THE ROMAN PDF, EPUB, EBOOK

Mary Beard | 448 pages | 07 Apr 2010 | HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS | 9780674032187 | English | Cambridge, Mass., United States - Wikipedia

A radical reexamination of this most extraordinary of ancient ceremonies, this book explores the magnificence of , but also its darker side. The triumph, Mary Beard contends, prompted the Romans to question as well as celebrate military glory. Her richly illustrated work is a testament to the profound importance of the triumph in Roman culture—and for monarchs, dynasts and generals ever since. But how can we re- create the ceremony as it was celebrated in ? How can we piece together its elusive traces in art and literature? He rode in a chariot decorated with various designs, and wore a crown of gold and jewels. Boys and girls would even ride in the chariot with the victorious general. These were attendants and trusted assistants who had been with him on campaign. After this came the army itself, arranged by cohorts. All of the men were crowned with laurels, and the most honored, decorated fighters would be carrying prizes of war. This was the entire , according to . But behind this, we should remember that were a deadly serious business. They were meant to celebrate conquest. Defeated captives could expect, like , to be put to death or sold into slavery unless some extenuating circumstance intervened. Read more about daring campaigns and triumphs in :. Like Liked by 1 person. Like Like. You are commenting using your WordPress. You are commenting using your Google account. You are commenting using your Twitter account. You are commenting using your Facebook account. Notify me of new comments via email. Notify me of new posts via email. This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Another panel shows the funeral and of the deified . Prior to this, the senate voted Titus a triple-arch at the to celebrate or commemorate the same victory or triumph. In Republican tradition, only the Senate could grant a triumph. A general who wanted a triumph would dispatch his request and report to the Senate. Officially, triumphs were granted for outstanding military merit; the state paid for the ceremony if this and certain other conditions were met — and these seem to have varied from time to time, and from case to case — or the Senate would pay for the official procession, at least. Most Roman historians rest the outcome on an open Senatorial debate and vote, its legality confirmed by one of the people's assemblies ; the senate and people thus controlled the state's coffers and rewarded or curbed its generals. Some triumphs seem to have been granted outright, with minimal debate. Some were turned down but went ahead anyway, with the general's direct appeal to the people over the senate and a promise of public games at his own expense. Others were blocked or granted only after interminable wrangling. Senators and generals alike were politicians, and Roman politics was notorious for its rivalries, shifting alliances, back-room dealings, and overt public bribery. There is no firm evidence that the Senate applied a prescribed set of "triumphal laws" when making their decisions, [31] [32] although does claim that a triumph could only be granted to a victorious general who had slain at least 5, of the enemy in a single battle. During the , triumphs became more politicized as manifestations of imperial authority and legitimacy. A general might be granted a "lesser triumph", known as an . He entered the city on foot, minus his troops, in his magistrate's and wearing a of 's myrtle. In BCE, the Senate turned down Marcus Marcellus 's request for a triumph after his victory over the Carthaginians and their Sicilian-Greek allies, apparently because his army was still in Sicily and unable to join him. They offered him instead a thanksgiving and ovation. The day before it, he celebrated an unofficial triumph on the Alban Mount. His ovation was of triumphal proportions. It included a large painting, showing his siege of Syracuse , the siege engines themselves, captured plate, gold, silver, and royal ornaments, and the statuary and opulent furniture for which Syracuse was famous. Eight elephants were led in the procession, symbols of his victory over the Carthaginians. His Spanish and Syracusan allies led the way wearing golden wreaths; they were granted and lands in Sicily. In 71 BCE, Crassus earned an ovation for quashing the revolt, and increased his honours by wearing a crown of 's "triumphal" laurel. They give the general's formal name, the names of his father and grandfather, the people s or command province whence the triumph was awarded, and the date of the . Many ancient historical accounts also mention triumphs. Most Roman accounts of triumphs were written to provide their readers with a moral lesson, rather than to provide an accurate description of the triumphal process, procession, rites, and their meaning. This scarcity allows only the most tentative and generalised and possibly misleading reconstruction of triumphal ceremony, based on the combination of various incomplete accounts from different periods of Roman history. The origins and development of this honour are obscure. Roman historians placed the first triumph in the mythical past; some thought that it dated from Rome's foundation ; others thought it more ancient than that. For triumphs of the Roman regal era, the surviving Imperial Triumphales are incomplete. After three entries for the city's legendary founder , eleven