Yiddish: a Survey and a Grammar Is a General Introduction to Yiddish and Ex- Amines the Origin, History and Grammar of the Language

Home , Alexander Harkavy, Arabic chat alphabet, Bension Kohen, Max Weinreich, Qoph, Shuadit

professor birnbaum was formerly on the staff of the University of London.

Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar is a general introduction to Yiddish and examines the origin, history and grammar of the language. It traces the development of Yiddish from its beginnings to the present, and explores its composition, phonological history, linguistic aspects, and the dialects that constitute it. The grammar provides a picture of the language as an integrated whole, along with specimens of Yiddish in transcription. The book embodies the results of more than sixty years of research and pioneer- ing scholarship on the part of one of the world's leading scholars in Yiddish studies. It has been prepared with not only scholars in mind but also intelligent lay readers and university students who are beginning the study of Yiddish.

*an outstanding new accomplishment in Yiddish linguistics in a great many respects ... a magnificent contribution to Yiddish studies ... No serious approach to the teaching of the study of Yiddish can afford not to consult Professor Bimbaum’s book.’ Chaim Ginninger, formerly of Columbia University * It is a summary of the life's work of an outstanding and original scholar in the field of Yiddish studies. There is no doubt that Professor Bimbaum’s book will serve as a very good introduction to Yiddish and to its cultural background. No book in English of this range and authority on Yiddish is available.’ Chone Shmeruk, Hebrew University of Jerusalem

SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM

Yiddish A Survey and a Grammar

MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS MANCHESTER Published in Great Britain by Manchester University Press Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL

ISBN o 7190 0769 0

Printed in Canada To the memory of my father NATHAN BJRNBAUM the first western champion of Yiddish, and of my mother ROSA BIRNBAUM his devoted wife

Preface

In 1912, when I started to work on Yiddish, a language which I had acquired a few years earlier, modem research on it was only in its beginnings. There were the writings of such scholars as Moritz Griinwald, L. Sain6an, L. Wiener, A. Landau, and J. Gerzon, and the publications - of a non-linguistic nature - of M. Steinschneider, M. Griinbaum, F. Rosenberg, M. Gtidemann, L. I^andau, M. Ginsburg/P. Marek, I. Bernstein, F. Falk and M. J. Pines, but not a great deal more. During the sixty-five or so years that followed, Yiddish studies spread slowly but steadily, gradually gaining momentum, as a glance at the Bibliography of this book will show. Much of the work that has been done and that is being done now is of high, and often extremely high, quality. Some scholars have devoted their entire lives to the study of Yiddish, among them Ch. Ginninger, A. Harkavy, J.A. Joffe, J. Leftwich, J.J. Maitlis, Y. Mark, S. Niger, N. Prilutzki, M. Schaechter, M. Weinreich and U. Weinreich. The aim of this book is to provide a general introduction to the Yiddish language. It examines the origin, history and grammar of the language, tracing its development from its beginnings to the present, and exploring such aspects as its composition, phonological history, linguistic elements and the dialects that constitute it. The grammar attempts to provide a picture of the language as an integrated whole. Specimens of Yiddish in transcription down through the centuries are also included, as is an extensive bibliography. The manuscript has been prepared with students of Yiddish as well as scholars in mind. Many readers of this book probably have no intention of learning the language but rather of using the survey as a source of information about Yiddish. It is hoped that Parts t-1u will serve this purpose adequately. In these chapters the Yiddish has not been printed in its own (Hebrew) alphabet. For these readers a transcription, i.e., a phonemic rendering, is desirable and in fact to be preferred from a viii Preface

Unguist’s point of view as well, because the spelling of Yiddish, as of most languages, is phonetically far less accurate than a phonemic rendering. Chapters 1 to 6 of Part II are based on two sets of public lectures that I gave at the University of London, the first a series of Special University Lectures in Comparative Philology in 1934, and the second a series in the School of Slavonic and East European Studies at the same University in 1938. The section, ‘The Age of the Yiddish Language,’ was published in the Transactions of the Philological Society in 1938. It was to have been published in book form and was already set in type when the printing firm fell victim to bombardment during the London Blitz. Since then the galley proofs have lain in my desk, and being immersed in other work, I did nothing about having them published. Substantial changes and additions have been made for inclusion in this book. This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Canadian Federation for the Humanities, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, and with the assistance of the Publications Fund of University of Toronto Press. I have much pleasure in expressing my appreciation to these bodies. My special thanks are due to Dr R.M. Schoeffcl of the University of Toronto Press for the great care he has expended on this publication. Finally - and above all - I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to my wife, Irene, for the devoted help she has given me, as always, in the making of this book.

S.A.B. Contents

PREFACE vii THE TRANSCRIPTION ALPHABET xiii ABBREVIATIONS XV

Part One: Introduction

1 JEWISH LANGUAGES 3

A I CLASSIFICATION 3 b / l a n g u a g e s o f je w s a n d JEWISH LANGUAGES 9 ן languages'Mixed ‘ ‘ languages'CreoJized 4 Race 9 Valuation 4 1The national spirit ' 10 'Corruptedlanguages' 5 Conservatism 10 'Jargons' 6 Loyalty 11 Dialects 6 Migration 12 ‘ ‘ Judaeo-pluslanguages 7 Ghetto 12 'Languages, 8 The group-forming factor 13 Religion and script 13 Secularized Jewish language 14 Jewish linguistics 14

2 THE CULTURAL STRUCTURE OF EAST ASHKENAZIC JEWRY 16 The East Ashkenatim 16 Cultural structure 18 Social structure 17 Territorial concentration 18 x Contents

Cultural community 19 The East Askkenaxit dress 23 Cultural autonomy 19 Secularization 24 Religion 19 Nationalism 24 Literature 23 Ckassidtsm 26

Part Two: A Brief S u r v e y of the Yiddish Language

1 THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF YIDDISH 33

THE ENLIGHTENMENT 34 WORLD 38 Western Europe 34 The poUtual aspect 38 Eastern Europe 36 The learned world 39 TRADITIONALISM 38 STATISTICS 40 YIDDISH AND THE OUTSIDE THE FUTURE 42

2 THE AGE OF YIDDISH 44

THE PRACTICAL CRITERION 44 A Literary West Yiddish 46 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CRITERION 45 B Spoken East Yiddish 51 THE LINGUISTIC CRITERION 46 THE SOCIOLOGICAL CRITERION 57

3 THE ELEMENTS OF YIDDISH AND THEIR PHONOLOGICAL HISTORY 58

THE SEMITIC ELEMENT 58 Synthesis o f tht German elements 76 Vocabulary 58 THE SLAVONIC ELEMENT 76 לל The Hebrew element 5Q Czech The Ashkenazit accent system 65 Polish 77 THE ARAMir ELEMENT 66 Byelo-Russian 78 THE ROMANCE ELEMENT 66 Ukrainian 78 לTHE GERMANIC ELEMENT 67 Russian 8 Comparison with Middle High International spords 78 לGerman 67 OTHER ELEMENTS 9 The Central German element (m hg ) 71 NEW HIGH GERMAN 7Q The Upper German element 74

4 SYNTHESIS 82

MORPHOLOGY 82 WORD FORMATION 84 SEMANTICS 83 AFFIXES 84 xi Contents

5 SPONTANEOUS DEVELOPMENT 86

PHONOLOGY 86 SHIFT IN SYNTACTICAL SEMANTICS 86 CONNECTION 91 ISOLATION 86 THE ABSOLUTE INFINITIVE 92 ANALOGY 88 WORD ORDER 92 RISE OF NEW WORDS 90

6 T H E D IA L E C T S 94

West Yiddish 94 DIALECT STATISTICS 99 Historical Map o f the Yiddish STANDARD PRONUNCIATION tOO Dialects 95 STANDARD LANGUAGE IOI Central Yiddish 96 DIALECT TABLE OF THE East Yiddish 96 VOWELS IOI

APPENDIX I: OLD YIDDISH OR MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN ? 106 THE LINGUISTIC PROBLEM 106 FOR OLD YIDDISH 109 THE PROBLEM OF THE MHG STANDARD SPELLING TRANSCRIPTION 107 AND THE TRANSCRIPTION THE TRANSCRIPTION ALPHABET ALPHABET III

A P P E N D IX 2 : DOUBLE U, DOUBLE WAW AND DOUBLE YODH 112

YIDDISH 113 ZARPHATIC 118 HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN ITALKIAN I IQ ASHKENAZIC SOURCES IM D ilDYti 120 HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN CATALANIC (20 ZARPHATIC SOURCES 11$ PARSIC 121 HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN BAVL1C 121 ITALKIAN SOURCES 116 TEMANIC 122 HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN THE TALMUDIC SOURCE 122 ORIENTAL SOURCES II7 THE QUMRAN SCROLLS 123

A PPE N D IX %■ THE SOURCES OF THE NEW EAST YIDDISH VOWELS 127

A P P E N D IX 4 : TOPONYM 1CAL L IS T 135 xii Contents

Part Three: Specimens o f Yiddish over Eight Centuries

WEST YIDDISH I46 EAST YIDDISH 169 CENTRAL YIDDISH 166

Part Four: An outline of Yiddish grammar

Table of Contents appears on p. 1g3

Part Five: Bibliography

Table of Contents appears on p. 310 Index to the Bibliography 380

G E N E R A L IN D E X 389 The Transcription Alphabet

T he figures indicate the numbers in the alphabetic list on pages 201-209 an<^ 214-215 where the pronunciation is given.

a 8 h 18 00/ 34 d 9 i 4 » ou 35 aa 10 i 41 p 68 aa(i) 11 i 43 T 74 oi 45 ii 43 s 60 oi 46 j *3 { 75 b 12 i i 27 t 39 c V k 50 u 6 £ 40 1 53 u 24 d 15 li 54 uu 7 dz 16 m 55 uu 28 dz 17 n 57 V !3 e 63 ni 59 X 38 i 62 0 4 y 25 a 65 oi 31 z 36 f 69 oi 33 z 37 g >4 00 5

Abbreviations

At Aramic LH Liturgical Hebrew Ashk Ashkenazic MHG Middle High German BR Byelo-Russian NA North American CG Central German NEY New East Yiddish CY Central Yiddish NHG New High German CE Christian Era NLG New Low German Cz Czech OE Old English EY East Yiddish OHG Old High German EYN East Yiddish, Northern OWY Old West Yiddish EYS East Yiddish, Southern OY Old Yiddish EYSE East Yiddish, Southeastern P Polish EYSW East Yiddish, Southwestern R Russian Eng English Sem Semitic Fr French SI Slavonic/Slavic Ger German Sp Spanish Gk Greek Uk Ukrainian H Hebrew UG Upper German HG High German WY West Yiddish Lat Latin Y Yiddish LG Low German Zar Zarphadc PART ONE

INTRODUCTION

Jewish Languages

A I CLASSIFICATION

It is a well-known fact that there are at present and have been in the past, a number of linguistic structures which are to be met with only among Jews. Owing to the complexity of things Jewish, the most varied views have been expressed about everything connected with these structures and they have not been understood to be what they are. Their very classification and the names with which they have been labelled bear testimony to this fact. They have been termed ‘mixed languages,’ ‘Creolized’ or ‘corrupted’ languages, ‘jargons,’ ‘dialects,’ ‘Judaeo-’ followed by the name of some language, etc. Let us examine these appellations.

1Mixed languages' Can the term ‘mixed’ rightly be applied here? The epithet ‘mixed’ is employed by linguists as well as by laymen in describing certain languages to indicate that the vocabulary is derived from two or more major sources. If, however, it came to a detailed discussion, there would be no agreement as to what would be the precisc borderline between ‘pure’ and *mixed.’ How, for instance, should a language be classified when its two main elements are present in the ratio of 4 to 1 ? The difficulties increase when, in addition, criteria taken from the spheres of phonology, morphology and syntax are applied. German, Polish and Japanese, for example, would not be included by some in the category of *mixed,‘ while others might perhaps even exclude English, Turkish, Persian and Nahuatl. But if the criteria chosen were very strict, then how many of the world’s languages would qualify for the title of ‘pure’ at all ? As to the linguistic structures that have sprung up in the course of the long

! See p. 3ao, No. 34. 4 Introduction

history of the Jewish people, these vary in the degree of their mixedness. Some are decidedly less mixed than English or Persian. If a popular criterion were to be applied, then the borderline between pure and mixed would cut across these Jewish linguistic structures. In other words, since mixedness is not a main characteristic common to all of them, the term ‘mixed languages’ would not be a suitable general designation.

‘Creolized languages' Then we have the expression ‘Creolized.’ It is difficult to see why the designation for languages developed on the basis of Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch or English by Blacks of Latin America and elsewhere should appear to be suitable for the linguistic structures of the Jews. We might quite as readily call the Romance languages ‘Creolized Latin.’ For the process is not essentially different when Gauls, Iberians, Dacians, Slavs, etc., adopt and transform Latin, or when Blacks do that to Spanish, Portuguese etc.

