty,recteve suggestions from thè people,and makerecommen- dationsto the county- boardonthe basis ofthese suggestions.In someStates theyareintrusted with importantduties, suchaskeeping the school buildingin repair, havingcharge of the,careand'supply of school equipment,assisting in enforcementof the compulsoryeduca- tion law, and takingthe schoolcensus.

THE COUNTYSUPERINTENDENT OFSCHOOLS "

The rapid changes inAmerican life havethrustnewresponsibilities onthe superintendentaswellas onhis teachers.He still retainsthe clerical and financialduties assigned whentheAcewasestablished. New developments ineducational ideals andnewappreciationof the importance of the professional.administration ofschools, thegrowth ofascientific attitudetoward education,and the applicationof the results of scientificexperimentationto school organizationand methods of instructionhave revolutionizedourideas concerningthe selection of andthe responsibilities whichshould be ascribedto this officer.Thecounty superintendency isnowconsideredthe strategic position in the-reorganization and improvementof ruraleducation. The office delnandsa personof ability andprofessional trainingand experience equalto that of other responsibleeducational positions. In 88 States éötintysuperintendentsarethe supervisoryofficers for the riiral schoolsof the counties andhave certain administrative responsibilitiesvarying in degree inthe differentStates.In New England the supervisingofficer is thetownoruniofi superintendent.

u For completeInformation,see U. 84 Bu. of Edge. 1101., 1922,No. 10.

- - SCHOOL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 23 One State has also"supervising agents."In New York therural superintendentsarecalled "district superintendents"and supervise asection ofacounty.In Nevada theyaredeputy State superintendents and superviseone orseveral counties. In Virginiatheyare division superintendents, and inmany casesthe division and the countyarecoterminous.In Delawam thereare nocountysuper- intendents, but State officialsassumeduties formerly assignedto the cou4y superintendent.Thetermof office of therural superin- tenantis fouryearsin 18 States,twoyearsin 16, and varies inthe others.In 25 of these States thecounty superintendentsareelected by the people, usually in thesame manner asother county officers; in others theyareappointed by boards; in New Jerseyand Virginia theyareappcinted by the State boardorState chief school officer. Thesystem of electing county superintendentsat the regular political election partakes ofthose weaknesses indicated indiscuss- ing the office of the State chief school officer.Citiesnolonger select their superintenilents bypopular vote. Experience hastaught them thatanexecutive officer for suchaposition should becarefully selected byaresponsible board ina mannershnilarto that in which boards of directors of business organizationsselect their executive office'rs.Althoughmanycompetent superintendentsarefound under the electivesystem, it isonthe wholeanunsatisfactory methodof selecting school officials,Political affairsconsumethe time and in- fluence the action of officers elected in thisway; tenureis uncertain and short; the officermustbearesident of thecounty,eventhough abetter candidate could be secured if selectionweremade froma larger territory. Thepowersand duties of thecounty superintendent should be practically thesame asthose of the city superintendentof schools. 1. He is the executive officer of thecounty board ofeducatiOn and administers under its legislation the educationalpolicies determined by it. 2. He is the chief educationalofficeisof thecounty and is pri- marily responsible for the conduct. of theschoolsastheirpro- fessional leader. 3. It is his duty to make recommendations relativeto the location of schools, the number of grades required,the type of building and equipment,etc. 4. He selects supervisors, principals, andteacliersfor the schools, which appointmentsareformally approved by the school board. 5. He supervises the teachiwin all schools under thecounty board, either directlyorthrough assistants. 6. He dete lines thecourseof study and the textbookstote used, subjéet to State regulations and the approval of thecounty

board. 4 24 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION 7. He provides for teachers'meetings and forasystem of in- service training and unies °andharmonizesthrough his school system the work of the schools. 8. Heseesthat all records ofeducational activitiesarekept in properform. 9. He has charge of healtheducation, inrludinghealth inspection, in conjunction with thecounty medical authorities. M. Heseesthat the schoolcensusis taken andthat, thecom- pulsory education lawsareenforced.

CONSOLIDATED DISTRICTS ANDCONSOLIDATEDSCHOOLS

Thereareapproximately160,000 one-teacherschoolsiAthe United States.The number is decreasingsteadily.More than10,000 of themwereclosed in the biennium1922-1924.Theyaregrowing into larger schools,or arebeing united withother schoolsto form central graded villageor open countryschools.These largerrural schools gain innumberasthe smalleronesdiminish innumber. More than 2,000wereformed during thebiennium1922-1924.At the present time thereareapproximately15,000 consolidatedschools in the United States.They have long1wen recognizedas a means for providing rural childrenwith educationalopportunity egiliva- lentto that provided city children. . To cbnsider the consolidatedschool the end ofanadministraive problem isaserious mistake;it is simplythe manipulationfa school system's organizationmachinery in orderthat bettercossifi- cation, supervision, and groupingsmaybe made. Theconsolidation orcentralization of ruralschoolsrequesintelligentplanning, and the best results have been securedwhere all theschools foranentire countywereconsidered beforeanypart ofaconsolidationprogram wasbegun.At leastoneState has enactedlegislation whichre- quirescounty boards of educationto consolidate districts andchange boundaries in accordance withanapproved "county-wideplan of organization."More attentionis being giveninrecentyearsto theproperorganization of consolidatedschools.Many of those already establishedare'kingstrengthened andimproved,and county officialsaremapping districtsmorenearly inaccordance with community boundarylines. Consolidated schools,ordistricts,areestablished invariousways. The mostcommonmethod isto proceed underdetailed lawsby which thepatrons of the schoolsstart themovement andvoteupon it ataregularorspecial election.Ifamajority of thevotes cast in each district,or,better,amajority in allthe districtsorterritory included,arein favor of theconsolidation, itis effected.Each of the uniting districts givesupits districtboundaries andschoól board SCHOO&N ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION 25 and becomes part of theonelarge district. The advantages of slich aprocedurearethat itarousesthe interest ofanentire community; the consolidation is thoroughlytalkedover,and if The school is established it is fairlysureto beastrongone. Care sliould be taken in framing laws of thiskind,that the consolidfiteddistrict will receiveasmuch State andcountymoney asthe entire number of uniting districtswould, thatanyildebtedness ofanyof the districts be equitably adjustedfor the 'ire consolidation andthat the schoolpropertyof all the districts bevested in theone. A second kind of lawpermits consolidationonpetitionto the county superintendent, thecounty board of education,orcommis- sioners,orthe district boundaryboardwhatever authorityhas Power to createorchange districtsa publichearing being first granted by that authority.The patrons of the schoolshaveavoice in the matter, but itis expressed in petition andhearing,not inan election.This method issimple and effective. Athird kind of law gives thecounty board of education thepower to consolidate schoolsonitsowninitiative andat, itsowndiscre- tion.This is themoA, satisfactory plan yet devised for thereor- ganization ofacounty's schoolsystem.With thecountyas asingle unit for educationaladministrativepurposes, asit is for almost all other publicbusiness,, and witharepresentativecounty board of educationresponsible for the welfareof all schools in theircounty, it is simplyamatter for such board to apply modernbusiness prim ciplesto that county's school organization.Excellent examplesare commoninanumber of States,andafewcounty boards of education have succeededin providing gradedelemental* schools,replac- ing small ungradedschools, for all pupilsin theirritspectivecounties. Similarto this, but ofmorelimited application,arelaws giving district boardspower toconsolidate schoolswithin districts.These lawsarebeing usedtoadviintageinsomesections in bringingabout consolidation. 4 A fifth kind ofconsolidation lawiscommonin thetown unit States.Thetown is given control of thèschools andmayfix their number and determinetheir location.Thetown meeting decides the question.This is theusual procedure inthe NewEngland States.So farassecondary educationis concerned,the New Eng- land States andsomeothersarefurthering centralizationby providing for Statefunds for thepayment of tuition andtransportation for nonresidentstudents,anexcellentwayof preventingdissipation ofenergy. InsomeStates organizedonthe township basissimilarprocedure maybe followed.The saoolsaredirected bytownship boardsof trustees.There is, however,noadequate provisionfor establishing

- a

26 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION r ! schoolsonçommunity rather than township lines.The township is often too smallaunit territorially and financiallyfor the establishment of satisfactoryschools, and particularly forproviding for high-school facilities.In several States organizedonthe township basis there isamovement for change toalarger unit. 'Onereason for the change advancedis the possibility of securingtherebymore effective consolidatedunits.

o The laws providingforcounty secondary schools in districtunit States makeupanother class.Some of these provideforone or morecounty high schools foracounty, independent in administration and support from theelementary schools, andmaintained bya taxonthe entirecounty.Manyvery strongschools have been built under their provisions.The dualsystem thereby setup sometimes occasions conflictsbetween the elementaryschools and the high school of thecpunty and makes close correlationof work between the two classes of schools difficult. Union high schoolsareestablished underlaws which permita number of districtsto retain theirownelementary schools, while all join in maintainingonecentral high school.The laws responsible . for such schools,mostcommonin the WesternStates, have resulted in the establishmentofsome veryfine schools.In small communities and sparsely settledregions such schoolsarenot feasible, but inmore densely populatedareasthe union highschool serves well. InsomeStates independent,special, andconsolidated schooldis- trictsarecreated by specialacts of the legislature.The procedure is generally unsatisfactory.Itpostpones the development ofthe organization of largerareas,tendsto createmanysmallsystems, and generallyacts to interieré withequalized educationalopportunity. Among the importantState laws relatingto consolidationare those which providefor the following: 1. The establishment ofminimum limitsofareaserved, enrollment,averagedaily attendance, andlength ofterm below whicha schoolordistrictmaynot Be created,orif createdmaynot continue its existence. 2. An effective, quickwayof uniting schoolsordistricts,preferably inresponse tolocal demand,retifining forthe unitedinstitution the fullamount of apportionmentstheseparate units would receive, % arranging foranequitable assumptionofanyindebtedness, and providing fortheproperdisposal ofany unnecessary school property. 3. Centralized authorityfor theplanning andcarryingout of programsof consolidationoverlargeareas,thereby insuringequitable distribution ofresourcesand schoolfacilities, andadequatecon- siderationto schools in isolated,orbackward strips ofterritou. - -

SCHOOL. ORGANIZATIONAND ADMINISTRATION 27

. 4 The authorization ofthe junior highschool withaviewtos centralizing the workof theupperelementary gradeswhen full consolidation isnot feasible, 5. Restrictionsonthe number ofsenior high schoolsestablished, adequate to insurestrong schools, with tuitionand transportation, orboard androom,provided for thosestutents who donot have easy access tosuchaschool. 6. Permissive transportationof pupilsat publicexpense toand from all'schools.

STANDARDIZATIONOF RURALSCHOOLS State departmentsof educationin31 Statesare,at the present time, promotingstandardization ofrural schools,either by authority of thestatutesorby rulesand regulattonsof their chiefexecutive school heads,accordingto information receivedby the Bureauof Education.Inafew otherStatescounty superintendentspromote aplan ofstandardization withintheir respectivecounties. Insomeof the31 States standardizationapplies particularlyto small ruralschools, especiallythose of theone-teachertype.In others itincludes allrural schoolsgradedand consolidatedaswell asungraded.It is,however, with theimprovement ofthe small rural schools,particularly thosewhere consolidationisnot yet feasible, thatstandardization ismost concernéd. , Requirement'?for standardization.Amongthe importantrequire- men.tsrelatinAtostandardization of ruralschools thathave been written into thestatutesoradopted byregulations ofState school executive headsare: (1) The scho61site should bewell drained,level, fertile,contain it least2acresof ground. (2) The schoolbuilding shouldcomply withacceptedstandards relatingto number ofroomsand theirdimensions, colorscheme for walls andceilings,replacement andglassareaof windows,heating and ventilation,andamount and kind ofequipment. (3) Theminimumscholasticpreparation ofthe teachershould be completionof fouryearsof highschool, plusa two-year normal course,andtwoyearsof successfulexperience. (4) The schoolterm should be ninemonths; theaveragedaily attendanceat least00percent of the enrollment,and theenrollment 90per centof the educablesof the district;there shouldbeawell- planned dailyprogram;and the Statecourseof studyshould be followed.

,21279*-27.....5 rIVIINVINI or for per cop- $400; ; trans- graded school $250 three $150 for per $100; $225; class, teacher; $600. $4,000 bonus arts. consolidated, firaxt per (transportation graded, buildings. high, rooms, for yearly State district, State practical $400. month $3,000 $300. in * per $150; $6,000 $50; per $150;.two elementary maximum consolidated rooms, Rewards rural, rural, room, salary Instruction State portation, consolidated, district). more solidated, One Ungraded State Consolidated, State moo. $150 Money, fi- ..... X X X X X X cat. ex e/ert . I X X X X X X X X door- I plate Tablet alMler or _ of III; t .- IV. IV State by town schools school or IV II; III III, I; III, III III II, III III II III III III zu %Scored teacher, rural superintendent, I. I, I, I, HI I, III III I, I, I, III I, III /, I, department board, education, county I 19251 of . _ . 62; 70: and 142 rooms rooms, graded 430 1924 450 schools 2-3 40; graded, 445 25. more for consolidated 334 82; 108 (1922), or 18. consolidated, 4.500 41 graded, 6,080* standard (1922), class, (Data consolidated), graded, class, rooms, three standard 539 high, of 17 consolidated, State 4-6 State and 245 409 MO 812; 6.Siandardization second kind 396. consolidated rooms, second 34; 215. superior, superior, superior 417; 8450 1,072; superior, 116. 430; 46; rural, and 12 1,134 60; 54 692 41 789 elementary, 2 two 301 and (1922), rural, (1922), (includes and and room, consolidated and 1 rural, TABLE acer.,dited, rural, class, class, (districts). teacherx room tricts, room, Number 101; State 620. superior, consolidated, First One One One Model Standard, Ungraded First Consolidated, Standard, State Standard Standard Standard State Standard Standard. Standard, Standard, State Standard Standard, 4,n$ Standard, Standard Standard, Standard, 1914 1919 1921 1916 1914 1913 1916 1921 o.ptred 1919 1912 1907 1921 1915 1919 1919 1897 1909 1915 1919 1911 1915 1917 1919 1913 1913 1921 1914 ladle 1 _ X X X X X X X X .. X X X X X or State _ Rule I MO . board officer of ... eeeSee. _ I , . Authority X X X X X X X I Statute ..... Ob MP mi. Mr _ . State alp Dakota Dakota ..... Jersey ...... KIMESS Pennsylvania Maryland Michigan Nevada Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Georgia Maine Minnesota Montana. Nebraska New North Texas Virginia_ Colorado Connecticut Florida South Vermont Idaho Iowa Illinois Indiana Missouri 4 ;.. 1917 ' westWeshi Virginia_ X 4 10011921 OneA, B. teacher, C. D. E109; graded,dated 2; serniconso1h-14; consolidated, 81. IIIIII I One teacher, $120; consolidated, $800. X 1 s Rural, 598; State graded, 612 X .116 M. ID WyomingWisforeln44 I _____ - __ - - - - _ - X I 19181907 Standard, 200 HII, II, III X Rural, $ZO; State graded, Poo. a 1432 StateRural.Consolidated.1For graded. teacher. !sore detailed information see U. S. Bu. of Educ. Rural School Leaflet No. 32, 1926. Alc". A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION 30 a Chapter III SCHOOL COSTS ANDSCHOOLSUPPORT

