Irectionof the Ruraldivision 3 United Statesbureau Ofeducation

Home , Civil township

I. DEPARTMENTOF THEINTERIOR BUREAU OFEDUCATION

Aso. 11.....

BULLETIN,1924, No.36

AMANUALOFEDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION

FORTHEGUIDANCEOFCOMMITTEESON EDUCATIONIN THESTATELEGISLATURES

. Prepared tinderthe directionof the RuralDivision 3 United StatesBureau ofEducation

4.-

.% ; 4Ivrr /1 to ir-\1

WASHINGTON I! GOVERNMENTPRINTINGOFFICE 1925

111...011. I.

ADDITIONAL COPIES OF Tins PUBLICATION MATBEPROCUREDTROIA THE SUPERINTENDENT OY DOCUMENTS GOVJERNM ENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHLNGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY II

- teir CONTENTS

Page CHAPTER I. Purposeand,:cope 1 The Stateand the school.: 2 A Stateprogram for education 3 II. Generalanalysis ofschool organizationand adpinistration_ ae-

State educationalomnizations 4. 5 State boardsof education -rage 5 Statedepartments ofeducation a... 9 Chief Stateschool officer 9 Organizationfor localmanagenwnt _ 11 An effectivecounty unit 14 The county.:uperintendentof schook 16 Consolidated districtsand schools 17 III. Schoolcostand schoolsupport 23 Sources of schoolfund4k 25 Statetaxes and appropriations 26

Local =. W - - - d 'Methods ofdistributingschool funds 29 IV. Schoolattendance andcompulsoryattendancelaws__ 33 V. Physical education . _ _ 38 Object andscope______39 Legislntive Provisions 40 VI. Schoolgrounds andbuildings 42 VII. The teaching staff 44 VIII. Certificationofteach.ers Ix. Schooltextbooks.... 49 ra

. 411 41

4 . f"N

Ii 'to

A MANUALOFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

Chapter PURPOSEAND SCOPE

This manualis printedprimarilyto presentto educationalcom- mittees ofthe Statelegislaturesthatconvenein1925 and 1926the essentials ofaprogramofeducationallegislationbaseduponthe experiences ofthe variousStates duringthepasitseveraldecades. A largeamount of proposededucationallegislation ispresented at each legislativesession.Some of itis desirable,butalarge part is not.It is= withdifficultythatthose unfainiliarwith school administrationcan passuponit andknow whatoughtto be enacted into lawand whatdiscarded.Itis hopedthat thispublication \yin beof assistance.indeterminingaction.Topicsarediscussed inte light of experienceof theStates withdifferentsystems and of the bestideas ofauthoritiesin schooladministration. Each ofthe48 Stateshas itsown distinctsystem ofeducation. . The FederalGovernmentvssunies no controloverthe publicschools throughoutthecountryexcept with referenceto the specialFederal appropriationsforspecificpurposes,astheSmith-HughesAct for assistanceto vocationaleducationand theSihith-LeverAct for assistanceto agriculturalextensionedtcation.Nevertheless,becauseof proximityandinterchange ofideas, theStatesystems have ninnypointsofsimilarity.Conditionsaffecting thekindsof schoolsystems donot differfundamentally:therefore,each State profitsby theexperiences ofothers, andthrough theadoption of what provesgood theStatesaretendingtowardsystemsmoresimi- lar than in thepast. We have,theref:---;-.'whatmaybe designatedas the " trendin schooldevelopment"in theUnitedStates,an ex- pressionmeaning theforwardmovementgenerallytoward simi- larityinsystems and practices. In enactingschool lawslegislaturesmaybe guidedinpart by the experiencesof alitrStotes.For instance,inoneStatesomeone recommendslegislationto provide thatthe Stateprepareand print itsowntextbooks.Before finalaction istaken theexperiencesbf Californiaand Kansasmaywell bestudied.Anotherproposesthe adoptionof thecounty unit ofadministrationandsupport;astudy ofthe experiençe ofStates organizedonthat basiswill beihetlpie e. . ..,- 1 , _ A MANUALOF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION, 11.,

"'S ful. When itis evidentthatnew orrevised schoo.!awsare needed inanystate, it.v;wiseto follow the successfulexperiencts of other Stateswhich have triedthe projwsedplans. ifsuch.inav found.Ifreasons are,evident thatwould wakethiA practiceundv- i sirable,or aplan is proposedwhiehseemsbetter thananyyet t areview of the exPeriencesof otherStatcs solving thesameprob- lems in otherwaysis stilldesirable. In other words.school legisintion shoalbe passedin Ow light of what has hemproved effectivein other Statesand vithx , knowledge beforeoneof xv1mt bus beentrica anddiscarded andof thereasonsinfluencingsuccess orfailure. This bulletin isabrief résum4 ofwhat has been'founddesirable it and acceptable.It aimsto show Cie trend in educadonalsystelos and legislationadopted after experienceand study,It gives encestomorecompletti informationonthe subjectsdiscussed.

1P THE§TATEAND THE SCHOOLS Practice in the UnitedStates,aswellasconstitutionalor statutory provisions, charges theseveral State legislatureswi.th therespmNi- bility of providingasystem of schools for all theclliHren oi the State adequateto their needs and efficientIn fulfilling the educa- tkmal.ideals of thepeople of theState.Education withiuis admittedlyaStateresponsibility.It followstherefore, thatit is the duty ofthe State legislati:re(1)to formulateaconstructive ,policy for the educalion of all the childtimof the State;(2)topro- vide the administra.tivemachinery foraschoolsystem adequateto carryout this policy; and CAtomake suchclianges from timeto tiffieascliangingconditions and educationalneeds require. It is well knownthat after-war conditionshave brought. about fundamental changes inideals foramodern educationsystem.Pro- gresive States, therefore,areproviding fill* suchchanges in administrative organization insources, amount,and distribution of funds; and in schooland curriculumreorganizationasthe noeds of modern liferequire. Theprogramof adjustmentof the school system to the growing needsand expectations ofthe people involves manyproblems whichState legislaturesmust help solve.Among themost pressing of those which callfor legislativeaction at this è. timeare:(1) Tosecure more nearly equitable adjustment withinr the State oftax burdens and educational opportimitiesfor all chil-4. dren.(2) To providesystems of 96001support which willen-ifiV able the schoolsof the Statemoreadequatelyto meet the expansion necessaryin theprovision ofschool facilitiescommensuratewith the iiew idealsfor school buildings,school organization,enriched curricula, and.. increasedcosts of instruction andgeneral school ad- . ' ' -Aati-4; rV1' `171214';004'...P; "-.:Ir."-4'wir-.4414F....,. '---7 -;:tilil*Tn.:: '1 -t .',--r,t`'J.- - . -- , ;... t.....,.,;.,i . _.7-Tii*ii, do,t i' . "' 021"51.7" 4: 44-.t.° li `' . 4. I 9.-ir : r w - ,.. . I . 6. e , e. . PURPOSE v..' ANDSCOPE y e 3 ,rv . . 4 . 2uip;-:a.ation....;.(3)Toprovidesuch adMinistratire - .r systemsas will'- insureprofessionaladministration andefficientandittconomicillman- agement of theschools.'PieState,assuch, is viding responsibleforpro- an administrativesystem whichmakespossible and an elementary secondaryeducationfor allchildrenin theState. upcertain (4) Toset minimumstandardswhichallschoolsand school ". must meetand systems to provideforsuchsources ofsupportaswill allcommunitiesto maintain 'enable schoolssatisfyingestablishedstandards.

A. , STATEPROGRAMFOREDUCATION f".4 Thelegislative program forfrnyStatewilldifferfromthat. other9because itmust provide irí forparticularandspecificStateneed's' andmust beconsistent withthe existingadministrativesystem d traftionsandidealsof the people.Thereare; however,certain considerationsandproblems common to allStateswhichwilldoubt- a less bethesubjectofconsiderationinformulating gams.In educationalpro- many Statesthe firststep shouldbe or to takeaninventory surveyoftheeducationalassets andliabilities 4 ofthe.State aAon the basisof thisstudy,to formulatit wogram of lation educationallegis: extendingoveraperiodofyears,Sucha incim.e,among other program would things,some provisionfor.thefollowing: 1. Âbusinesslike'State system ofschoolorganization,administration,supervision.andsupport. 2. Establishmentofaneffectiveunitfor thegreatest localschool efficien4in administration. . 411: 3. ; "r Readjustmentofelementarynndsecondaryeducation , (a)education to include forhealth,(h)educationforcitizenship, tionfor life (c)educa- occupation,and (d)educationfor leisure. v 4. Aliberal , systetn ofschoolsupport,includinga- equalizes plan which : educationalopportunitiesamongall thepeople same time and'at the '.. providesanequitabledistributionof.tifx 5. burdenS....-'?....- .. Provisionforsuitableschoolgronnds ..,.....-,-. andbuilaings.- 4'f4i4;' 6. . Preparationofan - t adequatestaffof , teachers.: . l' . _,.;.g...- 7.Provisionfoi 'a . . ,,....., modernsystem ofcertificatingteachers- based, onagradualincreasein professionalrequirementi". ¿ 8. Adequate ..,,...--k provisionforlivingsalariesforthese .- . teachers; Iiiiitei...'.4.f:- ND : , _ . . tenures 'andretirement ..,..v ,.;,....i,... .)--,:, pension. ... -,.. . . .- # . e -4 ;` 9. Aliberal'planunderwhichto proiidet it . textbooks . ..: ,. and .. .. I 4 r equip- ... 0p 4 ment in ,e I .41/ .:, theschools: , ;..it t; ....,...., .. .. .6 % 1t 0 : .. -, .. , . 10. Aprogram.for adulteducation, includingaplanto evidkate:...: adultilliteracy land provIde Americanizationworkwhennecessary. Theseprbvisionsshould beunder thegeneral administrationand 4...t controlof tilState ".,.,-...-I , departmentsofeducation,workingthrough.local schoolsystems. .' me, , ..s:... 4 4L 0 4 ;. , .. " ; Ot!6 a : ;Ng.i 1 .4 t k;

ti . % ;. ;? 1- .. . - .0.- 4- . . k6,4 110-.1 comi P 4 : -%.d_..#, $ku 1. besot I OAL*".1 e ..--- .r:s454701...... , _ L 7 .4:1 --- -11111111=111741/111/1/ _ .0. tr. . - - :4_ ",ekr: 111. ),vf, ol vi. s , . , 7 . ". i 11.6. -vs-40 ir 1::-:-rt.* A . # cirt+OW r""- Iii ..e,If 1 . e.,1, 4 , . -- / lrfr ..., --';11 . - . . 1.16 r % . a. I .11. a. .,..4.*t. -

.. 4 A MAN UAL OFED U C ATM NAL'4LEGISLATION , . t*. .TABLZ 1.Iliiieracy:Number andper cent of illiterates In porsiatumIOpliffi A ofage agd over, by United StatesCe14118 of 1920Numberunable tospeak English . t 1 .0 I I i . r .4 ,y I4 t a Nativewhite'. elo Wbitoit4 Foreign-boen .1. All dames popula- e rompsor wbite Negro .4. .1 to6nar ts Nativepar- . ' e mixedpar- 71. States entage ¡el (IL I entage 1..11 j '.-11 arzio rat-3 , unable !;* : ,. to speak tor: Nun) PerNum- IPerNum-PerNum-PerNum- PerEnglish bey ct. ber Id. bet ct. ber ct. ,4T et. a. 4 # _ .. Continent MI f United States4,931, toll,109, 47 2 132, 697 a81I,73,744 1:`.111 842, 161 22.9t1,410s, kg r: _ 1 Alabama . MIL OS 16. 1 64,sr 461, 1 1.,993110.9 210,644,31 724 1 A =its.. 39,131IS. 3 1. 43.4 s..., 1,779 4. A 19, 291; 7Y. 43,41 4 36, 332-; A fl.sas 121, 8.37 9. 4 40, 753 4.6 6: 2.oi 1, 14.5 &34 79. 243, 21. 697'a t California. 95, Sir 3. 5, 3594 .4 388 60, 76&i, la 1, 579i,4. 89, 570r' Colorado MD W.- X, 203 3.14 7, 655 1. 7 14, 224i 12. 4 61 & 10,4,50-it

Conuecticut 411 O. 67. & LS32 1, 395 .4 63, 1311 7. DelawAre 4 1 0 6. 3& 068- . _ ...... 10. 5C8 42, IIti2. 13_ .61 3, 373,1 7.3. 4,;çï)19. II 2,7331 District of Columbia. 10,50v SMi 70i . 1.7*6. 1 8, 8. 779 .11 Florida 71.811111 12, 881i 1, sow 1.1 2, 6571, & &S,6392I.5 7, 918-2 Georgia_. 328, 51 SI1. 3 665 337i 2so L 1 881;5. 41 261, 115 29. 1 236 ni , I I Idaho 4. 924 A.51 6.541 :J04 .31 2, 301 6. 44 5. 1. ma 111iriots 173, 967 & 4' 24, 4V, 1. 8. 470 .4 131, 99f.1 1. 10, 47 &7' 121, 965 Indiana 52, 034 2.21 24.981: 1. 4k Z 984 L01 17, &55i 11.8 6, 4761 ii.5t 13, 280 _ Iowa 20, titiO 1. It S, 9711 Z 334 . 11;004.4. 1, 215318. 1! 9, ksi) Kansas 22, 821 1.1 St .6 L.144 . 11, 29110. 4, & 12, Cr.*7"I i 1 , Kentucky :5A, 014 8, 4; 1Lo,z7. $ 1, 304 13, 2, 244.7. 41,4821. ES8 Lot:isms) a 21.. Ths. 711, 81 11 4 3, )4.1 3 9,707!21. 206,7I ;YI. 3.151%,'s Maine_...... 411 2f1, 2 1 5,1003 1.3i 3,2'..J1 2. 9 11,004: LI.I. 64 5. 91 10. 333 . ) M 4rytand tti.4.14 5.%e°,1. t)i 1, 484 .9. 13, sm 13. 4 33, 4041h. 21 7 ,:t13 .. Massachusetts _ . 146, e,07 47 2,9261 4, BS& 133, 720 11 ...:16,51 & 9G, 4/6 . :4", ..._ M lcbIRan M.. &S, 04 3 7, 6. 70,StIS' 0. ; 2,2DX 4.21 es, ins sr;Minnesota 31, 4 I .4 3. 967 26, 24216. 41 241 3, 2s, 311 Mirstutppi . 72ii, 73417. 3 381 2. 1, 0571 13. 3;205, 81 29. 31 4s5 A. Missouri.II ID 83, 403 3. 43,0311 4 17,e0 9. 64, 1:4 12. 11 11.136 Montan^. . _ 9,S44. 2. 21,8S16091 6, 17815. ei 8 &01 al098;'i a- . f Nebraska. .13, 794 . 1.4 Z 154 .4. 1,1 9, 6. 4 4 9,lie ;A:4 . Nevada ...... 11. 31a- 11,. 5. II .4 1, 341 8. & 1 ova " New Rarnpchi 15.e--5.' 4. 1, oni 1. 1 13, 7 15.4 6.7 1 I. 339 New Jersey 177,661 5.I A,'M. Stn 111. 59615.3 3, 0 1 & 1 )3, 400 "Nr New Mexico. 41, On 13. 23,7571 It 7 7, 1150:,27. 1 4 11, 223 eft% . t- t. e . - . I NewYork...... 423,cb,& 1 16, .6 12, ula, me,14. 6, 0a 2. qV IIP ;290, 2004 1.4erv.North Caroline:_. 241,sA113-;:13. 1 1OUTM & 171 I. 4"14: 6. 133, 87 24 1904; North Dakotae e____ 9, 2. 33.50 . 7, zsg. & I.4t Hose 0Ohio . ... 131,0061 I 2s,[N, & 191 841t UV 12. 12,71 & 1 81, IIIL . Oklahoma. .-.. ' &MI & 29,44, 1, 1. 6,J.StIt 14, 1141 b,133. . 16. . , " ...... , . Oregon 106,31 1. :.rat 3,121 &1 . 4.. 3, Poo Die, . & f?.,41 312, 4 4 2a, IL .6.1 23& 812 l& 14, 11. 1 162,M ,p1 Rty.Nde Islassd .. 31, 31 & 614 661 28,111. l& 8k. 10. 21,620 141.L Bout b Carolina. 220, 86 18. 1 3g, 1. 01 r .. 391 6. 1111,422129. ima sI" '] . r Bout it 1 II. 7 . . .2 3, SO4. 7 6. 41, 494;, , . I . -, '. Tennessee...... 41 1112.w.A110.31 101,317 7.4 4 1. 2K1 & 72,&321n 4 .31 True. 294 844 & 31 So, 414- 2. 2h .30, 21 114 WI 33.. Sj1O2O33 17.t 172.057- -Utah & 264 1.94 .'. . .s 3,:01&31. 5 9j t 2,303ti v.? Vermont g, 3.01 1,904 I. 1 1, 2. 4,2. 631 7 11. .23J& ) 66. sVirginia. 193, 1 11. 74.asf,6. 1 394 1.ut 2, 1*7. 11?2P832j.5 . Veibt.%. Washlnigton 18, 5 1. 7 I, 8261 .3 751 1 1,104 4. 4. 0, 7, 71118 .West Virginia... Ilk 41 X , .. t 4t 43, 37 4 4. 751 14,5481. 24. 10, l& 3( 11, 121 Wiiçoustn , . 50.397' 2. 34 .5 7, 1 311.359i&4 4.1 44, 4814 'a W yoming...... 2. 1 j; - - 3, 1 LL: 4 101 29975I2- 3 I fitro ''' IV...... --. ,r arm.- ... e-

1I t

,0r I.