Valuation To those who believe their mother tongue to be pure, the term ‘mixed’ in connection with a language would frequently convey something opprobrious. And the note of imagined superiority may presumably be traced back to the Negro origin of Creole. With the element of valuation that is here present, an extra-linguistic criterion has been introduced. Generally speaking, the reaction of many people to a form of speech similar and yet clearly different from their own, is inclined to be negative. If that other happens to be merely another dialect of their own language, we often find them poking fun at it. If, however, it is a cognate language, then it sometimes inspires unpleasant feelings, especially when the speakers of it belong to a group numerically inferior to their own. This negative attitude - which may still be, on the whole, confined to the language - becomes tinged with a certain hostility and contempt when the linguistic structure in question belongs to a locally near but otherwise very different group, and the more so, when additional reasons for antagonism are not wanting and when that other group happens to be a weak minority. Such an attitude is based on very deep-rooted facts of group psychology. That even scholars do not always escape its influence is borne out by the way they often take sides when the question of choosing between two foreign languages arises. Many of them subconsciously prefer the language of the bigger and therefore more powerful people. As a rule that language is, naturally, the one with the better developed literary style and the one which has longer enjoyed the attention of philologists. When, therefore, a scholar classifies Ukrainian, Afrikaans or Yiddish as belonging not to the ‘higher’ but to the ‘lower’ category of languages - referring 5 Jewish Languages to them as dialects, etc. - then his valuation is not objective, he has allowed power to be the deciding factor in his classification. A negative attitude, such as this one, may arise also from another cause. A layman who hears or reads a language similar to and yet clearly different from his own, feels disturbed by forms that do not tally with what he considers the norm. In the scholar these feelings may then crystallize into that *schoolmaster* attitude which is strong in us all, and which will tolerate only the known, the clearly defined, the rule, while abhorring the unknown, the undefined, the seemingly chaotic.

‘Corrupted languages' The attitude of valuation that is latent in the term ‘mixed,’ and is more clearly present in ‘Creolized,’ comes frankly into the open when the linguistic structures of the Jews are described as corrupted forms of other languages. The word ‘corrupted ’ conveys the idea that something has been changed from a sound state to a decayed one, the thing having now become unfit, or, at all events, much less suitable for use than it was before. Can such a description be applicable to the linguistic structures of the Jews? Is it true that Yiddish or D£idy6/Diidezmu fulfil their function less successfully than, say, German and Spanish do ? Let us first of all state one point clearly: it is not with literary values that we are concerned here. Whether we choose to assign a higher rank to German and Spanish literatures than to those of Yiddish and Diidy6 is irrelevant. It is a fact that Yiddish or Diidyo fulfil the function of languages - means of communication and expression - quite as well as German and Spanish do. Since that is the case and since their development from German to Yiddish, or from Spanish to Diidy6, has not robbed them of their suitability for doing so, they cannot rightly be called ‘corrupted’ languages. We might go further and ask whether there is such a thing as a ‘corrupted* language at all. Let us imagine a case where the language of a certain group is adopted by another group. Each individual acquires it in an imperfect form. He might, if we chose, be said to be speaking a more or less ‘corrupted’ form of that language. But it would then denote ‘language of an individual,’ which is an entirely different matter again. Now, the ‘corrupted’ speech of individual newcomers does not affect the original language of the group from whom it was adopted (unless the old group has been submerged by the new one and has taken over its language). gradually improve and שThe ‘individual language’ spoken by each newcomer w his children will, in the ordinary way, speak the ‘pure’ language of the majority. If, however, the newcomers are not absorbed singly but maintain their collective life, then the version they speak, even though it be at variance with the original language of adoption, fulfils the functions of a group language - it has its own norms, it is not unfit for use, not is it less suitable as a vehicle of expression and 6 Introduction communication than the language it is ‘descended* from, i.e., it is not a corrupted form of it. It is an independent language of its own. In short, there are no ‘corrupted’ languages. Hence, the linguistic structures formed by the Jews cannot be described as such. The word ‘corrupted’ has the connotation ‘ugly.’ In the case of a language it would mean that deviation from the accepted standard has rendered the resulting language ugly. But such a term would be inadmissible in this context, since beauty is something subjective, and, to the speaker of the ‘corrupted’ language, his form of speech would appear the more aesthetically satisfying.

1Jargons' The remarks in the preceding section apply also to the expression *jargon,’ which is sometimes applied in a simibr sense. But what about ‘jargon’ in its specific meaning: special lingo of a class, profession and the like? The members of a particular class, trade or other group speak the same language as the members of all the other classes, trades and so forth, of their people but they use a number of words and idioms connected with their particular sphere of activity. If the term ‘jargon’ is applied to these Jewish linguistic structures, then the implication is that their speakers are using the language of those about them, with the mere addition of a number of words and idioms connected with their particular activities as Jews. But this is obviously not the case here. ‘Jargon’ is therefore not a suitable designation.

Dialccts The various appellations we have been discussing are, more or less, tinged with a bck of sympathy for the speakers. When these Jewish linguistic structures are called ‘dialects’ then there is rather less criticism in that term - although, among laymen, the idea that dialect is something inferior is, no doubt, still prevalent enough and has by no means disappeared even among philologists. The term ‘dialect,’ as distinct from either language or standard language, means the speech of a certain region, closely connected with the speech of adjoining regions, and less closely so with the speech of more distant regions. The difference may be sufficiently great to make conversation between dialect speakers of widely separated regions impossible, e.g., between a cockney and a countryman from Lancashire, or between dialect speakers from Munich and Hamburg. And yet the former are both regarded as speakers of English and the latter two of German. But why are Dutchmen and Germans considered to be speaking different languages, when Dutch and Low German (Hamburg is in Low German territory) are, from a purely linguistic point of view, very closely related ? No linguistic 7 Jewish Languages borderline separates them, the political frontier cutting through certain dialects which they have in common. It would thus appear that the linguistic affinity which a number of regions have with each other does not, of itself, constitute the unity of the language. What does is the fact that a certain group of dialects owns an interdialectal means of written, and - in various degrees - of oral communication. The existence of a standard language symbolizes the unity of the language. Its origin, however, is not linguistic. It has not primarily sprung from the requirements of communication, although this element has played a role in its development. It is the political and/or cultural unity of the speakers of a particular group of dialects that provides the basis for a common Uterary or standard language. In the light of the foregoing, let us consider whether the linguistic structures of the Jews can be described as dialects. Take Yiddish and D£idy6, for example. Is Yiddish, the vehicle of expression employed by the Ashkenazim, a dialect of German in the same way as Bavarian or Alemannic ? Is Dfidy6, the language employed by the Sephardim, a dialect of Spanish in the same way as Andalusian or Aragonese ? The people of Bavaria and Andalusia are said to speak dialects of German and Spanish because they belong to the cultural groups caUed German and Spanish, whose unity found expression in the literary and standard languages. But did pre-Emancipation Jews in Germany constitute part of the cultural life of the Germans ? Certainly not. Did the Ashkenazim of Eastern Europe, at any time within the last nine centuries, form part and parcel of the cultural life of the Germans ? Obviously not. Did medieval Jewry in Spain form an integral part of the cultural life of the Spaniards ? Did the Sephardim in the countries round the Mediterranean ? Obviously not. As to the Sephardim, there was no longer even a connection with the territory of Spain (whereas the East European Ashkenazim were never completely cut off from contact of some sort or other with their kin in Germany). If a certain group does not form an integral part of a certain people, then their speech, even though it be *genetically’ related, cannot be called a dialect of that people’s language. Hence Yiddish, D2idy6, Parsic and Maaravic cannot be called dialects of German, Spanish, Persian and Maghrebinian Arabic.

*Judaea- plus ...’ Another, much favoured, type of designation is that which qualifies the name of a base language by the introductory word ‘Judaeo’: Judaeo-German, Judaeo- Persian, Judaeo-Spanish and the like. This qualification is used in the following two main senses: The name Judaeo-Spanish, for instance, might be intended to give a rough picture of an historical process, i.e., to describe a language which has 8 Introduction been developed from Spanish by Jews. On the other hand, the implication might be that, although containing certain Jewish elements, the linguistic structure in question is essentially a part of the Spanish language. The first of these explanations is open to the objection that it is out of keeping with linguistic usage and that it would otherwise be only consistent to speak of French as Gallo-La tin, or of Franco-German, Anglo-German or Norman-Anglo-Saxon instead of English. Where, however, Judaeo-Spanish simply means the Jewish section of the Spanish language, we must ask once more: If the group speaking ‘Judaeo-Spanish’ is not a section of the Spanish people, sharing their culture with the Spaniards, then how can their language constitute a part of the Spanish tongue ? This type of designation has been, and is, as a rule, used by scholars. In one case, however, a growing awareness of the true state of the matter has at last resulted in the almost complete abandonment of its use: The appellation *Judaeo-German’ has nearly everywhere been replaced by the name ‘Yiddish.’

‘Languages* We have passed in review a number of designations for the linguistic structures that have sprung up among the Jews, and have found them wanting. Will the last of these, that of ‘ languages,’ be more appropriate ? The definition of a language we have arrived at is: the oral and written means of communication and expression of a clearly defined cultural group. Since each group of Jews that has a linguistic structure of its own is such a cultural entity, its speech can only be described as a *language.’ Therefore when philologists interested in German, Spanish or Persian regard the ‘dialects of the Jews’ or the *Judaeo- plus ... languages’ as useful sources of information about earlier stages of German, Spanish or Persian, then, of course, that is ail to the good. But they mostly fail to realize that the Jews themselves, no less than their languages, are not merely peripheral points around the German, Spanish or Persian centre but that they are centres in their own right. There are other reasons too, why we are justified in using the term ‘languages.’ Although the designation ‘language’ cannot be based solely upon linguistic criteria: on phonetics, grammar and vocabulary (and if anybody set about trying to rearrange the languages of the world on the basis of these facts only, it would result in a very drastic revision of the existing pattern of classification), it is none the less clear that when two forms of group speech are essentially unlike each other, they can safely be called independent languages. The extent of their dissimilarity indicates that the history of their speakers is very different, that they belong to separate cultural groups. Upon the application of such a practical criterion, based on purely linguistic differences, a number of the linguistic structures of the Jews would inevitably qualify to be called languages. Take Yiddish, for example. There 9 Jewish Languages are not many words whose phonetical form is identical in Yiddish and German; there are sweeping differences in their inflectional and syntactical systems and in their word order; only small parts of the vocabularies of Yiddish and German are identical, since even the 50 to 60 per cent of the Yiddish vocabulary which is shaped from German material contains many new formations; and there is very great divergence of development on the semantic side even in the material which the layman might regard as identical. It would not be extravagant to consider the question as to whether the term *Jewish language’ might not be appropriate even if the language of a Jewish group and its non-Jewish parallel were to differ only in the alphabet employed. For difference of script is an unmistakeable sign that the writers of the languages live in separate cultural realms and the very difference is itself instrumental in creating what amounts to an insurmountable practical barrier between the written languages of the two groups. How many non-Jews, even of those scholars interested in one or the other of the Jewish languages, have overcome the barrier of the alphabet ? And how many pre-Assimilation Jews living in Germany were able to read German, or, how many of the Jews settled in the Near East or in North Africa were able to read Arabic, or Persian in Persia, notwithstanding the fact that they were everywhere perfectly able to converse with the non-Jews around them ? The same point applies, of course, to the relation between non-Jewish languages. The dissimilarity between ‘Greco-Turkish’ and ‘Arabo-Turkish’ was clearly very great, but even just another variety of the same script can ofTer real difficulties. It seems, for example, to be generally agreed that ‘Gothic’ script presents a great obstacle to the foreigner even though he may know German very well. And when the script appears in its handwritten form, the obstacle easily becomes insurmountable.

B/LANGUAGES OF JEWS AND JEWISH LANGUAGES

The existence of all these Jewish languages is a striking phenomenon. What does it signify ? New languages are, of course, perpetually coming into existence throughout history. Why that happens is sometimes obvious, as in the case of English, but at other times the reason is far from self-evident. What are the causes that have been at work behind the creativeness of the Jews in this field? We have been offered quite a choice of explanations: race, national spirit, conservatism, loyalty, migration, the ghetto, religion. Let us examine these in turn.

Race If we were to assume that every ‘race’ has its individual manner of apperception and reaction, then we might expect this fact to find linguistic expression. Since io Introduction

the Jews, like most or all other human groups, are a compound of various ‘races,’ we should first have to ascertain what the particular manner of apperception and reaction of each particular ‘race’ is. This would not be a simple matter. Next, we should have to establish how it would express itself in language. And following on this would be the task of extricating the various threads, intermingled and combined, which, in each language, correspond to the *racial’ constituents of the group in question. To do that is not feasible.