The constaltlyincreasingcost of public education,paralleling , that of living and ofgovernment in general, is ofconcernto legislators and citizensgenerally.Recently the FederalGovernment has been reducing thecost of maintaining its variousestablishments and activities andcorrespondingly reducingincometaxesand other forms of Federal taxation.As yet, however, therelief in the totaltaxation

exacted from. theaveragecitizen is slight,as costsof State,county, 'I local, and municipalgovernment have remained thesame or even increased, thus offsettingFederal reductionsThe cost. of maintaining public education, thesourcesfrom which fundsarereceived for schoolsupport, methods of (lish:ibuting Statemoneys amonglocal schools and districtsso as morenearlyto equalize educationalopportunities ofchildredanAtax burdens of citizens,arematters ofpara- mount importance to legislatorsand others responsible forenacting orrecommending laws governingtheslipport of public education Itis recognized that thecosts of education have increasedgreatly since 1914, thatpublic-spirited citizensdesireto continue to support schools liberally, andthat theymust be conducted economically. Judgmentcannot be passedonthe necessity ofschool expenditures and their increaseyearbyyearexcept in the light of comparison with other factorsconditioning thecost, includipg, ofcourse,the different purchasingpowerof the dollarin the respectiveyears con- sidered.Information collectedin the United StatesBureau of Edu- cation comparingannual expendituresin theyears1913, 1918, 1920, 1922, and 1924 withthe puchasingpowerof the dollar inthese yearsindicate's that. schoolcosts have not increasedto the degree many personsthought;norto the extent that figures showing actual expenditures alone,unmodified by considerationof the decreased purchasingpowerof the dollar andby the increase in schoolattendance,would indicate.(See Tables6 and 7.)The relationship between expenditures for maintenance andpurchasingpowerin 1913 dollars for the threeannual periods1913, 1919, and 1925 foroneState areshown in Figure3.This is reasonablytypical of the rqlation between actual expendituresandputchasingpowermeasured by tho 1913 dollar in other States.

dl 10

ms J - 000 Year1913 $2,667,410 .1W Costs $0 C11., 000 000 000 11"-*3, 000 000 . 8 0 000 2,667,410 . 9 1919 4,481,2252, 413,784 11111.11111111111111111 .." V' 1925 4,835,8897,611,690 Legend A 11111 Costs in 1913 dollars in dollars paid gib . dollars. Does outlay rm. 84Increase in total current costs of educatioh s. In Uta12,1913°MI to 1925,and debt shown In dollarsservice paid and in 1913 not include capital 4 r 32 A MANUALOFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

TABLE 6.-TotalexpoutitureNfor-publicRchao In inthe UnttedStates' =.1111

Actual Purchasing totalex- Index111 power of pend iture costof totalex- po/1(11nm, Year (millions ving 1 of 'tiollars) (millions of dollars)II .11-, A 11 dIP

1913_ __ ..... _ ...... _ .11 52 100 1918 _...... 522 1920 782 174 438 . .7. 1922 ...... 1, 036 200 518 1924 1, 581 169. 5 933 1, 821 t. -,- 172. 5 1, 056 1 For all costsexcept debt service. 3Index figures taken fromNat. Educ.Assoc.ResearChHuivol. 1, No.2, p.94. , 3 The formula 11 used in computingitems in columnC is, Cme A+ - 100 TAnue T. I. Average dailyattendance inelementary and.ticoondaryschoolesut different&slay

State 1870-71 1 1879-80 18g9:90 1894-1900 j 19W-10 1V1,.i 20 1923-24 Wash .. 1 4 5 Is 6 -7 8 .a. ContinentalUnited States...... V,. 4, 545, 3176, 144,14.19,im,63510, 632, 772 12, 827. 307...1111, 150,03519, 132,451 Alabama 107,666 117,978 182, 467 Arizona 297, 805 268, 589 367, 554 418,191 2, 847 4, 702 10, 177 20, 094 46, 420 _ 54,911 Arkansas , 4ft, 600 1 54, 700 ..... 1 148, 714 195 401 255, 135 326, 053 362, 838 California 64, 286 100, 966 146, 589 197, 395 286, 744 480, 864 706, 179 Colorado 0' , 2, 611 ...... %Pea.. 12, 618 38, 715 73,291 107, 620 150,090 179, 476 Connecticut 6Z 683 73,1546 Delaware 83, 656 111, 664 147, 190 205, 213 237, 748 4 12, 700 17, 439 19, 649 I 25, 300 22, 569 27, 368 31, 968 District of Columbia 10, 281 20, 637 . 28, 184 35, 448 44, 627 59,529 Florida 10, 900 52, 739 27, 046 64, 819 75, 003 103, 892 165, 7.1 197, 482 Oeorgia 81, 377 145) 190 240, 791 298, 237 346, 295 467 1 I 545, 465

Idaho_ ...... 600 3, 863 1 9, 500 21, 962 51, 137 84, 642 Illinois 341, 686 88, 806 431, 638 634 310 737, 570 779, 956,090 1, 092, 489 Indiana 295,071 321, 659 Iowa 842,276 429, 566 420, 457, 113 553, 343 21 1,562 259, 836 306, 309 873,474 40, 567 Kansas 6z 891 449, 392 137, 669 243,300 261, 783 291, 329- 309, 505 363, 840 Kentucky 129, 868 178, 000 2251 739 810,330 3151196 3342,669 414,562 Louisiana 40, 500 I 54, 800 87, 536 146, 323 182, 659 256, 133 290, 736 Maine 100, 392 . 103, 115 98, 364 97.097 106, 955 115,885 121), 888 Maryland _ .. 56, 435 85, 778 .... 102, 351 134, 400 145, 762 175, 312 W3,762 Massachusetts 70 M3, 127 273, 910 110 366, 136 444, 090 519, 905 606, 009 Michigan 193, 000 I 240, 0001 = 000 355, 226 443, 458 521, 151 650, 472 Minnesota...... 50, 694 1 78, 400 Mississippi 127, 025 242, 224 348,1500 3941 859 429,882 90, 000 . 166, 761 207, 704 224.526 261, 384 3 259, 982 I 388, 643 Missouri r. 187, 024I 281, 000 Montana 384,627! 4609 012 490, 390 531, 221 679. 514, 1,100 13,000 10,696 126,300 41, 314 91, 744 98, 354 Nebraska 14,300 60, 156 146,139 181, 874 191, 076 2321 514 263, 572 Nevada 1, 800 5, 401 5, OM 4, 01 17,400 10, 626 12, 364 New Hampshire or ..... do. 48, 150 48, 966 41, 526 47, 276 50, 101 53,245 59, 970 New Jersey..... _ 88, 812 115, 194 New Mexico 133, 296 207, 947 324. 239 476, 261 556, 981 880 8, 150 1 13, 000 22, 433 37, 389 59, 442 64, 456 New York 493, 648 573, 089 North Carolina 642, 984 857, 488r1, 1720149 1, 361, 600 1, 610, 078 73, 000 170, 100 203, 100 206, 918 331, 335 473, 552 571, 359 North Dakota 1, 040 18, 530 Ohio 24, 694 43, 500 90, 149 12S, 436 144, 263 432, 452 476, 279 549, 269 616, 365 648, 544 808, 712 Oklahoma a toutin 63, 718 278, 650 355,998 441,035 Oregon 1 000 27,435 43, 333 64,411 103, 553 136, 875 149, 123 Pennsylvania_ 567, 188 601, 627 682, 941 854, 6401, 001, 464 1, 266, 350 1,496,842 1 Approximate. I High-schoolattendancenot reported. 3 Figures for 1919.at

- 4- SCHOOL COSTS AND SCHOOL SUPPORT 33 TABU: 7.-Averagedaily attendance in elementary and secondary sohoolaat different dates-Continued

APO , "P State 1870-711 1870-80 1889-90 1899-1 900 1900-10. 191SÌ-20 1923-24 , Al .. . 0 1 3 3 4 6 $ 7 8 ,.. vir

Rhode Island 2Z 485 27, 217 33, 905 47, 124 j 61,487 73,387 80, 277 South Carolina 44, 700 1 90, 600 147, 799 201, 296 243,901 331,451 324, 822 South Dakota (4) (4) 48, 327 1 68, 000 80,032 98, 907 132, 022 ,

Tennessee 89, 000 . 208, 528 323, 548 338, 566 363,953 457,503 448, 045 Texas _ _ ...... _ ...... 41, 000 1132, 000 291, 941 438, 779 544,691 745,667 976, MI Utah , 12, 819 17, 178 30,167 50, 595 69,246 97,745 110,184 Vermont 44, 100 48, 606 45, 887 47, 020 52,104 50,186 57, 498 Virginia 77, 402 128, 404 198, 290 21 6, 464 259,394 351,171 417, 785

Washington_ 3. 300 10, 546 36, 946 74, 717 156,064 211,219 247, 381

______51, 336 , West Virginia 11:3 91, 604 121, 700 151, 254 189,900 256,479 310, 550 Wisconsin. 132, 000I 156, 000 200, 457 1 309. 800 320,439 . 36131142 454, 907 Wyoming 250 1, 920 1 4, 700 1 9, 650 18,730 33, 297 41, 146 ......

r .4 Outlying posseasionit , . Alaska ' 2,505 3, 137 . . American Samoa , 1, 428 Canal Vine 2,575 3, 292

Guam tt . 2, 330 Hawaii . 38,451 47, 518 Philippine Islands 756,533' 967, 123 . Porto Rico 145,250 180, 03 , Virgin Islands 1 . ----- 2. 987 . i Approximate. 4 Included with North Dakota. cl Why sciwolcosts have ineremed.-Important factors responsible for the increase in total annual expenditureonschool support in the United Statesare(1) the decrease in the purchasingpowerof the dollar; (2) thegreat increase in school enrollment and attendance and consequent increase in number'of teachersand equipmentneces- sitated thereby;(3) the large proportionate increase in attendancehû secondary schools, thepercapita cost of maintaining whichis approximate13fdoubleihatof maintaining elemntary schools; (4) the provision of better facilities, particularlythose which ,satisfy the needs ofabroatdercurriculum involving additionalspeciftl sùbjects and teachers; and (5) the need foralarge school-buildingprogram becauge of the practical stagnationof building and improvement during thewarperiod.It shQuld be remembered thatweexpect moreofourschoolsnowthan in thepast and that NO expect also better work, better trained teachers,afar broader training,more considerationto hygienic and sanitary conditions of buildings and grounds, and the like, antithat materialization of all of these ideals means.vastly increased expenditure ofmoney. The latest figures obtainableconcerningcostof education in1924 for the United. Statesas awhole and for each Statearegiven in Table 8.Table 9 shows thecostperpupil basedon averagedaily attendance in elementaryschooli"andin secondary -schools in certain selected States. Theseaverages maybe usedasguides in estimatifig probable expendituresnecessary6for the coming schoolyear or years. . -7313.1, A MANUAL 9F EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

Inmanyof the States thelowaverage costshown in thetable is due to the fact that the State ha'salarge number ofpoor country schools maintaining shortterms and paying inadequatesalariesto teachers. TABLE 8.-Coxt or educationper pupil attending Continental United States__ $95. 16Nebraska $101. 58 Nevada 170. 94 Alabama 34. 40 New 1IftWI)shIrt______97. 211 Arizona__ _ ,145 24New Jersey 141. 78 Arkansas 26. 02 NewMexico ______73. 81 California 175. 94 Colorado 127. 94 New York _151. 21 North Carolina 54. 22 Connecticut 105. 14 North Dakota 115. 81 Delaware ...... =001. ma. 1MI, - IM .1 100 21 Ohio 122. 38 District of Columbia______112..01 Oklahoma Florida 62.79 74. 03 Georgia . 31. 70 10r e n 109. 92 Pennsylvania 100. 22 Idaho 101 04 Rhode IRland MP Mw_IM woo M .0 ...... _M in. 96. 40 Illinois 105 AM'South Carolinn______39. 48 Indiana 92 47South Dakota 117. 94 Iowa____.__Ir 107.24 Kansas 96. 99Tennessee 37. 57 at Texas 57. 04 Kentucky_ 41 47Utah 84. 86 Louisiana 64 83Vermont______I IMkr. . 70. 03 Maine 77. 99 Virginia 48. 60 Maryland 100. 56 Massachusetts 113. 6P Washington 110. 61 West Virginia 72. 31 Michigan -m 410,1 en. 127 n8 Wisconsin 97. 46 _ Minnesota 128 86 Wyoming 4WD 141. 82 Mississippi r 25. 30 Miskouri . 79. 36 Montana , 111.57

"alp TABLEO.-Costof Mutationperpupil inat gedaily attendance inelemen- taryand secondary schools

Elemen-Second- Elemen-Second- State tary dayary day State tary dayary day schools schools schools schools =1 Alabama 126.48 $82.69Nevada $136. C9 $282. 27 Arizona 106, 86 260. 73 New Jersey 114. 87 226.48 Arkansas ; 33 45 165. 99 Oklahoma. _ ...... _ 50. 30 161.47 California 119 44 345 02Oregon 89.42 166.38 Connecticut M. 07 22S. 55 West Virginia - 53.38 245.63 District ofColumbia_ . _- - 88.55 200. 21 Indiana 67 65 146.q! Average 73. 91 212.24 Montana ...... 127. 64 132.:5