lines of the list are missing. The Fasti were compiled some five centuries after the regal era, and probably represent an approved, official version of several different historical traditions. Likewise, the earliest surviving written histories of the regal era, written some centuries after it, attempt to reconcile various traditions, or else debate their merits. , for example, gives Romulus three triumphs, the same number given in the Fasti. gives him none, and credits him instead with the first , in which the arms and armour were stripped off a defeated foe, then dedicated to Jupiter. gives him one, complete with chariot. Tarquin has two triumphs in the Fasti but none in Dionysius. Rome's aristocrats expelled their last king as a tyrant and legislated the monarchy out of existence. They shared among themselves the kingship's former powers and authority in the form of magistracies. In the Republic, the highest possible magistracy was an elected consulship, which could be held for no more than a year at a time. In times of crisis or emergency, the Senate might appoint a dictator to serve a longer term; but this could seem perilously close to the lifetime power of kings. The dictator Camillus was awarded four triumphs but was eventually exiled. Later Roman sources point to his triumph of BCE as a cause for offense; the chariot was drawn by four white horses, a combination properly reserved for Jupiter and Apollo — at least in later lore and poetry. In the Middle to Late Republic, Rome's expansion through conquest offered her political-military adventurers extraordinary opportunities for self- publicity; the long-drawn series of wars between Rome and — the — produced twelve triumphs in ten years. Towards the end of the Republic, triumphs became still more frequent, [46] lavish, and competitive, with each display an attempt usually successful to outdo the last. To have a triumphal ancestor — even one long-dead — counted for a lot in Roman society and politics, and remarked that, in the race for power and influence, some individuals were not above vesting an inconveniently ordinary ancestor with triumphal grandeur and dignity, distorting an already fragmentary and unreliable historical tradition. To Roman historians, the growth of triumphal ostentation undermined Rome's ancient "peasant virtues". Livy traces the start of the rot to the triumph of Gnaeus Manlius Vulso in , which introduced ordinary Romans to such Galatian fripperies as specialist chefs, flute girls, and other "seductive dinner-party amusements". Pliny adds "sideboards and one-legged tables" to the list, [52] but lays responsibility for Rome's slide into luxury on the " pounds of chased silver ware and pounds of golden vessels" brought somewhat earlier by Scipio Asiaticus for his triumph of BCE. The three triumphs awarded to the Great were lavish and controversial. Pompey was only 24 and a mere equestrian. His triumph, however, did not go quite to plan. His chariot was drawn by a team of elephants in order to represent his African conquest — and perhaps to outdo even the legendary triumph of Bacchus. They proved too bulky to pass through the triumphal gate, so Pompey had to dismount while a horse team was yoked in their place. For his second triumph 71 BCE, the last in a series of four held that year his cash gifts to his army were said to break all records, though the amounts in Plutarch's account are implausibly high: 6, sesterces to each soldier about six times their annual pay and about 5 million to each officer. It was an opportunity to outdo all rivals — and even himself. Triumphs traditionally lasted for one day, but Pompey's went on for two in an unprecedented display of wealth and luxury. Following 's murder, Octavian assumed permanent title of and became permanent head of the Senate from 27 BCE see principate under the title and name . Only the year before, he had blocked the senatorial award of a triumph to the Younger , despite the latter's acclamation in the field as Imperator and his fulfillment of all traditional, Republican qualifying criteria except full consulship. Technically, generals in the Imperial era were legates of the ruling Emperor Imperator. By then, the triumph had been absorbed into the Augustan Imperial cult system, in which only the emperor [66] would be accorded such a supreme honour, as he was the supreme Imperator. The Senate, in true Republican style, would have held session to debate and decide the merits of the candidate; but this was little more than good form. Augustan ideology insisted that Augustus had saved and restored the Republic, and it celebrated his triumph as a permanent condition, and his military, political, and religious leadership as responsible for an unprecedented era of stability, peace, and prosperity. From then on, emperors claimed — without seeming to claim — the triumph as an Imperial privilege. Those outside the Imperial family might be granted "triumphal ornaments" Ornamenta triumphalia or an ovation, such as under . The senate still debated and voted on such matters, though the outcome was probably already decided. Imperial panegyrics of the later Imperial era combine triumphal elements with Imperial ceremonies such as the consular investiture of Emperors, and the adventus , the formal "triumphal" arrival of an emperor in the various capitals of the Empire in his progress through the provinces. Some emperors were perpetually on the move and seldom or never went to Rome. In , well into the Byzantine era , awarded general a triumph that included