‘ The national spirit* According to another explanation, the ,national spirit’ of the Jews has to find an outlet in their languages of adoption, with the result that it reshapes the linguistic material in accordance with its own need and nature. But what is meant by ‘national spirit’? Is it, by any chance, just another name for the psychic characteristics of *race’? Or is it something more tangible: the sum total of the influences and results of this people’s history ? However that might be, the ‘national spirit’ is not, in itself, an adequate explanation, even though it might be a step in the right direction.

Conservatism It has often been noted that the Jewish languages contain phonological and morphological features, words and constructions which belonged to an earlier stage of non-Jewish languages but that have disappeared from these, either from the standard languages or from the dialects, or from both. Diidy6, for example, has the phonemes /5/ and /dz/ of Old Spanish, while modern Spanish has /x/ for both: Di, deldr - Sp. dejar /dexar/, Di. dzugar - Sp. jugar /xugar/. Yiddish has a word hait which has disappeared from German and English (where it survives only as a suffix: Kindheit, childhood, maidenhead). Forms like Yiddish Itdyny ‘Jewess,’ fuudym ‘thread’ correspond to the MHG jiidmne, vadem, where NHG has Judin, Faden. The construction visn zaan ‘to be informed’ in Yiddish corresponds to a general m hg construction consisting of the present participle plus the substantive verb, e.g., wi^ende sm, which has vanished in NHG. The presence of such ‘archaisms’ was, and perhaps still is, regarded by some as the distinguishing mark of the Jewish languages, these ‘archaic’ features being then attributed to Jewish conservatism - and that would explain the existence of those Jewish languages themselves. Although Jewish conservatism is an acknowledged fact, it has nothing to do with ‘archaisms.’ Any pair of cognate languages will furnish numerous examples of the same kind. English has preserved the old jtj where (High) German has /ts/, e.g., to - zu\ English has the verb to sell which 11 Jewish Languages has vanished from German, though it was still alive in m h g : sellen. It would not be reasonable to make the well known conservatism of the English people responsible for this fact. German, on the other hand, has preserved the vowel /e/ which English has changed into /i/, e.g., sehn [ze:n] - see [si:]. It is only when seen from a distorted angle that 1archaic* features assume disproportionate weight in the Jewish languages and are overlooked in their non-Jewish parallel languages. As seen from the perspective of Yiddish, German has preserved much more that is old than vice versa. For instance, there are no Yiddish cognates for many words, even essential ones: immer, niemand, uberall, langsam, beschutzen, empfangen\ standard German and half of the dialects continue to employ the preterite, which has disappeared from Yiddish. When, in speaking of ‘archaic' features in Jewish languages, such expressions as 1preservation of ancient treasures’ have been used, it would have been only consistent to do the same in comparing English and German, pointing out, for instance, that German has faithfully preserved a treasure such as Stuck ‘ piece,’ from m h g stuck, while Anglo-Saxon stycce was lost to English. It would not be easy to determine who are the better guardians of ‘ ancient treasures,’ the French or the Spanish, since the former kept alive the Latin femina (Fr femme) and the latter elected to preserve the Latin mulier (Sp mujer)!1 In fact, no special reasons need be sought for developments like these. Phonemes, words, forms, constructions come into being, develop and disappear within a language - mostly without relation to what is going on elsewhere. A form which is common to two languages today, will start developing along its own lines in either one tomorrow. It is therefore a matter of course that Yiddish, Diidy6 and other Jew ish languages should contain some forms which have died out in German, Spanish and other non-Jewish languages.

L o y a lty Another reason advanced for the existence of these languages has been the loyalty of the Jew towards his former homeland’s language. He is said faithfully to have taken it with him and clung to it in his new country. Is it reasonable, however, to assume that the mentality of the medieval deportees, refugees and emigrants from Germany and Spain would have been similar to that of present-day language nationalists or of Jewish assimilationists ? It does not seem necessary to assume particular conservatism or loyalty on the pan of the Jews in preserving the language they had adopted. It is entirely natural to adhere to one’s language. On the contrary, since the change-over to another language is a difficult process, it is not undertaken unless from strong pressure of circumstances. In their new homes the Ashkenazim and Sephardim found various

1 Sp ktm kr• < L it femim* is disqualified because it doc* not mean ‘woman’ but , female animal.’ 12 Introduction linguistic communities living side by side and did not meet with pressure of language nationalism, as we know it today. These facts, together with the fact that the Jews were generally living in compact groups and leading a concentrated Jewish life, explain why they did not abandon their languages in favour of the local *language of the country.‘

Migration Geographical separation is frequently given as the reason responsible for the re- moulding of the languages that the Jews adopted. This factor, which plays so important a role in linguistic history in general, doubtless explains much: the Jews who had left a certain territory, kept up, developed and discarded in their languages other elements than did the Gentiles who had stayed behind; the languages of the countries where the Jews settled exerted their influence, while that of their former homeland had ceased. But the geographical factor, i.e., emigration, is not present in the development of every Jewish language; it is not the general underlying cause for the creation of these tongues. The following are instances where, in spite of the absence of geographical separation, a Jewish language nevertheless grew up: West Yiddish, which existed about a thousand years in German-speaking territory; Italkian, which remained almost wholly on Italian soil; the Maaravic of North West Africa which differs in vocabulary, morphology and phonology from the Arabic of the Islamic neighbours of the Jews.

Ghetto This difference between the speech of the Jews and that of the Christians in whose midst they lived seemed so abnormal to the people of the post-Emancipation period that some striking reason had to be sought to account for it. This, they imagined, they found in the fact that the Jews were *compulsorily secluded from the national community, so that, confined to the ghetto, their speech lost contact with the general development.’ This is equivalent to the geographical explanation. But the ghettos were by no means cut off from the Gentile quarters. They were, on the whole, a measure to segregate the Jews into quarters of their own but not to lock them into a prison; Jews had to buy, trade and work outside the ghettos, too. There would still have been as much or more intercourse with the Gentiles of the same town in that period than there is often today between speakers of different dialects in the same country. Hence the geographical explanation does not hold in the case of the ghetto. While being a contributory factor it cannot have been the reason for the separate linguistic development of the Jews. Moreover, there were Jewish languages in existence previous to the ghetto and where there was no ghetto. !3 Jewish languages

Tht group-formmg factor None of the foregoing explanations adequately explains why and how the Jewish languages came into existence. The geographical explanation is relevant to some extent when applied to some of the Jewish languages, although it does not provide the whole explanation for them. The cause that we are seeking must be common to all of the Jewish languages. Could we not expect to find it expressed by the presence in all of them of certain common features? There are such features. All Jewish languages contain elements of Hebrew and Aramic origin and are written in Hebrew characters. Where do these Hebrew and Aramic elements come from ? And why are these languages written in Hebrew characters ? These elements belong to an uninterrupted development in speech and writing. They represent the present linguistic stage of a continuous process, previous stages of which had crystallized into the language of the Bible, that of the Mishna, the Gemara, the Prayers, etc. In other words, they are connected with the sphere of religion.* Language is an expression of group life. These elements are linguistic evidence that the groups employing them have their basis in religion. In other words: The group-forming factor among the Jews has been religion. That this is true of the past is beyond doubt, even if, in certain cases, it is controversial today. If the Jewish religion creates Jewish groups, and if group life creates language, then the Jewish languages have been the creations of religion.

Religion and script The religious basis of the Jewish languages is confirmed by their script. Though it might sound strange to many of us in this secularized world, it is none the less a fact that the script in which a language is written is, broadly speaking, decided by the religion of its speakers. Maltese, which is materially an ‘Arabic’ language, is written in Roman characters because the Maltese are a Christian people belonging to the Western Church; the same applies to the Croats, and they therefore use the same letters for Croatian, while Serbian, which to all practical purposes is identical with Croatian, is written in the Cyrillic characters employed by the Eastern Churches. Urdu is written in Arabic characters, those of the Koran, since it is an Islamic language; ‘High Hindi,' which is a Hinduized adaptation of Urdu, employs the Devanagari script, a Hindu inheritance. A long list of further examples could be provided. Cases where the religious factor has not been at least the historical cause for the use of a script seem to be rare, even if among

a That docs not imply that such word! are exclusively *religous term*.' On the contrary, only a small minority of them can be thus icy led. Moreover, these dements are not confined to the vocabulary but are to be found also in mast of the other linguistic spheres. 14 Introduction them we must number so important an exception as the adoption of the alphabet in antiquity by practically the whole of the Old World, apart from the Far East. When, in 1928, Roman characters were substituted in Turkey for Arabic ones on the order of Kemal Atatiirk, this was part of his Westernizing and secularizing policy. He did not realize - nor would he, of course, have cared if he had done so - that even this secularized West, together with its civilization, was not only built on Christian foundations but has continued to be essentially Christian.

Secularized Jewish language It may be asked: Is there not a powerful argument against acceptance of the thesis that religion has been the source of Jewish linguistic creation ? Does not the very existence of Jewish languages in the present disprove the argument ? Considerable sections of Jewry, more or less completely secularized, have continued to maintain their Jewish language. We ourselves have witnessed the rise of movements defi- nitely outside the sphere of religion, which base national life largely upon language. But this does not invalidate out argument. For even though its creator may no longer exist, the group docs not therefore inevitably have to disappear or lose its language. The change in the group’s nature will, however, find linguistic expression. Thus the language of the secularized Jews is not the same as that of their fathers or of their unsecularized brothers. If, for example, we compare the Yiddish or Diidezmu/Diidy6 of modern Jews with that of the traditionalists, it strikes us at once that the proportion of Hebrew and Aramaic elements has become much smaller, that it is often very small indeed, having been replaced by modern German elements in Yiddish, or by French ones in Dfidy6. This is a linguistic indication of the fact that the 1secularized sections’ have in reality become independent groups and that one ought not, logically, speak of a new development having started in Yiddish, for example, but that it would be more correct to say that Yiddish had begun to split up into two divergent languages.

Jewish linguistics The subject which we have treated in rough outline above is of fundamental importance for the vast field of Jewish linguistics and philology which is largely still virgin soil. Certain Jewish languages have been made the subject of research, and Yiddish here takes the first place, but what has been achieved is only a beginning in relation to what still needs to be undertaken. A very great deal less has been done for Dfidy6/D2idezmu and yet that little is much compared with the amount of research expended on the other - mostly small - Jewish languages. Id so far as its post-Biblical history is concerned, Hebrew itself is no exception. But even if the study of aU these Languages were much farther advanced, we should still be dealing only with the linguistics and philologies of various Jewish Languages but !5 Jewish Languages not yet with Jewish linguistics and philology, whose task would be the co-ordination of them. Such an undertaking obviously presents great difficulties. The history of the Jewish languages stretches through more than thirty centuries, and their far flung territories girdle half the globe: Palestine with Ancient Hebrew and Ancient West Aramic; Mesopotamia with Ancient East Aramic; Persia with Parsic; Central Asia with Bukharic; the Caucasus with Tatic of the Iranian family, and, presumably, Armenic of Indo-European, and Gurjic (in Georgia) of a Caucasian stock; Egypt, Byzantium and Greece with Yevanic; Italy with Italkian; Northern France with Zarphatic (extinct); the Iberian Peninsula with Catalanic, Portugesic (both extinct) and D4idy6, until 1492, and since then in the Mediterranean countries, with colonies overseas; Provence with Shuadit (extinct); Western Asia with Arvic, Temanic and New East Aramic; Eastern North Africa with Arvic; North West Africa with Maaravic and Berberic; Eastern Europe and countries extending round all the Seven Seas, with Yiddish, with remnants in Germany until World War 11; the Crimea with Crimchak of the Turkic family; India with small Jewish languages of the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian families; Eastern Europe and the Near East, with the Karaite languages of Hellenic, Semitic and Turkic stock, and finally, Samaritan. The field is indeed extensive. The Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

The earliest Jewish settlers in Eastern Europe were Byzantine Jews. During the first thousand years of the Christian era, they came from the Balkans and the Black Sea regions, that is, from East Rome and the Khazar Empire (which stretched from Kiev to the Caspian Sea and Armenia). They were followed by Jewish immigrants from the West of Europe, and were absorbed by these newcomers. We shall deal here only with those arrivals who settled in the north-western area of Eastern Europe. They had started coming from the tenth century onwards, arriving in successive waves that for several centuries rolled eastward from the Rhine - what is now Central Germany, Bavaria and Austria - to the lands of the Bohemian and Polish crowns, and from there on to the adjacent countries. These Jews are called Ashkenazim. To differentiate them from the people they left behind in their former homes, the West Ashkenazim, they can be called the East Ashkenazim. They are sometimes called East European, or Eastern Jews, but we shall not use either of these terms because the first does not take into account the existence of a number of other (less important and smaller) Jewish groups in Eastern Europe, and the second is open to the objection that *Eastern’ also has the special meaning of *Oriental,’ and the Oriental Jews are, of course, a different subject.