WhenaState provides all of its childrenequal educationalop- portunkties theaveragecost for the Stateas awhole will approach theaveragemaintained by its bettercities.Allowing for the actual difference in: thecost of maintaining urban andrural schools of equal grade, it is safetosaythat when thecostperchildperday inanyState is lower than theaverageforthe UnitedStates., that. State is probably spendingless;Ilanit shouldoneducation. SOURCES OF SCHOOLFUNDS Schoolmoneys are nowprovided by States,counties, cities,town- ships, and districts.In all Statesaportion of the totalcost is borne by the State. Theproportionalamount varies greatly, from Delaware, which provides 76.1percent, to Kansas, which provides 1.6percent.For the United Statesas awhole, approximatelythree- : . fourths of the totalcost is borne by local school units.Insome

_ - ..= imOrt--7 - " - r

s SCHOOL COSTS AND SCHOOL SUPPORT , 35 V States'the chiefsourceof local support isacounty tax.In others it isacounty taxwithaspecial school districttax.In others there is the localschool district tax only.State school fundsarereceived

re," IPCCIhrf P*0 Melon NT ALL OTPSI sum) IuND4ARID LOCALTAXISAND APPNOItATIONS TAX US AND AIPPAOPN AT IONA I SOURCES LEA,SI OP biVATS

SCsOOL LAP404; a o tO 0 to 0 PO 40_ so *4 loo 0 0 40 1 I3 a 13.8 LABASAA 1.3 49.4 031 ,36. 5 ARIZONA 3.01 71.6 16.4 4.4 ammo_ ARKANSAS 0 7 65,4. 28. 6.S 4.1 tAL1FOR NIA 0 74.5 20.9 a 14.9 iCOLORADO 3 8111 80.7 0.11 4.1 CONNECTICUT 0.9 88.3 6.7 DELAWARE 1.6 2 1.6 74.5 2.1 1. 39.8 0.1 DIST. Or COL 0it , 60.1 LORI DA I.? 93.8 4.5 0.5 EORGI A 0.0 61.5 32.9 5.6 SAHO 7.7 84.6 0 S. 0.9 LLI N 01 S -1.4 90.4 7.3 =pm_ I NDIANA 0.7 87 0 6. 1.6

/IOWA C.0 92.0 4.5 1 3.5 susamec r- KANSAS 1.2 96,4 0. &. MI, 1 . 0.5 Itik (HTucKy 67.3 3. 4' I owns: 1.8 kOUISIANA 0.9 70,5 24. ISkiANE 0 7 69.6 . 26.i70 L9 Gomm ).2 ),ARYLAND 0.0 77.2 I1.61=I 4. 0.5 69.8 9.1 0.6 MASSACHUSETTS wwws ICHiCAN 0.5 72.8 IS. 9.9 4.9 I NNESOTA 3.5. 71.3 11.35 I 7.1 trississiKol 2.2 SS.3 33.3 onwor 0.1 ISSOLAP 13, 90.7 I) 9. 1. 2.7 11 ON TANA 7.6a 8.5. wwww 2.4 SL 91-.3 1.3 EORASKA imows 11.81 _ 2.9 [%P4E VA DA 8.6 75.7 N [IV HAMPSHIRE 0.3 ea. 11.5 1.0 1 NEVI JERSCV 0.7 76.6 22. OMNI tw MEXICO i2.i 77.2 4.3131 2.4 minor 4.6 Nrw YORK 0.01 74.2 21.2 RTH CAROLINA 0. 69.0 SA 4.4 S. 'NORTHDAKOTA 11.9 62.5 -311 20.6 10 0.2 9 I .8 3_2 4.7 2. 5 S. OXLAHOMA ,1. 7.3 852 i. 7.2 eREGON 1 75.6 142 14.0 (1.0 CNNSYLVANIA (q)' 75.4 RHODE ISLAND 0.4 1Z.3 5. 1.3 sOu7H CAR MINA4, 64.7 24. lOE f ems-7:1111 L. 7.9 SOUTH DAKOTA 10..1 0.4 I.? TENNESSEE 0.1 SSA 21.1 12.6 6.5, 39.6 37.5 14.4 TEXAS a UTAH S.: $9.4 352 LS MEN= VERMONT 1.8 43.4 11.9 1.9 9. VIRGINIA 0.9 . 61,4 as. 3.9 WASHINGTON 1.7 411.9 2&. , Ism= mom I 7. WEST VIRGINIA 0.31 i 90,4 WISCONSIN 0.3 47.3 .5 3.9 WYOMING ILO 61.19 31.j 4. I -rJ .d VNITtD STATICS 5.1 76..- ! IS. I - %,te 1NCLYDINDPIOIINAL AID roeVOCATIONALoCAtlele. 40'INCLNDID SN ?AIDSANDAPPIIO*111AtIOND. 4. 1.111$'MAN0.176

FIG.4.-Percentage,disfributionof total revenuereceipts byStates,1924 fromanumber ofsources, amongthem permanent invested futids, State property tax,appropriations 'from general Staterevenues, miscellaneoussources,suchascorporation tax, inocane tax,se

tax. C

bs 4.41P

j. .101111111.111.1-...... 36 A kANUALOFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION Thepernianent schoolfundsarelargelyderivedfromthe sale schoollands. of Theselandsweregivenbyacts ofCongressto the severalStates forthe benefit of pulededucation.Inafewcases States alsoset asidelands forthebenefitofeducation. STATETAXESANDAPPROPRIATIONS Stateschool tax fundsare generallyderivedfromone ormoreof thefollowingsources: (1) State-wide taxonitlltaxablereal and- personalproperty, therate fixedin thestatutesorin the tion;(2) -constitu- State-widetaxonalltaxablereal. and IcIrsolialproperty, therate variable;the toCalamountortheper capita raised amountto be fixedbystatute (percapitamaybescholastic average daily population, attendance,orotherunit); (3)afixedportion of Stategrossreceipts; (4) allor a portion oftheproceedsofspecial taxes, suchas incometaxes, inheritancetaxes,taxesonstocksand bonds,polltaxes.State'appropriationsresult from tive directlegisla- enactment,madeas aruleannuallyorbiennially. present There isat a great amount ofinterestin thepossibilitiesofspecialtaxa- tionsourcesfor schoolsupport. Thisis dueto the factthatproperty tax isnowin many States the solesourceofschbol fundsaswellas the sole.gource ofsupport forall localandState property is government, and 13cominginoreandmore heavilyburdened.It is believed bysome authoritiesontaxationthatunles§ p.roperty from is relieved taxation forsome type ofpublic-service*purposes, property ownership, evenhomeownership,may becomeburdensome.There is the addedconsiderationthatinanumberofStatesthe are not equalized valuations amonglocalschooldistricts,co'unties,orother units oftaxation, and thatwhenaparticularmillagelevy ismade forState purposesit becomesunfair,to certainlocal units.Thesystem a puts premiumonthetendencylo placelowvaluationson property withinlocal units by localautIbrities.A Stategeneralpropertytax has beenfound, theiefore,toencourage constituentpoliticalcorpora- tionsto lower their valhations.The mor-ethevaluationislowered, thesmaller will be theamount paidintotheStatetreasury.Tax units whichassesstheirpropertyatahighper cent of their valuation true ar, therefore,pénajizedtwice;first;whenthey taxes at the payState same rate that unitsass6ssingtheirpropertyata per centoftheir low true valuVionpay; sécond, whenState fundsare apportioned since theyarethenproratedto themonthesamebasis asto districts payingStateo.taxon a low-taxvaluation.Manyau- thoritieson taxationcondemn,fortheaboveandotherreasons, generalriopertytaxasthe solesourceofschoolièvenue. Newertypes of Statetaxes.Statesareemployingtoa able consider- extent corporationtaxes, incometaxes, and othertypes oftaxes instea4 of, orinadditionto, generalpropertytaxesas ameansof producingStateschoolrevenues.Forexhmple,schoolsin New 49 SCHOOL COSTS AND SCHOOL SUPPORT - 37 Hampshire, Maine,New Jersey, Virginia, California, ,Delaware,and Wisconsinaresupported in partb'yone or moreof the folrowing: Corporation tax,bank tax, railroad tax, public service and insurance companies tax.Income taxesareused for schools in Massachu- setts,North Carolina, Arkansis, andDelaware; inheritance tax in California, Virginia,Louisiatia, Michigan, and Kentucky;sever- ancetaxin Louisiana and Arkainsas.1State income taxes for schools areconsideredanexcellentsourceof funds. Theuseof thissource has not extendedsorapidlyasits advocates hoped, owing to the creation of the Federal income tax. Theseverancetax isatax leviedonall- natural productssever from the soil exceptagricultural. It is believed bymanystudents taxation that whenminerals, timber, clay, and other naturalprod- uctsareiemoved the State is permanentlyimpoverished, and that ,those profiting by it shouldpaytribute whichcanproperly be spent onthe education of future citizensof the. State.Severance tax and- State income taxaresteadily growing in popular esteemas sources of motleys for school support. An-extraCtfrom the annual report of the Illinois Tax Commission, made in 1922,indicates this: s It is absolutely essential that the State ofIllinois, by amendment of its constitution and thepassageof appropriate legislation,provide by more modern methods for the realization ofasubstantial part of tbe revenuesrequired for publicpurposesby the State and its politicalsubdivisions, so that in some measurethe vast bulk of property invisible to the assessingauthorities physi- cally, but productive ofverylarge income values, may berequire'dtocontribute its fair proportion to the public burden. Thiscanhe accomplishedinpart by the use of production orsevelnce taxes uponcoal, oil, and mineral deposits in the State which upon removal are forever lostas anelement of value subject to taxation,and by license and business taxesuponthe activities of the people engaged in trade and callings of such productive characterasto be able tcf.bear the samewithout impairing the maintenance and operation of essential industry. We recommend favorable consideration of laws proposed to levy a production or severance tax oncoal, oil. and minerals, and such additional taxes On occu- pationsaridprivilegesaswill contribute measurably to t,he public revenues without being restrictive of commercial or industrial developments. It has been emphasized alsò by students of taxation that whenever posssible tht%, State shoulddraw itsrevenuesfromsourcesother than those taxed by its constituent public corporations.This principle has been definitely and practically i4ecognized,in at least two States, Massachusetts and California.Whenevernewtypes of State taxa- tionareproposed it isnecessarytoemphasize the fact that thereason for introducing suchtaxes is to reducethe general property tax, both State and local,asfaraspossible. Newsourcesof income shouldnot beanadded burden, but should tend towardabetter distribution of tax burdens.

3Study of school support In Utah by Fletcher Harper Swift., IL.

38 A MANITALOFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

EqualizatimfundR.--Thenecessity ofsome typeofequalitation fund comingfromState.sources isbecomingverygenerallyrecog- nized.Twenty-fourStatesnowprovideStateequalizationfunds in vaqing form'sand invaryingamounts.It isnowbecominggenerally recognized thatthe eveningout of inequalitieswithin thecomponent parts of State schoolsystemscanbe doneonly throughequalization fundsorthrough Statesupport of minimum schoolprograms.The amount and methodof distributing'equalization fundsisaproblem .whichmust be tarefullyworkedout in each Stateonthe basisof its school needsaridconditions,administrativeorganization, irlethods of taxationforsupport ofpublicinstitutions, andthe like. Whilethesourcefrom whichState schoolfunds sTrouldcomeand the proportionwhich theState shouldcdntributetoward the¡vain- tenance of its schoolsareimpúrtant questiionsin thewelfare ofa State schoolsystem, theessenceof equalizationofeducationaloppor- tunity liesin themethod ofdistribution.Undoubtedlythereare manyStatesnbw contributingenough fromState fundsto the support of schoolstogo alongwayin thedirectionof equalizing educationalopportunities ifthe fundsweresciptificallydistributed. Distribution offunds.Ontheschool-populationbasisis theoldest and stillthe prevailingmethod ofdistribution.Itwas, atthe time * of its% adoption,believedthe fairestpossiblemethod,and itwas hoped thatit would assistin equalizingeducationalopport,unities. The factthat generaldevelopment,concentrationof wealthand population,centralizationof naturalresources,and otherinfluences have resulted inchangingconditionsto suchan extent that the method itrnolongeranequitableoneis responsible.for itsbeing dis- .k4 creditedat the present timeas amethodunscien0ficand inequitable. ProgressiveStatesareadoptingmoreeffectivemethods ofdistribution for allorpart of their Statefpnds.Progressin thisdirection isretardedinmanyStates bythe factthat thecensus-enrollment basis ofdistribdtion isprovided for inthe Stateconstitutionand is therefore difficultto change. , Themostcommon methods of distributionof State, ifdsamong the differentStatesare:(1) Perpupilbasis, eitherscoofcensus, tiverage dailyatWndance,aggregate attendance,'orenrollment. Forty-fivektates distributesome orall of theirfundson oneof these per-pupingses.(2) Perteacher basis,includingnumber ofteachers, graduatedgrant proportionedto salary basis,graduated-graptpro- portionedto qualificationsbasis.Sixteen Statesuse oneorniore of thesein distributingsomeof theirStatefunds..(3) Onsome spe- cificallyequalizing basis.Twenty-fourStates..nowhaveequalizing funds.(4)Miscellaneousbasesorcombinationsof differentbases. . .Of thesedifferentmethods,distributiononthecolsus basis iscon- sideredleast equalizinkin effect.Schoolenrollmentbasis,average t

. SCHOOL COSTS AND SCHOQL SUPPORT 39 daily attendanceoraggregate attendance basis,number of teachers employed, distribution of Statemoneyin inverse ratioto the tax . valuationo e umto lc isdistributed and directratto to the tax rate,areother meihods of distribution whichareconsidered better.InsomeState--(ombination;areemployed withe advantage. Any State cf)flsideriflganging itssystem of support and its method of distributing State funds should provide thatacareful study of the whole situation in the State be made in order that the distribution adoptedmaybeanequalizingone,combining the beet elements of methods used in the most progressive States. Another d4tributive plan extensively used inanumber of States is that of encouragingprogressin individual communities byre- warding through State funds special effortonthepartof local districts.Frequently the State matches dollar for dollaracertain maximum amount raised byalocal district. This systemwasinaugu- rated because itwasbelieved itwas agood methodtoprome progressive practices.Recent studies indicate that State fundscannot be satisfactorily used Ixtthto equalizeopportimity andtoencourage progressin individual communities by rewarding 'effort unlesstwo different funds andsystems ofdistributionarepracticed.This has led toareexamination of State-aidsystems. Reward for effort, while anadministrative device for encouragingprógress, hasnot thesame i. claimas aState responsibilityasthat of equalization of educational opportunity. Of thetwothe latter is ofgreater importance. Recently the State of New York made significantchanges in (1) its laws concerning financial aidto enlarged districts and (2) in the apportionment of Statemoneysappropriated for thesupportof schools.The former appliesto certain districts established bycon- solidation of twoor moredistricts and aimsto insure that when several districts consolidate the resulting consolidateddistrict will receivequotasin thesameamount and under thesameconditionsas though such consolidation hadnot been effected.This law is de- signed either to promote consolidationorat least to avoid depriving districts which consolidate of the funds they wouldotherwise be entitledto.It prevents discriminating against districtswhichcon- solidate in the distribution of State fund& The equalizing method of distributionadoptedwasbased inpart onthe result ofastudy andreport ofalegislative committee! The plan aimsto determine the educationAl task by adoptinga .!` weighted-pupil "measurerather than number of teachers, number of pupils,oractual expendituremeasuresnowused insomeStates. I. The following statement ofcertain essentials and principles embodied in thereport is fromanarticle by Paul Mort, Equalizationof Report of State Aid to Public Schools in New York State,prepare4 forajoint legislative committee by Paul Mort, with the advice andcooperation of G. D. Strayer, J. R. MeGaughy, and Robert M. Haig.