WI 1.; I I P .$' U II'. . MALI . r- . .5-1:',"". ; .1 . . ..01:- I ...... :11C-14-4 *.0 . v.»lh. a 4 itr IND

4,iT . i; e --, ChapterII tGENERAL'ANALYSIS , OFSCHOOLORGANIZATIONAND ADMINISTRATION

4 ) STAT¡EDUCATIONAL iJi ORGANIZATION ThoStalc*:program of educationmust havefirstalegalbasis (restinguponitscontitutionand tIL- ; 1 dulyapprovedactsofitslegis- lature.Inccrtaininstances thislegishitiunchargestheperform- 1:1'certaineducational I(I ance dutiesdirectlyto localcivilgovernments i)r (11 Tecial school ii units:usually.imwev:r,it iscarriedout through 4rtert a:n StateOfficers.Thereis, . as arule,aState boardof Iticinanda State educa- departmentofeducation.Theboardusually generalcontrol,over has theState'seducationalprogramas determined 1in ikconstitutionand . laws.Itacts billyas A body.Itsacts ie:ri%Iiltive.the are executionbeingthefunctionoftheState chief 4.1,00lofficeranilthe Statedepartmentofeducationover Nsilich 1 hepreides.Inotherwords, theStatedepartmentofeducationis I thefunctioningbodyfor theStateboard. / irienew and enlargedconceptionofeducationis importanci!to the chief addingnew educationalofficerin theseveralStates-- ii.e..the Stife superintendentofpublicinstructionor commissioner ofedi:eationandtheStatedepartmentof a p.zrt und4he educationofwhichhe is head.Theoffice;as originallycreated States,was in the,older 'chieflyOericalandstatistical,muchlike the I i Ow functionsof old(-mintysuperintendency.Almostany thegeneral person chosenfrom electoratecouldthen fillthepositionto ,the 1 oftile.ublic. satisfaction Bufthedemandsof.to-dayrequirea new type of ,f1educationalleadership,ableto administer i. thwilanifoldproblems ofmodernschoolorganizatibnand . (taiiml. . administrfition,generaledu- schoolsanitation,industrialand interrelation vocationaleducation, of thepublicandhigherschools,and i te educational .. a loll. . , STATEBOARDSOF EDUCATION' . 111 Modern educationaldevelopnientistoward provton fkrird foraState , ofeducationashemiministrative 4ional VeadoftheState'seduca- system. , Vorty-twoStaieshave'suchboardswith ,. li4elatingto the. functions ' commonschools. di 1Ism grar-deswiper Two Stfiteshaveno Statc,boards. . I ' I Fordetails,itie r.a.nu. ofEdw.Hui.,1920, No.46.

.. sy 20118*-25L-2

.. er. Í. - : Pir A NY iblyearC1, ¡provided ip- cation tion board est Virginia Wyoming_ Wash' Wisconsin Vermont Utah_ Texas Tennessee A New NI New New Hampshire._ South Carolina North Dakuta....___. N Arkansas Arizona North Carolina New York Rhode bland Oregon Oklahoma KA1)448 Connertieut Louisiana KcJitilvlty Oeorgia Delaware_ Colorado_ enlifornia Pennsylvania Al iCbi1k1I Florida_ A At1' Minnesota.. M afooteliusetts Marybuyi Idaho agricultural coliegi,andnormal the 144pnitb-IIitglies administer onlythehighereducational In seVeral I 4 'Indefinite. I Withtwproval e I FromI' _ Governor's Governor apPoints5members, .011 d6po.vition 0 44144...1r. Nifritfittliia ia 4 trnt 7 ft States * . ... e _ . xleo _ 'Arr _ _ _ _ .... _ _ _ _ are ...... _ _ 4 S. Bur.ofRifinc.Bull., . _ . _ are . .. _ _ _ ae _ appointees. _ under this . - . _ _ _ _ . _ _ . _ _ - TA4LE 2. made -- l . St of governor _ . - _ - . 4 . - . _ . , A nominal. a tteq 1 1 1 1 1 of Stateboards ofeducatiou M- I. 1 T3 as . .. up ANUt '2 5 . 2 _ '2 1 2 1 1 1 boards 1.1.1-ofT1io nivnibers 1 I b. ../ vocational education 0 COMIIONitiOn .... . in thefollowing act. Z f *I 1J university boardolregents1,normal soboolrepute1, t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1, No.46. i 66. 4.Z.' In othersthe Co. 7.1 -4 cs. --: 4 'a 1 - 1 1 1 or. - OF EDUC.1TIONALLEGISLATION have beenorganizeH. am= Their duties,likethoseof .... A 4.0 c 7, C al _ Z. i /11 _1. :Zi.c: ... $ . CI ".". 6...... '1. .. rawI .,,,...... :: L 1 4... J.* c, , ,....., ... " I I I L I r .4. . 4-1, . - 6-d . I. of . 1 3 1 2 ...... 1.1 . 0 - 6- I I j . I Lt..- , I I ...... - . schools. 6-4 tr.; ,== . Ha 3 - . L.- j;.. -; I 1 I I ; , ; . t - _ -- OM! ... 2 .2 i- ...... : 441. 3 3 3 sIi 3 3 Appointe( ways: 1 . I 4 : 14 e '''' 1 - .I.1". I , inAsit talons, boa ..., ,.. 12- State ...I '2 .41 art i 0 4 0/8 am/ IMO ,o 5 6 8 3 9 8 4 7 6 3 3 2 6 ri 9 5 5 7 7 r. 1 1 : wr to.,administer I 4. I .. Ex (Akiomembership, . State board,2_ Governor (lovernor. SUit legislature State Stitt* senate,B.__ Gyve! Ouvrrnor (l)vernor (1mprnor___ (Jove, (lovernor Governor .. _ . _ . ____do Popular vote_ 41fiteh.gislature if _du _ _ _ _..do__ overuor b4a1'ds ofechwation e liedby - cleeted _ Appointed _110 %Tr 4do since the _ilo. _do .110 .410 _do (10 education' Wildcat .6 f er nor . tf, ...... nor WM_ nor Cs)uperin- . or ..... superin- te hoardsof edu- _ ....______as _ men' twrs - . Alb .0 . many ex ..... ______1.1 the university, e dB 1 _ _ I. 00 _ _La 01. OOP MO MI a MI _ _ a ow _ _ - _ _ . I vocational edam 0. ... I 6 i (1) . 12 12 passage 6' 6 2 2 4 3 5 4 4 4 6 7 5 4 6 3 7 2 6 4 o 6 4 4 5. 5 8 6 6 4 5 the funds ! I 1 3 4 3 0 2 3 2 0 2 1 '2 2 7 o 2 3 3 3 O o 0 3 O 3 4 3 6 2 5 1 7 5 9 1 1 1 1 I t 1 1 1 officio 12 6 6 8 si 3 6 0 6 li o 6 II .) 5 t 0 9 7 s 5 04 3 5 oLi 0 3 ti 6 S 1c 3'. 6 7 o 0 7 3 7 1 I i ' ; 1 " 1 ei-olliciu members

Total - of 10 12 10 11 7 7 8 13 11 7 9 3 9 4 5 7 3 8 6 I 7 3 / 7 3 9 6 3 5 4 n 7 3 7 8 Pi 7 3 SCHOOLORGANIZATIONAND ADMIXIi4TRATfON .7. C * composed ofStateofficials,usuallyincludingthegovernorand chief State scboolofficer,and ofothermembersselectedfrodiamong other State Officials, astheat torney general,secretary ofstate, Statetreas- urer: exofficio educationofficers,as Pre kts of-higherinstitutions, including universities,colleges,and norn4sciloolsOnsoniccases the htwprovi.desthattheseboards; incliltithonerepresent ttiVae Who1S4i. acitysuperintendent,onewho is 'a .('4)1111tVsuperintendent.,01:44imihir, . retrulation): ., inembersitipconfinedtoTyt4::onsnot. engagedineduca- tiUnal "rk: i membersIn''Yo)i'a-"layil ot heengaged inekincational work:and variouscombinationsofheabove. (SeedTal)le full in 2 for format ion.) . ,.. . .1/cthod.4ofappoiribitcpt.In 33States*ereare State boards , Bppointed,orMected.ln 2sof thesethepoxer of appoitanwn1 , 'is vestedin the governor,subject insomecases to 4proyal bythe State,senate.In 3 the Statelegislatu&makes theselectiohs.in.I State theboardis eliwtedbv.popular [a vf)tc. and in IAppointmentis lefttothe 'State chief schoolofficer.In theotherStatesappoint ismae inpart by thegovernor.inpart by certaineducational boat's; and in1 State inpart by the senate. . Thetendency in-the selection ofmembersof St;tteboardsof edu- cationseems to be towardappointmentPy thegovernor. , Two methodsOf selection, (1)appointmentbythegovernortal(1(2) election kly the people,receive the'approvalof aittlioritiesonscho61 administration.Thl,firstmethod,appointwenl bv thegovernor, PI hasthese merits:(I)lt centniliz,esfullresimnsibilityfor all %the depart molts of publicservice,includingthemanar-einent ofschools, in theexecutivehead Qf theState.Thistendsto unity and 1 economy inadministration.(2)It 'is holiev.edtifat thismethodProtects the board frCnitunduepoliticalilnfluenciz.Selectionisoftenrestrivt.ed toan eligil4 listorlimited inSellieotherwanner. Tht%advisability of the governor.beingainemberof the boardheappointis doubtin). 'Election by thepeople ifavoredbymany authoritiesonsdiool administrationbecause:(1), Itcenters 'responsibilitydefinitelyon a group ofpersonselectedspecificallyformy purpose, namely, that of having generalcbargeof scliools.(2) Itrepresentsmoren'early adim< expression bythepeople(:their wishesin thefnanagement of schoolaffairs thandoésappoin-lent.(3)ItollowsOur custorti of makingthose intrustedwith legislativefunctiosdirectlyrespon- sible to,,tbepeople.(Administrat iveauthoritiesaregenerallyagreed that the chieffunctions ofaStateboAdof,ed4ationarelegislative rather thanexecutive.) . . aze,of board,term of office,mode ofretiringmemberft --The present tendency istowardaState boardofeducationComposed of ¡iotaEveto nine nietaers,each ofwhom holdsoffice fora term offrom fivetoseven years.Thetime ofretiremeiit isso' arrange&i 8 A MANUALOF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

thatamajority ofthe beardremainsconstant: that is;onemember retires eachyear, or twoorfbreeeach aiternate'year.Thesmallest boards,as nowconstituted,arethose whicharecomposed ofex fficiomembers. Theterm of offisce ofmembers ofexofficio boards is fixedby lawandran!resfromtwo to fouryears.The members usuallyretiresimultaneously.Thismaybe regardedas repre- _ sentingapassingtype. In 25 of the42 Stafeshaving Stateboards of educationthe numberconstitutingaboapdrangesfrom 7to 13 members.Boards ofthis size.with continuityof serviceprovided, aregenerally consideredassatisfactory insize forworking efficiency.Neithertoo largenortoo.smallaboard isdesirable. ' Powers,and dutiesofawell-organi.7edNtate board ofeducatip71. °Accordingto authoritiesonschooladministration, theState board of education,.like the cityboard, shouldbealay boardrepresent- ing the largereducationalpolicies ofthe public,delegating the professional sideof educationand theadministr4tionof itsgen- eral policiesto its apf)ointedexecutiveofficial, theState superintendent of publicinstructionorcommissioner ofeducation, andto the heads ofthe severalhighereducational institutions,ifany, under its supervision. rr heboard should IY!composed offrom five to nine membersappointed bythegovernorby and withthecon- sent of thesenate, the term of officeto be fivetoseven years,one membertoretii-e eachyear, or twoin eachbiennial period,thus per¡vtuati-ngthe board'spolicies andgiving itstability anda.de- 1 greeofpermanency.Vacancies shouldIle filledby thegovernor. .1 The appointmentshould be forabsolute worthapd withoutregard to residence, occupation,party affiliation,orsimilar considerations. Tbemembers shouldservewithoutremunerationexcept fora rea- sonableperdiem and actualtraveling andothernecessary ex- penses.The maximumnumber ofdays for whichstTchperdiem maybe paid should Ilefixed by law'. The generalpowersof the Statehoard shouldinclude the following; kefikkng inmind that theState board isa1eg;slatire-6ody, theState fliferintendent ofimblie instructionorthe commissioner of education (Whigasits executiveofticer: 1. To know theeducational needs ofthe State andto determine its educationalpoliciessofarasauthority is conferreduponit to dosoby theconstitptionprbyacts of the legislature. 2. To have generaloversight arldcontrol of tht public-school svstem of t.11State 2aslimybe determinedby law, and ofother schools isofai/a%charged by'specific legislation. .

l In !wine of the $tatethepropORed Statehoar& of edu-cntionnifty1w orwanIzed to have control of alltheschools.includingthe higherinstitutions.J Thiswould particularly be trueof Stites 'whichre At to enlarge thepowers vf the boardnow Incontrol of higher educationto include Also the generaloversight of theeleauntary and Recondar7

oh. schools.. - e . e SCHOOLORGANIZALIONAND ADMINISTRATION 9 3. To 4 selectthe chiefState schoolofficer,who t ive head; becomesitsexecu to determirlehispowersa'nddutiesrand the of theState functio -departmentofeducationiinderhisdirection, 4. To adoptthenecessary regulationsforeducationin the ciativeto compitilsory Stat education.schoolbuildings,school nienccourses of study, equip qualificationsofteachers,physicaleduca tion,medical inspectionofchildren.schoolrecordsand To have reports,etc ge'neralcontrolover all sucheducational astheState institution schoolsforthe deafand blind,industrialreform for hoysand schools girlsandeducationalworkiz Statereformatories andpenitentiaries.andStatehospitals. G.Tphave generalcontroloforestablishcooperative withall relations teacher-traininginstitutionsconcludedby theState. T. Toact.fts aboardofcontrolfor theStatelibraryand efdlections. historical .. STATEREPARTMENTOFEDUCATION' TheStatedepartmentsofeducationhave,as a more or less rule,developed independently,parallelingthe rteralStRteboards ofeducation, withfunctionscenteredin theadministrationof the lementaryandsecondaryschoolsof thestate. of this Theexecutivehead boardthestatesuperintendentofpublicinstruction commissioner or Ofeducationwasformerlyapolitical nearlyall the officialin States.Greaterefficiencyin schooladministration demands now achange.Thesuperintendentor commissioneris begin- ningto be recogniz'ed asthe chiefeducationalofficer intheState, whose taskit. isto organizeand directthe()ducat ional the forceswithin State.Theoftioerequiresthelargestability.It is to conceiveof indeedethard a more importantofficeor amoredifficultposition to fill well. Atall4mesit callsfortact, initiative,and ability. executive

pisCHIEFSTATESCHOOLOFFICER . Theprevailihg methodofselectingthechiefschoolofficeror Statesuperintendentis by popularvote. In sixStates theseofficers 1:eappointea by thegoivernor,in eightby theStateboard ofeducation.4 The last ofthesemethodsis inlinewithacceptedprin- ciples ofschooladministrationand hasthemost to commend Tile it. chiefStateschoolofficershouldbeselectedby theState board ofeducation from thecountryat largebecauseofprofessionalprep- arationand administratiNTability,and ifpossiblebecause ofsuccess inother positionsrequiringsimilarabilityandinvolvingsimi- larduties. Manyable andefficientchiefschoolofficershavecome See P. S.Bu.çfEduc. Bul.,1920, No.46. ' SeeTable 8. I. lo A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION into office by popular electionorby gubernatorialappointment. Both methodshavesomeadvantages. but neither isas sureandre- m liableasappointment byanonpartisan board.No other method of selection isrational, if thisofficer isto be responsibleto the board. Theterm of office should havenoreferenceto the change of officers connected with thepartisangovernmetA of the-\`;tate.Its1ion11 be indefinite.orforaperiod ofyears,long enoughtomake possible the consistentdevelopment (4administrative policies.' If the chiefState school officeris selected bypopularvote the officemaybecomeapoliticalone.subjectto the fluctuations ofparty and factionalPolitics.Thetermis short.,twotofouryears.reelec- tion is uncertain,and the lack ofcontinuity in the.service isahandi- cap tothe officer, howevercapablo.Theterm and salaryarefixed by law andcan notbe. adjustedto fit thepersondesired.The tielii from whichtochoose is limitedtothe State. thesinalilicationssome- time,s lii4tedto citizenship.Under the appointivemethod the chief State school Officermaybe selectedas arepresidents of universitiPt-. city snperintendents, and otherimportant school offici'ais.fróm the eountry at large. With the Stateorganized for educationon this basis, the po-ition ft of chief school officerstands first inresponsibilityand inopportu- nity to render executive service.As executive officialhe administers th* variousdivisions of the :,14a,te departmentof education andalso represents the State boardasits professionalrepresentative with the highereducational institutions ofthe State.The State depRrt- ment of education should becomprehensively phinnedonlines of approved business principles.If theState isto getfull ret'unis onitseduCationalinvestment. the methods,means.andways out- linedmustbe of themost approved knownto experts in school administration.There should be ample Provision'made foras many subdivisions of the departmentas maybenecessaryto::uhninister the officeto the best interest of the public.° There is generalagreement by authoritiesonschool administration, confirmed bypractice in several progressiveStates, that this impottant office shouldbe basedonthe fo11vinrpowersand dlitita: 1. The chief State echool officershould be the executive official of the State boardof education and executivehead of the State department of education, -arid should enforcerules and regulations made in conformitylo law by the State board for schoolsoverwhich it has legaljurisdiction. 2. He has superTision of allthe different divisions ofthe Stste department of educationand should be held responsibleby the State

e &MIMS rued freet U. B. Dtt.i Edw.But.,1020,No, 44, whichshould be consulted for further Informationon thissubject. nee Table 4. SCHOOL ORGANIZATIONANDADMINISTEATION 11 board forthe proper administrationof thedutiesof eachsuch division.