The East Ashkenazim By the tenth century the territorial distribution of the East Ashkenazim can be indicated by the following borderlines: in the west by the eastern frontiers of Germany, Moravia and Austria as they were in 1938, in the south by the Danube, in the north by the Finnish Gulf, in the east, before the Russian revolution, by the eastern frontiers of the Ukraine and White Russia. In other words, they lived side by side with Poles, Slovaks, Magyars, Rumanians, 17 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewiy

Ukrainians, Byelo-Russians, Estonians, Lithuanians and Letts, or to use political frontiers, they inhabited Poland, Galicia, Volhymia, Podolia, the Ukraine, Vallachia, Moldavia, Rumania and eastern Hungary. The Jews of Slovakia and western Hungary, together with those of Moravia and Bohemia, formed a transition group to the West Ashkenazim. The East Ashkenazic is the largest of all the Jewish groups. In about the year 1700, the whole Ashkenazic group formed approximately half of world Jewry, and before World War 11 the East Ashkenazim alone constituted three quarters of that population, roughly twelve miUion people. The slaughter of a very great part (about five million) of this community during that war created a new situation but it did not, of course, result in their extinction. Parts of the Polish, Hungarian and Rumanian Jewries and the majority of Soviet Jewry escaped annihilation, and there was and is East Ashkenazic life outside Eastern Europe too.

Social structure Let us first examine the social structure which formed the basis of East Ashkenazic life. It will be helpful to compare its conditions with those that existed among the Jewries of Western Europe. Here there was practically one class only, the middle class, with little diflferen- tiation into higher and lower strata. Among the East Ashkenazim, however, the position was more like that of other peoples, having all the elements of a normal social stratification. There was a large working class, both of the artisan and indus- trial type, various groups belonging to the middle class, as well as a fanner class. The latter consisted partly of old established farmers and partly of new ones who grew to prominence in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries - the result of spontaneous economic development on the one hand and organized enterprise on the other. There were farmers in many places, from Bessarabia to Lithuania and from the Crimea to the Carpathians, where (in Ruthenia) Khassidic farmers tilled the soil in their traditional Jewish garb. Here, as pre-War statistics reveal, 2$ per cent of the Jewish population were engaged in agriculture. That was about twenty times higher than the percentage among the German Jews of that time (the early thinies). Other penincnt figures are: 18 per cent among the Jews of Galicia, and 10 per cent in White Russia. It might be of interest to compare the general, non- Jewish, figure for Great Britain, which was 7 percent, for Canada 28 per cent, and for the United States of America 2$ per cent. A corresponding picture is presented by the other end of the sociological statistics. While $0 per cent of the German Jews were active in commerce and finance, Soviet Jewry counted only 19 per cent, the Jews of Ruthenia 25 per cent, and those of Galicia 30 per cent in these areas of endeavour. 18 Introduction

Cultural structure Let us imagine ourselves in a city of Eastern Europe before World War 11 - Cracow, for example. We wander through an attractive modern city, the centre of which has preserved much of its medieval beauty. Suddenly our senses tell us that we have entered some other world. The people who meet our eyes are in a garb completely different from what we had been seeing only a moment ago. The expressions on their faces are worlds apart from the expressions of the others. Our ears hear a language so unlike what we had heard in those other streets, that we could tell at once that it is a different one, even if we did not know either of them. From innumerable windows and doors unusual sounds reach us. They come, we learn, from congregations at prayer - those windows and doors belong to places of worship, ranging from small rooms in residential buildings to large institutes of study and houses of prayer - where, in an uninterrupted succession, divine services follow each other from early dawn until almost noon, and then again in the after- noon, evening and night. Even if we had not known before what part of the town we were now in, we would have realized at once that we had entered the Jewish quarter by the fact that all the men, including youths, had beards.

Territorial concentration The existence of a purely Jewish quarter was a fact of great significance in Eastern Europe. In the countries of the West it was different: a Jewish district here was one with a certain percentage, mostly a fairly small one, of Jewish inhabitants, and where there was a real Jewish quarter it had more often than not been created by East Ashkenazic immigrants. In many regions of Eastern Europe the towns had been for all the centuries of their existence predominantly Jewish enclaves in a Gentile countryside. Even where the Jews were only a minority, it was generally a large one. Where the Jews comprised somewhat more than a fifth of the population, as in our example, Cracow, the percentage might be regarded as rather low. In Warsaw, for instance, with its third of a million Jewish inhabitants, the figure was one third; in many medium- sized centres they constituted up to 90 per cent, in somewhat smaller towns the percentages often approached 100. It may not be out of place here to say a few words about the explanation that has sometimes been given for this territorial concentration. We are told that the Jews were forced into ghettos. However, the real explanation is, of course, that it is natural for migrating ethnic groups to settle in districts of their own, whether urban or rural, and such settlements are to be found all over the world and are not confined to Jews. There was no ghetto in New York, for instance, to assemble its millions of Jews. !9 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

Cultural community A visit to a Jewish town, or to the Jewish quarter of a town in Eastern Europe made it clear to a Westerner that the Jews here formed a separate cultural entity. The Jews of Western and Central Europe, however, did not. There were no such distinct outlines - the borderlines between them and their Gentile surroundings were more than blurred. They had the same educational background as their respective neighbours, the same general outlook and practically identical customs. Apart from certain traces in the speech of some, the language they spoke was the same as that of the Gentiles around them. They took an active and creative part in their literature and a passive one by reading it. The little which was written there for Jews as such cannot be called a Jewish literature. It follows from all this that they were split up into as many groups as were the civilizations in whose territories they lived.

Cultural autonomy With the East Ashkenazic Jew's it was otherwise. The cultural borderlines between them and their Gentile neighbours were not blurred. In other words, they were unmistakably a people apart - a distinctive ethnic or national group. They had their own religion, their own language, their own literature, their own customs and costumes. Thus, in the cultural sphere, they lived an autonomous life. It was not merely a slightly coloured variant of somebody else*s life: nor was it ruled by laws that had grown from another people’s soul, or measured with a standard derived from another people’s nature. Not only did they form a distinctive cultural group in each country where they lived, but all these groups together constituted a unity. There were, of course, regional differences, but they by no means coincided with the political frontiers. The differentiation resulting from political frontiers dividing them was slight or nil.

Religion Let us now examine some of the aspects that made up the internal life of East Ashkenazic Jewry. We shall start with religion. In the West of Europe, extensive Jewish strata had only an extremely loose connection with religion, or none at all. This resulted from assimilation to their surroundings. Modem Western civilization, especially in the big towns, and it was mainly these which the Jews inhabited, is not very favourable to religion. The Judaism of those who had somewhat more connection with religion, even the traditional Judaism of the Orthodox, was coloured by Gentile influence. In the East of Europe, however, Judaism still existed in an undiluted form. Nothing was, perhaps, more characteristic than the existence of religious folk 20 Introduction songs (religious lyrical poetry) and the role of these in everyday life. Here are a few examples, the first being one from a group centring round the Deity:

Forest, oh Forest, how big you are. Bride, oh Bride, how far you are When the forest will be taken away Wc shall come together one day.

Exile, oh Exile, how long you are God, oh God, how far you are When the exile will be taken away We shall come together one day.1

The next specimen is characteristic of a group whose subject is the Jewish people in its relation to God:

1 was once a shepherd and I took my flock to the pasture land. But soon I fell asleep. And when I woke I had no sheep. Then on my fiddle I sadly played, My sheep are stolen lost or strayed. And I began to weep.

As I walked along the way, I met a man with a load of hay. I thought I saw the heads of my sheep, But there were none though 1 rummaged deep. Then on my fiddle I sadly played, My sheep are stolen lost or strayed, And I began to weep.

So I wandered on until I found myself upon a hill; And on the hill I saw a heap - I thought they were the bones of my sheep, But they were stones. Then I sadly played, My sheep are stolen lost or strayed, And I began to weep.1

1 Translated by Joseph Lefrwich. Front bis anthology Tht Goldtn PtKock (London 1939). 21 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

During a short stay in Galicia in 1930 I heard a variant of this song which makes its religious meaning quite clear. Here is the last verse:

So he did wander further, To a hill of straw came he, And his sheep he there did see. And he began to cry: *Oh sheep, my little sheep! And now my sheep are here again, And now my sheep are here again, Are here, are here again.’ He took his fiddle and began to play: Falee, falee, falah, falay, ‘And now I can go home to you, To you, to you, my Master, Because my sheep are here again, Because my sheep are here again, Are here, are here again - Kyvakuuras roiy edroi בי•Maavir coinoi taxas sivtoi.3

The name of the author of the next specimen is known: it was written by Esther Shtub, a girl of twelve, in a German concentration camp, during the building of hutments.

One, two, three, When will we be free ? Barefoot, tattered, lone and hungry, Where is Dad and where is Mummy P God! It breaks the heart in me.

One, two, three, Each day eternity. Dragging planks and bricks and stones, Oh! the weight of dead men’s bones. God! It breaks the heart in me.

2 The two last lines, in Hebrew, are from a very solemn prayer in which God is compared with a shepherd: ‘Like as a shepherd counts his flock, / As the sheep pass beneath his staff.’ 3 Translated by Irene Birabaum. 22 Introduction

One, two, three. Lord, I cry to Thee. Mass graves, corpses crowded high, Children without mothers lie. It breaks the heart in me. One, two, three, We turn our eyes to Thee. Fulfil Thy word: Yisruuel3* Khaay, Israel1 lives and will not die. God! We wait for Thee.3 Finally, a little song: n״And can we scale heav And demand to know: *Must it be so, my God, Does it have to be so ?’ It must be so, It has to be so, It cannot on earth Be other than so.3b These verses possess something characteristic of the East Ashkenazic religious atmosphere. What, we might ask, are the theoretical essentials from which they emanate ? Perhaps they may be described somewhat as follows. The Universe is the work of a Conscious Will. All natural and moral existence have their origin in an all-powerful Creator. Hence joyous surrender to his law must be the basis of human thought and action. Man is essentially a spiritual and moral being and must give precedence to the spiritual over the material, and to the ethical over the aesthetic. He must go further, he must completely spiritualize the material sphere, and saturate it with religious substance, from the highest to the most trifling of daily acts, so that there can be no separation between sacred and profane. There must be an absolute infusion of everything with religious content and meaning. Thus, Judaism is a way of living for the totality of life, and this fact is never allowed to be absent from consciousness, through the use of rites and symbols, whose purpose it is to lift man out of the material onto the spiritual plane.

}a I.e., the Jewish people (this poem was published in 1945). See the original on p. 1S9. 3b See the original on p. 174. 23 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

All action must be based on the observance of God’s will, and this will has found expression in the written teaching, the Bible, and the oral tradition handed down in the Talmud. This and the superstructure built upon this basis may, to one outside the tradition, have a somewhat bewildering, legal appearance. But within it there is room for a whole range of religious experience and cultural self-expression. Life here is by no means static or rigid. There is change and development within the confines of these laws and regulations, although the foundation and framework remain unaltered. This is weU exemplified in the movement of Chassidism.

Literature The central position of religion in the life of the East Ashkenazim is naturally reflected in their literature, which consists mainly of religious books. It must, however, be borne in mind that for Judaism there is no sharp division between the sacred and profane. Thus elements which in other literatures might be classified under various headings are here included under that of religion. A very great part of the writings is devoted to the theoretical elucidation of the Talmud and to discussions about the concrete application of its results to problems old and new. Many of those works gained importance not merely for their con- temporaries but have become national possessions and have been in constant use for centuries. There is no pure fiction in the Hebrew branch of this literature, but the fic- tional clement is not entirely lacking. We find it breaking through and enlivening all sorts of books. There is a greater amount of it in the Yiddish branch, which is of a more general character because its circle of readers is wider. The Hebrew section has been not only the literature of the East Ashkenazim but, to all intents and purposes, the Jewish literature ever since the sixteenth century, when that community emerged as the cultural centre of world Jewry.