41Ib 40 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION Educational Opportunity, Journalof EducationalResearch, Febru- ary,1926, Vol. XIII, No. 2,p.94: , Taking the offering demanded byagivenprogramforacity elementary childas aunit, this device weightsapupil whenmeasuring the need inany other situationorinany type of education recognizedon the minimumprogram byan amount representing the relative cost of giving thepipil whatwould -reasonably be acceptedas anequivalent offering.Fur instance,acity high- school child is evena weighting of two; that is.acity high-school childcounts

two weighted pupils. . The minimumprogramcostonwhich the study(not the law)was madewas a$70 educationaloffering (costperyear). The author states th t "improvement of thepresent system mustcomethrough acha ' the (present) method ofmeasuring need ofcommunities for aid 1. fromaconsideration of the wealth ofcommunities inthe . distributionof funds."

The following endsweresought in developingthe plan: (1) A $70 education, that is,an annual current expenditure of $70per weighted pupil, should beprovided throughoutthe State.(2) The burdenof this $70 education should be distributedso RS to bear upon the petople inall localities at thesame rate in relation to their tax-paying ability. (3)Nil community shouldreeive less State aidthan itnow receives.(4) Of the totalamount of Steaid the maximumamount possible shouldgotoward equalization of educational opportunity.(5) The plan shoulddemand as smallAn amount of State aid and _thereforeaslargeadegree of localsupport 118possible. The ends(3) and (5)arenot essential to equalization.Theyare incorporated for otherreasons Some of the principlesapparently influencingthe legislation passed by Massachusettsin 1919 and19'22are asfollows:(1) State aid should be givenin the form ofreimbursements formoneyprevi- ously expended;(2) theamount of State aidgranted shall be determined by (a) thecommunity's abilityto help itselfasin- dicated by itsassesged valuation, (b)the community'seffortasin- dicated by its localtax rate, and (c) the qualityof educational opportunity thecommunity seeksto furnishasindicated by the number and preparationof teachers andthe character ofthe educational facilities provicred. Besides New Yorkand Massachusetts,California, Maryland, North Carolina,Minnesota, Delaware,andanumber of otherStates have workedout methods of distributingtheir funds whichare eqUalizing in effect.These methodsarenot alike.Each hassome strong andsomeweakcharacteristics.Theyare,however, well worth studyingby States gonsideringchanges in distributionof fusnds. LOCAL TAXATION The difficulty ofsupporting schoolsin local districtsdependent whollyorin largepartonlocal taxationhas long beenrecognized. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND COMPULSORYLAWS 41 Generally speaking, the smaller the local unitsthemoreinequitable areschool oppprtunities furnishedunder thissystem.In States in whichareasonablylargepercentage of thesupportcomesfroma county tax assessedonallproperty of the county, including independent city school districts,and then divided between the city systems and the rural schools of thecountyon sowequitable basis, the inequalitiesare overcome to acertain extent.Unless, however, such fundsaresupplemented by State funds,the problem remains unsolved, since counties withinaState differ in their abilityto support schools widely, thoughnotsowidelyassmaller units such astownships and districts.Under both localand county support certain sections will be ableto maintain good schools withalow tax ratebecause of their accumulatedtaxableproperty, while othersec- tions will be unableto support schools adequatetothe needs cif modern educational practiceevenwithanexceedingly hightax rate. Chapter IV SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND COMPULSORYATTENDANCE LAWS s Effectivenes8 ofawhoa: 8y8tem, determined byit8 u8e.The effec- ft tiveness ofaState's schoolsystem is determined toalarge extent by the degreeto which it is utilized.Ifalarr4reproportion of the childrenofschoolage areenrolled in the schools,and ifagoodly pb*rcentof those enrolledareinaveragedaily attendance, the schools maybe said to be well utilized.From the figures given in Table10 itis possibleto determine this information for each of the various Srates.In this table the schoolageis consideredas5 to 17years, inclusive. The difference between thecensusenumeration and thetotalnum- ber of children enrolled in publicand private schools is approximately the number of children5 to 17years,inclusive,not in school. For the entire United States this is3,329,839. Of this numbermany over14 have finished the elementary school andareexcused by law from further school attendance.Some, living in .the rural sections of the country, whoare over14 and have completed the elementary schoolcourse,would continue school if high-school advantageswere .available within reasonabledistances from their homes.In the citiesmanybetween theagesof 14 and 16 havemet the educational provisions of the laws for theissuance of labor permits. Some of this numberarereceiving further instruction in continuationor evening schools.Accordingto information basedondata furnished by 830 cities, approximately1y2 per centof the school enrollment isover18.

N a -

42 A MANUAL OFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

TABLE 10.Schoolcensus, enrollment, and attendance,192344

Enrollment Public schooLs

1_ Population Average 5-17years Average Rank in State. of age, Private LumbernumberRank in dayl inclusive, Public schools of days of days days schoolsattended 1924 schools (largely schoolsattended by ench estimated)were inby eachwere in pupil session pupil session enrolled enrolled

A labarna 811, 122 601, 175 21, 437 135. 4 92. 51 48 ", v48 A rizona 104, 030 73, 980 2,492 166. 0 123. 2 32 35 Arkansas_ _ .... 595, 827 501, 758 4, 673 135. 3 97. 9 47 California...... 779, 692 1, 022, 130 48 .. 37, 765 181. 2 125.2 8 33 Colorado 252, 630 247, 195 3, 627 ...... 174. 0 126. 3 22 32 Connecticut 357, 885 288, 927 61, 301 183. 2 150. 8 5 7 Delaware N3, 671 38, 573 I/ 871+ 177. 3 147. 0 15 17 District of Columbia . R2, 896 72. 015 12, 613 180 0 148. fi 10 13 Florida 298, 897 266, 3 18 6, 796 14 3. 3 106. 3 43 42 Georgia__. _ _ 979, 684 747, 213 13, 392 ...... 140. 0 102. 2 44 44 I laho 138. 086 116, 970 1. 668 160. 7 122. 1 38 36 Illinois 1, 646, 915 1, 31R, 038 204, 279 182. 9 151. PI 6 Indiana 730, 455 623, 5436 37, 817 1 72. 0 )52.6 26 5 Iowa_ 4.1 604. 162 .533, 4 ni4 33, 796 ir. Kansas...... _ 148. 3 18 1 14 470. 415 424. 501 22, 762 1 74. 9 150. 0 21 9

_ ow Kentucky O. .1 716. 060 567, 782 18.04g 164. 0 Louisiana 119. 8 35 38 575. 546 NO, 848 25, 234 151. 8 116. 5 40 39 Maine._ ... 185, 301 147. 106 21. 583 1766 155. 1 19 4 M aryland II 371. 244 256. 302 26, 4.5 185.1 147. 2 Mazsacbtisetts 4 16 932. 432 737, 576 151. 558 181. 7 149. 3 7 11

Michigan__ _ _ . . 955, 576 818, 721 112, 690 178. 0 141. 4 13 20 M innesota . 040040 644. 445 46. 727 178. 8 )41. 2 11 21 Mississippi _ . .393, 962 572 028 8, 43 1 138. 8 93. 0 4 47 Missouri_ _ _ 8L9, 728, 814 ni 63, 116 168. 4 134. 0 31 , 30 rM ontana __ . _ 1433. 493 117, 793 3, 681 170. 8 139. 8 29 22

Nebraska . 354. 131 3 272 23, 778 172. 9 139. 7 24 23 _ _... _ Nevada... 10. 339 15, 970 40 178. 6 138. 2 12 28 New Hampshire_ _ 101. 739 74. 354 26, 638 172.6 139. 1 25 26 -New Jersey.... . f441, 768 664. 496 41, 214 188. 0 157. 6 2 2 New Mexico... _ _ 114, 067 88, 828 5, 826 172. 0 124. 3 27 34 New York 1' 2. 495, 992. 1, 932, 651 125, 289 187. 8 156. 5 3 3 North Carolina . . - 899, 026 793, 046 23, 282 143. 4 1Ce. 3 42 43 North Dakota _ 215, 685 174. 797 3, 731 165. 0 136. 2 33 29 Ohio 1, 426, 637 1, 200, 117 104. 354 176. 7 149. 2 16 12 Oklahoma __ _ . 695, 607 653, 700 4, 073 163.5 110. 3 36 41 Oregon . lgl, 396 175, 610 12, 916 Pennsylvania 173. 9 147. 23 15 2. 409, 525 1, 803, 163 192, 829 181. 1 150.2 9 8 Rhode Island . . ... 151, 095 105, 900 26, 882 194. 6 164. 1 1 1 South Carolina 599, 634 467, 425 9, South Dakota 103 119. 0 82. 6 49 49 ..... 184, 384 16Z 688 4, 087 171. 5 139. 3 28 24 'Tennessee 731, 945 657, 234 Term 22, 900 14& 4 101. 2 41 40...... 1. 499, 344 1, 194, 655 17. 774 135. 5 110. 7 46 40 Utah. 146, 738 130, 322 3, 915 168. 8 142 7 30 19 Vermont..._ . _ __ _ _ . - _ . 84, 796 64, 113 7, 541 161. 5 144. 9 37 18 Virginia ok. 718, 738 M6, 078 13, 475 160. 0 120. 2 39 37

Washington__ ...... _ - . . 336, 686 316, NO West Virginia 25, 694 177. 3 138. 4 14 27 471, 119 399, 410 8, 571 164. 8 128. 2 34 31 Wisconsin_ _ . - 701, 928 535, 755 80, 387 176. 6 150. 0 17 10 Wyoming - ..... 54, 921 61, 748 1, 164 175. 0 139. 2 20 25

United Stotes. ..29, 345, 91 1 24, 2881 808 1, 727, 264 168. 3 3 132. 5 11.1111 Decimais carriedto four plaoes to determinerank. Theextent to which thoseenrolled in iheschoolsarein regular daily attendancemaybe detenninedfor theschoolyear19231=24 byacomparison of thefigures showingthe number ofddys the schoolswerein session andtheaveragedailyattendance foreach SCHOOL ATTENDANCE ANDCOMPULSORY LAWS 43 pupil enrolled fouled) of thevarious States. Forthe United States as awhole, the Mrage length ofthe school session is168.3 days. Theaveragenumber of days attendedby each pupil enrolledis 132.5 days,or79par centof the length ofthe schoolterm. A loss of approximately one-fifth ofthe schoolterm is serious not onlyto the pupils themselves, butto schools and commusitiesaswell. A &tool anew important.Aknowledge of thenumber of children to be educated is essentialto the efficient administrationofa school system.In .orderto get this information it isnecessarythat the State provide foraconiplett andaccurate counting of all the children of schoolageresiding within itsboundaries. Theextent to which compulsory educationand child laborlawscanbe enforced depends largelyuponthe completenessand reliability ofthe school census.If thecensusis taken annually,it affordsanindexto the changing educational needs ofthe State whicharise from the growth, movement, and character of thepopulation. There is considerable variancein the legalschool-agesamongthe several State.. The widestrangeofagesis from 4 ti)20 in Wiscon- sin and 5to 21 in Iowa, Maine. Minnesota,Mississippi, Nebraska, New Mexico, and NewYork. Thenarrowestrangeis from 6to 18 in Georgia, Kentucky,Louisiana, Vermont,and Utah.Themost commonis 6 to 21, in23 States. A groupingof therangeofages for free schoolattendance, withthe number ofStatesineachgroup, is given in :Table11.1Of the34 States havingalegal schoolen- tranceageof 6yearsand 2 States withanentranceageof 7, nearly all permit kindergarteneducation, thus in effect,lowering theen- tranceage. The laws ofmost of the StatesProvidethatanenumeration of the children included withintherangeofagesfor free schoolattendance shall be takenat regular interval& Inafew States therangeofages for the childrento be enumerated differs fromtherangefor free school attendance.For example, thelaws of Californiaplace the rangeofagesfor free schoolattendance between6 and 21, and that for theregistration ofminorsat 4 to 17, inclusive.In South Carolinaa censusis takenannually of childrenbetween theagesof 7 and 14. Inamajority ofthe States thelaws require thata census be taken annually,insomeit is taken biennially.In New Jerseya schoolcensusis not mandatory.The laws of thatState permit boards of education,if theysodesire, té takeaschoolcensus oncein fiveyears. Important provisiamof compul8ory educationand child labor eau8.C7pulsoryattendance laws have beenenacted for thepur-

ICircular, Bu, of Educ., May 16, 1924.