some "radically new" Christian and Byzantine elements. Belisarius successfully campaigned against his adversary Vandal leader to restore the former of to the control of Byzantium in the Vandalic War. The triumph was held in the Eastern Roman capital of . Historian , an eyewitness who had previously been in Belisarius's service, describes the procession's display of the loot seized from the Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE by Titus , including the . The treasure had been stored in Rome's Temple of Peace after its display in Titus' own triumphal parade and its depiction on his ; then it was seized by the during their in ; then it was taken from them in Belisarius' campaign. The objects themselves might well have recalled the ancient triumphs of and his son Titus; but Belisarius and Gelimer walked, as in an ovation. The procession did not end at Rome's Capitoline Temple with a sacrifice to Jupiter, but terminated at Hippodrome of Constantinople with a recitation of Christian prayer and the triumphant generals prostrate before the emperor. During the , kings and magnates sought ennobling connections with the classical past. The procession was led by his Florentine captives, made to carry candles in honour of Lucca's patron saint. The Roman Triumph by Mary Beard

The Roman religion was, after all, a state religion. Only the senate could decree a triumph, and it was considered a supreme honor, given only to a general of exceptional achievement. Appian tells us that everyone in the procession wore crowns. Like a modern parade, there were various groups that followed one after the other:. Trumpeters came first, along with wagons laden with plunder taken from the military campaign. Models of towers then followed. Perhaps these were constructed of wood, reeds, or other light materials. These were carried by hand, and were meant to be representations of captured or destroyed cities. Pictures showing scenes of war would be displayed to the crowd along with the models of towers. After this came marchers bearing crowns that had been given to the triumphal general vir triumphalis during the campaign. After this came white oxen, along with the captive enemy leaders. Appian mentions them as Carthaginian or Numidian chiefs, but in other campaigns we might imagine them as enemy leaders from different parts of the world. The significance of the white oxen must have had some religious origin, perhaps something originally related to sacrificial purity, or fertility. Then came the Roman wearing tunics. A was something like a civil servant who attended a magistrate, bearing the bound rods and symbols of authority known as . After them came the victorious general himself. He rode in a chariot decorated with various designs, and wore a crown of gold and jewels. Boys and girls would even ride in the chariot with the victorious general. These were attendants and trusted assistants who had been with him on campaign. After this came the army itself, arranged by cohorts. All of the men were crowned with laurels, and the most honored, decorated fighters would be carrying prizes of war. This was the entire procession, according to Appian. But behind this, we should remember that triumphs were a deadly serious business. They were meant to celebrate conquest. Defeated captives could expect, like Jugurtha, to be put to death or sold into slavery unless some extenuating circumstance intervened. Read more about daring campaigns and triumphs in Sallust:. Like Liked by 1 person. Like Like. Fall is the perfect time to settle in with a good book for our Executive Editor for Science, Janice Audet. Here she suggests some recent and forthcoming books she finds informative and fascinating. The fall season shepherds in the beginning of a new school season, a time to begin or resume routines and learn new things. The fall season can also be a time to take stock …. The Roman Triumph Mary Beard. Buy Elsewhere Bookshop. Black lives matter. Black voices matter. The Roman Triumph by Mary Beard, Paperback | Barnes & Noble®

For example, I don't need to be "proven" over a dozen pages that the Romans didn't literally use the exact same route for every single triumph over a thousand years, I understand that by simple logic, spend some more time describing the route as it was probably or likely. Oct 19, Dan Graser rated it it was amazing. Having now read a good deal of her work, the word I keep coming back to when I describe Cambridge Professor Mary Beard and her work is, "indispensable. In this work she focuses on the spectacle of the Roman Triumph and it Having now read a good deal of her work, the word I keep coming back to when I describe Cambridge Professor Mary Beard and her work is, "indispensable. In this work she focuses on the spectacle of the Roman Triumph and its societal and political uses in . Where several generals, politicians, and emperors lobbied for these proceedings Cicero, , etc The grandeur of this ceremony has been somewhat exaggerated through the centuries and Beard does a wonderful job breaking the issues down in coherent and easily readable prose. Highly recommended for Roman history buffs! Jul 21, James Miller rated it really liked it. Mary Beard has obviously written this with an intention to myth bust and to create a picture of what a triumph was, meant, articulated etc. The argument is persuasive and the prose very readable. Certainly the picture of the triumph I had has been changed and the ways it speaks with Dionysiac , Etruscan antecedents or African was very