The East Ashkenazic dress Dress plays a significant role in the religious life of the East Ashkenazic Jews. Those outside the East Ashkenazic tradition will view the distinctive Jewish garb as a ‘folk costume’ or ,national dress.’ By its wearers, however, it is considered to be a religious duty. While in the non-Chassidic traditional strata distinctive religious dress had gradually been losing ground, the Chassidim defended it vigorously and did not give it up. The explanation that it is just the old Polish costume, is not any truer than is the description of Yiddish as just an old German dialect. It is no accident that when a (non-Jewish) artist wants to paint a Jew, he, as a 24 Introduction rule, chooses an old-world type in his flowing garments. Is it not because he is attracted by the harmony between the psychic and physical aspect of his mode! ? Perhaps the following episode will illustrate this point. Some fifty years ago, in Russia, an aged Armenian university professor confided to a modern Jewish writer that he was a Shambat, a crypto-Jew, a descendant of the Ten Tribes. This is how he put it: ‘I experienced two pogroms in Kiev. I'll tell you the truth. When a person like you [he meant a modem, secularized Jew] was beaten up, it touched me, it hurt me. But when I saw a man with a beard being beaten up, a man with pious, frightened, sad eyes, then I felt like shouting: “Don’t touch him! He is my flesh and blood! Beat me instead!” Oh, the eyes of pious Jews! And what becomes of that quiet grace of theirs when they get secularized ? ’

Secularization The East Ashkenazim did not remain unaffected by the ever increasing secularization of Europe. First the secularizing influence of the Gentile world and their final initiative, in the form of Emancipation, breached the walls of Western Jewry and created a Jewish Enlightenment movement. Very soon this spread to Eastern Europe. But while, in the West, it had by the middle of the nineteenth century succeeded in practically breaking up the Jewish community there - that is, in destroying the Jewish national body - its effect in the east was very restricted. This was due to the greater power of resistance resulting from a deeper and wider development of group life, assisted by greater absolute and proportionate numbers. The process worked so slowly there that it was not until well into the twentieth century that the secularized section of the East Ashkenazim ceased to be merely a minute fraction of the whole. The number of East Ashkenazim in Europe alone, before World War 11, was about equal to the population of a medium-sized country like Holland or Belgium. The largeness of this figure resulted in the secularized section being of considerable numerical size, even when it still constituted only a very small percentage of the community as a whole. This was one of the reasons why outsiders sometimes carried away the erroneous impression that a traditional East Ashkenazic Jewry no longer existed, or that, if it did, it had become so small as to have lost all importance. Such a view was, in addition, strengthened by the remoteness of this group and its reserve, which contrasted strongly with the activeness of the secularized section and its contact and involvement with the Gentile world.

Nationalism We have mentioned that the process of secularization had a very different effect on the East Ashkenazim than on their kinsmen in the West, where it had atomized 25 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry the national community of the Jews. The individuals were absorbed, even if imper- fectly, into the national communities of their homelands. But in the East such absorption of an individual into the cultural body of a surrounding majority was the exception. The intensity of the autonomous cultural life of the Jews here, the mass character of their social structure and the nature of nineteenth-century ideas - all these directed the change into a different channel. The new goal was also assimilation to the Gentile world, but in a different way. It was not, as in the West, the problem of the relationship between the individual Jew and his Gentile environment that had to be solved. The problem here was the relationship of that particular part of the Jewish nation to the Gentile nation of its surroundings, as part of the relationship of the Jewish nation to the nations of the world. The Jewish position was recognized to be what it actually was: unusual, abnormal. There was nothing new in that: the traditional conception had been that, too. But there was this difference: it was now no longer recognized as being part of God's world plan. The secularized mind refused to accept this. If by force of historical circumstances the position of the Jews had become what it was, then human effort must be directed towards transforming it. If the Jewish people had ceased to be like the others, then it must revert to normality. The secularized section became conscious secularizers. It was up to them to bring about a change. They regarded themselves as the vanguard of the new Jewish people, a nation in the making. Already in the early stages of this metamorphosis, the seeds of subsequent differentiation were present, and in the late decades of the nineteenth century we witness the rise of most of the movements which loom so large in the twentieth. One of the results of this metamorphosis was the birth of a new literature. It did not grow organically out of the traditional literature and did not finally supplant it. Traditional literature remained alive. To be precise, we ought to speak of two East Ashkenazic literatures, each in turn subdivided by a linguistic borderline. e.g., on the basis of language - would in this ־ Any other drawing of the frontiers case be artificial. The secularized literature was bom in the throes of a fierce struggle against traditional Judaism. Europeanization was its goal and European literature became its model. At first artistic achievement was slender but with the maturing of the ideological process a high standard of literary excellence was reached. Among the authors of the secularized literature in Hebrew and Yiddish - young as it was - there were a large number of outstanding personalities. In the Hebrew branch some of the basic values of Judaism were at first retained, in theory, and some attempt at synthesis was made. But later, complete Westerni- zation became the conscious and subconscious goal. At this stage the actual distance 26 Introduction from tradition had become so great that the conflict with it lost its urgency, and we even meet with a theoretical appreciation of old values, but without a desire to incorporate them. The earlier tendency towards aggression had not been quite outgrown, however. There were still occasional attacks on Judaism, in the form of neo-paganism - passionate homage being paid to Hellas - combined with a violent hatred of Juda- ism. The modern nationalist movements are the ideological soil on which most of modem Hebrew literature grew up. The ideological basis of the secularized literature in Yiddish was somewhat less uniform, because the Socialist idea played as big a role here as did nationalism. Many authors wrote in both languages, and so we have, in the person of Mendale Moicher Sfuurem, at one and the same time the creator of modern Yiddish style and the father of its modem Hebrew counterpart.

Chassidism Chassidism, a pan of the mystical current that has never ceased to flow throughout Jewish history, is a religious movement that arose in the second quarter of the eighteenth century among East Ashkenazic Jewry, and was destined to win over the majority of the people. It brought about far reaching change, yet remained faithful to the principles and practices of traditional Judaism. When its founder, Israel Baal-Shem (1698-1760), said ‘I have come into the world to show a new path’ he did not mean a road away from traditional Judaism but one leading to new heights of religious experience within its confines. Here are a few shon passages from a large corpus of his sayings as reponed by his disciples.*

*The whole of the Torah and the whole of the Universe contain nothing but the light of the Infinite, which is latent in them. All such sentences as “ There is nought beside Him.” “ The whole earth is filled by His glory,” “ Heaven and earth are filled by Me,” are to be understood literally: there is no place, no event, no word and no thought in which the essence of the Deity is not immanent and concentrated. Hence he who contemplates all the things which are stretched forth before his gaze, with the eye of understanding, and regards, not merely their extension and outwardness but penetrates to their inward- ness and life, will see only the Divine Power which animates them, giving them existence, and which, at all times and seasons, preserves them in life.’3

4 He spoke, of courae, in Yiddish. His words were transmined verbally in that language, but wben some of the hearers, or hearers at second hand, recorded them in writing, it was done, as a matter of course, in Hebrew. 27 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry

Another passage:

‘ If a man suddenly looks into the face of a beauteous woman, or if he beholds some other fair or lovely thing, let him forthwith consider the well-spring of that beauty. Indeed, it is none other than the Divine Power which flows throughout the world ... Beauty issues from the heights: Wherefore should I then desire only a small part of it? Far better is it to strive after the whole, the source of all individual beauty.’3

Or again:

‘Let not a man imagine he is better than his fellow because he serves God with utter devotion. For everyone serves Him to the extent of the knowledge and understanding given him by his Maker. Even the worm performs its service within the limits of the strength that has been given it by God.*3

Here is an allegory:

A mighty king built a great palace with many chambers, one within the other. Many walls were around it, each surrounded by the other. Only one gate was open, and facing it were many doors. He who entered saw beautiful pictures as well as costly vessels in plenty. The king dwelt in the innermost chamber, far removed from him who entered. When the building of the palace had been completed, the princes of the realm and the great men of the land were asked to visit the king. But upon arrival at the palace gate, they found it barred and the doors locked. They now asked each other in surprise: 4How shall we get in ?’ All they perceived was wall upon waU. They stood thus a long time, when, at last, the king's son came and spoke to them: *Do you not know that the entire palace is un- real ? No walls are here, no gate, no door. The space here is empty - it stretches unconfined in all directions. My father, the king, is standing before you.’9

From a letter:8

On New Year 5507® my soul made an ascent... I saw wonderful visions, the like of which I had not seen since I attained to knowledge. What I saw and learnt during the ascent it would be impossible to report and describe, even if we spoke face to face. When I returned to the Lower Paradise, I saw many souls of the living and of the dead, some of them known to me, others unknown - their number was infinite - hastening from all directions in order to ascend from world to world by way of the Pillar which is known to those versed in

5 Written in Hebrew. 6 I.e., autumn 1746. 28 Introduction occult wisdom. Their joy was very great - the tongue would grow faint in describing, and the ear in hearing, it. Many of the wicked repented and their sins were forgiven; for it was a time of abundant grace.3

Another passage from this letter:

And in the vision I saw Samael7 soar upwards with incomparable glee to bring accusations. And he wrought doom and destructions for many, who were to die a terrible death. Horror seized me and I staked my life and besought my teacher and master* to accompany me, as the ascent into the Upper Worlds is very perilous. For since I became what I am, I had never before attained to such a height. Step by step I ascended until I entered the Palace of the M essiah.... And there I saw exceedingly great joy. But I did not know the reason for that joy. I believed it had been caused, God forbid, by my death in this world. But they told me that I had not yet died - nay more, that they take delight in my unifica- tions8 - here on earth - that have their source in their holy exposition of God’s word. But to this day the reason for their joy remains unknown to me. I asked the Messiah: ‘When wilt thou come, my lord ?’ To which he replied: ‘When thy doctrine shall have spread and become manifest, and what I have taught thee, and thou hast learnt, will be poured forth abroad, and when (all) men shall have the power to effect the same unifica- tions and ascents as thyself - then shall all the World of Evil vanish, and the time of grace and salvation be at hand.’ And I was amazed and sorely troubled at the length of time that must pass before this would be possible.’3

Here is a passage from one of the Tales of Nachmen of Braslev (1772-1810), a grandson of Israel Baal-Shetn. He was himself a Chassidic master, and told these talcs to his disciples, one of whom wrote them down and published them, after Nachmen's death, in Hebrew and Yiddish. It is not easy to classify the Tales. ,Allegories' is perhaps a suitable name. They are a quaint combination of fantastic, Cabbalistic and even fairy-tale elements welded together to form creations of considerable originality.

There is a hill and on that hill is a stone. From that stone runs a spring. And each thing has a heart. And the world as a whole has a heart. And the heart of the world is a complete form with a face and with hands and feet. Only the nail on the toe of the heart of the world is more heart than any other heart. And the hill with the spring is at one end

7 In the original: t.m ., i.e., atra mcsuabha ‘the Unclean Principle.' 8 The prophet Elijah. 9 I.e., the Linking up of the parts of the Divine names which are scattered and concealed within the words of the Prayers. This linking up causes the apparent separation between God and the World to disappear. 29 Cultural Structure of East Ashkenazic Jewry o f the world, and the heart of the world is at the other end of the world. And the heart is opposite the spring. And it longs and yearns always to reach the spring. And the longing and yearning of the heart for the spring is wild. And it is always crying out because it wants to reach the spring. And the spring craves for the heart. And the heart has two afflictions. One because the sun pursues it and scorches it because it yearns for the spring and longs to reach it, and the other because of its yearning and longing. But when the heart must rest a little, a big bird comes flying there and spreads out its wings, and hides the sun from it. Then the heart rests a little. Yet even then it looks across to the spring, and it yearns for the spring. And as it stands facing the hill it secs the top of the hill where the spring is. But as soon as it tries to move towards the hill it no longer sees the top, and it can no longer see the spring. And it might, God forbid, die of longing. And if the heart died, God forbid, of longing, the whole world would be annihilated, because the heart is the life of every living thing. And how can the world exist without the heart? And the spring has no time, for it has no day and no time in the world at all, for it is above the time of the world. And the time of the spring is only when the heart gives it a day as a gift. And when the day is about to end, they begin to bid each other farewell, the heart and the spring, and they tell each other parables and sing songs to each other, with great love and great longing. And the true man of grace has charge over it all. And as the day draws to its end the true man of grace and good deeds comes and gives the heart a day, and the heart gives the day to the spring, and so the spring again has a day. And when the day comes it also comes with parables and with songs in which all the wisdoms are. And there are differences between the days, for there are Sundays and Mondays and so on, new moons and festivals. And each day comes with its own songs, according to the day.1

The ascetic element in religion which played an important part at the time when Chassidism came into being, now receded far into the background. Israel Baal- Shem said: ‘Self-mortification is unnecessary ... All worship must spring from joy ... If a prayer be uttered in great joy, it is doubtless more precious and pleasing to God than a prayer uttered with tears and lamentations... Weeping is exceedingly bad since man should serve his Maker in joy. But when weeping has its source in joy, then, and then only, is it very good.’3 The emphasis on joy led to greater fervour and spontaneity in worship and thus to more singing and dancing. Serene joy is the keynote - the dance does not over- step the line of coherence, there are no ecstatic shrieks or anything akin to the magic dance of primitive peoples. 30 Introduction

The intrinsically religious nature of the Chassidic dance will become clear from an episode in a Nazi extermination camp which 1 heard related by a survivor who witnessed the event. A large number of Jewish youths were assembled outside the gas chamber within view of the ovens where they were to be cremated. They did not give way to terror and despair but broke into a religious folk song and dance. Their last act was an expression of faith. Perhaps the following song by Levi Isaac Barditchever, a famous Chassidic master of the eighteenth century, will convey some idea of the atmosphere from which such acts as these are born. Almighty God, Lord of the Universe, Almighty God, Lord of the Universe Almighty God, I shall sing you a You-song, You - You - You, You - You - Where can I find you ? And where can I not find you ? You - You - You -. You - You -

For wherever I go - You! And wherever I stand - You! Always You, only You, again You, forever You - You - You - You, You - You!