.6.1 o I. 44 A MANUALOFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

poseof insuringto all the childrenof theStateaminimumamount of schoolingduring theperiod oflife whensuch schoolingcanbe

STATES NUMBER Or DAYS 40 SO $O 100 ISO 140 ISO ,00 RHODE ISLAND NM= OEM all TIM 11111111MKIIII NEW JERSEy i)A I ilt NEW YORK Nomirmss INIMENNEM 'Let 1111111M11111111 MARYLAND 61.1.11.1111.1111MINNINIMI 11111111111:11110111 CONNECTICUT mom me 1 SCR., _ 11111111111LINIU 111111111111111111110 ri ILLINOIS 61,111:11 11111111i1E11111. c? MASSACHUSETTS lar:=1 aft** smarmassm 1111111M1111111101

CALIFORNIA tt 11. 11.11111 ormaamoi 111111.11F 'PENNSYLVANIA t. 11.1Us - Al/ 1111111OI.; os ST. Or COL. rt 1101.111101111111111111111111 UI NNESOTA aria* 1111111111111111111111111 NE/ADA CPI 10/b 11111111MINII mICHIGAN rIlf wAsHI NGTON memewrilPT amemmilmommolim DELAWARE sr 611111 INNINNIE=OI MINIM11111111111011 OH 10 W I 3COM SI Fe

111111111111111106111111111.111111111.11 I OWA r v sa 1111111111111M11111 ISlAINI F-IN mpossum ammuml WYOMING 0111X/1 MI= NUM ItAtINIIM KANSAS 1111111111111111 rummor trertitottaiwo 11.111.1 ma/um COLORADO et/I* 4111MOSMINE sammr IMIU111101111 OREGON 01(..;,.. NEBRASKA 41111. 1 111111111111=13 11111111111111111111111111111.11.111 NEW HAMPSHIRE Di N stommwme INDIANA 9 X 11 NEW MEXICO / PI 1) sumwompro tHomowsw _ montoores. SOUTH DAKOTA 1P. 1 » 111110111111111 NIMIONSIINEND apimptoomorrsommanit 111111111111111111111011. N TANA 11,L1111 INNinuir UTAH Irtilb . ummmismilmomm 111111111111111 . SSOURI 1. 11.111 611111111111111111 AR I ZONA It /0 muraniNammamom 111111111E1101111111111111 NORTH DAKOTA 111/ OP I .1111111111 111111111MENNIME WEST VIRGINIA IIII 1.111118111111111r 111111.11IMINERammorow 11111111111X11111111 K EN TUCK Y SI IX 11 11111111111111111111111 OKLAHOMA 1111111.111 111.111, rRIF MIMI VERmONT 411 it s or-- -minorsellIrtnteltal untomptuomp SLUM I DAM() P 1 X 111111111111611PMwatentoges.tmommomm VIRGINIA If I 11, 11. NNW LOUISIANA 411 1 PP 1111PoweillitoP 1111MmINONIOR litoommant TENNESSEE 1.11WI ENINNISMNI apinmemomisymimmin 11111111111111MMIIIIIIIMIl NORTH CAROLINA trommitimosit (11 tP IIIMINELI. IC EMI umummon ommtoottumi FLORIDA 11UT III 1111111111111Im GEORGIA - menareIniN11111111111111

Nosto amintoololummisomp111111111111.1Mo I $SISSIPPI GPM, 1114111111111.11.14 glitionotworm entimiromme TEXAS 1 (Pill 611INIONNINt _ _ ARKANSAS 11A 11 trolompiwootstastmxexemptmom IIMININE11111111111111 ALABAMA k X ammallommomoNam 11111111111r1r111111 SOUTH CAROL!NA 11 1 X I l ERSE. 1111111 11.11.1111 UNITED STATES III tr., =MN mirtruwamm ismAVERAGE DAYSATTENDED LENGTH OF SESSION.

rte. 5.--Lelailtof session,andaverage days attended,1923-24 mosteffective.Every Statenowhasalaw whichrequireschildren betweencertain tie&limitsto attend schoolacertainstatedtime. 0 111-`-e . . .--- - SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND COMPULSORYLAWS 45

a . Table 11 givesagrouping of theagelinlits for compulsory attendance,with the number of States in eachgroup.It shows that in 20 States therangeofagesis between 7 and 16; and in10 it is between 8 and 16. The effectiveness of compulsory education laws dependsuponthe machinery setupfor th4eir enforcement. InsomeStates the laws lose 'Mich of their force because of lack of definite responsibility for their enforcement. CompulsoryattendancClawsEire, generally, better enforced in cities than inrur'aldistricts.This is because cities, through their divisions of school attendance, have thepropermachin- eryfor their enforcement.Éxperiencehas proved that compulsory attendance laws in niral districtsare moresatisfactorily enforced by State and county rather than local district authorities.

TABLE ILAges for free attendance andagesfor compulsory attendance a AGES FOR FREE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

Ages Number Ages Namber. of States1 of S tates 1

5-21 23 6-20 2 5-21 7 7-21 2 8-18 . 5 4-20 1 t3-20 3 6 and up 3 Total 49 Any age 3

AGE LIMIT 'FOR COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE

7-18 20 7-13 )- 1 S-16 -1 10 7-15 V. 1 .. 8-14 4 7-18 O 1 ... 7-17 3 8-17 1 1 8-18 i 3 9-18 1 7-14 2 5-16 1 Total 49 6-18 1

3 Includes District of Columbia.

e All of the States specifyin their laws the minimum annual attend- ancerequired of children coming °withintherangeofagesfor compulsory attendance.In all but nine of the States the laws specify theft minimumeducationnecessaryto exempt from compulsoryattendance.1Groupitigsof the minimum time required for compulsory school attendance Rind pf theminimum educationnec sary to securelabor permits, with the numberof States in each group, aregiven in Table 12.The trend during thepast fewyektrs 1/2 is to require childrento attend school during tbe entire school period oruntil the completion of theelemetitaryschoolcourse.Attendance for the entire schooltermmeans moreinsomeStates than in others, because the length of the minimumschool term varies fromamaxi- s mumof 91/2 months in Connecticuttoaminimum of 8 months in Oklahoma, South Carolina,and Wyoming.It. is 9 months in6 4446 A MANUALOF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

States; 8 monthsin 11; 7 in8; and 6 in9.Thereisatendency constAntlyto increase the lengthoftAgm, butaniinimumschool term of 9 months isagbal,yetto be attained inmost States.Group- ing of theminimum schoolterms, with tile number6f Statesin each group,is givenin Table13. In all theStatescompulsoryeducationYawsarereenforcedby ichild laborlaws.Thepurposeof suchlaws isto protect children, whoarethe futufe citizensof theState, againstparents andguar- dians who wouldtraffic in thelabor of childrenorwards, andthus deprive them ofeducationalopportunitiesequalto those enjoyed sby other children.Thirty-seven States(including theDistrict ofCo- lumbia) requireasPecifiedamount of education beforeitt,labor permit shall be granted.In 15 Statesitisthe sompletionof theelementary grades.(See Table12 for otheramounts.)InsomeStates the lavsprovide that childrento whom laborpermits havbeen issuedmust attend evening andcontinuationschools. TABLE 12.Ages for laborpermitsMinimumannualattendanceMinimum education requiredfor labor permits' AGES FOR 'LABORPERMITS -.1. Number Ages Ages Number of StatesI of States I

14-16 25 .14-15 1 .14 11 15-16. 16._..116. 4 15-17

1408 3 1 15 2 Total 12 , 49 ,tf 1

¡MINIMUM ANNUALDAY SCHOOLATTENDANCE REQUIRED

Number Term Term Number of States I of States'

Full term 35 100 days_ .44 1 120 days 6 60 days_ _ 80 days 3 140 days e 160 days 2 Three-fourths ofterm 1 Total 49 P

MINIMUMDUCATION REQUIREDFORISSUANCE OF LABORPERMITS

Grades Number of States I

.01.6.1,10 _Elefnentary grades Not specified 15 Sixth grade r Not stated I 4. 9 Fifthgrade .Seventh grade a Fourth grade 2 1

Total 49

- =16 411 NO. The 1 0dren's Bureau, Departmentof Labor,%asprepared charts givingdetailed informationreq :4:l dingt sportant provisions ofcompulsory education andchild labor ta, sing! laws.' As longas the edition pies of the chartsmay be had treeupon application to that ofiloein Washington, D.40 \ 3Includes Districtof Columbia. I Proficiency in certainsubjects in 7 States,ability.to read andwrite in1 . ; - 4 SCHOOLATTENDANCEAND CQMPULSORY LAWS 47

TABU,13.Minimum schooltermeMinimum education.necessarytO exempt from compulsory attendance . MINIMUM SCHOOL TERM - , t.1 Term Number Term Number of States I ,of States I .., . iin,. neinlini-

e 8-months 11 7I,¡ months 2

6 months 9 5 months ...... In 7 months 8 10.4j months 1 . 9 months 6 W¡ months _ ...... 1 4 months _ 3 3 months 3 Total ...... _._.... 43 /T07- -Il o MINIMUM EDUCATION NECESSARY TO EXEMPT FROM COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE

Number Oracles of States I 1 4. ; .1.

Elementary school. 36 Not specified 9 Sixth grade 3 High school. 1

TotalL., 49

I Includes DIstrictilColumbia. Illiteracy.--The evils of illiteracyare sogreat andsoexpensive that nearly all States notnowhaving such legislationareconsider- ing enactments that will enable them )o carry onsystematic plans for-the elimination of, illiteracy it nearilliteracy. Experience has shown thattwthings aid in the promotion of LI sucha program:(1) There should beanofficeriGnthe State department of éducation whose business it is to organize theeducationtil forcessothatproperinstructionin elementary subjectsmaybe- given to adultsaswellasto employedyoungpeople who need itc\. (2) State aid should be ivailabletolocal-districtssothat theymay provide evening schools.State aid for this iJurpose is justasim- portant is it ip for the regular day schools. Illiteracy is noLa matter thatcanbe cured byafew lessons.In mostcasesthe illiteratepersonneeds regular class work fora number ofyearsin order to acquire sufficient abilitytoreadwith pleas- ureand profit. A number of Statesnowhave effective laws that foster evening schools, and illiteracy in these States is being abolished.The State of Pennsylvania hasarecent andveryexcellent law for such schools. Children in isolated homes.---In most States of the Union there arechUdren *holi;eoutside of the 21/2-mile limit required by the school attendance laws.The'reare manychildren whogrow up without school advantages.some Statesareatterapting to solve this problem by providingran-sportation for such pupils.Even

-r- .ft' _ - ^"." 48 A MANUALOF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION ..;

this plan failsto reachsomechildren.Experiencehas shownthat ifachild isnot sent to schoolbeforeheorshe is 10yearsofage,the childwillnot wanttogoafter thattimeonacicountof pride. In soineStates wherefamiliesarewidelyscatteredanitinerant teachermaybe employed,1either byState,county,ordistrict,to gofrom hometo home and (each thechildren whocannot be reached inanyothefway.This planhas beenfoundto be successfulin Australia.

TABLE14. Distributionof pupils,rnrolled in schoolin 25 States,accordingto the length of thrschool term1923-24

I 80 I State daysor81-100101-120 121-140 14 1-160 161-180 1!ila-;200 (:jaay: Totalen- die ys- days days days days (lays fewer days rollment

goof 2 3 . 4 5 6 7 8 9

Totalfor25 States. .229, 717 167, 5X3 277, 357285, 900 1,074, 897 '3,777, 2041, 225, 982 n3. 904 7, 052, 494

Alabama _ _ _ _ 79, 841 61. 867102. S67 70, 746 42, 5.58 242, 698 635 601. 1V5 Arkansas . _ _ _ , 75, AS8 , r.i,ci 95102, 963 58. 437 86, 001 1 13. 872 6, 662 3.940 511, 758 California .___ __._'.. 39 ; I 24 RI 70 R, 685 I 2.746 311, 11 3 59. 935 no12, 213 . __ _ - ___ i Connecticut _ _ 1 . _ .. . _ . _ __ _ _.. .. 3 1, 946 252, 663 284. 629 Delaware_ 3, 129i 1, 512 1, 780 2, 760 6, 150 17, 040 6, 202 .. . 38, 573 i Dist. Columhia_ 72, 573 72. 573 Idaho_ _ ..... 4, 014 1. 244 1. 768 7, nos Indiana IS, 798 79, 950 3, 1 tO 116, 819 61 4, 855 1114, 655 Kansas 125. 84 298, 618 Maine_ 424, 501 _ ..... 43 901 17, 614 1 13, 636 2.4,g9 190, 383

Maryland 4 5.11 ...... 8 3 1 2 143 1, 694 18 2, 413 Massachusetts._ .. s _ . SO 32.1, 503 401. 0S2 726, 674 Montana 1, 410 6.5.5 1, 954 3. 183 S. 3rdi 76, 4) 2), A05 117, 793 Nevada. . _ 3 4 s3 157 1. 091 la as.9 2. 247 . - 15, 970 New Hampshire s. (17, 8r5 4, 4(16 72, 270 New Mexico . fl, 898 11% 5S3 6.5 13R 809 88, 428 North Dakota___ __.. 2, 715 1. 401 ; 2, 71S 21. 040 cr,5 1 12, er.2 1, f415 11 174. 797 Oklahoma.._ _ _ _ 4, 702 8, 095 37, 967 Q0, 9 56go179, 679 4 1 1.571 72 703, 042 Soul h Dakota_ _ _ _ . _ 4 14 311, 757 P20.400 4. 459 . a. ao,dl 162, Of0 Utah 43. 37 23 3, 7 14 21, (93 71 569 31. 843 130, 322 Vermont 400 63, g1.1 _ . .*- 64, 213 Washington. _ _ _ 40 35 357 601 7. 33t) 164,as."i 142,69S . 315, 146 West Virginia _ _ 371, 222 30. 122 _ 401, 341 Wisconsin._ _ _ _ 57, 92A 28, 651 I. 24, no45, 376 A,fl1 2s7.5,s0 538, (K)4 Wyoming_ _ _ _ _ 5 _____ 3, 109 48, 296 1 339 a D.1151, 749 Outlying possessions Alaska 19 16 71 ! 3, 573 11. Virg% Islands 283. I* MI 3,975 3, 112 3, 112

1 161 daysor more, Chapter V

REALM ANDPHYSFCALEDUCATION1 TheiMpetusgiven by thewarto health work inschools hashet little of itsforce,sand healthis not onlytalked ofas afundamentai objective ineducation butpracticalmeasuresfor attainingitare incourseof rapiddevelopment. Not onlydoes theschool lookupon