interesting. Sadly the myth busting Mary Beard has obviously written this with an intention to myth bust and to create a picture of what a triumph was, meant, articulated etc. Sadly the myth busting is so successful that one finishes aware we in fact seem to know surprisingly little about so frequently mentioned a ceremony or collection of diachronically changing ceremonies. The book could have done with better printing and some coloured plates when exploring visual evidence as well as bigger pictures of small details of e. Etruscan coffin reliefs. Feb 16, Rebecca rated it it was amazing Shelves: roman-history-and-religion. Of course it was that. But it was also a cultural idea, a "ritual in ink", a trope of power, a metaphor of love, a thorn in the side, a world view, a dangerous hyperbole, a marker of time, of change, and continuity. It is more pressing to understand how those meanings, connections, and reformulations are generated and sustai "I have come to read the Roman Triumph in a sense that goes far beyond its role as a procession through the streets. It is more pressing to understand how those meanings, connections, and reformulations are generated and sustained. Because what we have are snippets in writing and art , how these reflect the reality must be examined and re-examined - but also if that reality always looked the same. Jul 18, Sean rated it really liked it Shelves: ancient , history. More meta-history than history, or so it seemed to me. Beard methodically deconstructs every aspect of the triumph, and seems to delight in leaving the reader unsure of any received wisdom concerning any facet of Roman history. Frankly, this book made me dizzy. Which seems fair, even if it isn't much fun. It's pretty remarkable how flimsy our foundation of knowledge is for something as I would have thought basic and straight-forward as the ceremony of the triumph. I think Beard needs to write a More meta-history than history, or so it seemed to me. I think Beard needs to write a book on Roman historiography, if she hasn't already. She would also make a pretty mean philosopher, I imagine. In the meantime, I'm going to go watch the "triumph" episode of HBO's "Rome" and laugh at all of the assumptions they've made, and all the things they've done wrong. Apr 27, Vicki Cline rated it liked it Shelves: ancient-history. Beard goes into minute detail about the history of Roman triumphs. It turns out there's not a lot of agreement among the ancient and modern historians about how the triumph was created or even celebrated. Some think it was imported from Greece and others believe it originated with the Etruscans. Even the order of the various parts of the parade varies among different historians. Beard is a very good writer and kept the topic interesting, but all in all, I didn't really need to know this much abo Beard goes into minute detail about the history of Roman triumphs. Beard is a very good writer and kept the topic interesting, but all in all, I didn't really need to know this much about triumphs. As usual, the notes are endless array of useful citations and comments. As usual, her writing is exceptionally clear and easy to follow. My rating don't do justice to this book, I was wrong buying this book because it is not for an amateur historian, it is a book for scholars. I though that I was going to read a general history of the roman period, but the book was in fact related only to the triumph roman ritual or procession. It is a very detailed book and analysis on this ritual, far too detailed for an amateur like me. It was my error, but now I know the precise meaning of "Triumph" in Roman history! Feb 24, Jacob rated it really liked it Shelves: history , rome. The Triumph is one of the most important, well known and well documented Roman ceremonies. Think you know anything about it? Want to know anything about it? Interested in the study of process of history? Or in societies? Read this book. It's amazingly well written. : A Life This book is a good companion to Cleopatra. May 12, Maya rated it really liked it. Aug 24, Jay Fisher rated it it was amazing. As I have come to expect, an honest assessment of the limits of our evidence with descending into aporia or polemic that offers a stimulating interpretation of the evidence that we have. Sep 27, Aislinn rated it it was ok. Borrowed from James when I couldn't sleep, it put me out quite effectively. Just compelling enough to keep reading, but not something I'd recommend. Gareth Hughes rated it really liked it Nov 02, Prebs99 rated it really liked it Dec 30, There are no discussion topics on this book yet. Readers also enjoyed. About Mary Beard. Mary Beard. Her frequent media appearances and sometimes controversial public statements have led to her being described as "Brita Winifred Mary Beard born 1 January is Professor of Classics at the University of Cambridge and is a fellow of Newnham College. Her frequent media appearances and sometimes controversial public statements have led to her being described as "Britain's best-known classicist". Her father, Roy Whitbread Beard, worked as an architect in Shrewsbury. She recalled him as "a raffish public-schoolboy type and a complete wastrel, but very engaging". Her mother Joyce Emily Beard was a headmistress and an enthusiastic reader. Mary Beard attended an all- female direct grant school. During the summer she participated in archaeological excavations; this was initially to earn money for recreational spending, but she began to find the study of antiquity unexpectedly