11 In cooperatiofiwiththe headsof the.taWsinstitutionsfor training teachers,and inconformitywithlaw, heprescribescourses ofstudy for thesetrainingschools,standardsfor thecertification of teachers, and methodsfor thevalidationofteachers'credentials from OtherStates. -1. As the profet;sionalrepresentativeof theStateboard ofeducation, hecooperates withthepresidentsandfaculties ofthe higher educationalinstitutionsof theState.7

ORGANIZATIONFORLOCALMANAGEMENT As hasbeen stated.each Stateas awhole istho legalunit ineducation, but foradministrativepurposes each Statedelegatescertain responsibilitiès to smallerlocalunits.Thehistoryofeducational developnrent in thecountryproves this to) beawise policy.There is not uniformpracticeinor agreement concerningtheamount ofcontrol andmanagement theState shouldattempt through state its departmentof educationand theamount itshoulddelegate tothelocal units.In theeaHiestdays ofthe publicschoolthe States assumed that theywere fulfilling theirfull dutywhenthey 1):ts-zed1e7is1ationatithorizingorrequiringlocalunitsto establish schoolsto provideat leastaminimumamount Of educationfor theirchildren.Later.step bystep, theyhave foundit advisable to take fromthese localunitsonefunctionafteranother beAuse theywere not uniformlywell carriedout.Thisprocessis continu- inns. It iscalled the"centralization" ofauthorityin theState. It haF reachedvaryingdegrees ofKogressinvariousStates:however,thebalance ofpowerbetweenthe Stateand localunits still remainswith thelocal units.Whilethe localunitmnst maintain 7 Therelationghip between the Statechief schoolofficer andthe Stateboard ofeduca- ti4m,recommendedabove and foundby expertnee satisfactory, tween the is. thatnow existing be- presidentof the Stateuniversity andthe hoardof trusteesIn' the institutionsor between the city well-managed schoolsuperintendent andthe cittiboardin themoat prol:rpssive andadvanced cities.Thepresident,in in the oue case, nnd the citysuperintendent, other,are the most responsibleheads of thoui iversity and thecity school respectively,receiving their system, authority frdinthe boardsthey representawlreplaceableby tht boardsif notmeasuringup to the requirementsof thepositions. In bothcasein the boards determinegeneral policies, tIvithL authorisedevelopmentsandse- leaving theactual executionto their executiveofficers,thepresident superintendent,rind or the giving to theirexecutive officersmuchfreedom forinitiative.In bothcases boards, whenfillinga vacancy in thepresidency freeto select or In th-e Illu porin teude ney,feel the bestperson available fromanywhere inthecountry thecountry.Indeed, the or even outside., relationshipja similarto that foundincorporations.The gene: endmanager Ix selectedby theboard of directors.He becomes,when selected.firrev- sponsiblehead oftheorganization,removable foralum but while authorityto holding offiCehay carry on the affairsof thecorporation Inaccordance withthe generalinstruc- tionsof thehoard ofdirectooto the best ofhilt abl"ty. As.identical the relationshipshould mistbetween the. wittysuperintendentof schools countyhoardof educationin States withthecounty unit and SeeU. 8. Bur. organization. of Ethic.Bulletins,1914, No.44, and 1922,No, 10. 12 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIO1VAL LEGISLATION

schools, conforming to specifications of the Statedepartmentof education, the, real worth of the school it conductsis determined by local conditions, interests, and activities. Atlrour*more orless distinct territorial units of organizationfor administering rural schoolsarefoundatthepresent time in the United States: The district, the New Englandtown, the township, and the county.In addition, in practically all States, incorporated citiesareindependent scliool units.Thereare manyinstlnces of mixedsystems in which the responsibility for the schoolrests partly onthe district and partly(inthe township,or onthe district and the county.These mixedsystemscomefrom the transition from the old disthc(systenKto themoremodern townshiporcounty sy-ztem.In general, itmaybe said that thegreatestadministrative efficiency is found where the unit of administratiim conforms geographicallyto the unit for civil adm in ist ration, the "town " in New Englandorthe county where it is the unit of local government. The small local districtwasthe original pioneer organization,particularly in New England,and4itextended westward and to the south- west.Itwassuitedto pioneertimes whenalarger unit of organi- zationwasippossible. The toN'vnsystem originated in Massachusetts, replacingtheMassachusettsdistrictsystem,andsoonspread throughout New lifngland.The township school unit has been adopted byafew States, in which it is also the importaent unit in civil government.County organization originated in the South, largkly because the cOuntywasthe civil unit.It has spread. westward and northward, replacing the districtsysteiin sevetal States.

I The district fahit.Theterm " district unit"is uenvrallv usedto mean asmall geographicalareaset apartfor schoolpurposesonly and served by'a single school.Occaskonally, however, it containstwo or moreschQols and in sparsely settled porti6ns of thecountry is oftenan arealarger thanatownship. In the old disirict unit the school,orschools, if there happenedtobemorethanoile,wasunder the full charge ofalocalboirdof trustees.This board had general charge of all school affairs, including thecareof the school property, the choice of teachers, the fixing of salaries, and the establishment of the policy which governed the work of the school. The boardwas amenable to the annual school meeting, which elected its members, voted the taxation, and Mermined the length of thechoolyear. The district unit has been defendedasbeing" democratic." How- ever,it is generally conceded by authoritiesOnschool administration to beineffective and is gradually disappearkig .inmanysections

I of the United Stales. Where it is still left local boards miist conduct the school inaccordancewith laws and regulations of the State department of education and subject to administrationAild supervision, Ae;

SCHOOLORGANIZATIONANDADMINISTRATION 13 inmany particidars,onthepart of thecounty superibtendentof schools.In pioneerdays itwasprobably theonlyfeasibleplan, but Nvith the passingof pioneerconditions andthedevelopmentof mod- crnimlustrialandagriculturallife,alarger unitfor schooltaxation ;snecessaryandalarger andmorecentrallycontrolledsystem of organizationseemsdesirable. Thetowv awl townshipu11its.Theschoolunitknownasthe .lon " system inNew Englandincludesunderone taxation unit andoneboard Of controlall saehoolsinaciviltownship.Thesystem originatedinMassachusettsduring themiddle ofthe lastcentury and has becomegeneralthroughoutNew England.The unitseems atisfactorv inNewEngland,where the:townis alsothe unitin civilgoveAment.Thetown unitcontains allschools inthetown- dlip, whetherlocated inthe thicklysettledsectionorin therural .(1ctions. New Jersey,Pennsylv*a,Indiana, WestVirginia,Ohio,and parts of Michigan, Iowa, 'andNorth Dakotaareorganizedonthe township-unitbasis.In severalof theseStatesthere isa strong movementto abandon thesystem-infavor ofalargerand rdore effectiveunit. " Thecounty unit.Thecounty unit is theterm appliedto systems in whichthe schoolsin thecounty (cityschoelssometimesexcepted) areorganizedas asinglesystem underoneboard ofeducationand supportedlargely bycounty funds.%Thereare many types of countysystems in operation.Realclassificationisnot attempted, as organizations differinmany particularsamong StatescL1ed "county unitStates."Ten Stateshavecentralizedto( t extent thatthecounty, board ofeducation isthparamount boar&in the managenientof theschools. These10areAlabAma,Florida,Ken- tucky, Louisiana,Maryland,New Mexico,-NorthCarolina,Tennes- see, Virginia, andUtah.In threeoftbese:-Florida,Louisiana,and Marylandcityschoolsaswellas country schoolsareunder the management ofcounty boards.In theother Statestheincorporated _citiesare'independentinmostrespects.Five otherStates have partly thecounty andpartly sthedistrictsystem,orsuchadivisioh ofauthority betweendistrictandcounty thattheymaybeconsidered asin a stateoftransitionfromdistrictto countysystem.These States areSouthCarolina,Mississippi,Georgia,Oregon,and Mon- tana. Inanumberof otherStatesArizona,Washington,and California, forexamplethecounty isimportant insch801support butnot inadministrativecontról. 20118°---25-2L---3 14 'AMANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION AN EFFECTIVE COUNTY ORGANIZATION

Practice in 'good systems already established indicatesthata county organization to he most effective should make provision for awell-centralized business and professional administration.without depriving the people in each section of local initiative in schoolmat- ter9t.The county board and thecounty superintendent should administer the general school affairs and expend the county.school funds toequalize educational advantagesamongall the children of the county.Each ehoo1'ommiinity should havearepresentaItiveap- pointed by thecounty boardor,if desired, elected atanannual school meeting,to represent the school before the county board. Support shouldcomeprinHpally fromcountyfur.ds.The scliool funds of the county sholild be expended by thecohnty board nf education for the general maintenance of nil the schools.The local school (Immunity should u-,uallv he giventlie' right to levytaxes:rill issue bonds for extoroolihifry schoolpurposes,suchasaoquirin:: additionaliand sitesorerectin:Enewimilaintrs.This givesa inezN. nreof localautonomy.This should be permitted only aftera County-widetax sufficient for all ordinary s4442o1Purposesfor the eiltirecountyhasbeeillevied and collected. A goodcpunty system hasanorganization for theiv agement and 'support ofits pc1mn1siwilartothat oflbe best city systems The enunty hoard of education is elected from thc,cOunty atlaFfie in thesame manner asthe best city boardsareelected.It. should have practically thesame powersand duties.It determines thegeneral educational policies of thecounty.It familiarizes itself with the educational needs of the entirecounty and locatesschools where needed.It employs thecountysfiperintendent of schools and author- izes the employment of assistants.The county superintendent is its executive officer in exactly thesame waythat tile city superintendent is the executive officer of the city hoard of edncation. In geheeting superintendent the hoard should have authority to employ the best personobtainable regardless ofwhether he isoris notacitizen of the countyor evenof the State.The hoard should he free. within reasonable limitations. topaywhatever salarymaybenecessaryto obtain the most efficientpersontThecounty superintendency re- quiresasmuch ability and professional experienceasthat ofacity of thesamepopulation.It presents difficulties in size of territory, placement of teachers: organization ofsuperrisory staff, school financing, location of buildings, and the Eke whichare evengreater than city superintendentsmust meet.The salary should becom- mensurate with the responsibility. 4.

SCHOOLORGANIZATIONANDADMINISTRATION 15 The size of theboarddeterminessomewhatitseffectiveness.The tendency istowardaboardof fivemembers,thonghvery good rotasare evidencedin Stateswithboardsof threemembers.and othe,vithboards ofseven or nine.Themembersareelected. from tbecount ztt large orfromelectoraldistricts.sometimesbut not al/xv:tyson a nonpartisanticket.Theindividualsontheboard sl!ffild hemen andwomen of high stondingandability,interested in ediWation,butitot nek-e--:tri IN. -411i.bctedfrom thosewho havehad :1,1;101 si.11()01experi(1),.).'Dulyshlwid;-iTve\vitli()ntpay, except flo. the noceSaryeXpen-ewhenattendintyhoard-meetings.Their arc 411c1 tv lefri!-:11tive.le:iving- :illexecutivefunctions,to the cHihtv ilporintt.ndynt. II1ULU progre..iveStales withmodem county 4.114)01 systen1:-: the ful)\-,-inb.arerecognizedasdutiesof the county boardof (6(11(4%0ion: I. To enforcet1utawsrelat iveto educationand therules and re.irulutions ofthoStateboard of educationwithintheir -f mint ie;. respective ;2. To (11e(st-tbecounty superiniCANA andallnece-Nory .ttpervisors fl[1(1 Office :17,iiant.s:alsoto -eicctonedirectorfor eachschoolcorn- immi;vivithlu 111( whoshall hethecustodianof local (.11( )01property andrepresent ifwalneed(-;beforethecomity boards. Tohavo direct chni.g.eof:Illcounty schoolsoutside ofincorpo- rat!idcity dis(rick,incin(liwrfly\closimrofunnecessary schools, hnildin.o. new-schoolsro1so1i6ti11gschools, andconveyingchildren to si.11001.andorfranizinirrural highschools. 1.To sdectall teacher1iec,le41in thecounty schools,onnomina- tionof thecountysuperintopdent. :; To levya uniformschooltax.onall thetaxableproperty ofthe county underlegal liniitations:a9dI o ewend thefundsthuspro- curedto,equ:dize educationaladvantagesamongall theschoolchit- drenof Owcounty. 6. Toexercis:eAll otherpowers and dutiesnot. enumeratedabove butwhicharc prescribed bylaw: Subdistrfrt himitees.-----InnearlyallIStatesorganizedwith the as the unitfor county administrativ6purpoises. subdistricttrustees,one to threefor each schoolorschooldistrict,areappointedby thehoard elected or bythepeoplieto havegeneralcharge ofthe scheiol perform plant,to certaindutiesassignedeither bylaworby thecounty board ofeducation, andto act inanadvisorycapacityto thecounty board concerning schoolconditionsin theirdisticts.Thesesubdistrict trusteesactas localrepresentativesof thepeople ofthecountyre- ceive suggestionsfromthe people,and makerecommendationsto thecounty 1;attrdonthe basisof thesesuggestions.InsomeStates e. 16 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION theyareintrusted with important duties, suchaskeeping the school building in repair, having charge of thecareand supply of school equipment, assisting in enforceifient of the compulsory education law, and taking the schoolcensus.

THE COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS9 The rapid changes in American life have thrustnewresponsibili- tiesonthes4erintendentaswellas Onhis teachers. He still retains the clerical and financial duties assigned when the officewasestab- lished. New developments in educational ideals andnewapprecia- tion of the importance of the professional administration of schools, the growth ofascientific attitude toward education,And the applica- tion of the results of scientific experimentationto school organization and methods of instruction have revolutionizedourideascon- cerning the selection of and the responsibilities which should be ascribed to this officer.Thecounty superintendency isriCmycon- sidered the strategic position in the reorganization and improvement of rural education. The office demandsa personof ability andpro- fessional training and experience equalto thatof other responsible educationalpositic>ns.In 38 States county superintendentsarethe fitupervisory officers fpr the rural schools of the counties and have -certain administrative responsibilities varying in degree in the differ- L e ent States.In New England the supervising officer is the townor union superintendent. One State has also "supervising agents."In New York the rural superintendentsarecalled " district superintendents" and superriasection ofatcounty.In Nevada theyare , deputy State superintendents andsupiiviseone orseveral counties. In Virginia theyaredivision superintendents, andn many casesthe division and thecountyarecoterrilinous.In Delaware thereare no county superintendents,but State officialsassumeduties formerly assignedtothe county superintendents.Thetermof office of the rural superintendent is fouryearsin 18 States, twoyearsin 16, and varies in the others. In 25 of these States the county superintendents areelected by the people. usually in thesame manner asother county officers; in others theyareappointed by boards; in New Jersey and Virginia theyareappointed by the State boardorState chief school qfficer. The system of electing county superintendents at the regular political election partakes of those weaknesses indicated in discuss- ing the office of the State chief school officer.Citiesnolonger select their superintendents by popular vote.Experience has taught them thatanexecutive officer for suchaposition should be carefully