16- I See U. B. Bu. of Educ.b011etinsonschool hygiene andphysical education, , HEALTH AND PHYSICALEDUCATION 49 the health of the childasworthy of effortonitsown accountbut as acondition of his bes:t mentalprogress.School health work becomes thereforea measureof schooleconomy,and when wisely :r2., conductedmorethanpays wayfromapurelymonetary point 4 of view. Thirty-three States havepafsed lawsonthe subject andsome statuteshave recently been revi1.In the framing ofthese laws the term"physical education " has3een usedto designate the field tobe covered, with the exception ofthat of Utah, in whichthe words bbhealth education werechosen. Owingto the fact that, inrecent years," physical education" hasbeen narrowed bymanyof its exponents to 'the activitiescifthe gymnasiumand playground,there has arisenc6siderableconfusionasto its meaning.Inmost laws, however, specific mention is madeof health teachingand school sanitation,aswellasof physical training.Considering thewent origin of this legislation,comprehensiveprogramsembracing health examination, habitformation, school lunches,hygiene, sanitation, and physical trainingarebeing introducedinto the curriculum, especially in thosesections where adequateState stimulationand supervision tre supplied. Most State lawsonthis subject makesomeprovision fortacher training for this field of work.All school health workcenters in theregular teacher, and it isonly with thedevelopment of adequate coursesin teacher-training institutionsthatweciin hope fcp best results in this work. Ifhealth and physicaltrainingarefunda- mentalto all educatioft, the teachermust. be made fully conscious of this fact both inher theoretical andpractical preparation.She must be prepared to know herpupilsas amusician knows his instru-'66 ments and be able.not only to appreciate NNhen theyaredefective andout of tune but shemust endeavor to have themput intocon- dition for producingthe best work whichtheir hereditaryendow- mentwill permit.Such improvementresults in least effortfor the teacher, least orttlayfor schools,and mosi incomein educatioAal results. OBJECT AND SCOPE The object ofaState, law forhygiene andphysical education should beto surround'thechild in theschool with suchsanitary conditionsas_will be for hiswelfare,toarrangethe materialand method ofthegeneral curriculumto this end, andto introduce into theeducationalprogramsuch positivework forthe health andphysical unfoldingof the childasisconsistjntwith the limitationsof schoolactivity.It is evidentthat conditionsin the home lifeof the

a. 50 A MANUALoP EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION childcannot be directly modified, though indirectlythe work of the schoolmayinfluence those conditionstoaconsiderable degree. The schoolcan never4doits best for the child if itconducts its affairsasthough isolated fromthehome.and this is particularly true in its efforts for physical education. Scope.(1) The school plant shouldbe built and managedsothat the school environment shallnot be detrimental to the physical welfare. of the child.This should includethe provision of adequate plkirgroundspace. (2) The schoolprogramshould be arrangedsothat incontent and presentation it shall be healthful,and the health of the teacher should receive the attention itdesemes. (3) The examination of thepreschool child;Though the child isnotasubject for iThysical educationin the school until he has reached theageforentrance, the school should be interested in his physical well-being before thistime, and it has become the policy of someschoolsto makeaphysical examination of childrenbefore entrance and to suggest such treatment of local defectsorof general healthaswill place the child inbetter condition for school work at the time of his entrance. (4) Physical examination ofschool children: Theexamination of the school childonentrance and periodically thereafterto discover andsecurethe removal of his physicaldeeds is fundamentalto the work of physical education andalso for schooleconomy.Adequate meansand methods of securingthe best results fromsuch examination should be arranged. (5) The prevention ofcommunicable diseasesby the airily inspection of children shouldbe provided. (6) Health education shouldbe carriedout inapracticalwayby

Ethe insistence, first,oncleanliness ofperson,and following this by interesting the childin the formation of thefew other habits which areessential for health. In the higher gradesthis work shouldbe continued by practical teaching in physiotogyand the principles ofpersonal and home hygiene and bydevelopinganappreciation of workfor public health. (7) Physical training forall pupils shouldbe arranged for. Not only should therebe amplerecessperiods, but additionaltime should be appropriatedduring the school periodorafter school hours for supervised exercise ofsuchanatureasis best fittedto the physical capacities of the childrenat differentages.Adequate supervision of such activitiesis needed, andteacher training -forsuch work should be provided. HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION 51 LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS Legislative provisionsonthis subject should include the following points; (1) A clear and comprehensivestatement of thepurposeof the law and the object of health and physical education. (2) Mandatory provision for all of the itemsmentioned under 44scope"savewhere (as for medical inspection)this subjectmay have been covered in previous legislation. (3) Minimum time requirementto be devoted to physical education. (4) Provision of administrative machinery in the State departmentof education sufficient for the effective administrationof the law.This provision should be broad and flexible. Two thingsare . essential: (a) State direction and supervision.A. good plan isto havea State director of physical education, with the rank of deputyor assistant State superintendentorhealth supervisor. Hispowersand duties should not be narrowly defined. (b) Sufficient financialresourcestoinsurethe effective, administration of this office, eithér by specific appropriationorby authorizing the State departmentto make adequate provision for this purposeout of general school funds. (5) There should beacarefully drawn provision authorizing and requiring the employment of supervisors and special teachers under specified conditions and in harmony with the administrative organization of the State. (6) Provisión requiring lie State department of educationto fix qualifications of supervisors and special teachers andto issue special licenses for thesame. (7) Provision for adequate training in school health work of all teachers, both for the secondary and the elementary school.The essential requirements of this part of the teacher's education should be prescribed by the State authorities. (8) Provision requiring that pupils be graded in these,asin other school subjects and exercises, and that satisfactoryprogressbea conditionto promotion and graduation. (9) Coordination of work included in thescopeof physical educa- tionashere defined, whichmayhave already been provided for by previous legislation, suchasmilitary drillormedical inspection, and amendment of such legislationas seemsdesirable for such coordination.

r11 -111=91 ,

94111,.. 52 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION > Chapter VI

KINDERGARTENLEGISLATION1 Among important considerationsin school legislationarethe laws governing the establishment andsupport. of kindergartens.While the value of kindergarten'education isnolongeradebatable subject, Lhere has been little standardizationof laws governing the establishment of this branch of the public schoolsystem. Forty Statesnowhave laws especially providingfor the establishment of kindergartens.Fourmorehave general laws coveringtheir establishment.In 34 States there isa."rjALssive" law; in6 States there isa"mandatory-on-petition" law.In 1 of the "permissive" States there isamandatory law for certain qualifiedcities.Laws classified roughlyasabovevaryin the several States,due to their specific wordingorto the bearing which related andqualif3;inglaws haveuponthem.The New Jersey and Wiseqnsinlaws illustrate the two types of laws mentioned, andextracts from themareherere- produced. Permi8sive law in NewJeney.The board of education ofany school districtmayestablishakindergarten schoolor akindergarten department inanyschool under its control,and shall admitto such kindergarten schoolordepartmentanychildovertheageof 4 and under the alb of 7 yilfkrs who shallbearesident of the district; provided, thatnochild under theageof 5yearsshall be admittedtoany public school unless such schoolshall haveakindergartèn department. Every teacher inakindergarten schoolordiepartment shall hold aspecial kindergarten certificateissued by the State boardof examiners. Theexpensesof kindergarten schoolsordepartments shallbe paid out ofany moneysavailable for thecurrentexpensesof the schools, and in thesame mannerand under thesamerestrictions astheexpensesof the other schoolsordepartments. TABLE 15.Some provisiom of present kindergartenlaw8

Legal Ageof Where kinder- State school kindergarten gartensare Sources of support Permissiveor age attendance authorized mandatory a 4

Alabama_ a5 Cities only...... Local fund__ ...... Permissive. Arizona..... a44 to 6 Any district Special tax_ . ___ Mandatory. Arkansas o No law secured None -California._ _ _ a44 to 6 Every district... Special tax_. _ _ Do. _ Colorado 63 to 6 .110 Any school districtLocal fund only__ Permissive. Connecticut__ 6 4 to 7..... Any townordis- 't Samefundas Do. '9 trict. grades. Delaware . 5 5 Special school dis-Local fund _ _ _ Do. trict. Florida 6About 5 Any specialtaxLocal fund; State Do. district. fundsmaybe used. . I For more detailed information concerning kindergartenlegislation,seeU. 8. Bu. of Educ. Bul., 1925, No. 7.

--wlamr.- 10-11. $ KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION ti 53 TABLE 15.Some provisionsar presentkindergarten lawsContInued

Lewd Age of Where kinder- State school kindergarten gartens are Sources of support Permissiveor age attendance authorized mandatory

Georgia 6 No law secured None_ .. Idaho 6 3 to 6. Any district..... _ _Local fund _ Permissive. Illinois,___ 6 4 to 6. do __. do...... _ Mandatory. Indiana ...... 4 to 6._.....IncorporatedGeneral fund(spe-Permissive. towns only. (ial tax optional) Iowa 5 5 Any independentGeneral fund Do. school district. (Any schooldis- Permissive;man- Kansas_ 14 to 6... }Local fund;some 515 to7...... { trict datory incities -; (Citiesover 18,n00_. State funds. of first class. Kentucky__ 6 ' 4 to8_ ...ICities only General fund Permissive. 6 4 to t; . ..Not stated Local fund Do. .. Maine. 5 , 4 to C.__ .1 Any cityor town General fund Mandatory. Maryland._. 6 No law secured._ None...... Massachusetts._ (1) School aut hor-Not stated General fund No lawneeded i ties decide: becauseof low schoolage. Michigan_ 5 4 to 7 Every school dis- do Permissive. trict. MInrìesots..... 5 4 to 6. Independent dis-Local fund and Do. tricts. State funds. Mississippi 5 No law secured__ Noneib _ - Missouri 6 5 to 6 A ny schooldisrLocal Ilind Do. trict. Montana_ 6 3 to 6 do do Do

Nebraska... _ 5 5 do Local and StateNo lawneeded funds. becauseof low schoolage Nevada. _ _ . (1) 4 to ( Every district____Local fund___...... Permissive. , New 1.1ar4Abire .) ncieter-A ny tchooldis- _ . __do No lawneeded mined. trict. becauseof low schoolage .- 7 New Jersey. 5 .4 to Any district..4.....General fund._ _ I Permissive New Mexico__ 5 4 to 6.... _ District having14x..al fund Do. ¡ 200 pupils. New York 5 I 4 to 6...... Each school dis- I General fund___ Do. trict and city. North Carolina__ 6 NotnioreAny district__. Special tax ..... Do. than North Dakota__ 64 to 6 Any district; citiesLocal fund _ _ _ . Permissive;man- over 5,000. datory in cities over 5,000. Ohio 6 4 to 6 Any district__. General fund__ _ Permissive. Oklahoma_ i _ _- 6 4 to 6____ Cities above 2,500.Local fund..... Do. Oregon _ _ .- 6 Not stated School district do..._ Do. childrenhaving 20,000 of schoolage. Pennsylvania__ 4 to 6 Districts of first,Special tax _ ,0 Do. second, third, and fourth a classes. Rhode Island.... (I) School nut hor-Not stated General fund No law needed be- ities decide. cause of low schoolage. _ South Carolina_ 6 4 to 6___.. _ _ Any district______do - . Permissive. _ South Dakota. 6 Not slated I Local fury! ... Do. Tennessee__ _ 6 bool aut hor-Citiesor towns do Do. Hies decide. Texas 7 5 Any schooldis-_____do...._. . ,Mandatory. trict. Utah 64 to 6_ Cities of first and . _ _ ib Permissive. N, second chi:kw. Vermont... 6 tinder5 From districts.... .do Do. Virginia ..... Under 8_ Any pehooldis-._...do_ _ Do. trict. Washington.____ 4 to 6...... Districts offirstGeneral fund__ .111. Mk M. Do. and second classes.

West Virginia... 64 6 ID MD Op 41. Districtor inde-Local fund Do. t° pendent district. Wisconsin 4 4 to 6. Any schooltits-Gencra fund_ Mandatory. , rict except Union Free High School. Wyoming .. 64 to 6 Any schooldis-Local fund Permissive. trict. 11.11 Undetermined. 54 A MANUAL OF EDb ATIO IBIATION

D. Mandatory-on-petition lawin W i8conitin.Theschool boardor board of education ofanyschool district,however organized, union free high schooldistricts excepted, shalluponpetition of theparents orguardians of 25or morechildrenmorethan 4 andnotmorethan 6yearsofageestablish and maintainakindergarten in chargeof alegally qualified kindergartenteacher for the instructionof said children.Incasesuch district maintainstwoor moreschool buildings, thdparentsorguardians heretoforementioned shall residenot morethan 1 mile from thebuilding in whichit is proposedto establish the kindergarten.Whenakindergarten shall havebeen establishedashereinbeforeikrovidedit shall constituteapart of the commonpublic schools of flakdistrict and thetaxes for mainte- nanceof such kindergarten shallbe levied and collected inthesame manner asothertaxesarelevied and collectedfor thesupport of thecommonschools. Whenakindergarten shall havebeen established, it shallnot be discontinued unless the enrollmentfor the precedingyearshall have been less than15. Essentials ofagood law for kindergarteneducation.The following criteriabrieflystatedmaybe used for analyzingexisting lawsor planning for contemplatedones: 1. Is the law state-wide in application? 2. Does it providesupport from the general fund? 3. Doparentshaveavoice in the establishment ofkindergartens (mandatoryorpermissive)? 4. May childrenenter at 4or41/2yearsof *age? 5. Does the law include adequateteacher certification requirements? The growingtendencyto require identical training and certification for kindergarten andprimary teachers is takingthe kindergarten out of the " special subjects " classificationand placing it where it belongs,as anintegral part of the elementaryschool grades. The growing interestin the education of children4yearsofageand youngerinnurseryschools forecasts the futurenecessity of including in legislation certification forteachers of these schools.