If things are good - You! Alas, bad-You 1 You - You - You - You - You - You! You - You - You - You - You - You!

East - You! West - You! North - You! South - You! You - You - You You - You - You You - You - You!

Heaven, You! Earth, You! Above, You I Below, You! You - You - You, You - You - You.

You - You - You, You - You - You, You - You - You! Wherever I turn, wherever I move, You - You!1 PART TWO

A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE YIDDISH LANGUAGE

The External History of Yiddish

We know very little about the earliest period of Jewish history in Europe. The first communities were situated, of course, in the Mediterranean area. From here the Jews moved northwards within the Roman Empire. They had long before ceased speaking Aramic. The immigrants who crossed the Adria westwards into Italy and beyond soon exchanged their Yevanic (‘Judaeo-Greek’) language for Latin, and later developed Jewish offshoots of the neo-Latin languages. The regions which today form northern France were called by the Jews Tsarfat (a town mentioned in the Bible, English Zarephat), hence my name Zarphatic for the language1 of the Jewish community in northern France and for their type of Hebrew script.8 From here some migrated eastward to those parts of the German speech territory which are now its west-central and southern regions. For various reasons this movement was not continuous. Sometimes emigration resulted mainly from general economic causes, and took place side by side with German migrations, sometimes it was caused by persecution, massacres or expulsions, especially in the centuries between the Crusades and the Black Death. In the tenth century waves of Jewish emigrants reached the Elbe, in the eleventh the eastern frontiers were crossed and so Jewish settlements arose in Slavonic speaking regions, partly within the political frontiers of the Empire, as in Bohemia and Moravia, partly outside them, as in Silesia (which only later became incorporated), or, as in Poland, which did not come under western rule until modern times, and then only partly. From Poland Yiddish spread to the north and to the east, i.e., to Lithuania, Byelo-Russia and the Ukraine, and thence again northwards to the Baltic countries and southwards to the Rumanian regions. In Germany itself progress northwards seems to have been rather late; the sea coast (Hamburg) was not reached until

1 Sec p. 15. 2 See the work □ ltd an p. 360, No. 756, voL 1: 395-300, voL u , No*. 318-34. 34 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language the early seventeenth century. At about the same time the North Sea was also reached in the Netherlands and, at the end of the century, in Denmark. In the west, Alsace marked the border line of Yiddish. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Yiddish proceeded southward, crossing the Alps, and was spoken in northern Italy. The main trend of Yiddish was, however, towards the east. From here, in the seventeenth century, there was a movement back to the west caused by the Cossack massacres, but it seems to have been very slight. On the other hand, the migration which set in during the latter part of the nineteenth century was on a large scale. The pogroms of 1881 started a new era in the geography of Yiddish. A big wave began to roll westward. It left groups of various sizes in the West European countries, but its main impact was on the United States and, to a lesser degree, only to ,נ on other lands beyond the sea. The tide was checked by World War start afresh upon its conclusion in spite of restrictions on both emigration and immigration. The result was remarkable. In 1880 East European Yiddish had hardly any outposts at all, whereas before World War ii the outposts themselves comprised about a third of all those who spoke the language.

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

Western Europe In all the many centuries of its life prior to the Enlightenment, the existence of Yiddish had been an accepted fact that did not call for enquiry. Like the other languages of Europe, its literary use was restricted. Hebrew functioned as the real literary medium and as the general means of written communication, its role being similar to that played by Latin in relation to the European vernaculars. However, among the Jews this state of affairs continued for a much longer time, until fairly recently. When a change did begin to take place in the eighteenth century, it came as a result of the Enlightenment. For those involved in the Jewish Enlightenment movement, Yiddish then ceased to be an accepted fact and was seen as a problem. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries scholars in Germany had accepted Yiddish as a perfectly natural phenomenon, something belonging to Jewish life, but those of the Jews who were caught up in the European Enlightenment desued to get rid of the so-caUed *peculiarity’ of the Jews and of all that lay at the root of their specifically Jewish life. Theoretically this was not difficult, since, on the basis of the new ideas, life could be divided into two distinctly separate spheres: the religious and the secular. And so they aimed at confining Jewish ‘peculiarity* to the religious sphere. Formally, the conception that Jewish otherness rests upon religion was not 35 The External History of Yiddish even inconsistent with the views of the preceding periods, when the essential difference between Jew and Gentile lay in religion, in so far as the consciousness of both was concerned. But the likeness was only superficial. Both the notion and reality had now changed. Religion no longer took an essential place in the lives and philosophy of the Enlightenment Jews. Thus they were not able to recognize that there was a connection between Judaism and Yiddish, and that there was a reason why the Jews, as adherents of a particular religion, should speak a language of their own, although they clearly were not a nation like the others (and only a nation was supposed to have a language). Moreover, Yiddish as the language of an ethnic group would have involved the idea that the state could contain more than one people or ‘ nation.’ Do we not see, even today, after many decades of discussion, that the idea of ‘nationality’ and state as ex-centric circles is incomprehensible to many, and that people were and are persecuted for wanting to ‘form a nation,’ a *state within a state’ ? It is not surprising that the Jews in Germany did not see these things more clearly two centuries ago. Wherever they turned they were confronted with the idea and ideal of the ‘national’ state, the one-people nation, the one-nation state - they were coerced into conformity. They could not have thought of themselves as a ‘national’ unity. It would have been in contradiction to the ,spirit of the age,’ as expressed in the famous formula coined by Count de Germont-Tonnerre when he asked in the French National Assembly that the scope of the Declaration of the Rights of Man should be extended to the Jews. He asked that nothing should be granted to the Jews as a people, but everything to the Jews as individuals. So the Jews of Germany turned into ‘Germans of the Jewish persuasion’ - to employ the corresponding English expression of a somewhat later period - and Yiddish became an unpleasant fact and a stumbling block. They began to be ashamed of what they regarded as ‘ bad German ’ and to despise it. Such feelings naturally culminated in the endeavour to be rid of it. This, as a part of the general complex of assimilation, seemed an easy matter. By the middle of the nineteenth century Yiddish had almost ceased to exist in Germany. There was a constant stream of Jews passing from the provinces to the big towns and cities, and here very many of them, or else their children, abandoned the Jewish way of life. It is true that in the little towns and villages whence they had come the traditional life of the Jewish religion lived on and with it the Yiddish language, particularly in the Hessian and Franconian areas. A similar development took place only a very little later in the neighbouring countries: Bohemia and Moravia,3 the Netherlands and Alsace. However, some traces of Yiddish did survive in the orthodox communities of even the large cities. But at the present day the last remnants of the Yiddish of these regions are becoming extinct with the 3 In these two countries, during the 1930s, there were several thousand people who knew Yiddish and probably several hundred who still spoke it. 36 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language lives of the people who managed to escape ‘the final solution of the Jewish problem’ by the National Socialists, and who were scattered all over the globe.

Eastern Europe In Eastern Europe Yiddish met with a different fate. The ideas of the Enlighten- ment reached the Jews here too, but for a long time they fell on stony ground, spreading at a very slow rate. There were various reasons for this. Quantity played a large though not decisive role. There were millions who spoke the language and they lived together in compact masses. Many of the towns had Jewish majorities, often approaching too per cent. A period of high spiritual florescence had occurred in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and its effect was still great. Indeed, in the main part of the territory, a new religious mass movement, Chassidism, came into being at the very time when the Jewish Enlightenment began to spread both in the West and the East. Chassidism proved to be a strong barrier against secularization and its ensuing result, loss of Jewish identity. Until well into the twentieth century the movement towards secularization was, in the East, still restricted to small circles. For instance, in Poland in the 1930s the proportion of traditional Jews to secularized Jews was something like 4:1. Thus the big block of traditional Jewry was the natural centre of the Yiddish language. In Russia, which included Poland, when the 1897 census was taken, 98-99 per cent of the Ashkenazic Jews declared their mother tongue to be Yiddish. This tiny loss of speech territory marked, however, the beginning of the process that had wrought such havoc in the West, i.e., secularization, which went hand in hand with loss of native language. But history does not repeat itself in exactly the same way. In Eastern Europe events followed a different course. As might be expected, some of those who had become secularized adopted the Russian or Polish languages, but a very considerable portion did not jettison their mother tongue. We use the word ‘secularization’ as a general term to classify and explain some elements which assumed very different shapes but which go back to the same root. What happened here was that people estranged from religion took over the prevalent ideas of the secularized non-Jewish world. In the nineteenth century the ‘national’ idea was prevalent, and it took hold of the minds of the secularized Jews, too. Hence, a modern secularized type of Jewish nationalism grew up, which replaced the old conception of the Jews as a ‘peculiar people.’ In modern nationalism language is apt to play an essential role; it often means almost everything. Hence, language became a very important factor in modem Jewish nationalism too. With characteristic complexity, linguistic nationalism among European Jews during the last seven decades has been based not simply on one language but on one of two: either Hebrew or Yiddish. 37 The External History of Yiddish

The attitude of hostility towards Yiddish that had been initiated by the advo- cates of assimilation during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was, in turn, taken up by the champions of modern Hebrew nationalism during the last part of the nineteenth century and afterwards. Many of the contentions and criticisms that had been levelled against the great European languages before they received recognition and acceptance among their own peoples were now flung against Yiddish by its antagonists from both camps, assimilationists and Hebrew nationalists. Let us enumerate some of them. Yiddish was referred to contemptuously as ‘jargon,’ as a patchwork of various languages. Critics said that it is not a language at all, since it has no grammar; it is only corrupt German; it is merely a dialect of German; it is not the language of education and scholarship; it is incapable of expressing the high flight of thought; it sounds ugly; it is doomed to extinction; it is a symbol of national slavery; it is basically un-Jewish; it is not a language because there is not one nation on earth speaking Yiddish. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries nobody would have thought that there was a theoretical defence against such opinions and accusations but, all the same, an instinctive, natural, resistance was offered to some extent by the rcli- gious Jews. The reformers, in their war against Yiddish, had to make use of Yiddish to prove that it was no language. Gradually their tendentious writings on behalf of modernism developed into literature. Its medium, the Yiddish language, then, naturally, demanded its right to cultivation and esteem. At the end of the nineteenth century this claim was based, as we saw, upon the modern nationalist idea. The movement which arose from that at the beginning of the twentieth century was called Yiddishism. In Vienna in 1904 lectures combined with literary functions were held at which the true nature of Yiddish and its significance for the Jewish people were explained to Western Jewry (see p. 319, No. 4). In the following year a society for the promo- tion of Yiddish language and literature was formed among Yiddish-speaking students (hailing from Bucovina and Galicia) at Vienna University. It bore the significant name Iidiiy Kultrnr. About the same time a society for the cultivation of Yiddish literature was founded in New York. The climax to these and to other beginnings was, eventually, the convening of a Conference on Behalf of Yiddish, which took place in 1908 in C2ernovit2 (Bucovina). Here it was proclaimed to be ‘a national language of the Jewish people.’ The Czemovitz Conference is sometimes said to have declared Yiddish to be ‘the national language of the Jewish people,’ but the small number of those who asked for that wording were defeated. The Yiddishist movement built up an extensive educational network and has done much to further the recognition of the political rights of the language and its standing in the world of learning. Perhaps its greatest achievement has been the 38 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language creation of the Itdiier Visniaftlexer Institut (present English name: Yho Institute for Jewish Research), which was founded in 1925 in Europe and since 1940 has its seat in New York.

TRADITIONALISM

In the traditional section of East European Jewry - where the role of Yiddish had always been accepted without reflection, theory and ism - the need for a special linguistic movement was not so obvious. But by the 1920s and 1930s this need was recognized and an increasing amount of work was being done in these quarters too on behalf of Yiddish. Its importance was emphasized as a safeguard against loss of spiritual identity and as a symbol of specifically Jewish life upon the basis of Judaism. Therein it differed from Yiddishism, a consciously secular movement. We have dealt so far with the position of Yiddish within the Jewish people. We shall now turn to its position in relation to the outside world, limiting our attention to recent times.