interesting. But it was not all that interested the young Beard. She had friends in many age groups, and a number of trangressions: "Playing around with other people's husbands when you were 17 was bad news. Yes, I was a very naughty girl. She had thought of going to King's, but rejected it when she discovered the college did not offer scholarships to women. Although studying at a single-sex college, she found in her first year that some men in the University held dismissive attitudes towards women's academic potential, and this strengthened her determination to succeed. She also developed feminist views that remained "hugely important" in her later life, although she later described "modern orthodox feminism" as partly "cant". From to she lectured in Classics at King's College London. She returned to Cambridge in as a fellow of Newnham College and the only female lecturer in the Classics faculty. Rome in the Late Republic, which she co-wrote with the Cambridge ancient historian Michael Crawford, was published the same year. In Beard married Robin Sinclair Cormack. She had a daughter in and a son in Beard became Classics editor of the Times Literary Supplement in Shortly after the 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, Beard was one of several authors invited to contribute articles on the topic to the London Review of Books. She opined that many people, once "the shock had faded", thought "the United States had it coming", and that "[w]orld bullies, even if their heart is in the right place, will in the end pay the price". Books by Mary Beard. Related Articles. Read more Trivia About The Roman Triumph. No trivia or quizzes yet. Welcome back. Ancient writers mention it frequently, but almost always in passing; we are seldom offered a description of the event itself. The triumph was a ritual procession that had both religious originally, at least and secular significance. Like many Roman practices, it evolved over time; what was a relatively modest affair during the republican period would eventually become an elaborate, expensive celebration during the late imperial period. Appian lived from about 95 to A. While we cannot be certain that he personally witnessed a triumph, or simply based his account on earlier written sources, his choice of words when describing the singing and dancing of the marchers and the jocular behavior of the soldiers gives a strong impression—to this reader at least—that he was writing from first-hand experience. In either case, he is generally reliable and there is no reason to call him into question. There may once have been overt religious elements to the triumph, perhaps inherited from the Etruscans, but it is often difficult to draw a clear line between the secular and the religious in such cases. The Roman religion was, after all, a state religion. Only the senate could decree a triumph, and it was considered a supreme honor, given only to a general of exceptional achievement. Appian tells us that everyone in the procession wore crowns. Like a modern parade, there were various groups that followed one after the other:. Trumpeters came first, along with wagons laden with plunder taken from the military campaign. Models of towers then followed. Perhaps these were constructed of wood, reeds, or other light materials. These were carried by hand, and were meant to be representations of captured or destroyed cities. Pictures showing scenes of war would be displayed to the crowd along with the models of towers. After this came marchers bearing crowns that had been given to the triumphal general vir triumphalis during the campaign. After this came white oxen, along with the captive enemy leaders. Appian mentions them as Carthaginian or Numidian chiefs, but in other campaigns we might imagine them as enemy leaders from different parts of the world. How can we piece together its elusive traces in art and literature? Occasionally one comes across a work of history which lights up a whole era as if by a lightning flash. Mary Beard's new book falls into this rare category. By focusing on the specific ritual of the triumph, she brilliantly illuminates the Roman world in all its aspects - military and political, social and literary, religious and geographical - and also reminds us how much of our own language and culture of success is drawn from this gaudy and often bloody spectacle. In this highly individual book Mary Beard plays havoc with conventional ideas about the Roman triumph, while at the same time scrupulously presenting the evidence with which we can make up our own minds. It is the most important statement to date by a major historian of Roman culture. Home 1 Books 2. Add to Wishlist. Sign in to Purchase Instantly. Members save with free shipping everyday! See details. Occasionally there was so much on display that the show lasted two or three days. Related Searches. View Product. An impassioned critique of K—12 mathematics education, it outlined how we shortchange

The Roman Triumph - Wikipedia