Chapter VII a. TEACHING STAFF All Statesareconcerned with providing coikditionsand regulating qualifications designedto insure,sofate*ashumanly possible. the employment and retention ofanadequately prepared teaching staff. Three important considerationsenter into the question with which State legislaturesaredirectly concerned and the efficacy of provisions TEACHING STAPP 55 concerning which theyareresponsible: (1) A scientificallycpn- ducted state-wide study of the supply and demand of adequately trained teachers in the State.Sucha surveyisnecessarybeforeany of the following pertinent provisions for supplying"awell-trained teacher ineveryschool iin the State "maybe intelligentlycon- sidered.(2)Certification laws which insure that only qualified applicants receive lic'enses to'teachinany(even the smallestor poorest) school.Thismeansthat the minimum qualifications for the lowest grade of certificate should be adequate to insureagood standard of academic and professional qualificationsonthe part of the candidate.(3) Salaries suchas arecommensuratewith the qualifications exacted for certification.This involves thepassageof aininimum salary law basedonqualifications.(4) Facilities for training teachers furnished by the State, adequate in thesenseof supplyingasufficient number of teachers and efficient in the quality of training given, to supply different types of schools. Reasonable sktndards for teachers.The generally accepted standards of requirements for teachers in the United Statesare ageneral education equivalent to graduation fropastandard four-year high school, followed by twoyearsof special teacher training inacollege department of education,ateachers college,or anormal school. The two-yearprofessionalcourseshould include, besides advancedaca- demiccourses,specialintensive professionalcourses,including psychology, principles of education, teaching methods, and the like, aswellasample opportunity for observation in model schools and practice teaching under supervision. The teaching force of the United Statesas awhole is below this standard. City systems generally have better trained teachers than the country schools. Theaverageis wellupto the standard stated above.Teachers in rural schoolsaveragebelow this standard.In manyStates numbers of teachersareemployed who have notcom- pletedahigh-schoolcourseand have hadnoprofessional training. This situation usually is found when certification laws, teachers' salaries, and training facilitiesareinadequateorinsufficient., A legislativeprogramdesigned tosecure ahigh-grade teaching 8taff.---Adequate legislation providingacomprehensive plan similar to that outlined below will assist inproviding the State withahigh- grade professional teaching staff: , 1. Improve teaching conditions by (a) Establishing reasonableMinimumsalaries for all teachers. (b) Adopting in principle the single-salary schedule: (e) Scaling all teachers' salaries to the grade ofcertificate held, thus placingapremiumonspecial preparation. (d) Advocating the adoption of the principle of"indefinite!' tenure, witithmeansthatateacher will be retained inaschoolas Po - -

56 A MANUALOFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION TABLE16.-Numberof rural teachers inthe UnitedStates in1925receivingthe salariesindicatedreportedto thoBureau ofEducation

In In I schools schools In 1. 2 of 3or Inoon- of 3or Annual salary more more aolidated Total schools schoo teachersschoolsteachers inopen in vil- country lages and towns mmliMIMM

2 3 4 5 7

Legs than$300 4, 135 1, 574 471 $300 to $6399 . _ 138 90 4, 408 ...... - 5, 405 $400 3, 088 1, 186 664 384 10, 726 to $499 7, 018 $500 a, 338 1, 427 1, 530 738 14, 049 to $599 9, 741 $600 to $699 Z 708 1, 581 1, 576 1, 150 16, 736 20, 856 1 3, 222 1, 777 $700 to $799 _ Z 653 2, 575 31, OKI I19, 338i I Z 751 $800to $899 1, 616 2, 578 3, 195 29, 478 - . 24,834 1 4, 168 I1, 936 5, 332 5, 486 I 41, 756 $900 to $999 1 4, 732 i $1,000to $1,099 3, 483 1, 960 6, h45 8, 952 35, 672 - 5, 812 2, 215 1, 162 I 4, 399 I 6, 976 20, 364 $1,100to $1,199 2, 609 $1,200 to $1,299 1, 51 1 1, 007 3, 630 I 8, 383 15, 140 IJA 1, OM 930 $1,300 to $1,399...... 3, 7:s9 ' 6, 648 14, 319 916 1 $1,400 to $1,499 792 428 2, 797 5, 834 11, 167 353 I $1,500to $1,599 371 44)6 1, 649 I 3, 866 6, 683 188 262 419 1, 271 $1,000 to $1,99 _ 3, 329 5, 460 $1,700 to $1,799 58 132 218 789 2, 034 3, 231 30 44 103 404 , 1, 415 1, 996 $1,800to $1,899 . $1,900 to $1,999 30 69 128 005 1, 510 2, 432 $2,000 and over. 4 5 29 190 425 653 12 24 120 916I 2, 213 3, 285 Total 1 17, 759 30,849 17, 313 41, 515 : 83, 202 270, 638 I Mediansalarygroup. longas acceptableservicesarerenderedthat communiey.Apro- bationary period ofone or twoyears.for thebeginningteachermay be acquiredbeforetheappointmentforanindefiniteperiod becomes operative. (e)Providingadequateprofessionalsupervision. (f) GrantingStatebonusesto teachersasrewards forlongservice ina singleschool communifyandto highlyefficientteacherscon- tinuing servicein smallruralschools. (g)Establishingliberalretirementfunds forteachers. '.."41tequirehigherteachingqualificationsby (a) Increasinggraduallytheentrancerequirementsof theState normalschools Andlengtheningtheir studycourses. (b) Eliminatingtemporary expedientsfor thetraining ofteachers, suchasnormalcoursesgiven inhigh schools,asrapidlyasthe Statecanprovidefor-takingoverandefficientlydoing thework of thesesecondaryinstitutionsin standardprofessionalinstitutions whose sole task isthepropertraining ofteachersto meetadequately the needsof theState. (e)Discontinuingthe issueofcertificatesonexaminationas soon as thenormalschools andotherteacher-traininginstitutionshave become fully equippedto supply alltheprofessionalteachersre- quired. 01'NG STAPP 57 (d) Placing the minimumrequirement for permissionto teach at graduation fromanaccredited four-yearhigh school,orits equivalent, and in addition two years' professionalstudy acquiredata professional school for teachers,the standardto be reached gradually, 'becoming effective afterample .time (oneto five years) is given for allteachers in the serviceto attain these requirements.

3. Increase the supply ofprofessional teachers by 0. (a) Offering rewards equalto those of similar 'professions for youngpeople entering the service.(See the different points under (1) above.) (b) Providing for definiteand effective " in service", trainingto supplement that given bythe local supervisory staff.The extension divisions ofthéState teacher-preparinginstitutions afford the logi- cal agencies for this work. (c) Increasing the length ofthe period of professionalprepara- tion required forteachers.Experience shows thatthe length of service given by teachersincreases withlengthened periods ofprep- aration. ((i) Increase the capacityof existing teacher-preparinginstitutions wherever thOrfacilities for adequateobservation andprac- tice teaching will permit,and in addition establishasufficientnum- ber ofnewinstitutions to provide forthe schools the pumberof adequately preparednelr teachers needed annually.The needs of the rural schools shouldnot be overlooked in making suchprovisions.

SALARYTRENDS AND SCHOOLTERM

The following table showstheaverageannual salaries ofteachers in 1925 in the fiveclasses of ruol schools,the numbpr ofStates showinganupward, downward,or eventendency in salariesfor each class since1924, and the length of schoolterm in days: O

TABLE 17.--Salary trends andschooltermsin rural schools in1925

Rural schools Salaries Down Even Term Up (days)

One-teacher $748 12 85 1 . 180 Two-teacher ..... _ 759 15 as 0 151 Three-teacher 865 15 31 2 157 Consolidated.se. 1, OM 7 39 2 168 Country vtlla 1, 188 11 37 0 176 58 A MAVMAL Or EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION

AVERAGE SALARIES OF -COUNTRY MEDIAN SALARIESITTIITERTAAT TEACHERS IN 1924 TEACHERS IN LARGEST CI TY 14 o w(1J 0 z aa < CC 0 g 8 8 8 TAu...eJ 0 WI g .../ Li2 toy ;.; 1 419 40)

. $ 87 5 196a LA. 517 1278 ARIZ. 1398 166 9 RK. 53 2 1306 t -- ALI F.1456 192 2 OLO. 1068 2024 ONN.116 9 164 2 EL. 919 177 5 C. 1546

F LA. 684 . 85 A. 486 1280 I DAHO 106 I c 139 I LL. 898 238 7 I ND. *988 1930 IOWA 897 181 KANS. 862 168. K Y. 58 I 133E1 LA. 887 153 1 ME. 744 151 2 VD. 1016 1613 MASS. 1159 -- 1769 MICH. 894 1922

MINN. 833 . 1720 MISS. 534 97a MO. 818 187 1 MONT. 994 180 NEBR. 893 188 NEV. 122 6 _ 170 nr N.H. 912____ 152 7

N.J. -1258 .1 1882 N.MEX.91 9 130B N.Y. 105 1 254 5 N.C. 577 122 N. DAK 857 1454

OHIO 102 9 . 189 5 OKLA. as 9 180 OREG. 1050 1750 - A. 894 200 5 I. 982 1662" .C. 718 1255 OAK. 929_ 145 123:1 ENNI 582 _ TEX. 694 1500 TA1i 1055 1463 VT, 771 116

Vi. 57 7 120 : o ASH. 1 181 4 W.VA. 81 1 .1383 IS. 96 8 2401 WYQ. 943 - 1664

The widegapbetween the salaries ofcountry teachers andsalaries of elementary teachers In the cities f.

- - ;,...y CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS -59 Chitpter avili CERTIFICATION*OF TEACHERS All Statesassumedefinite responsibility for the qualifications of personslicensedtoteach within the Spite.InnoState.canteache'rs draw salaries from ptblic-schoolfuficis unless they hold*legal teaching licenseorcertificate.In all States thereareestiblished certain minimum requirements for teachingcertificatesand established standardsorgrades of certificates basedonacademicor professional qualifications and experience in teaching. Thepowerof certifying teacherswasvested in local authorities first in practically all States.It has, however, gradually,become moreandmorecentralized. At present it is centered in county and Stateauthorities, cities under certain conditions,orofacertain size, being exempted i4 most States and the towns inoneState in New England. The centralization hascomeabout gradually,more andmoreauthority in regard to certification being placed in the hands of the State department of education.At the present time the certificating authority is placed in the department of education wholly.orsufficiently to give the department large authority in all but about eight States. The legislatures of the several States generally provide for the certificating of teachers either (1) by providing in the statutes for certain definite types of certificates and 'setting forth the qualifications demanded for each, fixing the authority andpowerto grant them, regulations concerning term, validity, etc.or(2) by the assign- molt by statuteof the authority to formulate rules and regltilations for certificationto Stateofficers, without making specific provision for details in the law itself.Suchauthorityis generally assigned to the State board of educationorthe State department off;)/tucation.CitY boardsaregranted this liberty in nearly all States _Other directlyor indirectly.InsomeStatesacombination of tilse two methods is followed, certainieneralprovisions being set forth in the stitutes, and designated authorities given considerable liberty in fixing details and interpreting the intent of the law. Thesedetailsand regulations

arethen set forth in official regulations. 411 Agenda which, inue certificate8.--Teaching certificatesareissued by State (including State institutions),county, and local(town,% district,orcity) authorities.'Omitting cities,%thefollowingamthe systems of administrative organization for issuing certificates: 1. State 8y8tem8, in which allcertificatesareissued by State authorities, and thetate retains cohtroloverthe whole !hitter of teacher certification. 60 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION ; 2. State-controlledsystem,in which State,county and district authoritiesmayissue certificates,but the authoritygoverning the issue (including givingquestions andexamining papers) isretained byti.leState officials.Local authoritiesmerely issue certificates. 3. Semi-Statesystems, inwhAtStates exercisesomebut notCO111- plete control.The Statedepartment makesthe regulations andgives the questions forexamination, butlocal 'authorities examinethe papersand issue certificates. 4. State-coun,tysystem?, in which the State,county, city,iindcer- tain districtauthwities till issuesomecertifiates andgoveraallor important regulations(formulating questions,for examplejunder which theyaregranted. 5. State-localsystems,usinsomeof the NewEngland States,in which completepowerof certificationis givento the township school committeesaswellasto the State department.

TAilLE 18.Tendency toward ccntralizatiosof certificatingauthority inStato departments of education,1898-1926

a ...

Number of States1 4 Kind of system a 18981903 1911 1919,1928

State systems (Stateissues all certificates) 3 5 15 26 35 State-controlled systems(State issuesmost, prescribes rules, givesflues- tions, and examines papers; county authorities issuesome certificates)_ 1 (3) 2 7 5 Semi-Statesystems (State issuesmost certificates, makes regulations, and gives quPstions;countyor other local authorities issuesome certificates and ciorrectpapers under certain con(litions) 17 (1) 18 10 5 State-countyor other local systems (both issue-,certificates; county retains full control over examination forone or more certificates) _ County system 18 (1) 7 3 3 (county issues all certificates) 4 4 1 0 0

TemporAry andemergency certificates andpermi6not included. 3 No data.

There isagrowing tendencyto centralize full certificatingauthority in the Statedepartment ofeducation. In33 States Stateauthor- itiesnowexercise entirecontrol.Thereare10 additionalStates. in which theState retainsauthorityto give questionsand make regulationsconcerningexaminations. Co.urityauthorities have lim- itedpowers,including issuanceof certificatesand correction of papers.Thisarrangemént doesnot necessarily resultinauniform Statesystem, since countiesrimy halre differentstandards for grad- ingpapers.Uniformity isobtained whenState authoritiesexercise full control. Method's of securing certificales.--:Two methodsof securing certifi- catesarerecognized in themajority of theStates,oneby examination understatutory regulations byestablished Stateandcounty authorities, the'otheronthe biaisof credentialsshowing academic

etmzez- - 0 t,-- --4 4. CERTIFICATIO OF TEACHERS 61 r.- andprofessional training secure#at approved institOons. Theex- i amination method,while still Common for low-grade Oeirtificates, is graduallybeing replaced by that of professional preparation given in recognizedinstitutions.In all States recognition for certification is given to graduates of approved normal schools and colleges hiving required creditsasset forth in laworby State regulations. Certificate§ secured in thisway aresometimes issued by the State department of education and sometimes by the institutions.In 18 Statessomerecognition toward certificationorfull certificatesare given topersonswho have completed prescribedcoursesin normal training classes inorconnected with secondary schools.In at least 6 of these States the work isnow on apostkraduate(high-school) basis. There isamarkedtenFielicyto eliminate the examination method of issuing certificates.This is being done by gradually increasing the qualifications requiredover aperiod ofyearsand setting forth adefinite prerequisite foranycertificate, including the-lowest grade, of academic and professional training effectiveatastated time,usually from two to five yeais in advance of the timeat which the law is passed.Thisservesto give ample no.tice to prospectiire teachers that the givenamount of preparation must be made by the datesetor certificates willnotbe.forthcoming. Laws settinguprequirements which denland gradually increasing qualificationsareoftenaccom- panied by minimum salary laws..0

4 TABLE 19. Minimum prerequisites for lowest gradeof certilkates, and number of Staten in which eatablinhed Number of Minimum prerequisite: States Examination oniy (no-acadethicorprofessional training requirement) 11) Examination andminiMumamount of academictriliniugless than high-school graduation 2 Minimum academic traininglessthadrhigh-school graduationand someprofessional training (6 to 18 weeks) 2 Graduation from high school.._____.____...... 2 Graduation from higlychooland examination :25 High-school %graduationand professional traiOng (9 weeksto 2 , t 4 years) .. '14 High-school graduation,professional study, and examination 8 1 Certificatesgrantedongraduation from,or coursestaken in, educational institutionsof secondaryorhigher grackorbymeansof

I After 1927inone State. I Utah's minimumprerequisite is twoyears ofprofessional training above hit4h-school graduation.At least three other States will reach thesame minimum prerequisite by 1927.