For complete Information,seeU. S. Bu. of Educ. Bul., 1922, No. 10. SCHOOLORGANIZATION ANDADMINISTRATION . 17 selected byaresponsibleboardina manner similarto that in which boards of directorsof businessorganizationsselect theirexecutive officers.Althoughmany competent superintendentsarefoundunder the electivesystem it isonthe wholeanunsatisfictorymethod of selecting schoolofficials.Politicalaffairsconsumethe timeand influence the actionofofficers electedin thisway; tenure is uncertain and short;the officermust bearesident ofthecounty,eventhough r.! abuttercandidatecouldbe securedifselectionweremade froma s. lagerterritory. . Thepowers and dutiesof thecounty superintendentshould be practicallythesameasthose of thecitysuperintendentof schools. 1. 11eis theexecutiveofficer oftheconnty. board ofeducation and admiliistersunderits legislationthe educationalpoliciesdeter- Ini ne1 byit. , 2. He isthe chiefeducationalofficer ofthecounty and is pri- mailyresponsibleforthe conductof thesvhoolsastheir profes- ionalleader. 3. It is hisdutyto makerecommendationsrelativeto the location ofschools,thenumber ofgradesrequired,thetype of building andequipment,etc. 4. He selectssupervisors,principals,and teachersfor theschools Whoseappointmentsareformallyapprovedby theschool board. 5. He supervisestheteaching inall schoolsunder thecounty beard,eitherdirectlyorthroughassistants. 6. He determinesthecourseof studyawl thetextbooks used, to be subjectto Stateregulationsand theapproval ofthecounty board. 7. Heprovidesforteachers'meetingsand fora system of in- service trainingandunifiesandharmonizesthrough hisschool systemsthe workof theschools. 8. He seesthatallrecOrds ofeducationalactivitiesarekept in proper form. 9. Hehas chargeof healtheducation,includinghealthinspection, inconjunctionwiththecounty medicalauthorities. 10. Hesees that theschoolcensusis takenand thatthecom- pulsoryeducationlawsareenforced. CONSOLIDATED DISTRICTSANDCONSOLIDATEDSCHOOLS" There are approximately180,000one-teacherschool§ theUnited States.Thenumberisdecreasing steadily.About8,O of ; were closed them in thebiennium1920-1922.Theyare grwinginto loSeeti. S. Bu. of Educ.Bulletins,1914, No.30, and1923, No.41. wooIFA

is' A MAN L'Al4 OF EDUCATIONALLEUIBLATION larger Schoolsor arebeing consolidatedinto good plait%and high schools. Recommendedin nearly allthe state-widesurveys,adopted as asound policy inmost of tilecounty unit States. hastenedby the general publicdesire for and theveryrapid growthofAkeconch ary km, encouragedinmany casesbysomeform of Stateaid. and urgednteacher-traininginstitutionsas oneof the bestsolu- tions of theritrai education problem,consolidationof schookis wakingsomehead in all the:-4tiites andis progressingvery rapidly in -(1ver;t1or them. Thoroare limyabout 11.!..)( consolidat 9Ch 001s in theUnitedStates.Ithe 19.21-22 schoolyear,1,628 consolidmed scoIff)°,1 wereformed. So faraslegal niethotiof estal)lishmentis cont.erned,consolidated schoolsmaybe divided roughlyint()uiiitclasses.Most of them haveheeD Ism wed underdibtaiki Ila\VSbyWhichthepatrons of the schoolsmart the movement andvote upon it ataregular orspkial election.Ifamajority ofthe Notes Cast in each, d ist rict. orbetter,amajorityin all the distriAsorterritory included,are in favor of theconsolidation, it iseffected.Each of the uniting dis- triets givesnuits district boundariesand schoolboard and bucome part of`t he01.plair% (List rict. The advantagesof suaaprocedurearethat itarousesthe interest ofanentiYe coilluallliity;the consolidationis thoroughly talkedover.and if the schoolis establishedit is fairlysure tobea strongone.Care should betaken in framinglaws of this kind that the consolidateddistrictNvillrece:kve.asmelt State andcom4y inoney akithe entirenumber of unitingdistricts would, thatany indebtednessofanyof the distriftsbe equitablyadjustedf(x the entire consolidation,And that the,schoolproperty of all the di,;- triets be vestedin theone. A second kindof laws permitsconsolidationonpetitionto the county superintendent.thecounty board of educatimorcommis- % sioners,orthe districtboundaryboardwhateverauthority has power to createorchange districtsapublic hearing'being fini granted by thatauthority. Thepatrons of the schoolshaveavoice in theplatter, but it is expressedin i)etitionand hearing,not inan electiòn.This methodis simpleand effective. A third kindof law givesthecounty board of educationtile wower to t.onsollidute schoolsonitsowninitiative findat itsown discretion.In the handsofanintelligentboard thatcarefully Studies theneeds of theentirecounty, worksoutadefinite,program,andarrangeseachyearforsomecarefulprogress,this kind of law isprovingto beverygood. SCHOOLORGANIZATIONANDADMINISTRATION 19 lartothirl, htitofmorelimitedapplication,barelawsgiving diArict boardspower to consolidateschools Withindistricts.Where dill arelarge apdhaveMany schools, thesearebeing usedto advantage. . , .1 fifth kindofconsolidationlaw isCommonin. thetownortown- ship unit. States.Thtitown is.givencontrol ofthe schoolsandmay fix thei numberanddeterminetheirlocation.,Thetown meeting decides thequestion.This istheusualprocedure inthe New-Eng- land States, in AlichiganandPennsylvania.ItservesveryWell for the schoolswithin thetown,bui.itdoesnot providea, wayof e--tablillingschoolsbynaturalcomriunitiesrather thanbytown houndarie>.So farassecondaryeducationisconcerned,the New ; , EnglandStates andsom(. othersare furthering centralization 14):T providingforState aid inpayment of tuitionandtransportation founonresidentstudents,anexcellosAwayofpreventing dissipation of eitergy.Elasticity incciltralizingelementaryN'llOolS isgenerally cou".ideredadistinctstep in advance. The lawscreatingcounty secondaryschools makeupanother class. Soule ofthese provideforone ormore county high schools,locoed . indifferent.:sections ofthecounty. independentinadministration andsupport from theelementaryschools. andmaintained bya.tax onthe entirecounty. Manyverytrong schools .havebeen built under theirprovisions.The dualsystem therebysetupsometimes occasionsconflicts :betweenthe elementaryschoolsand thehigh :cljool. ofthecounty and makesclosecorrelationof workbetween thetwo classes of schools.ratherdifficult. Unionhig1i schoolsareestablishedunderlaws whichp'ermita numborof districtsto retain theirownelementaryschools,whileall joidrinmaintainingonecentralhigh school.This kindof law,most common in theWestern States,has beenusedasthe basisforsome verytineschools. Withthe spreadof thejuniorhigh schoolplan, it will probAbly'beless usedastimegoes on.If juniorhigh school ccntersareestablished- andtheelementaryscbools limitedto the six grades,there isnot.so strong.a reason for the elementarydistricts maintainingtheir separittoidentities. In'someSt4ttesindependmt,special, laidconsolidatedschool districtsarecreafed byspecialacts of legislatures.Theprocedure isgenerallyunsatisfactory.It breaksinto betterorganizationof larger areas, createsanumber ofdifferentschoolsystems, andgen- erallyacts to interfere withequalizededucationalopportunity. Amongthe importantprovisionsof Statelaws relatingtoeon- solidationarekfife following: a- 166r L. -f 20? A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION C.

se. I.-Minimum 4imits ofIraserved, enrollm;mt,average(1ailyrat- iendance, and length ofterm below whichaschoolordistrictmay not be created,orif,createdmaynot continue its existence. 2.-Aneffective, quickwayof uniting schoolsordistricts, preferably ix,-response tolocal demand, retaining for the united institution the fullamountof apportionments theseparate units would receivò, arranging foranequitable. assumption ofanyindebtedness, and providing for theproperd isposa1 ofany unnecessaryschoolproperty. 3. Authority for the planning and carrying out ofprogramsof Consolidation-for largeareas,providing equitable. distributionof resourcesand school facilities, and avoiding omission a cohsidera- tiontoisolatedorbackward strips of territory. 4. Authorization of the junior high s(1too1 withaviewto centraliz- ir.g the work of theuppergrades when full consolidation isnot, fca§ible. 5. Restrictionsontheestablisfitnencof senior highschools, adequatetoinsurestrongscools, with tuition aml transportation, Grboard androom,providedorthose studentsho dorfothave easIra(rcess to suchaschool. 6. Permissive transportation of pupils at publicexpenseto and from all schools. .

TABLE a.Chief Molexchool officer and appmrimafrnumber of amxistant*

0 of Num.!Num ber of Term spe-ber of States Title In By whom selectedSalaryeltdistsclerks years !resie-Inde' I parte 4P4 mptieritit- merit merit i 11. =1==.

Alabama-.a. 1111111111m Our Superintendent of public in- 4 Peop $5, 000 20 16 struct ion. Arizona_. _ ...... _ _do 2 3, 300 5 Arkansas do 2 do 2, MO 11 3 California _do 4 6, 000 20 25 Colorado do 2 do 3, 000 5 5

Connecticut Commissioner of education__ (1) State board of edu- 9, 000 . 47 49 cation. Delaware... _do 1 do. 5, 000 O 2 District of ColumbiaSuperintendent of salmis.. 4 Florida Superintendent of publicin-. e People...... _ 3, 600 15 2 struet ion. Georg* do do 4, 500 2 V

1._:__do .. . 2. _do 2, 400 Idaho 4 ' tColnm issioner of educlit ion._ _ (I) I 3tate board of edu- 6, 000 r cation. Illinois Superintandent of public tne 4 People 7, 500 15 struct ion. i Indiana do 2 _ _ do ...... 5,000 9 10 Iowa.. _ ...... do 4 _ _do_ ..... 4, 000 13 10 Nouns ...... do P 2 do 3, 000 10 6 Nenteky do , 4 do 4. 000 9 10 Louisiana I Superintendent of public edu- 4 do 1 5, 000 17 8 I cation. I Indefinite. b'

&-""' SCHOOLOROANIZA NANDt.1.3INISTRATION 21 BLE 3.Chief Stateschool officer andapproximateniimberof (t.v.'1i.41(171/.4 fs(in.

1111 Ninn- i. \iim- r. "r State. Term her of Title in s1 I!.ler.lis Bw bow itleetedI0:11:iry.. ci.,;1e years , .in 1 : r ililairite':l went. well( ,

1 4166 NIcline .__ .- Superintendentofp uh 1.1r (i()Vcrit(kr school4. . $4,NO 9 N11061an(i._ ..... Superint endent . of schools I I Stole 1)4,:irti . of 111 6 r.;.ichtllit`fAS dile:itton. (7onimi!4c ionerof oitiontIto .1 ' ;()% crnor Io 7,1 NI!' hiprti ...... Superintewirnt 9 of puhlic;n- 1 'I4 gulo. structiott. i 4 .oimi 17 NIinfieS01. Commissioner ofeducatkin f; ;Or bf):Irit of (XN) 21' Ion. 20 N1 Se M . Superint .... endentof pub! iv-in- 1 Peoplr struction.. A(N) 8 \11ouri Superintendentof itii.I 1 4 schools. 41i) 3,000 14 1,)ntana Superintendentof public 1 struct ion. 410. . IRO3

Nibniska . . - ...... do. _ . ' e. .10 . N :ida 2. 000 2 7 r do _ _ . ... New I lampshire 4 . do 3. too 5 _ . _ -701nin iss killerof edueation 111 st:itehoardof 000 11 ethical ion. I.w Jersey . _ 6r, \ . _ _ _ . .do - Governor N ... 10, 000 14 Mexico _ Superint.endent ofpublic ' Al( 4 People. , 3, ono struettun. e

NeYork. Commissioner,of education.. (14 4 suitehoardof 10, 1100 177 78 O education, Nort h' Carolina Superiptendent of publ ic i- 4 People. 1 struction. 4, OW 23 8

\url h Dakota. _ _ __do -1 Ito .1, 000 I 7 3 ilito ...... Director of edueation 4 Oklahoma Govcrnor 4, Wu 21 6 Superintendentof publicin- 4 Pool& -1 struet ion. .. . _ . 2, ..,00 10 5 ( it(gon do . _ _ 4 ..Iii, :t, 000 6 Pennsylvania do_ _ _ 6 E no& Island . 4 i ( ;ovvrnor 2. (MC 57 60 ..... __ Commiss tune 1 of educat ._ 1 I n Shill' tlf lardof fi,(1101) oiith Carolina Superintendentof eddratlOti . :Nay '2 People1:: 2, 500 17 6 Dakota___ :7.uperintendent ofpublic in- ) Ilo struction. 2. 400 11 o .. ennessoe Commissioner ofethical ion 2 (Trim Teas 3, 600 11 fi Superintendent ofpublic in- 2 People struct ion...... 4, 000 33 2'2 tah .... m .Vb do._ _ _ _ 4 110.... 4, (00 10 4 Inuit sir 111111, ..... Commissioner ofeducation__ (I) Stalekutfriof 000 education. 7 3 irginia Superintendent of public in- __ _ 4 People ..... 4, A00 14 8 strtwt ion.

Washington _do West Virginia -t . 4_ _ ._ _.... 3,Mir Superintendent of freeschools 4 do 5, 01) I kVisconsin, j 8 6 Superintendentof public in- 4 do 5,000 . 22 8 struction. Statesuperintendentof Flub- People yoming.... - lic instruction. 3, 000 t 3 Commissioner ofeducation ( 1) a. .... Statehoardof 3,000i eillicatt. I I ndegnite. 20118°25.4

411, LI - , .r ',New Jersey. 4, Okl4wina `Ftlew Mexico s. New York ,Nort 0Carolina Virginia 22 ° New Hampshire______. Massachusetts- Maryland_ Wot Virginia Texas Maine Nort hDakota Nevada Nebraska._ Alabama Tennessee South Dakota Ohio Mont Minnesota M ichigan Louisiana 0 Georgia. Idaho Arizona. California Wyoming.. Wisconsin Washington Colorado Vermont Utah SOU! hCarolina Iowa Connecticut .7.-...... M issoun M ississippi Illinois Arkansas Kentucky.... Pennsylvania_....,....__ Kansas Indiana Delaware Florida It lloileItland , gon .s ana. TA-BLE -1.---.Spteinligt4 ...... - _ . .. __...... ______. States ina_ . . _ _ _ . ______. ______...... - ...... _...... , . ... _ ...... _ .....__ . ______-- ...... ow . . m.o.-am.. ___ A MANUALOFEDUCATIONAL ...... ' v- i- dww ... .M. ______- _ ...... _ .... _ ... r X . .. _ . _ _ . .s . . i i . ; ! X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X : X X X )S. X 4 X X X X X 1 X X X X X X X X X . X _ _ I I _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ ...._ . _ _ _._ _ _ - . (one , ..' X ); X X X X X X X X 1- X X X bc. _ x ... -- ...... - 4...... t _ % _ . - _ _f _ _ . . '5 ! F i 1 1 g...... i-;-*; 1 ., I ' 1 1 : I I I ... -- - - -,.,. 0 - 6. 75 . .;..,,, - X X X X I X X!____ X X X X X X__.x X X x X X X X X X X X X X X X i X X X X X X X X ,! X tc X Mw X 1 X _ S.& or more) - - Teacher -t raining I I . I . ti .. I. .a ,,,, . 1P __ _ - .. ___ . -- -t . -- >m _ ... '6 5 C. ict: C ...., c . X X X X X X _ t A - . _ .. - _ . . _' X _ . i ' I_ I i ____ . . . .. ,.. . . awe . X -. X X X x X X X X X X X X X X X X X )I X X X X X X X X ._ - ... .- ar 7- .. . . . # . . . -¡ I t ' 1 -_-_ ..._ - Mr eb. - X X X X X X X X X X- X . orb ba Mate i 1Y : i 1 time .1 -..., O. u.. I 0 )1 X X X X X X X X'XIX X i- wiN4 . - . - " 1.10 ORD . ti X X X X X X - wfw 1 40 4ima -1 40 6.0 I1 ow* ma, vs. w - 1 1 4 VMS. El 11 doom. 4:- _ - h. low pm. LEGISLATION depurtmentltni 14 X X X X X X X X T. 6111.1 _ 0 - - I .X X;X __. ____ .... X C IX I - X. X X X X x x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

.. 1-choo1 buildings . . X X X X X X X X X X X X X X x X X X X X %.60. rime lam omi mob 0.0 ow. i os e X X x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X*1 X- X X X X X X X. X X X X X X X X ...... Trade WO education education . o 5F1 X X X X XL.. X X X X X- X X X X X X .. _ I _ . . . X X . - _ - - - . WINO X X 1w. Ow, 7. . X X X X dam. ChapterIII SCHOOLCOSTSANDSCHOOLSUPPORT Statelegislatureswill beinterestedin the vates in meeting experienceofother themountingcosts of publiceducationand acquiring in informationconcerningplansworkedoutsbysomeStates as tosourcesof schoolfunds,proportionoftotalcoa;tssupplied the different from sources, and improved.methodsofdistributionfrofti Statesourcesin Ordertomore nearly. equalizeeducationaloppor- tunities ofchildrenandtax -burdens ofcitizenscoficerned. hrfeased costsconis'lVered.---Muchhas beensaidand wiaten Con- cern the !rreat increasein the costs'tyfschoolssince1914.It is recognizedthat whileschoolsshould besupportedliberally,they shouldalso beconductedeconomically.Beforepassingjudment onthenecessity ofschoolexpendituresitis \yellto consider only the not ammint of increasein schoolexpendituresyearby-ear,but tocompare these expenditureo:Withotherfactorsconditioningthis cost, particularlythedifferentpurchasingp0w(rof the the daarin respectiveyears considered.Recentinformationcollectedin theUnited StatesBureau ofEduchtion" comparingannuarex- penditures in the years'1913 and1920.ascomparedwith thepur- chasing powerof the(War inthoseyears,andconsideringalso the increase inaverage daily attendanceduringtheperiodindicatesthat theUnitedStates spent relativelylessonpublicschoolsin1918 than in1913, and lessin19:20 than in1913.12

rrtit 5. 'rota!expenditure)? fm- publicxeltook illthe iWindNfidex"

.1.111- el.. a Actual Purchasing totalex- Index of power of penditure cost of totalex- Year (millions of Hying 6 pew! it(ire e dollars) A millions of dollars)

1913 ...... 1918 h2 100 522 1920 762 I 174 438 1..034 200 61 518 a For allcosts except debtservice. ITheformula O B- used incomputing itemsin columnC Is, CuDA4-inn e Index figurestaken from Nat. F.duc.Assoc. Ream.Bul.,;-o-I41, No. 2,p. 94. " U. S.Bu. ofEduc.Bulletins, 1922,No. 6 and useeTable 5. No. 47. se 23 24 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

Itis evident in considering thissubject thatthe decreasein the purchasingpowerof the dollar, thegreatincrease in * schoolenroll- ment and attendance. the need foralarge school-buildingprogram because of the practicalstagnation of buiidingand improvement during tiltwarperiod. thenewdemands thatare!wing madeonthe school for, enrichedcurriculums to supply bettertraining forvo- cations, participation_in social life, and ge-neral-life ne-edsmustall he considered in makingcomparisons ofcostsasbetween. thetwope- riods-represented.It should be remembere,d,also. nòt onlythat we expectmoreofOurschools than in thepast. but thatwe expect better work, bettertrained teachers,moreconsiderationtohygienic and sanitary conaionsof buildings and the like,and that thema- krializatiop ofalltheseidealsmeansvastly -increased expenditure ofmoney. lfwecontinue the study of ;:choolexpenditures duringthe bien- nial period from 19:?.0to 1922.wetind in the latteryear atotalex- pendituré of ;¡!1,:)60,671..276, exclusivtof debt service.Thepur- chasingpowerof the dollar also increasedsomewhat duringthis period, the index of thecostof living havingdecreased from200 in 1920 to 170 in 192i.The latest figures Obtainableconcerningco4 of education in1922 for the United4'ita1esas awholelimi foreach stateare'given in Table 6.Table 7 showscostperpupil basedon averagedaily attendance in elementa,ryschoqls arid in secondary sdwols forsevenStates.Theseaverage may usedasguides in estim(iting probable expenditures:'ecessary for the coming school 4P4 years. anyof the States' havealowaveragecost because of the large nunibyr ofpoor countryschools. WhenaState provide§ all itchildren equal educationaloppor- tunities,weshallseetheaveregecost for that State appyonching the highaverage no,w.tnaintainedbyits better 'tides..Allowing for the actual difference in the (*lost ofmaintaining nrhan and rund Fchools of equal grade, it is safetosaythat thecostperchildper day in a»y'Stat44 shouldnot be lower than the presentaveragefor thatState, and theaverageforeverySiateshould be '4 leastas high,asthe presentaveragefor the UnitedStatesas aNvhole.