The ceremony promoted him — however temporarily — above every mortal Roman. This was an opportunity granted to very few. From the time of , the triumphal general was linked at least for historians during the Principate to Alexander and the demi-god Hercules , who had laboured selflessly for the benefit of all mankind. Rome's earliest "triumphs" were probably simple victory parades, celebrating the return of a victorious general and his army to the city, along with the fruits of his victory, and ending with some form of dedication to the gods. This is probably so for the earliest legendary and later semi-legendary triumphs of Rome's regal era, when the king functioned as Rome's highest magistrate and war-leader. As Rome's population, power, influence, and territory increased, so did the scale, length, variety, and extravagance of its triumphal processions. The procession pompa mustered in the open space of the Field of probably well before first light. Triumphal processions were notoriously long and slow; [12] the longest could last for two or three days, and possibly more, and some may have been of greater length than the route itself. Some ancient and modern sources suggest a fairly standard processional order. First came the captive leaders, allies, and soldiers and sometimes their families usually walking in chains; some were destined for execution or further display. Their captured weapons, armour, gold, silver, statuary, and curious or exotic treasures were carted behind them, along with paintings, tableaux, and models depicting significant places and episodes of the war. Next in line, all on foot, came Rome's senators and magistrates, followed by the general's lictors in their red war-robes, their fasces wreathed in laurel, then the general in his four-horse chariot. A companion, or a public slave, might share the chariot with him or, in some cases, his youngest children. His officers and elder sons rode horseback nearby. His unarmed soldiers followed in and laurel crowns, chanting "io triumphe! Somewhere in the procession, two flawless white oxen were led for the sacrifice to Jupiter, garland-decked and with gilded horns. All this was done to the accompaniment of music, clouds of incense, and the strewing of flowers. Almost nothing is known of the procession's infrastructure and management. Its doubtless enormous cost was defrayed in part by the state but mostly by the general's loot, which most ancient sources dwell on in great detail and unlikely superlatives. Once disposed, this portable wealth injected huge sums into the ; the amount brought in by Octavian 's triumph over Egypt triggered a fall in interest rates and a sharp rise in land prices. The following schematic is for the route taken by "some, or many" triumphs, and is based on standard modern reconstructions. The starting place the Campus Martius lay outside the city's sacred boundary , bordering the eastern bank of the . The procession entered the city through a Porta Triumphalis Triumphal Gate , [18] and crossed the pomerium , where the general surrendered his command to the senate and magistrates. It continued through the site of the , skirting the southern base of the and the Velabrum , along a Via Triumphalis Triumphal Way [19] towards the Circus Maximus , perhaps dropping off any prisoners destined for execution at the Tullianum. Once the sacrifice and dedications were completed, the procession and spectators dispersed to banquets, games, and other entertainments sponsored by the triumphing general. In most triumphs, the general funded any post-procession banquets from his share of the loot. There were feasts for the people and separate, much richer feasts for the elite; some went on for most of the night. Dionysus offers a contrast to the lavish triumphal banquets of his time by giving Romulus's triumph the most primitive possible "banquet" — ordinary Romans setting up food-tables as a "welcome home", and the returning troops taking swigs and bites as they marched by. He recreates the first Republican triumphal banquet along the same lines. Some triumphs included as fulfillment of the general's vow to a god or goddess, made before battle or during its heat, in return for their help in securing victory. Marcus Fulvius Nobilior vowed ludi in return for victory over the Aetolian League and paid for ten days of games at his triumph. Most Romans would never have seen a triumph, but its symbolism permeated Roman imagination and material culture. Triumphal generals minted and circulated high value coins to propagate their triumphal fame and generosity empire-wide. Pompey's issues for his three triumphs are typical. One is an a gold coin that has a laurel-wreathed border enclosing a head which personifies Africa; beside it, Pompey's title "Magnus" "The Great" , with wand and jug as symbols of his . The reverse identifies him as in a triumphal chariot attended by Victory. A triumphal a silver coin shows his three trophies of captured arms, with his 's wand and jug. Another shows a globe surrounded by triumphal wreaths, symbolising his "world conquest", and an ear of grain to show that his victory protected Rome's grain supply. In Republican tradition, a general was expected to wear his triumphal regalia only for the day of his triumph; thereafter, they were presumably displayed in the atrium of his family home. As one of the nobility, he was entitled to a particular kind of funeral in which a string of actors walked behind his bier wearing the masks of his ancestors; another actor represented the general himself and his highest achievement in life by wearing his funeral mask, triumphal laurels, and toga picta. In the Imperial era, emperors wore such regalia to signify their elevated rank and office and to identify themselves with the Roman gods and Imperial order — a central feature of Imperial cult. The building and dedication of monumental public works offered local, permanent opportunities for triumphal commemoration. Its gallery and colonnades doubled as an exhibition space and likely contained statues, paintings, and other