. 411, 62 A MANITAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION examifiation in prescribedsubjectsmaybe roughly classifiedu follows: (1) Those basedongraduation fromastandard collegeor university, generally includingprofessionalcourses. (2) Those based primarilyongraduatron fromatwo-yearcourseof college grade generally givenin normal schoolsand teachers colleges.(3) Those basedongrachiation fromafour-year high school,including professionalcoursesgiven in connectionwith the regular workor given idadditiontoaprescribed four-yearhigh-schoolcourse. (4) Those based primarilyonscholarship attainments,asshown by examination. (5) Certain 9 combinations ofthe above.A combina- tion of this kindcommonly establishedis that of settingup a minimumamount of academic andprofessional training(probably graduation fromafour-year highschool with 12 weeksto 2yearsof professional training),and in additionexamination in certainprescribed subjects, untilprofessionaltraining reachesthe maximum requirement of tw6years. Besides theprerequisites ofacademic and professionaltraining, 37 States haveestablished,aminimumagerequiremenCgenerally18 years,but inoneState, 16years:al:1din five States, 17years. In 12 Statesapplicants forcertificatesmust be citizens of the

United Statesortakeapledge of civicloyalty. . There has beenmarkedprogress amongStates in raisingcertifipt- tion requirements,particularly duringthepast five Years.Theac- cepted standard forteaching inelementary grades isnowtwoyears above high schoolrepresentingcompletion ofastandardtwo-year courseinanapproved normalschool, teacherscollege,oruniversity. Graduation fromafour-yearcollegecourse,including professional courses,is the acceptedstandard for high-schoolteachers.While the examinationmethod of cerIificatingteachers stillpersists ina number of States,there isastrong movementto eliminate this method andto make examinations,while theycontinue,moreand moredifficult andhence ofconstantly decreasingappealto' applicants fo'r teaching certificates.Progress in certificationof teachers receivedasetback becauseof thewarand scarcity ofteachers imme- diately followingit.This particulardifficulty hasnowbeenover- come.There isnolongeraserious shortageof teachers,and States arefinding it possibleto raise theirrequirements towardtheac- cepted minimumorto the point whichassuresall children whhin their bordersthe certaintyof beingtaught underthe direction of qualifsd teachers.Theexaminationmethod ofcertificationis recogilizedasbeinganinadequateAne.Progressive Statesarein- creasing theirteacher-training -facilitiesin standardinstitutions commensyrate with theirneeds in orderthat all schoolsmaybesup- plied withadequately andprofessionallyprepared teachers.

41.

a SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS 63

O Chapter IX SCHCIOLTEXTBOOKS 1 Textbooks playanimportant part in the elementaryandsec- ondary schoolsof the United States.In almost all subjectsteachers and.pupils dependonthem not only for facts butfor order ofpres- entation.The adoption oftextbook'sforuseinanyschoolor systemof schools is, therefore, importantin 'determiningcoursesof carefullysu- study and methods practiced..in those schools not pervised. State unifariaity.--The importanceof the selection of textbooks has been recognized by legislativeaction regulating it insomede- greein all the States.InsomeStatesauniform list has been adopted for the whole State. Inothers there is uniformity through countyadoptions.In others the selection of texts restswith the local school unit.Two States, California and Kansas,print textbooks. Four States lend them toschool districts, which in turn lend them to pupils, retaining themasState property. At the present time 26 States have state-wideuniform systems of adoption, 5 have county adoption,while in the remaining 17 thetextbooksare selected sty the local school unit.Of the States having state-wide uniformity, 11 provide for selection oftextbooks by the State.boards of education, and the others byspecial textbook commissions usually appointed by thegovernor.The tendency to charge the State board of education with the functionof selecting textbooksseemstobe growing in favor.Selection should be made byorwith the advice of professionally trainedpersons,including teachers, supervisors, and superintendents andrecommendations made solelyonthe merits of.the books without regard topriceorother consideration.(Table .20 sets forthcertain factsAncerning textbooks.) Free textbook8.2Philadelphia ivasprobably the first city to provide free textbooksfor children attending itspublic schools, and Massachusetts the first State to 'passastate-wide mandatory free textbook law. At present 19States and the District ofColumbia supply elementary school textswithout cost. .In 15 of theseSates tilt law for free textbooksis applied to secondaryschools also.In 22 other States localschool districtsmaysupply textbooks.3In practically all States booksarefurnished free to indigentchildren. Free textbooksarefurnished inanumber of States havingper- missive lawsonthe subject.Practically all cities ofanysize in these States, 'as wellas anumber of other districts,evensmall districts,furnish- free textbooks.A stud'yredently made in the Burea ISee U. B. Bu. of Educ.Bulletins, 1915, No. 30,and 1923, No. 50. s See U. S. Bu. of Educ.Bul., 1923,No. N. sTable20,

_- - - . ba 64 A MANUALOFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

Ow of Educationindicates thatin thefollowingStates themajorityof cities andmanyrural districtsfurnish freetexts:New York,Michi- gan,Minnesota,Ohio, Washington,Colorado,Idaho,, NorthDakota,

Wisconsin, andConnecticut.4 . An,inquiryrecently madeconcerning thesuccessof theplan of supplSingfreetextbooks indicatesthat theconsensusof opinion amongteachers;superintendents,and schoolauthorities is infavor of thesystem.Free textbooksapparently givegreater opportunity to all classes ofpupils,cost less than whenpurchased by theindi- vidual, andaid teachersin meetingthe requirementsof thecourse of study. There isagrowing feelingthat whenStateuniformity isprovided thelist of booksapproved shouldmake provisionforaliberal supplementarylist, permittinglocal authoritiesto exerciseagood deal of freedomof choice.Additionalinformationconeerning free textbooks isset forth in Tables20 and 21. 11. Argumentsadvanced infavor of freetextbooksare asfollows: 1. Poor children,whoseparentsareunableto purchase books,or areunableto dosowithoutgreat sacrifice,mayattend schoolas well equippedin thisrespectasthg richerchildren. 2. Uniformityof textbooksin each schooladministrptive district is secured. 3. Textbooksmaybe changed withlittle inconvgniencewhenever changesaredesirable. 4. Additionaltextbooks andsupplementarybooksmaybe supplied. 5. School workisnot delayedat the beginning ofthe schoolyear whileparents obtain booksfor theirchildren. Argumentsagainst freetextbooks andin favor ofthe pupils purchasing theirownboöksare asfollows: 1. Parents andpupilsaremadeto realize that theycan notbecome wholly dependentonthe State,butmust continuetoasstimesome of theresponsibilities ofeducation. 2. Onaccount of thecost, increasedschooltaxes would beneces- sary ortheamount available forsalaries andother expensiswoul4 be decreased. 3. Childrenshouldnot be requiredtousebooks soiledby other children,astheyareobjectionableto the majorityof children and parents both for estheticand sanitaryreasons. #4. By pumhasingtextbooks home li6rariesmay be builtup. 5: Books furnishedfrearenot cared foras arethose ownedby the pupils. On the otherhand, becausethe freetextbooksarepublicvroperty intrustedto the pupils,to be paid for ifdamagedorlost, and

41j. 8. Du. ofEduc, Bul., 1015, No,34. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS 65 frequently inspectedby the teachers, it is claimed that theyare as wellorbetter cared for.Thecarethe books receive depends entirely e uponthewayin which the system is managed. r-\ >1.14

. TABLE 20.Unifortn textbook8Territory to teMck laws are applicable

.11M Town- Town- state State Countyship and I State State Countyship and .4 district district

Alabama...... X . _ Nebraska.__ . I X A .-_ . _ . rizona X I ...... Nevada_ X _ - , Arkansas.. . X. New Hampshir ...... _ California. X New Jersey_ ... a V - X !- . . Colorado. _.. _. . . X New Mexico. X ._._.. Connect icut lb 4. X New York Delaware X , North Carolina X Dist_ of Columbia.. X _ North Dakota . X Florida... .. X Ohio ...... X Georgia _ .. X ..... Oklahoma X Idaho X Oregon . . . X Illinois. _ X Pennsylvania. X I ndiane .... . X Rhode Island. X Iowa . X South Carolina X Kansas X South Dakota X Kmt tick y ... X Tennessee_..... _ . X Lotticliann . X Texas._ X

M aine._ ...... 1 Utah X , X M aryland i X ; Vermont M fissuch uset ts. X Virginia _ X , M ichigan. .. . X ! Washington _ X

M innesota.._. X Wast . X 411. M ississippi...... X Wisconsin. X Missouri X I Wyoming - - - ..... dm. X

Montana....,.. _ _. X I -3 TABLE 21. Freetextbook lamb(

Law mandatory Law mandatory

1 Law No Law No State For For permis- laws State For For permis-laws elemen-second-sive elemen- second-sive tary ary tary ary _ 1 Alabama._ . X 1. . Nevada _.

. _ A rizona . - - ; NewHampshire X

'A rk Rums._ . _ ..... x . New Jersey__ X (' :Ili torn Ia.._. X X ...... New Mexico X 'olorado._ . . 1 X New York___ _ Connecticut.... X . North Carolina_

Delaware_ _ . X North Dakota.. Dist. Columbia...... Ohio .....ea. - . . . Florida._ X Oklahoma. X (leorgia...... X Oregon...... X Idaho.._. . X Pennsylvania X X e : Illinois__ . X Rhode Island_ X X Indiana__ _ _ X South Carolina._ X._

ORA . . . . - X South Dakota X X Kansas I... X Tennessee X Kentucky ...... X Texas _ . . Louisiana . X Utah . p. Maine. .. . X X Vermont ._ M aryland.... X X LV treat* Massach welts . X X rVashl

M ichigan X I West V rginia va Vb

Minnesota _ X Wisconsin.._ . M X ..... ; W yoming._ X X

M issouri X 1 Montana .... X e, a e Alb I Total__ 21 16 72 7, Nebraska.... X

I Supplementary readers tree. t. - ..---.--,---..... 66 A MANUAL OF EpticAnoxALLEGISLATION 04 %mow ChapterX

lob -.SCHOOLGRPUNDS AND BUILDING*" Y./ Increased knowledge of tW %effectswhich theselection ofaschoolr site,arrangement -ofrooms, sanitation,ventilation, heatifig,andgeneral hygieneofaschoólbuildingliaveonthe health andschoolprog- .1 ressof childrenhaspicacticallyrevolutionizedourideals inregard to building andequippingschoolhouses.'Country 'childrenhaveap- parently profitedless from thisknowledgethan those inurbancom- munities.This is . due inpart to lack ofknowredge andgeneral indifference inrunil communities,but is alsodue in largfpurt to the financialaspect of the question.When largebuildingsre contem- plated, trainedspecialists inschool architectureareemployed and modern idealsareembodied inthe school buildingwhich results. Rural communitiesbuildingsmallschoolhouses whichrepresent small sumsofmoneydonot employ the servicesof suchspecialists.Local contractors, builders, andschooltrusteesareoftennot familiar with modern standardsfor schoolbuildings.Consequently,small school buildings inrural communitiescontinueto be built without regird toappearance or to the demands ofmodern methodsof teachingor general hygienicconsiderations. It, is alsotrue thatwe arebeginningto realize that public-school grounds, welllocated andwell kept, withbeautiful andappropriate buildings,are astriking evidènceof theintelligence ofthecom- munity andits interest ineducation. Agood schoolisanasset and paysgood dividendstoanycommunity.Better schoolconditions invariably mean'abetter schooland bettercommunity spirit.Gen- erally,abeautiful andconvenient schoolbuildingcostsno more lbak \ thananunsightlyone.The difference isin wise andcareful planning. \. State laws, andStatedepartments ofeducationthrough theau- \ thority given them under specialorgeneralstatutes,aremakingcon- certed effortsto promote betterstandards forschool buildings.In ' some States this is done throughstatutory provisionto the effect that all plans forschoolbuildingsmust Ve inspectedby State officials, usuallyconnected eitherwith the Statedepartment ofeduca- tionorthe State boardof health.In others,Stateappropriations aremade for buildingpurposes,sometimesapportionedto districts whose financialcondition is suchasto make theprovision ofgood buildingsahardshipto the community.Sometimesmoneyis loaned to school districtsatalowrate of interest.OtherStates aimto promote good buildings throughaplan commonlycalled standardization of schoolbuildings.Under this planschool buildingsmeet-

I See U.R.Bu. of Educ. Bulletins,1910, No.5;1914, No. 12; 1922,No. 28.

V. SCHOOL GROUNDS AND BUILDINGS 67 ing certainprescribed requirementsmayreceive State aidor aplate orother mark of distinction. The experience ofthe`majorityof States is that suitable, safe, and sanitary buildingsarebestassured when thereareState lawsor regulations, and inspection by State authoritiessufficient to give at least generalsupervision to the matter of the erectio,of school buildings. A study of school buildings in almostan.section of the country at the presenttime would showmany new aswellas old buildings, unsightly, poorlyarranged for schoolpurposes,and injurious to the health of children becauseof improper ventilation, poorlighting, and insanitary conditions.Still othersareexceed- ingly dangerousasfire risks.Scarcelya year passeswithout loss of life of school children from fireswhich might have beenpre- vented by buildings with properly arrangedexits and fireescapes. All Statesnowhavesomeregulations governing sçhoolhousecon- struction.Much of this legislation has been enacted in the past decade. At least three-fourths of theStates have lawsonthe sani- tdryfeatures of the building. Many Statesnowrequire that all plans for schoolhouses be submitted to theState-. board of healthor the State architectorthe State boardordepartment of education before)111)1iq fundscanbe used in proceeding with the building. Sometiinestwoor moreof theagentsmentioned cooperate in the approval of Wilding plans.More andmoreState departments of educationareaddingaschogl architect for wholeorholftime to their staff. lese architects ndt only apprOve planssubmitted but preparefor thk State department plans and specifications fornew buildingswhiltmaybe secured without cost by school districts about to erectbliildings.A number of States keep building inspec- torsin tlip field constantly to assist inimproving old buildings and toseethatAregulationsarefollowed in the erection ofnew ones. i o .14