T\ni 11.Tota./tx pcn rc perchild in,u rciwz ye fit Cnd n re in19 22 tf:

Continent al-United Delaware._ $82. 55

States __ _ . _ 1sg5. 76District, of-Columbia 9g. 22 Honda _____ 54. 07

Alabama _ Imp MI 29. 53Georgia__ _ .. am qm. M. 245. 22 94 Arizona 138. 38Idaho_ s 101.

, _ _ AM, IM _ Am. MM Om M. Arkansas_ ow we 24. 02Illinois__ _ _ _ 97. 41 California _ JI. _ 158. 45'Indiana 127. 25 Colorado_ _. 113. 64Iowa 113. 48 Connecticut _ 91. 10 Kansas e .101.00 IFor costs in city schools,seeBu. of Educ. Statis. Circ. No. 1, Jail., 1923.

el: r SCHOOLCOSTSANDSCHOOLSUPPORT 25 fl.ELE TOM/erm.aditure per fhihl in41rentfic, flttenduncein M.

lami a K entucky M -t.--- $32. 96 Louisiana NorthDakota____ sp. $942113- 55 75Ohio _ 121. 12 aine_: 65. 01 Ok ------Marylami_ _ 70.63 74 43 )regon 95.03 Ma;,sachusetts__ 4P 99. 08Penils\ivania 7,5. 57 Michigan___ . 12g. 23 Rbode.Island...b 41=1 83. 98 Minnesota____._ 116. 99South ('aroliiiA - - 27. 66 __ 24. 17 S,AlthDakota _ _ 121. S1 Misourir _ 70. 71'rçnnessee_ _- Mont a_ 141. 43 33. 27. Texas _ '64. ti2 Nehrt _ 117. (X) Utah. _ _ N evadift_ _ 94.31 --- 143. 0 errnónt..._ _t. 73.97 NewHampshire_ _ 84. 15 N Virginia_ _ 53.21 ew Jersey______123. 13 Washington . _ 124.49 New Niexico__ _ _ _ 92. 59WestVirginia ... 6a. 63 New York . . _ 120. 77Wisconsin _ bis 94. 90 North Carolina_ . - 40. 42Wyomi4_ 135. 42

TABLE7. Cost jì.ß per Pupil ticumuf. fatendanceinthe lemCirtury nchools andIn the xurfnidary.w1rool8 sere), States in 19.?2' ....-....

IElementarysecondary atk day schools I ahi inder-schools.daY tatiLE'ns

AT 1lon3. - (10tfoT111H . ,..--- $9h. 91 $28:).39 onR ICUt 119, 19 317.14 Montana 69.2S 3111.08 NewJersey_ _ 114. 93 191. 05 ohm 102. ).40 190. 2.5 Oklahoma 105. 14 145. 16 F35. 62 144. 47

Total _ 98. 04 198,37 Forcurrentexpenses and foroutlays. 21 MIMICSlocal normalandVocationalschools. 3 Furcurrentexpensesonly.

SOURCESOFSCHOOLFUNDS Schoolmoneys are now- providedbyStates,counties,cities, diips,and toWn- specialschooldistricts.In allStatesa tf)tal portion Sfthe costis borneby theState, theepsroportionalamount varying greutly.(See Fig.1.) Howevor,thegreater portionof the borne cost by thirllocalkhoolunits.InsomeStatesthis localsupport isa county tax Only:inothers itisa county taxtogether. special' #itha school-districttax.In otherStatesthere it.(only thelocal solioordistricttnx. State sc.imolfundsarereceivedfrom(1)permanent.investea flinds. (21Statetaxes, (3) Stateappropriations,awl(4) several miscellaneoussources.suchascorporationtax, incometax, oiltax. . The permanent schoolfundji.aretrgelyderive4from thesale of schoollands.Schoollamb.;are publiclands giventomanyof the. States by acts oft'ongressfor thebenefit ofpublicee.ucatkm a few In cases, States set asideStatelands foreducationalso. t 26 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEWSI 1.11()N STATE TAXES ANDAPPROPRIATIONS

State school taxesAre(renerally(1)adirectpruperty tax:(.2 a

general. mill tax leviedonall taxable real and persimal property: (3)

MOMS TAOS rtFusASH ruin UD ALLOTIM1 rTie LEASE07 =SI TAMLSD APPISOPILI4TI0110 ST IVC.-1 AXESASOAPPOOPR :LT IONS soulic is ICrOl. LANDS 4.1 40 IRO 63) tooI 2 e AUDI.** hi 47.3 10.6 LASSOS& 3.8 69.3 8. RLANSAS.. .. . 0.8 74.8 ammo 20.3

C ALINORNIA. . 0.6 1 73.9 22.0 COUNtDO . ... 3.4 83.5 0.7 COI NWT ICITT 0.9 89.1 41- 6. DELAWARE.. 1.0 92.6 5.531 NONNI ti DIr. OF COL.- 0.0 60.0 64.0 u.LO MA. 92.8 O. L r . s . . 1.4 I 5.431 01,0SCIA...... 0.0 51.8 3 3.9 !DAM 6.3 85.0 1.0 4M11111 ILLIvoIs s. 0.1 85.6 7.7 MINIM !NDIAIA. 2.0 69.5am". "MM. k.6

11 , Iog 0.0 70.7 1.5 It LusA3... # 1.4 97.6 0.7 am... I (MOLT s...... 0.0 I 69 5 .c LOZTIslugA 1.0 66.9 2/.3 KAM. 0.7 66.2Nosimme 27.1' wank= s. 0.1 79.3111. 18.11 auss,c6ostrt11... 0.5 I as.5 9.7 kICKIOIJ...... , 0.6 67.2 13.01

MISHIMA. 3.5 71.4 12.9 _ 1I31I88Irri 2.2 54.6 16.0 MINIM 2.9 85.4 11.1 MOrra...... 6.9 86.1 0.6 11136K 82.8 0.6 3.. ammo 11116.0 41.5 77. 13.6 WIPMMIAM... 0.5 66.9 II. 4 MIX JEMMY. 1.2 23.P 75.2IMMINIMAMMEM EH IOU I00. 10.3 ?O. 71% 18.5 .... Ir pommel xnTONE 0.0 A.8 21.0 MOM CUIDLINA.. 0.3 82.7 11. 111111111111M WORTS DULOTA,. 5.6 91. 2.5

OXIO 759 8.5 _ 11. ... 3.9 OdOMMOMMEMM 0 [LAROSA. .. k. 89.1 2.7 3. On00111.... 2,7 67.9 111.8 rgnertrai A.... 0.0 61.5 12.3

MODE I11411110.... I 0. 95 5 3.2 ammo ammo mom , MOM CAROLINA., li 0.0 69.6 14.8 BOUTS DAIVTA.... 12. O. ihtMIMI= Z.0 unsaid.. , 1. 77 19.9mum. TLIA11... 1.7 t42.9 k2.5 171rAm.. . 3.2 61.61. 13.1 . 4811110111111 I TIMOR... 1.6 7L.6 I 13.2 .. UMMODUMMEM 3 TIMODIIA.. .. 0.7 529" 211.7 VAIIIISOTOM.. t10 22.0 111111 rucuria... 0. 91?2'Wadi 5.2 V1110011Sii 0.) 61.1 14.1 4.0 1170111110 lb.' TO8 10.5

UNITS 14.6 7.3 irtnis... 1 I l 76.6i

noun 1.-PAreentage distribution of total revenue receipts. by States,1022 afixed portion of the Stategrossreceipts; (4) allor aportion of the proceeds.of special taxes, suchasincome taxes, inlwritance taxe, taxesonstock and bonds, and poll taxes.State appropriationsre-

1. SCHOOLCOSTSAN D & II OM.SUPPORT 27 suit, ofcourse,fromdirectlegislativeenactment,as a rule either anmiOly I,hien-nially. A study of schoolfinances inthe'UnitedStatesshowsthat the ainimnt how providedfrom Stateappropriationsisapproximately ;0per cent u-reater than thatresultingfromState schooltaxes. State appropriationsare rnf c()Iumon at thepresent timethan Stat( schv)4)1 taxes. 1 19-20every State in theUnionmadeappro. !wilt ionsforschools.whileonly.29 % *IdState schooltaxes.State appropriations x.vere madeuniversal bytheFederalvocationaledu- **c;Itionact commonly known¡NtheSmith-Hughesbill.whichre- yiiredStates to watch theFedprai :liddollarfor dollar.It didnot kruinthe Ji 1h'y I. J Stateappropriation'shut didmilk() itgeneral. Uf the.29 Stateswhich provided forthe schooL-,i111 9.20,throt4 tate('11()()1tl N. 20 leviedamilltax, therate varyingfrom0.7 in Wi,comsin to -t.r) in Utah."FiveStates didnot specifytherate in hut providedforamilltax snilicientto meetcertainobliga- t Ions. s.nch .as to produceacertaintotalsum orafixedamountper fhild inSC11001. SevenStatesprovidedamillpropertytax for ..14,1:1 i meitiml projects. suchasvocationaleducation,teacher-training ,Im( )ts,physicaltraining.etc. Poll taxes for State schoolfundsa,recollectedin nineStates,the anwr being froms1.43 inNorthCiltrolinato 50rents in Indiana. Corporation taxes for schoolpnrpo esareleviedin sixStates.In- collie taxes for school purp)sesare1(-ied intwo States.Inheritance taxearecreditedto the schoolfunds10 five States. tria LOCALTAXATION

Irith theexception ofNewEnglandandafew otherStates, the civil where government andthe schoolgovernmentzire onthetownship unit basis,thecounty is consideredalogicaiunit ofsupport for .6()1s all Gutside ofindependontcities.Ifsupplementedbyfunds from the State, equaledncationaiopportunitiesaremadepossilde Ihmwrhout the State.Localschoolcommunitiesshouldbeallowed -Aippiernent-the countytax in ordertomorefullyrealizelocal ideals,in addition toacounty tax sufficientto maintainschoolsful- filling miuimumrequiredstandardsset 1.)y theStateinmiryset- tionwhere aschool isneeded.Tbecountytax ShOlI1(1I)(leviedawl a---es4,11 MIartProperty Lin thecounty,independentcity schooldistricts included.and Aliendividedbetweenthecountysystem and the independent districtson some equitable biasi.This isiurecogni- tionof the fact thattTie citywealthi «dpe inTar(remeasure to the p.rolitictiyityof the (bounty inwhich itislocatedand thecitypopu- ....m- ....- =1, le INN U. S.%IL cifEllite.ful., 11022,No.. 28 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION . lation recruitedfrom near-bycountry districts.It should therefore bearpartof the burdmof the schools ofthecounty. Thesearethetwo principalreasonsfor Stateparticipation schoolsupport.IneveryState,at dub present time:great injustice is done childrenbecause of the lackof educational opportunities.

°Becauseof the location ofnaturalresourcesand otherreason,. wealthisunevenly distributed.Certainsectionscanmaintai schools witha verylowtax rate because of theiraccumulated taxablo o property, while other sections. withanexceedintrivhi;iittaxrant. cannot support schools worthy of thename. A.few illustration will make this clear, TABLE S.-Comm/rim/Is of the financialfilillity(Hid xel,,jedburdens of certifid Nletedcoltsitif ill (trio,VII '1 r

WEE

i( 1,,,,,,,nii Per rt.tit(If tot -411....11 ! e k i I ti)iltily . -.ti)portiv( IN:till:Own(11Ibill7 :i i Ir 'ofvomit in nill.k Counties perschool(c.ititit i

thilt!1..- ; 11.101- I 21 '. -,11i001 1 1)7,- State,(mint . t4%. 171- I ¡nit i chide(j) ! .,../.

Baca ...... $1, s22 2. On 12 E.,'- 1,1

_ . Washingtou . 3, 51u) 1 11 (.4

Laritner - 4. 454) I It) lI , 7 1 Alamosa...... T,7 1. 00 7It Hypotheticalmedian...... lE 7. 3 17 7h 2 5 Pitkin ...... ,, ". .!ti) I') t) 4)- Fl Paso... - ...... t;, 00 1. 74 Eagle 7, 210 -60 12 Cheyenne 9.:II: 1.04; 4 17 Park. _...... 22. .4; 1.4

It- Bu. of F,dur. Bill.. 1917. No.5, p. 37, Table 1.r1.

TABLE 9. --comparison wif financinl uhi!ify: effort,(Ind istut(vridofsCrl I)

!tar her ruoll chool ,liNtriix illtown ofI, Hiloyer. v.v. 7

1 ; As- 1 sesced Enroll-Yalu"- I Total Tax per otid Total District No. mentlion per assessed child PI. State childvaluation rate en- aid enrolled rolled 4

9_ . 13 $5,Vt5 $72. 209$0. 00387It5_ 00I $454. 95 $.125 $9 til 7. 13 4,901 IVA. is .00r)17 38.04 495. 51 125 Il N

6 22 4. 211 tr2, 640 .003214 19. 4) i 428. ll Vt.\ fl 5 11 2, 624) 24. S20 .00S87 41. 03 i 451. 37 ps:1 ! Pi N1 2 17 1, 7/47 30. :046 .00987 2S. 39 I 4$2.65 h.el jIl(.13 3 27 1,7M) 47, 24r) .0061s i5.P48 I 42R. %44 50 b5 4 21 1.476 31 000 .00750 i.s9 43s. 79 1,4 stod)

s II.0., assessed valuation, not as accurateris measure of ability as true valuation. e., tax rate and expenditure. 'Table taken froman unpublished study, by Richard A. Graves, graduate student ineducation, Itiiv of Minn., bloodupon N. Y. Educ. Dept. Rep., 1917, vol. 2,pp. MI4184. 'Computed.