trophies carried at his various triumphs. He thus wove his patron goddess and putative ancestress into his triumphal anniversary. Augustus , Caesar's heir and Rome's first emperor, built a vast triumphal monument on the Greek coast at Actium , overlooking the scene of his decisive sea-battle against Antony and Egypt; the bronze beaks of captured Egyptian warships projected from its seaward wall. Imperial iconography increasingly identified Emperors with the gods, starting with the Augustan reinvention of Rome as a virtual monarchy the principate. Sculpted panels on the built by celebrate Titus ' and Vespasian 's joint triumph over the after the siege of Jerusalem , with a triumphal procession of captives and treasures seized from the temple of Jerusalem — some of which funded the building of the . Another panel shows the funeral and apotheosis of the deified Titus. Prior to this, the senate voted Titus a triple-arch at the Circus Maximus to celebrate or commemorate the same victory or triumph. In Republican tradition, only the Senate could grant a triumph. A general who wanted a triumph would dispatch his request and report to the Senate. Officially, triumphs were granted for outstanding military merit; the state paid for the ceremony if this and certain other conditions were met — and these seem to have varied from time to time, and from case to case — or the Senate would pay for the official procession, at least. Most Roman historians rest the outcome on an open Senatorial debate and vote, its legality confirmed by one of the people's assemblies ; the senate and people thus controlled the state's coffers and rewarded or curbed its generals. Some triumphs seem to have been granted outright, with minimal debate. Some were turned down but went ahead anyway, with the general's direct appeal to the people over the senate and a promise of public games at his own expense. Others were blocked or granted only after interminable wrangling. Senators and generals alike were politicians, and Roman politics was notorious for its rivalries, shifting alliances, back-room dealings, and overt public bribery. There is no firm evidence that the Senate applied a prescribed set of "triumphal laws" when making their decisions, [31] [32] although Valerius Maximus does claim that a triumph could only be granted to a victorious general who had slain at least 5, of the enemy in a single battle. During the Principate , triumphs became more politicized as manifestations of imperial authority and legitimacy. A general might be granted a "lesser triumph", known as an Ovation. He entered the city on foot, minus his troops, in his magistrate's toga and wearing a wreath of Venus 's myrtle. In BCE, the Senate turned down Marcus Marcellus 's request for a triumph after his victory over the Carthaginians and their Sicilian-Greek allies, apparently because his army was still in Sicily and unable to join him. They offered him instead a thanksgiving supplicatio and ovation. The day before it, he celebrated an unofficial triumph on the Alban Mount. His ovation was of triumphal proportions. It included a large painting, showing his siege of Syracuse , the siege engines themselves, captured plate, gold, silver, and royal ornaments, and the statuary and opulent furniture for which Syracuse was famous. Eight elephants were led in the procession, symbols of his victory over the Carthaginians. His Spanish and Syracusan allies led the way wearing golden wreaths; they were granted Roman citizenship and lands in Sicily. In 71 BCE, Crassus earned an ovation for quashing the Spartacus revolt, and increased his honours by wearing a crown of Jupiter's "triumphal" laurel. They give the general's formal name, the names of his father and grandfather, the people s or command province whence the triumph was awarded, and the date of the triumphal procession. Many ancient historical accounts also mention triumphs. Most Roman accounts of triumphs were written to provide their readers with a moral lesson, rather than to provide an accurate description of the triumphal process, procession, rites, and their meaning. This scarcity allows only the most tentative and generalised and possibly misleading reconstruction of triumphal ceremony, based on the combination of various incomplete accounts from different periods of Roman history. The origins and development of this honour are obscure. Roman historians placed the first triumph in the mythical past; some thought that it dated from Rome's foundation ; others thought it more ancient than that. For triumphs of the Roman regal era, the surviving Imperial are incomplete. After three entries for the city's legendary founder Romulus , eleven lines of the list are missing. The Fasti were compiled some five centuries after the regal era, and probably represent an approved, official version of several different historical traditions. Likewise, the earliest surviving written histories of the regal era, written some centuries after it, attempt to reconcile various traditions, or else debate their merits. Dionysus , for example, gives Romulus three triumphs, the same number given in the Fasti. Livy gives him none, and credits him instead with the first spolia opima , in which the arms and armour were stripped off a defeated foe, then dedicated to Jupiter. Plutarch gives him one, complete with chariot. Tarquin has two triumphs in the Fasti but none in Dionysius. Rome's aristocrats expelled their last king as a tyrant and legislated the monarchy out of existence. They shared among themselves