YIDDISH AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD

The political aspect In Austria before World War 1 no document written in the Yiddish language or in Hebrew script had any legal validity - a law to that effect had been passed during the Enlightenment period. On the other hand, in Galicia (then part of Austria) with its large Jewish population, there was no interference with the use of Yiddish as the medium of instruction in Jewish education, from the lowest to the highest level, even though attendance at the state schools was theoretically compulsory. (However, the Jews had to bear the full cost of their own schools, besides having to contribute to the upkeep of the state schools by meeting the general taxes.) In Russia, Yiddish had long been recognized factually. For instance, the oath prescribed for those conscripted into the army was delivered by Jews in Yiddish from 1838 onward. A text similar to this, transcribed in Russian characters, was incorporated in the law of the Russian Empire. In 1897 the first census ever taken in that country registered the number of those speaking Yiddish. The publication of books and periodicals in Yiddish and Hebrew, the functioning of Yiddish theatres as well as of the traditional *religious’ school system with Yiddish as the language of instruction, were not forbidden. In the year 1911 the Duma passed a resolution permitting the founding of elementary schools in which the language of instruction was other than Russian, and Yiddish was among those languages 39 The External History of Yiddish listed. It is significant that, in Russian, Yiddish is called the Yevrlyski language, i.e., the ‘Jewish’ language, while Hebrew is called ‘Old Jewish’: Drfvnoyevriyski (etymologically, Yevrlyski is Hebrew of course). In 1904 one of the immigration requirements of South Africa was that every immigrant had to be able to read a European language, and mention was made of Yiddish as belonging to that category. The same regulation regarding the use of Yiddish in the educational test for immigrants was later adopted in the United States. In Jewish districts the signs and notices on and in public buildings were given in Yiddish too; this was the case also in England. World War 1 wrought great changes in the official position of Yiddish. On the basis of the minority rights established by the Peace Conference, it won recognition in the states of Eastern Europe. However, the situation deteriorated and, before long, treaties, pledges and laws became scraps of paper. During the early periods of the Soviet regime the political and cultural rights of Yiddish were officially established, culminating in Yiddish sectors of the state academies in the Soviet republics that had a big Jewish population. However, Stalin put an end to that. He closed all Jewish schools and cultural institutions, including theatres, and had all the leading Yiddish authors executed. The ‘thaw* which followed his death brought very little relief. At present there is one monthly journal for a population of millions, and an occasional trickle of Yiddish literary reprints - intended mainly for export. In Poland, Yiddish is practically extinct, there being hardly any Jews left. In Rumania the situation is slightly better; there is even a Yiddish state theatre.

The learned world The earliest interest shown by non-Jews in Yiddish was not for the sake of philology. It was shown by German scholars primarily concerned with Bible study and/or having missionary aims. From the sixteenth century onward there was a continuous slow trickle of publications in connection with Yiddish. Modern German philologists turned to it from about the middle of the nineteenth century onwards. The first *linguistic’ defence of the language came in 1876 (see p. 319, No. 1). Interest widened in the twentieth century, this being probably due to the work in this field by Jewish scholars and to the doctoral theses now making an appearance. In 1922 Hamburg University was the first academic institution to include Yiddish within its framework.4 In the early 1930s an institute for research in Yiddish,

4 Here there were two non-Jewish professor! who were interested in Yiddish, Carl Bocchling aod Heinrich Mejrer-Benfcy. The former surprised me one day with the news that upon his initiative the University had appointed me to lecture on Yiddish. 40 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language and in Ashkenazic studies generally, was planned and an appeal for its impleraen- tation was signed by sixty leading non-Jewish scholars from Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Some of the Germans actually gave their written support after Hitler came to power.8 That event put a stop to all these beginnings, of course, but soon after the end of World War II a remarkable interest in Yiddish was shown by growing circles of non-Jewish laymen and scholars, who were, and are, being served by books and articles on the subject for the general educated reader as well as by a steady stream of publications intended for linguists and philologists. At present there are a number of very competent young scholars in German, American and other universities doing excellent work. In London University in 1934, in their series Special Lectures in Comparative Philology, I was invited to give a cycle of lectures on Yiddish. Not long before World War II, the School of Slavonic and East European Studies of the same university instituted an honorary lectureship (assistant professorship) in East European Jewish Studies (i.e., essentially Yiddish), while in the United Sates and other countries since that War, a growing number of universities have introduced courses in Yiddish language and literature.6

STATISTICS

It is always difficult to compute the number of speakers of any language, and with Yiddish the difficulties are even greater. There is, for instance, some shifting on the borderlines of most languages. But the territory of Yiddish, to express it paradoxically, consists of borderlines, and so for this reason as well as for others, any statistics on the subject are quite unreliable. Until recently the number of Yiddish speakers given in books, encyclopaedias and elsewhere used to be based on very unreliable estimates, perhaps influenced by a biased tendency (of Jewish sources) to minimize that number. Before World War I, a figure of 4 million used to be mentioned, when 10 million would have been much nearer the mark. Even in the 1930s the number of Yiddish speakers was estimated by some at 8 million, about 50 per cent short of the actual fact. In the following table, which I compiled and published in 1931,7 the total was estimated at roughly 12 million. My estimates were based on the Jewish population statistics of that time.

5 See p. 358, No. 71a. 6 Twenty five in the U-S-A-, 4 in Canada, 1 each in Australia,Finland tnd France,!departmentin Israel; courses at 3a HiUel centres at u s.a. universities (figures for 1977). 7 Bait Itm kjv, 8: No. 7!/7a, p. 37, Lodz. The able, having been partly brought up to date in 1939 differs from the original one b j an added 190,000. 4! The External History of Yiddish

NUMBER OF YIDDISH SPEAKERS

Heme Territory

Poland 2, 970,000 Soviet Union 2,870,000 Rumania 760,000 Hungary 270,000 Czechoslovakia 250,000 Lithuania 165,000 Lam a 85,000 7 .375.000

Rea t f Eartpt

Great Britain 120,000 Austria 75,000 France 70,000 Other countries 60,000 325.000

European Total 7 .695.«»

UAA. 3,500,000 T i n n l i 110,000 Argentina *35.«» 3.905.000

Asia 205,000 Africa and Australia 70,000

Total 11,875,000

It is interesting to compare this total with the contemporaneous figures for the speakers of the following languages:

Czech 7 million Greek 6 million 42 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Or with the figures for the speakers of

Rumanian 12$ million Dutch 12 million Croat and Serbian ioj million

At the end of World War 11 the number of Yiddish-speakers was much smaller than it had been in the 1930s. This was due, of course, to the National-Socialist genocide during the War, because, of the 6 million Jewish victims, about 5 million spoke Yiddish. The figure for Yiddish at the end of the War was therefore about seven million. No statistics can be given for the present day. As a result of Stalin’s policies and their aftermath, there are now presumably fewer Yiddish speakers in the Soviet Union. Elsewhere among the survivors of the Holocaust, linguistic assimilation is taking its toll. However, it would seem to be unrealistic to put the total lower than, say, at 5 or 6 million.

THE FUTURE

Apart from Yiddish, there seems to be no example of a language, spoken by many millions, whose survival potential has been so often discussed in the course of its history. Among other inherent defects attributed to Yiddish, it has repeatedly been declared by its adversaries to be moribund. At the beginning of the Emanci- pation period the death of Yiddish was proclaimed to be imminent. And this prediction was repeated at various times, even in the twentieth ccntury (before World War 11) when there were more Yiddish speakers than there had ever been Jews at any time in the whole of the world. Of course, it does not require particular shrewdness to see that the future of Yiddish is now, after the Holocaust, by no means assured. However, prophesying is always risky, even on the basis of undeniable facts. In the 1930s I wrote: *And even if we were to imagine that henceforward Yiddish would be constantly on the decline, it might be well for us to ask: What does that actually amount to in practice ? How many generations will have to pass before there are no Yiddish- speaking descendants of the twelve million people whose language it is today ? A couple of centuries would seem to be a very conservative estimate. Is such a period not long enough to justify cultivation and care ? And, after all, a problem of this nature cannot be worked out arithmetically - there are too many unknown vari- ables involved.’ And there certainly were, notably Hitler! But my error, based on the expectations of normal experience, does not affect the over-all argument. 43 The External History of Yiddish

Even if Yiddish were destined to survive few only a short period, it would still be worth cultivating during the remainder of its life. We need not investigate here the present sociological situation of Yiddish in all the countries where it is spoken today. The loss of speakers is too clear to be overlooked. On the other hand, the language is still very much alive. It is cultivated assiduously by many, and in the Americas some of the grandchildren of immigrants, in search of their heritage, are turning back to Yiddish. In addition, there is still a religious core among whom there has not been a break in the generations and whose mother tongue is Yiddish. 2

The Age of Yiddish

Having discarded the idea of the simple filiation of languages, may we still ask the age of a language ? There would seem to be no longer any room for that question since, at any given time, each of a group of related languages is the present form of the ‘mother language.’ All that remains for us to do, it seems, is to discover and describe the stages of transition. But in attempting that we very soon arrive at a point where, for practical reasons, we require chronological borderlines between the related languages. Apart from that, it is natural for the mind to seek fixed points in the stream of transitions: there must be a time in the development when some undoubted unit of today - French, Dutch, Czech - had its beginnings. In what follows, we shall aim at finding such a point in the case of the Yiddish language by the application of practical, linguistic, psychological and sociological criteria.

THE PRACTICAL CRITERION

Was there a time when the speech form of the Jews in the German language territory would no longer have been easily intelligible to their Christian neighbours, and if so, when was it ? In 1699, Johann Christoph Wagenseil, a famous Christian Hebraist, published a short textbook on the language of the Jews1 in which the following statement is made: Mit keiner Sprach sind die Juden jemals / so / wie man zu reden pflegt / llsterlich / ais mit unserer Teutschen umbgangen / denn sie ha ben solchcr cincn gantz frembden Thon und Laut gegeben / die guten teutschen Worter gestSmmelt / geradbrecht / verkehret / neue uns unbekandte erdacht / wie auch / unzlhlich viel Hebreische WSrtcr und Red-

1 See p. 343, No. 43a . 4S The Age of Yiddish

Arten in das Teutsche gcmischet / daB solchcr Gestalt / wer sie Tcutsch reden hi ret f nit anderst glaubt / *Is / sic reden pur lauter Hebreisch / indcm fast kein einiges Wort verstlndlich fflrkommet (fol. B recto). Es ist richtig / und braucht keines Beweises / daB niemand mit denen von der Beschneidung sich in ein GesprSch von deT Religion ein- lassen lu?nne / er sey dann ihrcs Dialect! kilndig / dann des reincn Hoch-Teutschcn sind sie ungewohnt / und verstehen nit was gesagt wird. (Fol. F verso)3

From these remarks we can infer that Yiddish had come into being at some indefinite time before the end of the seventeenth century. It is obvious that the practical criterion, even if we had more material, would always be a rather rough-and-ready one. The application of it seems natural to speakers of dissimilar languages, but in the case of many related languages their speakers can make themselves mutually understood without much difficulty, although they are conscious of employing different languages. Here consciousness is the deciding factor.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CRITERION

Long before Wagenseil, there existed in Germany a number of Christian Hebraists who took an interest in the language of the Jews. There were two reasons for this. In their study of the Bible these humanists came to be interested in the Jewish interpretation, and hence, in the Jewish version. Thus they had to acquire a knowledge of the language of the Jews. The second reason was that they hoped to gain more Jewish converts if they approached them in their own language. And, in order to help others like themselves, some wrote little works on the subject (see p. 353, Nos. 594 ff.). This fact alone shows how great they considered the linguistic difference to be. The language they describe has the same characteristics as modem Yiddish (apart from the absence there of the Slavonic element, of course). It is therefore clear that at this time, in the sixteenth century, Germans were conscious of the difference, although they did not employ a special name for Yiddish. The first time we meet with the designation Yiddish, which means ‘Jewish,’ in the mouths of Yiddish speakers, is in the year 1597: at the end of a Jewish edition

a ‘There it no language which the Jews have treated as shockingly (to use this vulgarism) as our German, for they have given it a completely foreign intonation and sound, have cripplcd the good German words, mangled them, turned them topsy turvy, thought up new ones that we do not know, and have mixed into German innumerable Hebrew words and idioms to such a point that anyone hearing them speak German thinks they are just speaking pure Hebrew because there is hardly a single word you can understand (Fol. B, recto). It is self-evident that nobody who docs not know their dialect could engage in a conversation about religion with the people of the circumcision, because they are unfamiliar with pure High German and do not understand what you say to them' (F0L P, verso). 46 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language of Sigenot we have the remark: ous gynumyn fun galxys tm ouf lidii far taut, i.e., ‘taken from Christian [language and script] and translated into Jewish.* The earliest example we have of a hearer of Yiddish using the name Jewish goes back to the year 1451. A citizen of Zerbst is described thus: ‘he ... is also en jode g esc ha pen unde spricket ok also.’ ('He looks like a Jew and speaks like one too.’)3* In 1478 we are told: ‘Desselben jars da kom ein predigermunch [Petrus Nigri] her gen Nurmberg, der kund gut ebereisch, judisch, reden und der Juden pucher lesen.’3 (‘In the same year a preaching monk came here to Nuremberg who was able to speak Hebrew, Jew ish, and to read the books of the Jews.’) The linguistic situation which is reflected in the descriptions by the above- mentioned scholars, as well as in the existence of the name Jewish must have taken a considerable time to develop. Hence the beginnings of Y are to be sought not later, and probably earlier, than in the fifteenth century.