Table 9, column3, showsthatthe assessed N-aluationper(quill enrolled (onemeasureof abilityto support schools/ varies inone township in New York from $1,471;to$5,5ïï.TablesslAws how SCHOOLCOSTS ANDSCHOOLSUPPORT 29 10 counties inColoradovaryin abilitytosupport schools.The average per childvaluation ofthesecountiesvariesfrom$1,822 in therioorest countyto $22.674 in thetidiestone.Figuresshowing similar variations inabilityto support-schoolsas measured bytax valuations have beencollectedfromranyStates.A similardif- ference canbe showninanyStateorganizedonthedistrictplan. This widedifference in abilityto supportschoolsthatexistsamong districtscanbe overcome within thecounty byagenerous county- widetax distributed among schoolsaccordingto theirneeds;that among counties bya state-widetax, providedthatdistributionison :Inequitablebasis.

a. DISTRIBUTIONOFSTATESCHOOLFUNDS The source from whichStateschoolfundsshould proportion come and the whichtheStateshould,contributetoward tenance of its themain- schools,whileimportantquestions,areofno greater importancein thewelfare oftheStatesystem that, is tNed for themethod distributingschool fundsamonglocalunits.Distribution ontheschool populationbasis istheoldestandstill theprevailing method.Itwasbased onthe beliefthat itwasthefairestpossible methodand wouldassistinequalizingeducational within opportunities theState.Underearlierconditionsinourhistory true. thiswas Changesbroughtaboutwithgeneraldevelopment, tratronof concen- wealthandpopulation,centralizationofnatural sources, and other re- influenceshaveresultedinchangingconditions to theextent thatthis methodofdistributiohisno longeranequit- Aleone.This fact hasbeenrecognizedforanumberofyears,and severalStatesha.veadoptedothermetil9dsof apparently distributionwhich are more effective,particularlymore effective from point ofview 'of the providingthateducationalfacilitiesofagiven standardshall be availablein allparts of thesame State.Among themethodsin use are distributionontheschoolenrollmentbasis, ontheaverage daily attendance or aggregateattendancebasis,and onthenumberof teachersemployed.Each ofthesemethodshas some virtuesaswell as some weaknesses.SomeStatesfinda coal!, binationoftwo or more of themadvantageous.Inanumberof Statesastill new& methodofdistributionliasbeeninaugurated withinthepast few years, namely, thatofdistributingStatemoney inamountsininverseratioto thetax valuationof the whichit is unitto distributed.It isadvisablethatanyStateconsidering changingitssystem of support,particularlyitsmethodQfdistribut! ingStatefunds, I sholdmakeacarefulstudy ofthesituationwithin theState inorderthat the method ofdistributionp,doptedmaybe 80 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION anequalizingone,combining the best elements of the methods referred to in this bullain.The methods of distributing fundsre- cently adopted in fourStatesMassachusetts, North Carolina, Cali- fornia, and Minnesotaare given below.Thesearenot offeredas models for other States to follow,butassuggestions ofwaysiu whichalarge number of Statesare nowtrying to work out. scienlific methods of distributing Statemoneysfor schoolpurposes. sil/Mwd8 of d;st/;/pition,it/¡OUP IStateM.----State legislatureshave generally prescribed methods of distributing Statefunds in the acts making appropriationsorlevying flit State taxes forschotils.The'. presenttendency isto use alarger proportion Of Stateaidas an equalization fund.,k Heralocal unit has reached thelimit. of local taxation lind is still unableNomaintain schofdsuptothe standard, the Stateconiestotherescueand Provides tile additional money needed.Methods of ditributing Statefunds for thispurposein severid Statesmaybe indicated here. The Legislature of North Carolina in 1921provided for largely increaFk1(1 State aid to public schooh inanannual approprittion of $1.400.000, to be knownasthe " State public school fund," stipu- lating that the State bolr(l of education shouldamluallypportioa from this fundanamountsufficient with county funds, to maintain schools for six months.Howe-vkw,nocounty is compelled tolevy aschool tax exceeding 30 centsonthe $100. 'Where sudi county levy, with State funds, isinsufficient to maintain the schoolssix months, the county shall receive from the State.fundanamount sufficienttomakeupthe deficit. Ofcourse anylocal unitmayextend the term toanydesired kngth beyond six months by drawingupon itsown resources. In 1921 the Legislatwe of Ntinnesotapassedanactwhichpro- vided foranequalization fund referred to in the actassupplemental aid.This act provided that toanyschool district whose school maintenance tax lies between 20 and 32 mills the State. shallpay assupplemental aid one-third of theexcessabove 20 mills.If tir tax levy for mainli,mance exceeds 32 mills, then, in addition tothe above amount, the State shallptiyone-half ofasuchexcessabove 32 mills.In school districts maintaining onlyufigraded elementary schools, ifa20-milltax does not raise the equivahfitof $600 for each teachere.mployedat leastsevenmonths, then the State board of educationmaygrant to, such-school districtanamountwhich, together with the proceeds ofa20-mill tax, will provide $600 for each teacher employed. The Minhesota Legislature of 1923 passed. anactproviding that. supplemental aid shall be limitedtoschool districts whose local maintenance levy exceeds 20 mills. Whena local school tax of20 mills fails to yield the equivalent of $40per pupil in attendance 40 dAys, the State pays3he difference*between SCHOOLCOSTSANDSCHOOLSVPPORT Si the sum per pupilproducedby t1ìe'20-mi1ltax and $40per The effect of pupil. daisact is to establishthe fundforsupplementalaid as anequalizationfund. Californiamaketitheteacherthe chiefbasisfordistributingthe major portionofState aid.Byalawpassedin 1921 the %i4iiks..4;;() for State,pro- every cleineutaryandeveryhigt-schoolpupil inaverage("gailyattendance.Californiamain:ainstwo distinct State schoolfund fundsthe forelementaryschoolsandtheStatehigh-school ili;(1for socoodarysehook.Byalawpassedin1921 theState elementary-schoolfund isappbationedasfollows: eey elementary $700is paidfot teacherand theremainderof thefund isappor- tionodonthe -basis ofaverage dailyattendance.Thismoney must Ilematchedby the comity,withtheresultthatthere. isguaranteed for eachfull-time elementaryteachingpositionS1,400tiyear. In 1!)-21California not onlydoubledthelunount of Stateaidto be providedby the Stateperpupil,butadoptedanentirelynewmethod ufapportioning herState high-schoolfund.Themethodprovide0 1),thelaw of1921recognizesthreebases:(1) Flat pouts for quotas: (2) attendancein(kveninghighschoolsinspecialday and eveningclasses,and in part-timeschools:.(3)average attendance.A. certainflatsumgoes toevery day highcchool,'Aetheralfour-year, ajunior,or a senior high school,onthe basisof thenumberofyears of 'workit offersIn additionto thisflatappropriation,eachhigh school'receivesgrants for unitsofavernge dailyattendance,the amountperunit decreasingasthenumberofunitsincreases. Massachusetts limitstheincomeof herpermanentschool totowns whose fund"' valuationis lessthan$.2,500,000.The(1m)t:a granted toany town is determin'edbytwo factors:(1) The ation: town's'totalvalu- (2) theexcessof itsexpenditureforcertain costs public-school Overitsquota fromthegeneralschool fund,measured , equatedinterms of or tax rate.Indistributingthisfund,towns dividedinto three are classesonthe Lasisofvaluationlimits.asfollows: Townshavinga valuationof (1)lessthan$:-)00,0(4);(2) S,"00,000to $1,000,000; from! and.(3)from$1,000,000t $12,500,000. aid isdistributedin The a manner designedto give thelargerquotasto thetowns oflower valuationsandto thetownsexpendingmost in proportionto theirability. Thegeneralschool fund,'derivedfromtheproceedsof theState incometax, isdistributed amongall thetowns andcities ofthe intheform of State reimbursementsforteacherssalaries.The thefundare quotas of paidout intwoinstallments,fromthefirst of -poidwhatfor whichtue .conveniencemaybecalledtheordinaryreimburse- . S " The 4 MasgachusettspermanentitchoolfundIs $200,000. $r000,000,theincomeexceeding " TheMassachusettsgeneral schoolfund isapproximately$4,000,000 a.'year, 32 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL LFMISLATION ments; from the second installmentarepaid .whatmaybe called supplementary reimbursements.Ordinary reimbursementsarepaid in the form of 'olefin itequotas for each teacherorother school officer employed. In the distribution of ordinary reimbursementsno recog- nition is giveh to the valuationorto the local tax rate of thb receiving unit. The amount is determined solelyuponthe basis of whether the school officerwasemployed for full timeorpart time, his professional training,yearsof experience, and salary receivedfrom the townorcity.On the other hand, supplementary reimbursementsare Paidonthe basis of thecominunity'sassessed valuationperpupil. A study of the legislation passed by Massachusetts,1919-1922, will shov that this State is committedto the following principles: (1) State aid should be given in the form of reimbursementsformoney previously expended; (2) theamount. ofstate aidgranted shall be determined by (a) the community's abilityto help itselfasindicated by its assessed valuation, (h) the community'seffortasindicated by its local taxrate, and (e) the quality of educational opportunity the community seeks to furnishasindicated by the number andprepara- tion of teachers and thechar4terof the educational facilitiespro- vided. The last three examplesarequoted from Bureau of EducationBul- letin, 1923, No. 47,to which reference is made forafurther discussion of State policies in public-school finance. O.

411.

40 s

ChapterVI* IV SCHOOL ATTENDANCEANDCOMPU4SORYATTENDANCE Irk LAWS H. Thenecessityfor* compulsoryeducationlaTCsand thesizeof the problemim\plvedin enforcingthemare indicated bythenumberof childrenof(bho 1age not attending t schoolat all andby thefigures' setting forth.a erage dailyattendanceshownin the table,"givingidata accompanying forthevariousStates.In thistablethe ageis consideied school as5 to 18years.Thedifference,betweenthe enumerationand the census totalnumber ofchildrenin publicandprivate schoolsis ariproximatelythenumber ofchildren5 to 17 clusive, years,in- not in school.For theentireUnitedStatesthis is Of thisnumber miny 3,806;937. .are over 16, andothersover14 ;lavefinished theelementarygrades. On theotherhand, ofthoseinschoolap- proximately1per cehtare18yearsofage orover. Irregulardaily attendanceisanotherreasonforcompulsoryat- tendancelaws. . An idea oftheamount ofirregularattendance begained may fromastudy ofTable10 andfigure2, showing daily the.average attendancein thevariousStaes in1922. FortheUnited as a whole all States schoolswereinsessionan average of164days. average pupil The attendedonly130 days,or79per cent of the Thislossto the pupil time. ofapproximatelyoneday infiveonwhich schoolwas open isa seriouslossto theindividualhimself,aswell 'as to theentireschool andthecommvnity. a. TABLE 10,School cow's, enrollmentandattemlanee,1921-22 111V.

Population Rank 5 to 17, Public- EstimatedDays A Rankin days States number schools age in daysattend- inclusive, school days U. 8. enrollmentinprivatewere in schoolsed by Census schools sessionattend-were ineach ed sessionpupil ienrolled ,Alabama 792, 515 592, 610 21, 023 Arizona 130. 8 481 46 45 96, 435 66, 290 2, 185 170. 0 Arkansas S81,630 131. 0 23 31 California 609, 351 2, 122 130. 4 94. 1 734, 993 838, 723 47 47 Colorado 41, 686 179. 0 126. 11 ...... 243, 387 240, 772 3, 830 ss 174. 1 123. 2 17 34 Connecticut 343, 500 2831 759 67, 437 184. 3 Delaware 53, 177 152. 1 a District 39, 142 4, 278 180. 2 137. 5 of Columbia 80, 500 69, 64 1 at Florida 11, B44 178 0 149. 1 13 287, 239 237, 770 7,008 12 Oeorgia 135. 7 103. 1 45 41 959,099 730, 873 13, 400 140. 0 I.Table 10. 102. 6 41 42 - - t 34 A MANUALOF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION e *ma& t 10.---SO/ OWet II xII x.enrollm(111461)1(1 1°92 -eve i1t11(41 f; fitturidliiice;

1 ií,c,111 Est iruntibel 1);ivs Avor- I Rinklu.!..vg 1,10 Poldic ill (1 nibt.r schools iv ,Itte ;t.1- t. St:it tiS inelnsive, school ( 5 ' .SChn)1s bd inprivrtewore in h 1 wa.n. .s. enro.Alinctit ;Merril- .!1 1- ..- 1 schuols :lbSS:Oil CrliSnS oI ! session pup I 411r-40110 1

1 I Ilk 0 Idaho . . - . 13n, 741 119, 1.64 1:1`1 9 2$1 IfltT)(th.I...... 1,1'1111. 122 1, *219. :Ili. 1.0. 1:6 1) .1 s.-19; I11' I 1 ntli.111:1 -.. :IIs t'.u0 ri;:4,7 1:t7 s

lowa 1..;, 130 17 i

I:onslas . _ , . .14;7. 10%2 o 1,:t:). 1 1 2

KentlIcky. 7f 41, 9f.;:. ro41.:11!A 15, ..$$;) 1 .'!1 ( 42. Lot Iist.in;I 14;7, :,11.4 1. 1:1.0 I 1.f; 112. 1 17 0.1

N4 WOO ' . . . I. 104 14, 170 14.144 174. 0 110 3

. t s NI:II1:: ad 2.S tZ5 ti.; : .4 ,I1 3 Mwiinchusetts _ ..... 101 tit* 2AA I219,i 144. 2 .- II Ntichiga 914 '.1A7 7117.145 107. 134 1t44 1 '2 I i., ri sholot e .131,11%11 114,7;;.- 16'1. 1i .1 Ya..:7) '2 I M kstiphpi #11 14.%3 )4 741) 1 Ili, 4 94.S 4 41; ,Itvierc 1p. 7'i.3. :rt. 743 117 13-2.0 29 ot )1 I. 14 ac`ann . . .rq.'0.,1 WA) 3, t;:',2 171 0 09. o 22 22 ç. NO rrn.44 349, s?.! :1*(),12ft 21, led 171n 20 21 Nr%la 1'. ".10 -41 .¡ 11. New I Lain whit.. 100,Mkt 1:7, :ti1-4 :ti, o , NewJvi-s!' . to2-1.P.-ot 1i.`N7'S :1 NewNIetwv 11 :,:11;e so,.$129 4.4.1(.7 21 2. NewYork_ _ 434'1:hilt' 1,S12.1. 111 11.3 0 i M. 1 4 4 - -t. Nor!h (,k11.111i -*- 7."..;, II .Nk 1;49 o 100. 7 North Ditkotit :!flti, ISO : 173. -238 1,47 2 13!'). 34 1, i.to; )114) . 1, ! 171I 149. s 111 ( WA).208 fi37, 2S)0. ROO -TOK. 41P

. ).rpgtIt 1)(7. `i20 " .1co 147. 0 27 1. bt.;01 1, 1111 \ I, 7119, #.77 1.1lb

Rhode'1.41114. . ; 11.2. 7 1 Swot h j. 161,-1,Jot.; -11;¡ 49 *orrth 1)nkoia _ I.7,4s3 rett3

Tounmsee. .. _V_ .... 791, '173 442, 111(1 2 / 1441, 11 40 41 Tex.'.. 1.11.11, 17'1 1,!till. '112 1 N,bI.4 134 71 11 3 - Utah. . 111, :144 rzt 427 r 0%7 164, 3 ' V mum' -121; -1.%1 7. 11;1. 9 :12 1 .

Virginia 705.041 (41..03L 12., 52!) 1 Mt 1 ;letII

Wa3hinsrlon - 324.112 301 .800 17, 4rZA '77 140. 3 Ns. J estViri:it03 . ."4, :.4 36.4, ;i91 at. e11:i.2

ieopsin. . :441 3110, ti3 103, MIA) 17". 54). 1 1) 7 *1 WyffihIng ...... rd. 131 47 1, J30. -1 3f.) 32 -

I 19 Gaol .ors 2Kr!.27, 201 '23,2:19, -Ail I, ;.0 +.h7".44 (1 13:).i 7 41. M M

al .1.

Est irmOtql C For 1. A 44h All Statesnowhave laws- dentingwith the problents of At-end:111re at schooland providing for periods ofcompulsory attemianceonthe partvt. children between certain designatedages.Compulsory AttentIliiicelawsmust,ofcourse,includeorbe accomlwnied by adv- . gottuttteiwoviions for their enforcement.Thilirespon'sihilityis im trit§ted to State authorities,to county, and.to local authoritiesin (ArentStates.Sometimes theyarecivil officials, and sometimes edu*tionalofficialsareintrusted With the enforeynent.Table II shoN's the compulsoryagelimits in yea& establislied by law in. the 48 States,asWellaslegal schoolage orschoolpopulation?:4'

Ai* . A 8Chou1comic!?8hbuld -4e taken annuolly forecomIlulsor» educationlaviec;anbe pforged, it igitecessailto knowthe number

. COMPULSORYATTENDANCELAWS 36 I. of children,theirages,andresidences.Thisrequiresaschoolcen- susat regularintervalspreferably ofone year hut notmore'than twoyears in knell!.Thisschoolcensus dytermineg theschoolpopu- lid i.0.,the 'childrenbetwevntheagesforwhich thepublic

STAY( meritorDaft 2%6 S. 1-;,J 1 I lw 4? rinC4 1 am 'ISLAM... I 6

u MM.rof mr4TINUI. 1 C wows 0, 15E11 JIRSICY t "PT= vt ran . n .X.,111111 e cNtlItet I CUT 9 ' U , KARTLAND -. TV,_ ILLINOIS w '6,4 ; II r=1 I1 ntLAP4F1... . o w: 11U/7 18411aAMMUTT1.. a - 71,0a , ) .46 .a I prinsylY11h A, ani=e1 I . 8II: - caTrovort 406°

1 A 4 # . e ! - o - ,

0 DIV'. OrCOL 11111; 1.2.% ... Li . .11 tzliiI,JT *N11. , n° %. 151'a__ . Ir 7 1 'IC*001E1711. -11 . :11114./%11111 .tr . 1 p. wtc, OMNI .....- ta. 411111111V- Licre)2a; "1. 0. :CL.ORACO ., 011111.1111011al 'QUIN CA.1,3RAtO 4 a L. I La.__ k I IlltE somilomaowomm . 11 i",o "1" , eke *. -mansion VV. IIDVALia 1 I. .9 1111111111111M1111111 1 71 Q %MAMMA am I. ....1 #. IV 111 NANPIN1111... irriewom_ ¡-- 11111)1101.- Us. . ! k .14 - - iirrxICO :* o a 0 k umme46...;1:66.9P.:: OVUM 4-4L , ENONNIMMOOMMOOND API LIMA s

_ 1111111111111111FORK VIANNISOIA la o4114:11411- anwourinwsrume SPADA hiNimelm. FTr5P----1 1st I 110,011 9.6 I :-, 9 - . . % p. - SRAM " G. . n 101111111111111111111101 ID 4001. an*. . ellimouremonsiplumipsime LO :J'AITH DAKOTA.... atun,ai1111111111Loar A_ 7111.1.3cJPI t : I R. irat111.1 aD. AMIN . s _ "WM K03156 stanir 411111 u IN- wii6NT 11, 0 .. triA - . a V 0. fitZlilin . o INDIANA .5.1...... 116.ft MOM -. -a 111110114111111111 OILARCIA MIKA FIADIS1A.. moiliramsrwsliim 4111111111111111111111111111111 LOUISIANA ...... di. .6 ' agiV1131 INM1 11119i%D1:01A.I . II11111111111111 0 _-. 110P170 11,11FII NUTTiF4)1111.1... I. , amirmomasper 11111it Tanasa F Mil= r.. GLOM IA. 11111111.11111111111111111 r = el NM r 111111111111112A INNIS 110ATH CAROLINA.. - 4111VA4- WOMMMMENUM MN= VISNI881311,1 t _re 114.:PrPOU e TUAS . 5 Iiiiii0411111111 FLORIDA u -1111.10111111111111111 MI %LS_ 01!)11111 ALABAMA ett1111011111110118110 TN. - 111111111Wal1111111 OMMOMMEMO'r4oNdi ARI.A45411. b. 1111:1211111 UNMET ..glimmummoommimmo 1111111111111115A1111111111111 . EVA II 1111111111111.WkIIINII SOMA ourzai.. amirale 11111113 .11111.1 IIMENNE errs» STATICS., 1)0.4' 'J ,t 6Aeo , agarall1 aMINIM Lama4, MUM FICTilin2.liength ofoetiolon findaverage daysattended, 1921-42

S. schoolsare legallyopento atteqdance,and the,census shows also the number includedinagegitups airectedbl capintmlsaryattend- ance laws.Thereisconsiderable-vriancehA thelegal ischiAaps inthe l veralStates.TheNidestrangeofage .?is from4 Ijo 20 -91 v,_ w . io'D ASIA14:17iLOF EDUCATIONALLEGISLATION qh. years(Wisconsin and Oregon),and 5to 21yearsin 6 States (Maine, Iowa, Nebraska, Mexico, Washington.and Mississippi).The narroivestrangeis from5 to 16years(New Hampshireand Massa- chuse.tts).In 17 of the 43 Stateswherea censusenumeration is made, therangeofagesis from 6to 21years.No schoolcensus is faken.in New Jersey, Delaware.South(alarolina,and California. A grouping of therangeofages,with the number ofStates in each group.isgiver;in 'fable 11.