the kingship's former powers and authority in the form of magistracies. In the Republic, the highest possible magistracy was an elected consulship, which could be held for no more than a year at a time. In times of crisis or emergency, the Senate might appoint a dictator to serve a longer term; but this could seem perilously close to the lifetime power of kings. The dictator Camillus was awarded four triumphs but was eventually exiled. Later Roman sources point to his triumph of BCE as a cause for offense; the chariot was drawn by four white horses, a combination properly reserved for Jupiter and Apollo — at least in later lore and poetry. In the Middle to Late Republic, Rome's expansion through conquest offered her political-military adventurers extraordinary opportunities for self- publicity; the long-drawn series of wars between Rome and Carthage — the Punic Wars — produced twelve triumphs in ten years. Towards the end of the Republic, triumphs became still more frequent, [46] lavish, and competitive, with each display an attempt usually successful to outdo the last. To have a triumphal ancestor — even one long-dead — counted for a lot in Roman society and politics, and Cicero remarked that, in the race for power and influence, some individuals were not above vesting an inconveniently ordinary ancestor with triumphal grandeur and dignity, distorting an already fragmentary and unreliable historical tradition. To Roman historians, the growth of triumphal ostentation undermined Rome's ancient "peasant virtues". Livy traces the start of the rot to the triumph of Gnaeus Manlius Vulso in , which introduced ordinary Romans to such Galatian fripperies as specialist chefs, flute girls, and other "seductive dinner-party amusements". Pliny adds "sideboards and one-legged tables" to the list, [52] but lays responsibility for Rome's slide into luxury on the " pounds of chased silver ware and pounds of golden vessels" brought somewhat earlier by Scipio Asiaticus for his triumph of BCE. The three triumphs awarded to Pompey the Great were lavish and controversial. Pompey was only 24 and a mere equestrian. His triumph, however, did not go quite to plan. His chariot was drawn by a team of elephants in order to represent his African conquest — and perhaps to outdo even the legendary triumph of Bacchus. They proved too bulky to pass through the triumphal gate, so Pompey had to dismount while a horse team was yoked in their place. For his second triumph 71 BCE, the last in a series of four held that year his cash gifts to his army were said to break all records, though the amounts in Plutarch's account are implausibly high: 6, sesterces to each soldier about six times their annual pay and about 5 million to each officer. It was an opportunity to outdo all rivals — and even himself. Triumphs traditionally lasted for one day, but Pompey's went on for two in an unprecedented display of wealth and luxury. Following Caesar's murder, Octavian assumed permanent title of imperator and became permanent head of the Senate from 27 BCE see principate under the title and name Augustus. Only the year before, he had blocked the senatorial award of a triumph to Marcus Licinius Crassus the Younger , despite the latter's acclamation in the field as Imperator and his fulfillment of all traditional, Republican qualifying criteria except full consulship. Technically, generals in the Imperial era were legates of the ruling Emperor Imperator. By then, the triumph had been absorbed into the Augustan Imperial cult system, in which only the emperor [66] would be accorded such a supreme honour, as he was the supreme Imperator. The Senate, in true Republican style, would have held session to debate and decide the merits of the candidate; but this was little more than good form. Augustan ideology insisted that Augustus had saved and restored the Republic, and it celebrated his triumph as a permanent condition, and his military, political, and religious leadership as responsible for an unprecedented era of stability, peace, and prosperity. From then on, emperors claimed — without seeming to claim — the triumph as an Imperial privilege. Those outside the Imperial family might be granted "triumphal ornaments" Ornamenta triumphalia or an ovation, such as Aulus Plautius under Claudius. The senate still debated and voted on such matters, though the outcome was probably already decided. Imperial panegyrics of the later Imperial era combine triumphal elements with Imperial ceremonies such as the consular investiture of Emperors, and the adventus , the formal "triumphal" arrival of an emperor in the various capitals of the Empire in his progress through the provinces. Some emperors were perpetually on the move and seldom or never went to Rome. The triumph, Mary Beard contends, prompted the Romans to question as well as celebrate military glory. Her richly illustrated work is a testament to the profound importance of the triumph in Roman culture—and for monarchs, dynasts and generals ever since. But how can we re-create the ceremony as it was celebrated in Rome? How can we piece together its elusive traces in art and literature? Fall Reading List. Fall is the perfect time to settle in with a good book for our Executive Editor for Science, Janice Audet. Here she suggests some recent and forthcoming books she finds informative and fascinating. The fall season shepherds in the beginning of a new school season, a time to begin or resume routines and learn new things.

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