TABLE 1 1. .4geesfor free attendance andagesfor compulsory attendance AGES FOR FREE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

Ages Number (; A ges Number of States of States

*rm..

7 to 20 1 I 5 to IS 2 _ 7 to 21 1 5to 16. 2 7 to 17 6 to IS 5 4 to 16 1 hto 21 - 7 6to 16 2 6 to 21 16 5to 20 2 4 to 20 2 Tota1 44 Oto 20 ------2

AGE LIMITS FOR COM PULSORY ATTENDANCE

Number I nir Number A ges P. Ages of States I of States

7 to 18 1,11S to 14 4 6to 18 1 7 to 14 9 Oto 16 1 8 to 18. 11 Sto 15 v 117 to 16 14 Sto 17 %.1 1

Sto 18 2 ; Total 48 71415 31

Compulsory attendance period.The time during whichchildren arecompelled to attod school inany one yearvariesamongStates. InsomeStates 16 weeks atteildance, not always continuous, satis- fies the law.In others attendance is compulsory for the full-term school isopenand until the completion of the eight elementary school grades.Frequently theupper agelimit isset by law, with the provision "orunfitthe completion of the elementary school grades." There is general agreementamongstudents of this subject that the -mostsatisfactOrylawsarethose whichareenforced by State and county authorities rather than local district authoritie, except in cities; that laws sholild require continuous attendance during the full schoolyear;and that they should require the completionof the elementary schools regardless ofage.There isatendenpy to requi full-time attenfince.onthepartof all children until they passed their sixteenthyearand part-time attendance unt: ave ,passed their eighteenth rear.Table 12 summarizes iinportantpro- visions of compulsoryattendance laws in force January..,1, 1924. - . COMPULSORYATTENDANCELAWS 37 TABLE 12. sonicimportant provisionmofcorn pulvoryat toidalicelawsand number ofStates inwhicheach i.effective

SO 0 AGES FORLABORPERMITS p.

01110 Ages Number1: of States Ages Number of States

12 toL 1 15 tn 16 14to1.¡ 3 1410 III 16 to 18 ts- 35 3 14 to 17 Total 14 t() I*. 45

MINIMUM ANNUALATTENDANCEREQUIRED

..1=111111111114 Term Number of StatAs Ttrm Number of States

1' Fu:1term 3) 20 (13yq Three-fourthterm 4 1 100 clays v Two-thirdsterm 3 1 SO days 170(itly 2 In)0)1yR 1 I I4J!;!.;ys Total 1 49 ____ ...... 1

EDUCATIONNECESSAktYTO EXEMPTFROMCOMPULSORYATTENDANCE .. Grades Number of States Elementarygrades II ie.hschool 30 None ... 4 Total_./ 14 48 :MINIMUMSCII001,TERM

.011MNINNO Term Number ot States Term Number . of States 3 months. 3; K inonth 3 j v 11 $!.,¡ months___ _ 4sznthsoats ...... _ _ _ _ 1 1 9 months 1 4Kiths .. 6 7 91 9 A monthE months 1 ;12months I 2 Total 1 45 IncludesDistrict ofColumbia.

40. 44. Chapter V

PHYSICAL EDUCATION'" For centurieseducationalsageshave called attentionto the need for adequateconcernfor the physical well-beingof thchild in connection withattempts at directing his mental andmoal unfold- ing. Thesesuggest ionA have. however.met with scantresi)f)nse. save a merenod of approval.War. the destroyer of lifeand health. has had limamoreinfluence in bringingabout efforts.;at.physical ini- provement, and the latest andgreatest of;Narshad thestrongest influence in1)1o1l1otim2: actuill effortalon7 these lines, thourrh how far this impetus Nvillcarry ustoward making illysic:11educationa fundamental part of all educationremainstobeseen. There is much confusionintal interpretation of theterm "'AIN'S- - ical education."Tomanyitmeans someformof supervised muscular exercise:to otlwrs. instruction in hygiene:to others itmay meanthephysicallexamination and the removalorimprovement of physical defects,the supervision ofnutrition and of other hygienic conditions.Nfanv will understandthetermasincluding theuseof allmeansfor physical betterment,beginning early with the chill, with themostfundamental conditions forhealth: his feeding.sleep- ing, airing, clothing..and opportunity for exercise, e*sta11 i7;11ing the desire for health andaffording- knowledg-e orhowtomaintainitt and finally preparing- himfar ap1leciati9n of andparticipation in efforts for public health. Ifwe areconfuse(.1'hstothe meaning of physical education,We arehardly aliveto the relltionship which it bearsto ulil education. There isnomental activity without, physicalaaivity, and the char- acter and persistence of that mental activitydepe (1onthe physical conditi)n of the orfranism.It follows. then. thatot only forpur- posesof patural defense and.for intinanit avian ends,but also for economyin sc11o(11 Nvork, thehuman machine withwhichwedeal in the classroom shouldbeput and kept in its i)est working order. Much legislation hasgoneforward forphysical education in the past fewyears,awl:12 Statesnowhave adopted Physical-education laws. These laws differwidelyasto their content and provision for enforcement and illustrate the variousinterpretations of the subject toWitchwehave already oiled attention.

17 See T7, S. Bureau of Education bulletinsonphysical education andmedical !wee- , tion. particularly its health education series. 38 PH YSICALEDUCATION 39 OBJECTANDSCOPE

gbh IMP The objectofa. Statelaw forphysicaleducationshouldbeto roundthechild sur- in theschoolwithsuchsanitaryconditionsas be for hiswelfre, will toarrange the materialanamethodof thegeneral curriculumto thisend. andto introduceintothe frran,such p)sifiVe educationalpro- w(rrkforthehealthandphysicalunfolding the childas of isconsistentwiththelimitations'of schoolactivity. i. evidentthat It vonditionsiii thehomelife ofthe criildcan not be directlymodified. thoughindirectlytheWorkof theschoolmay in- fluencetheconditionstoa considerabledegvee.Theschoolcan neverdo itsbestfi)r the childif itconductsitsaffairsasthong; isoktedfromthehome, and this isparticularlytrue in itseffortsfor physicaleducation. . Spopc.--(1)Theschoolplant shouldbebuiltandmanagedothat t,thei:.choolenvironment shallnot bedetrimentalto thephysical fare ofthechild. wel- Thissh-ouldincludetheprovisionof playgroundspace. adequate (2) T140 schoolprogram .Eloul Ihearrangedsothatin presentationit shall content and be heattful,andthehealthoftheteacher shoul(receivetheattentionitdeserves. (3) Theexamination of thepreschoolchild:Thoughthe isnot.asubject child forphysicaleducationintheschooluntil he reachedtheagefor has eritrance, theschool sllouldbeinterestedin his physicalwell-being beforethistime.andit hasbecomethepolicy of some schookto make :). physicalexaminationofchildrenbefore entrance andto suggest suchtreatment oflocaldefectsorofgeneral healthaswillPlacethe child inbetterconditionforschoolNeork at thetimeof hisentrance. ().-Physicalexamination ofschoolchildren:Theexaminationof theschoolchild on entrance andperiodicallythereafterto discover 1andsecure the removal of hisphysicaldefect%i;fundament:tito the orl ofphysicaleducation andalso forschooleconomy.Adeqww.te means and methodsofst.'iii'ingthe best , resultsfromsuchexamina- tionshould bearranged. (Is-0) Pnwpreventionof communicablediPeasesby thedailyinspe,t- tionofchildrenshould beprovided. (6) Health educationshouldbe carriedout inapracticalwayby theinsistence,first, On cleanliness ofperson, and.followingthisby interestingthe child iu theformationof thefew otherhabitswhich are essentialfor health. Inthe highergrades thisworkshould tycontinuedby teachingin practical physiologyand theprinciplesof personalandhome hygieneand bydevelopingan appreciationof work health. forpublic 40 A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION

(7) Physical training forallpupils should be arrangedfor. I. only should there 101 amplerecessperiods, but additionaltime should be appropriatedduring the school periddorafter school how's for supervisedexercise of suchanatureasis best fitted totime physical capacities ofthe childrenat differentages.Aderpurie supervision of such activitiesareneeded, and teacher trainingfor such work should be provided.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS Legislative proviionsonthis subject should include the following points: 1. (1) _V clear and coipprehensivestatement oft1t1purposeof the law and the objects of physical education. (.2) Mandatory provision for all of the items mentioned under "scope"savewhere (as for medical inspection) this subjectmay have bee'n covered in prtvious legislation.

(3) Minimum time requirement to be devotedto 1 education. (4) Provision of administrative machinery in the State department of educationsufficient for the effective administration of the law.This provision should be broad and flexible.Two things,are essential: (a) State direction and supervision. A good plan is to liavla State directorof physical education, with the rank of deputyor assistant. State superintendentorhealth supervisor.IIispowersand ditties _Itould not be narrowlydefined. (b) Sufficient financialresourcesto insure the effective administration of thisoffice, eithei. by specific appropriationorby authorizing the State department tomake adequate provision for this purposeout ofgeneral school funds. (5) There should beacarefully drawn provision authorizing and requirit:Tthe employment of sul)ervisors and special teaQhersundér specified conditions and in harmony with the administrititive organization of the State. Ns. t' (6) Provision equiringthe State departnwnt of education to fix qualifications of supervisors and special teachers and to issue special licenses ivr thesame. . (7) Provisionfor adequate physical education in toke preparation of all teachers, both for thesecondary and the elementaw school. The°essential requirements of thispartof the teacher's education .should be prescribed by the State authorities. (8) Provision requiring that pupiliOe graded in physical education,asin other school subjects and exercises, and that satisfactory progressin physical education beaconditionto promotionand graduation. PHYSICALEDUCATION 4 ()Coordinationof work includedin thescopeofphysicaleduca- tiwlasheredefined,whichmay havealreadybegnprovidedforby previouslegislation,suchasmilitarydrill and or medicalinspection, amendmentofsuchlegislationasseems desirable o )01dinat ion, forsuch

geN

. Chapter VI SCHOOL GROUNDSAND BUILDINGS"

Increased knowledge of theeffects which the selectionofasellool site,arrangement ofrooms,sanitation, ventilation,heating, andgeneral hygiene ofaschool building haveonthe health and sOloolprog- ressof çIìiidieiì haspractically revolut ionizedOurideals in regard to buik nd equipping schoolhouses.Country children haveap- parentl ()rued less from thisknowledge thanthose in urbanclot!- . munities.This is due inpart to lack of knowledgeand general indifference in rural communities,but is also due inlargepart to the financialaspect of the question.When largo buildingsarecontem- plated, trained specialistsin school architectureareemployed and modern idealsareembodied in *he schoo! huildingwhich results. Rural communities buildingsniail schoolhoues wliichrepresent smallsumsofmoneydonot. employ theserv.icesof such speciAi-. Localcontractors, builders, and schooltrusteesareoftenImt famil- iar with modernstandards forsc1ìon1hnihuinrs.Consequently, small school buildings inrural communities continuetohe built withoutregardtoappearance or tothe (linnands of modern methods of teachingorgeiwral hygienic considerations.

--It is alsotru. thatwe arebeginniner fo realize that 1ub11c-F..4.1)4ml grounds, well located and wellkept, with beautiful and appropriate buildings,are astriking evidencof the intelligenceof thecommunity and its interestin education. A goodschool isyiassetand paysgood dividendstoanycommunity.Bett(r ()I condition. invariablymean abetter school andbetter conuultnity spirit.Gen- erally,abeautiful andconvenient school buildingcostsno more thananmIsi.ghtlyone.The difference is in wiseand careful planning. State lawsan(State departmentsof education,through theau- thority given themuder specialorgeneralstatutes,aremakingcon- certed _effortsto promote better standaEdsfor czehool buildings.In someStates this is donethroughstatutory provision to the effect that. all plans forschool buildingsmust be inspected by State officials, usually connected eitherwith the Statedepartment of educa- tionorthe Stateboard. of bett1th.Inothers, State appropriations are'made forbuildingpurpos'es, sometimes apportionedto(list riAs '21 IsSee IT: S. Bo. of Educ. Bulletins,1910, No. 5; 1014, No.12; 1922, No. 23. 42 SCHOOLGROUNDSANDBUILDINGS 43 whose financialcondition issuchas tomaketheprovisionof good buildingsahardshipto thecommunity.Sometimesmoneyis loaned toschool districtsatalowrate of interest.OtherStatesaim promote good to buildingsthroughaplancommonlycalledstand- avdizationsofschoolbuildings.Underthisplan nweting scho61buildings certain-prescribedrequirementsmayreceiveState aidor a phitvOrothermark ofdistInction. Theexperience of tlicmajorityofStatesis that.suitable, '!-;afe,and sanitarybuildingsarebestassuredwhenthereare State laws regulations, or andinspectionbyStateauthoritiessufficientto give least geheral supervision at to Owmatter of theerectionof school tildings.A study of schololbuildingsin almostanysectionof le ccuntry at thepresent timewouldshowmanynew. as well tis 01 building s.unsightly,poorlyarrangedforschool inj lions purposes, and to the. healthof childrenbecauseofimproper pool lighting, and Ventilaticn, insanitaryconditions..`tillothersareexceed- inglydangerous:;sfirerisks.Scarcelya year passes without loss ! of lifeof school childrenfromfires whichmighthavebeen pre: ventedbybuildings withproperlyarrangedexits andfireescapes. AllStates nowhavesome regulationsgoverningschoonlouse struction. con- Niuch ofthislegislationIllybeenenactedin the decmle. past At leastthree-fourthsof theStates havelaws tary features onthç sani- of thebuildiug.ManyStatesnow regnire thatall IlSfor schoolimusesbesubmittedto the Statv board ofhealth dieState 'architect or orthe Stateboardor department ofeducation beforepublicfunds canbe usedinproceedingwiththebuilding. Sometimestwo or more of theagents mentionedcooperate inthe approvalof buildingplans.More andworeStatedepartmentsof educationare a. adding schoolarchitect.for wholeorhalf timeto theirstaff.These'architectsnot onlyapprove plans submitted prepare for the State but departmentplansandspecificatonsfornew buildingswhich maybesecuredwithoutcast by schooldistricts abouttoerect buildings. A.number ofStateskeepbuildingin- spectors in thefield constantlyto assist inimprovingOldbuildings andtoseethat regulationsare followed in theerectionofnewones. Chapter VII TEACHING STAFF All Statesareconcerned With providing conditionsankl regulating qualifications designedto insure,sofarashumahly possible, the employment andretention ofanadequately prepared teaching staff. Three importantconsiderationsenter into the question with which State legislaturesaredirectly concernedand the, efficacy' of provisions concerning whichthey,,vcr--responsible:(1) Certification laws which insure that Only qualifledapplicants receivelicenses to teach inany (even the smallestorpooreA-) school.'Thismeansthattlieminimum qu'alifications for thelowest grade of certificateshould be, adepate to insureagood standard of academicand professional qualifica- tionsonthepart of the candidate.(2) Salaries suchas are com- mensurate with the qu'alifications exacted fotcertification.This involves thepassageofaminimum salary law basedonqualifica- tions.(3) Facilities for trainingteachers furnished by the State, adequate in thesenseof supplyingasufficient number ofteachers and efficient in the quality oftvaining given,to supply different types of schools. ReaRanabkstandardsfor teorherR.Thegenerally accepted stand- ards,of requirements for teachersin the United States'area 'Thligeral education equivalentto graduationfromastandard four-year I *gli school, followed bytwoyearsof special teachertraining inacollege department of educhtion,ateachers'college,or anormal school. Thetwo-year professionalcourseshould include, besidesadvanced academiccourses,special intefisive professionalcourses,including.--i psychology, principles of education,teaching methods, and the like aswellasample opporhmity for observationin model schools and practice teaching under surrvisMn. . 'Theteachingforce of the United Statesas awhole is below this standard.Citysystems generally have better trained teachers than the country schools.Theaverageis wellupto the standard stated above.Teachers in rural' schoolsaveragebelow this standayd.In manyStates numbers of teachersareemployM who havenotcom- pletedahigh-schoolcourseand have hadnoprofessional training. This situation usually is found wheh IICrtification laws, teachers' , , salaries,and training facilitiesareinadequateorinsufficent. A legislativeprogramdesigned tosecure ahigh-grade teaching Oa/T.Adequate legislation providingacomprehensive plan similar 44 TEACHINGSTAFF 45 to that outlinedbelowwillassist in providingthe Statewithahigh- gradeprofessionalteachingstaff: e 1. Improveteachingconditionsby ((7) Establishine reasonableminimumsalariesforallteachers. (b)Scalingall teachers'salariesto theFraie ofcertificateheld, thusplacingapremiumonspecialpreparation. 2. RequirehigherteaChingqualificationsby (a)Increasing graduallytheentrabcerequirementsoftheState normal schoolsandiengtheningtheirstudycourses. (b)Discontiniiingthe isgue'Ofcertificateson examinationas soon as the normalschoolsandotherteacher-training have institutions becomefullyequippedto supplyall theprofessional required. teachers (e) Placing theminimumrequirementforpermissionto teach at graduationfrom an accreditedfour-yearhighschool,or equivalent, its and inadditiontwo years'profeionalstudy ata acquired professionalschoolforteachers.Thestandardto be gradually, reached becomingeffectiveafterampletime(oneto five is givenfor all years) teachersin theserviceto attaintheserequirements. 3. Increasethesupply ofprofessionalteachers by (a)Granting 'State bonusesto teachersasrewardsforlongser- vice inasingle schoolcommunityandto highlyefficientteachers continuingservicein smallrural schbols. (b)Establishingaretirement fundforteachers. . 4. Makeampleprovisionfortrainingteachersfor all schools, types of ineimlingruralschoolsinnumberslargeenoughto fill annualreplacements. 'Numberatrainedfordifferentkindsofposi- tionsshouldbe proportionateto needs oftheschoolsbasedon a carefulsurveyof the sit'uation. Facilitiesmaybe r.I furnishedby theestablishmentofnew or the .largementofexistinginstitutions.

.e \`» Chapter VIII CERTIFICATIONOF TEACHERS Ail of the Statesassume verydefinite responsibilityfor the qualifications ofpersonslicensedto teach within the State.InnoState ;can.4)achers draw sabriesfrom public schoolfunds unless theyhold alegal teaching licenseorcertificate.In all States thereareestab- Eshed certaiiiminimum requirementsorprerequisites for teaching certificates lind establishedstandardsorgrades of certificatesbased onacademicorprofessional qualificationsand experience inteach- ing. The.powerof certifying teacherswasvested in local authorities Thyst in practically all States.It has, however, 'graduallybecome moreandmorecentralized...At Present it is centeredin _county and State aut1Ìorit1e6,cities under certain conditionsorofacertain size being exempted in most States, andtwo States in Slew England being excepted. The centralization hascomeabout gradually,more andmoreauthority in regardto certification being placed in the hands/of the State department of elucation... At thepresent time the certificafing authority is placed in Tho department ofiiducation whollyorsufficiently to give the departme.nt large antllority in jill but about 13 States. Ile legislatures of the several States generally provide folthe certificating of-teachers either (1) bv providing in the stattites for certain definite.types of certificates and setting forth thequalifica- tions demandiA for each, fiving the authority andpowerto grant. them,"regulation< concerniAgterm, validity, etc.;or(2) by the assignment. bystatute of the authorityto formulate rules and regulations for certificationto StateoAcers,without making specificpro- vision for details in 'thelaw itself.Such authorityis generally assigned to the State boardCvfeducatibnorthe State department of education.City boardsaregranted thislil;ertyin nearly all States either directlyorindirectly.InsomeStatesacoinbination of Ifiese. twoMethods is followed,certain general provisionsbeing set fortkin: the statutes, and designMedauthorities given considerablelibertyin fixing detailsanci 'interpretingthe intent of the law.Yhese details. and regulationsarethenset forth in official regulations. itgencie8 which bowcertificates.Teachingcertificatesareissued

by State,couinty. and local. (town. dikrict,orcity)authorities..

46 . 44. doe CERTIFICATIONOFTEACHERS 47 Omitting cities,thefollowingarethesygteins ofadministrative organizationfor iskkiingcertificates: 1. State systems, in whichall certificatesareissuedbyStite authorities,and theState retainscontroloverthe wholematter of teachercertifictItion. 2.State-controlled8y8te1t8, inwhichState,county, anddistrict may authorities issuecertificates,but theauthori,tygoverningthe issue (including givingquestionsand examining'papers) isretained by theStateofficials.Localauthoiitiesmerely issue 3. Semi-State certificates. 8y8ten1t, inwhichStates exereis.esomehutnotcom- pletecontraThe Statedepartmentmakestheregulationsandgives thequestions forexamination,but localauthoritiesexaminethe Papers and issuecertificates. k 4. State-county syshints, inwhichtheState,county, city,andcer- taindistrict authoritiesall issuesonw certificates andgovernall important or regulations(formulatingquestions,forexample)under whichtheyaregranted. 5.State-local system?,asin-someof theNew EnglandStates,in whichcompletepower ofcertifiationis givento thetownshipschool I. committeesaswellas totheStatedepartment. There isagrowingtendencyto centralizefullcertificating ity in theState author-S departmentofeduq,ation.In 35StatesStateauthori- tiesnow exercise entire coarol.Thereareseven additiohalStates inwhichtheState retainsauthorityto givequestionkandmake regulationsconcerningexaminations.butpermits county '1, to issue authorities certificatesandcorrect'papers.Thisarrangement result in doesnot auniformStatesystem, sincecountiesmay have different staildardsforgraszlingpapers.Uniformityis obtained State onlywhen authoritiesexercisefullcontrol.Atpresent, inonly are local two States systems (citiesexcepted) pel-mittedto ,issueteaching cates, andin.two certifi- Statescountyauthoritiesarestillfreeto riveéer- tificatesentirelyon theirown initiative. TheremainingStateshave alladoptedorare worliing towardStateuniformity. Methodsofsecuriagcertificates.--Thereare two methods caring ofse- certificatesrecognizedin allStates,onebyexamination statutory under regulationsestablished 6yState andcountyauthorities, theother onthe basisofcredentialsshowing.academicandpro- fessionaltrainingsecuredat approvedinstitutions.The tiónmethod, examint- whilestill themostcomingnfotlow-gradecertificates, graduaky beingreplacedby thatofprofessionalpreparationgiven illrecognized institutions.In allStatesrecowitionforcertifica- tionAs .given to graduates ofapprovednormalschoolsandcolleges havingrequired creditsas set forth in laworby Stateregulations. Certificatessecuredin daisway are sometimesissuedbythe State departmentof,educationand sometimes, bytheinstitutions.In 20 . 48 A MANUAL OFEDUCATMNALLEGISLATIFON

, 4 . f Sta-teAsomerecognition toward icertification' òrflip certificatesare givento 1)ersons-m-1.ft)- havé completed prescribedcoursesinnormal trainin&; classes inorConnectedwith secondaw, schools. There isanprkedtende4cyto eliminate the examinOionmethod

of issuing certifIcates.This is bp* done bygradually increasing I the qualifications requitedover aperiod ofyears . andofetting forth adefinite prerequisite of academib'andprofessionaltrainingOectiile atastated time, usually fromtwo to fiveyearsin advanceofthe timeat which the law is passed.Thisbs#rvesto jzive ample notice to prospective teachers that tile givenamount of preparationmust be made by the datesetorcertificates willnot belarthJoming.Laws settinguprequirements which demandgradually increasingquali- ficationsareusually accompanied byminimum salary laws, Certificates grantedoil,graduation from,or coursestaken in, edus cational institutions of secondaryorhigher gradeorbymkisof examination in prescribed subjectsmaybe roughlyclassiTuias follows: (1) Those basedOngraduation fromastandqrd collegeor university, generally includingprofessioTtlcours(4..(2) :nose based primarilyongraduation fromatwItoyfiarcourseof college

grade generally given in normal schoolsand teathers colleges. (3)I Those basedongradvtion from..afour-year highschool, including professionalcoursesgiven in connectiyn withthe regular workortl

give in addition toaprescribed four-yéalf high-schoolcourse. (4) 1 Those based primarilyonscholarship ,attainments,asshown by examination.(5) Certain comiiinationsof the above. A combina- tion of this kind commonly establishedis_ thatof'settingup a minimum'timount of academic and professionaltraining (probably

yraduation fromafgur-year high school with6 to 12 weeks ofpro I fessional training),%nd in additionexamination in Ortainpre- scribed subjects. a A study of scholarshiprequfigrementssetforthin thestatutesand regulations of the differentes for teachingcertificat,es shows astrong tendency towa43 exacting higher scholarship,requirements. Graduation froma coursetwoyearsabove the high school is !lout the.accepted standard for teachers of elementarygrades, andcom- pletion ofafour-year collegecoursethe standard for high-school .tetichers.Examinations, though quite inadequate,apparently aim to exact qualifications about equivalent to these.The variouspre- requisites for entrance to examinations whichStatesaresetting; areintendedto asAire the minimum amount of scholarship 'oh- siderednecessaryfor teachers beforeeventhe lowest gradeçer- tificate is granted. Sueh prerequisites tireparticularly essentialtin States iri which the system is decentralized, ternisareshoti, and salaries low, in orderto insure thatall children will be undèr t' direction of reasonably qualified teachers. 4

4 ChápterIX 4ft SCHOOL'qXTBOOKS1"

iv 'Textbooks ptayanimpoilantpart in theelenlentaryandsec:- ondaieyschools of the 'UnitedStates.In almostall subjectsteachers . and pupilsdependonstheinnot. ònly for factsbut fororder ofpres- entation.The adopti6nof textbooksforuse,inanyschoolor sys- ton of schools is,therefore,important. indeterminingcourses of stu(i) and methodspracticed inthose sc-hoolsnot carefullysu- pervised. , Ataie unitognilty.Theimportanceof theselection oftextbooks ba:zbeeil recognized bylegislativeactionyegulatingit in&somede- greein ailtheStates.InsomeStatesauniform listhas been adopted forthe whole StaRkIn othersthel'e isuniforniiifythiough county adoptions.In otherstheselectian .oftextsrests with the local schoolunit.TwoStates,Californiaand. :Kansas,printtext- books.FourStates lendtbemto school districts,which inturn lend themtopipit*retliningthemasStateproperty.At thepresent time2 6 Statesbavestate-wideuniformsystems ofadoption,5 have county adoption,lvhile inthe. remaining 17 theteNtbooksare se- fr lected bythe lo.calschool unit.Of theStateshavingstate-wide uniforknity,11 providefor selectionof textbooksby theState boards of education and th('otliers byspcialtextbookcohrmissionsusually appointe0by thegovernpr.The tendecyto chargeOleState board of educationwith theThnctionof selctingtextbooksseews tobé growing in favor.Seledionshould bemade byqrliviththe advice of professic:allytrained person'sinctuding teadiers,supervisors, and superintendentsapdrecommendationsmadesolelyon016 merits of the books withouiregardto priceorotherconsideration.(Table ., 13 scts forthcertainfacts concerningtextbooks.) .. Free textbooks."Philadelphiawas probably thefirstcityto prIvide freetextbooks forchildrenattendingits publicschools,and Massachusettsthe firstStatetopass a state-widemandatoryfree .textbooklaw. Atpresent 19 Statesand theDistrict of.Columbia supply elementaryschooltexts withoutcost. In 15 oftheseStates thelaw for free textbooksis appliedtosecondaityschoolsalso.In 22 otherStates locolschooldistrictsmaysupplytextbpoks."In' yiracticallyall Statesbooksarefurnishedfreeto indigentchildren. Freetextboasarefurnished ina numberof StateshavingRer- _ ,missive laws on.thèsubject.Prvticallyall citiesofany'size inthese States, a'swellas anumber'-(orothordistricts,evensmall =ir , districts, 19 See U.S. Bn. ofFickle. Bulletind,W5, No. 36,and 1923,No. 50. *SeeU. 8. Bu.of Edur.Bul., 1923, No.50. [,)a Table14.

49 50 A MANUAL OFEDUCATIONALLEGISLATION

.- free textbooks.A study recenilymade in theBureauof Educatioti indicatesthat in the followingStates the niajorityof .cities andmanyrural districtsfurnish freetexts: New York;Michi- gan,Minntsota, Ohio,Washington,AColorado,Idaho, NorthDakota, . Wisconsin,and Connecticut.2 t An inquiryrecently madeconcerning thesuccessof the placof supplying freetextbooks indicatcsthat theconsensusof opinion amongteachers, superintendentl 'ands,chool giluthoritiesis ifavor of thesystem.Free textbook.sApparently givegreater opportunity toall classes ofpugils,cost less than whenpurchased bythe in- dividual, and aidteadiers in meetingthe requirementsof the c-oi,n4 of study. There isagrowing feeling that,when Statuniformity ispro- vided, thelist.of books approvedshould mfikeprovision fora liberal suppikrnentary1it, permittinglocal authoritiesto exercise agood deal of freedomof choice.Atiditionalinformationconcern- ing free textbooksis set forth in Tables11 and 14. Aiguments advancedin favor offree textbooksare asfollows: 1. Poor children,whosepatentsareunable.to purchase books,or arelinableto dosowithoutgreat sacrifice,mayattend schoolas well equipped inthisrespectasthe richerchildren. 2. Uniformity of textbooksin each schooladministrative district is secured.

A*. 3 Textbooksmaybe changedwith little inconveniencewhenever changesAre desirable. 4. Additional textbooksand supplernentai.y-booksmaybesup- plied. -5. School worktsnot delayedaThe beginningof the schoolyear whileparents obtain book» for their children: Arguinents against freetextbooks and in faviorof the pupils purchasing theirownbooksare asfollows: I.Parents and pupilsaremadeto realize that theycan notbe- tomewholly dependentonthe State,cbutmust continue toassunle fi Borneof the responsibilitiesof education. 01)account of the cost, increased schooltaxes Would beneces- sary ortheamount available for salaries abd .otherexpenseswould be decreased. 3. Children fdlouldnotbe requiredtousebooks soiled by otlir children,astheyareobjectionableto the majority of*-clildren arid parents both for esthetic and sanita4reasons. 4. By purchasing textbooks homelibrariesmaybe builtup. r 5. Books famished freeare'not cared foras arethose owned by

the-pupils. 41.

AWNS. 4 '40

a U. t. Bu. of Educ. Bulo;;14p,Nri80. fa.

J i I.

90, A ea

.4 a SCHOOLTEXTBOOKS 51 4 Ontheotherhand, becamethe freetextbooksarepublicproperty intrustedto thepupils,to be paidfor if damagedarlost,and . quegtlyinspectedby the fre- teachers,itisclaimedthattheyareas wellorbettercared for.The carethebooksreceivedependsen- tirely upon_theway in whichclhesystem ismanaged. a TABLE13.Uniform Om frothooks.Territoryto which - lawsarc applicable 111 /,

Town- ; State State Town-. Countyship and ; State I .. State i County district i shipAnd district

Alabamd _____ sr Nebraska. Arizona Nevada X ab Arkansas , mi California_ a New Hampshire NewJersey.. X Colorado ..... X New Mexico..... X Connecticut New York Delaware - x. North _ Dist. Columbia. Carolina X Florida NárthDakota . Georgia Ohio Idaho Okliihoma_ X ..... Illinois Oregon X Indiana_ .. Pennsylvania Ow Iowa RhodeIsland _ Kansas X SouthCarolina X Kentucky SmithDakotit Louisiana Tennessee X Maine Texas X 4 1' Maryland . X Vermont .MFL:ichusetts_ -0-I Virginia Michigan . X M in Washington - - - X...... 0 Mis.sissi i %est Virginia X X ..49 : Missour ; WisconSin Wyoming ...... Montana X

TA13LE 14. Freeteebooklaw..? s. 4

lawmandatory timmandatory Law 4). State No Law I ./0 For. permis- No For I laws State permis- elemen- second- v e Or For stye laws ,4men- r tary j ary secondary ary or ila Alabama ...... r tP Arizona .. ... Nevada..... X X ow X X Moo Arkansas NewHampshire X ... AID X California..... New Jersey X X Colorado x . New Mexico . a, ...... X New York . X Connecticut...... 11' X X illdo North ..... Carolina 4. G. Delaware_.. 41 _ ..... X lb X x '40 Dist.Columbia North Dakota At; X Ohio ...... 4, x Florid ...... lb .-. X Georgia. Oklahoma _ X 10 ...... as 4k 411 I - Idaho Oregon _ Illinois X. Pennsylvania X 10 Indians...... Rhode Island X Iowa SouthCarolina 4 10..... Kansasb SouthDakota X ...... M. N. a.a. 4. a. Kentucky .... Tennessee kuisiana..... Texas' X Maine . ...baba... X utah X X Vermont Maryland_ X X Mamachusetts X Virginia Michigan X Washington Minnesota ... WestVirginia 0...... la W Missimippi .....Wisconsin..... Missouri ft. . WyomiDg X II Mb ...... Montana X Nebraska Total- X ))f ----- 2o 7

"=.91 JP, Two counties. Supplementsrxresdersfree.