THE LINGUISTIC CRITERION

A Literary West Yiddish As regards the literary language, the application of the practical criterion is particularly relevant. Y books were completely unintelligible for Gentiles because they were written in a different script (and vice versa, of course). Scholars today who know both alphabets, or who can easily acquire a knowledge of the H letters, very often do not realize what an important barrier this difference of alphabet normally constitutes. In employing the philological criterion towards establishing the age of Y, we are fortunate in having a very suitable example at our disposal. It is an epic based on the biblical Book of Samuel and on post-biblical subject matter concerning it. It is usually called the Samuel Book. Composed, it seems, in the fifteenth century it is preserved in sixteenth (and seventeenth) century manuscripts and printed books. Paulus Aemilius (a former Jew), professor at the University of Ingolstadt, made a ‘transcription* of the Augsburg edition (1544)* which was published in 1562. Here are the first five stanzas in my transcription, with the rendering of Aemilius, line by line.

m Gustav Hertel, Urkundenbuk der Stadt Ma^delrurg,ii, No. 608, p. 633; 1894. (As (his book was going to press. Professor W. R61I very kindly drew my attention to this passage.) 3 Die Ckrtmiken itr deutuktn S u ite vom 14. Us ins 16. JekrkanJert, vol. x, 1873, quoted from M. Stern und S. Salfeld: Die isrtehtisehe Beveiktnmg der ittuuken Siddie, ill, Nurnberg im MilieUlter, p. 301, note 5, 1896. It seems unlikely that the chronicler wrote ‘Jewish’ as an ,judisch, especially as he speaks o f' reden ’; he knew ־= i.e., ebcreisch ׳,explanation of ‘Hebrew of course, like everybody else, at the time, that the Jews were not speaking Hebrew. He was presumably thinking of the Semitic element in the speech of the Jews. 4 See the facsimiles on pp. 47 f., and see p. 349, No. 536 and 536a and p. 351, No. 57a 47 The Age of Yiddish

Urheberrechtlich geschutzte Abbildung

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5 2 £ $ ? £ . £ £ פ *'S'* S פ £ S ? * 1 . ; HilCR r 4 P r S a l ? r ? 5 ee e >

The beginning of the Samuel Epic (Augsburg, 1544) 49 The Age of Yiddish

1 vir mit gancym hircyn zJw tin hoot gykirt Welcher von gantzem hertxen Sein siH vnd m it hat khert 1 cu unzerym Hibyn hiryn vi oft b in demfrt Zu unser lieben Herren Der alle m it emeert ziin) zixerhaait BOX m i g y la a g) [/]זziin gynood 10 3 Sein gnad vnnd grosse g&te Noch nit emider lag 4 er hilfyt zeinyn knixtyn is zei naxt oder tag Er hilffet seinen knechten Es sty rncht oder tag

5 ziin lob kan niimant indyn vfder frou nox man Sein lob kan niemandt enden Weder fraw , noth der man 6 doorum zol man sviigyn vin man it nit folindyn kan Darumb so soil man sehmeigen W eil mans nit wenden khan 7 er hoot itns gyholfyn oft ous unzer nqqt Er hat vns ojft geholffen A ufi aUer vnser ngft 8 urift] hoot uru for gibyn u n ze r z u n d an[/ J (unzer) mistoot Vnd hat vns auch vergeben Vriser grofi missethat

9 mir hoon in oft dercumyt ten{/] vider in gytoon Datm Gott wir offt ercttmet Vrmd wider jhn gethon 10 zxj

13 der fon vil ix hiigyn is vir tu zingyn fit Daruon so will ich sckveigen Es wer zu sehreiben vil 14 fon dem buux Smuuyl tx oux zagyn vil Doth von dem buck Samuel ith each jetzt singen will 15 vi Got (iisboorex) durx zeine guute grqqs v-under hoot gytoon Wie Gott durch seine gite Crofi arnnder hat gethon 16 der vil uns in dem goolys in kaainyn niftyn loon Der well uns auch jetzunden In kainen nSten lan

17 tit din zilbyn ciityn doo lisrooyl zas In den selbigen zeiten Da Israel schon safi 18 in dem landy Kna-an kaain kunik unter lisrooyl vas Im weitten landt Canaan Kain K inig under jhn was 19 is vas aain kyqhyn goodyl dir vas Eli gynant Attain ein hoher Priester Der ward Heli genandt 20 unter al lisrooyl vas ir aain rixter in dem lant Vber al Israel War er Richter im Lands. 50 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

In this specimen the changes made by Aemilius fall into the following categories:

(a) He replaced h words by O ones (i) having the same meaning: kqqhyn goodyl - hoher Priester (19) (ii) having a different meaning bat connected in subject matter with the original: goolys - jetzunden (16), lisrooyl -jhn (18) (b) He replaced h forms by g forms: lisrooyl - Israel. (c) He replaced certain words of G origin by G words which are often only loosely connected in meaning with the original, or have no connection at all: vir - velcher, mit - von (1), vi oftet in - der alle melt (2), ziin-grosse, zixerhaait-gite (3), zund-groj! (8), mir - wir (9, 11), folindyn - tpenden (6), vider - dann, laaistyn - kielten (11), unzer - alter (12), zingyn - sehreiben (13), zagyn - singen (14), zilbyn - selbigen (17), es vas - attain (19), unter - vber (20); (d) elements of 0 origin by different G elements: hoot - hat (1, 8, 12, 15), gykirt - khert (1), der nirt - erneert (2), gynood - gnad (3), doorum - Darurnb, man es - mans (6), vor gebyn - verge ben, mistoot - missethat (8), hoon der cumyt - erzumet (9), gytoon - gelan (10), vin - Warm (11), der loost - Erliflt (12), loon - tan (16), doo - Da (17), unter - under (18), vas - ward (19), unter - vber, al - als, vas - war, aain rixter - Ruhter, in dem - im (30). (e) He very frequently added words: zin - sin vnd mut (1), man - der man (5), zot - so soil (6), uns - uns auch (8, 16), vil - so wilt (13 ),fon - Dock von, oux - euch jetz (14), zas - schon saJJ (17), in dem - im nxitten (18). (f) He sometimes did not know a word or form, or misunderstood it: gylaag - emider kg (3)■

These changes consist mainly of elimination and substitution: he had to eliminate the H and Y elements as well as the archaic G element, and to replace these by the G of his day. Where words were added they seem nearly always to fall into the of substitution for an archaic g element, in order to modernize the rhythm ׳category which had by then become too archaic for the German reader. The Samuel Book was written in a literary language which Aemilius obviously did not regard as appropriate for his Christian readers because it had long ‘gone out of fashion,’ but which was still in use among the Jews, although their everyday speech was, no doubt, less archaic than that. There is hardly a line which does not provide one or more such examples. Aemilius was not merely transcribing a G text written in H characters: it was not simply a question of alphabet. What he was actually doing was to translate a work from the one language into the other. That Y had by then become a language in its own right is shown by the following points. It possessed words and forms which were obsolescent or obsolete in G. 5! The Age of Yiddish

There were semantic changes, e.g., zix fedem ‘to be early’ as against the m hg sich fur dem ‘to make haste’; gyneenyn is transitive as against the intransitive MHG genahenett. There were new words, created from G stems on a H pattern: kiinigyn 'to rule/ corresponding to the H root mlk with the noun melek ‘king’ and the verb malak ‘to be king.’5 There was a Semitic clement and a Romancc element, neither of them identical with such h and Romance words as existed in G. The elements of G and Semitic origin had combined and new formations had resulted: mysiirys tuun, xasmyn, pogffy vynggffy zain, mqqxyl zain (see p. 153, No. 9). It is clear that all this must have taken a considerable time to develop. As our material from the fifteenth century already presents the same picture of the language as that from the sixteenth, our terminus a quo cannot be later than the fourteenth.

B Spoken East Yiddish To this point we have been discussing only West Yiddish, the Central European branch. We now turn to East Yiddish, the East European branch of the language, in its present form , New East Yiddish (ney). There are some important developments which modem Yiddish has in common with NHG - dialects or standard: loss of preterite; lengthening of short vowels in open stressed syllables (leading in Yiddish very often to diphthongization); diphthongization of MHG /, u, iu: monophthongization of MHG it, uo, tie. But we cannot, on the basis of these, fix the origin of Yiddish in the n h g period - i.e., after 1350, or even 1500 - because these developments began far back in m hg times: the fourteenth, thirteenth, twelfth and eleventh centuries respectively. But as we do not know when they started in Y, their common presence in Y and n h g does not reveal whether the Jewish development was separated from that of German in MHG or n h g times. However, the following instances point to th e MHG origin of Y. n e y preserves the distinction between m hg ou and u (although with different phonemes) while in n h g they have merged as au:

MHG Y NHG toube toiby taube *deaf1 (plural) tibe toub Taube ‘dove’

The same holds for m h g ei and 1:

tpeize vau Weizen ‘w heat’ mti vaas Bfiss ‘w hite’

S This kiimfjn is evidently not the same as gekimget, which is listed for MHG but has a factitive meming: ‘(was) made king.’ (The mhg word occurs once, while the V one is a common word up to the present day.) 52 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

In n h g there is the sound /f/ in words like Wolflem, Ofm> where it is derived from Germanic /f/, but the same sound /f/ is to be found in words like scklafm, Loffel, where it is derived from Germanic /p/. In ney the old difference is main- tained when the Germanic /f/ stands between vowels and liquids, e.g., vihl *Wolfie’ (name), ohm ,stove’ - corresponding to MHG wolves, oven (cf. Gothic gen. mulfis, OE oftn) - while there is the same /f/ as in n h g schlaftn, Lofftl in their ney equivalents ilufii, left - corresponding to Germanic /p/: Gothic sltpan, lg Uptl. In the HG dialects from which ney sprang, we generally meet with only the unvoiced lenes / b, d, g, s / in NHG times. NEY has voiced lenes. This fact is incom- patible with the conditions in u g , where even in the earliest sources no more voiced lenes occur, but ir might be connected with CG of the m hg period which, according to many scholars, still had the voiced sounds. Thus the situation in Yiddish con- firms their opinion. It is clear that many forms are more closely connected with m h g than with n h g , e.g.:

MHG NEY NHG ndkent/nihe mtuynljmnmt naht ‘near’ h'ilfmtlilefant h’ilfand Elefint 'Elephant’ tiuluk ‘G erm an’ tacU ‘meaning, deutsck ‘G erm an’ translation’ guome/g&ume (cf. Eng gum) im y* Gaumen ‘palate’ egttUhse ‘lizard* igdii ‘dragon’ EuUchse ‘ lizard ’ sust/ms/sunst ‘so’ Jmzist *in vain’ umsonst ‘in vain; free of charge’ smebtl M M Schwefel *sulphur’ mttrmel mbml-stein Msrmor ‘marble’ vodem/vorden fodern fordem ‘dem and’ bir bdr Bine ‘pear’ vregenlvrigen friign fragen ‘to ask a question' bodem ‘ground’ (cf. Eng boidym *attic’ Boden *ground; bottom) attic’ buesem bjjzym Busen ‘bosom* vadem (cf. Eng fathom) fuudym Faden *thread’ jamer turner Jammer *lament’

(the u o f turner is shortened from aw, the normal correspondence of mho 4). 53 The Age of Yiddish

B and g - in contrast with G - have never become fricatives, e.g.,

MHO NEY NHG tail lag tug [taxjtak] bUbcn blaabn bleiste (dial.)

There is no accretion of a final dental in, e.g., obej oips Obit ,fruit*

The past participle of laa(i]yn ‘to lend’ corresponds to a MHG form: getigenfgeUhen gyKgn getiehen

NUsenjrtUssen is a strong verb in Y and m h g but has become a weak one in NHG: genom gynosn gemest

Lexical agreement between Y and MHG as against NHG occurs, eg*, ditch diiex Obersckenkel ,thigh* itUchjiettick itUx jegUck ‘every’ gemach ,rest/Ruhe’ (lozn) gymax Gemach ,room* ,to leave alone’

There are every-day words in n h g , inherited from m h g , which have no parallels in Y, and have not been replaced here by Sem o r SI ones, e.g., Zimmer ( < m hg timber), y continues the older stube > itjjb. This may point to a pre-NHG beginning o f Y.

Agreement in gender between Y and m hg as against NHG, e.g., der housckricke der kaiierik die Heuschrecke ,grasshopper' der soejsoekt der zok die Socke *sock’

In MHG, as against NHG, the strong inflection is sometimes used for the attributive adjective after the definite article. In this respect y differs even more from n h g , only the strong inflection being used in the sing. nom. masc. as well as in the dat. and poss. fern., and in the plural: 54 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

MHG der hShe/HSher b01tm\ Y der koi(e)xer boim >‘the tall tree’ NHG der hohe Baum J ן mho der juttgenjjunger !wester Y der ijngtr Mster >‘to•‘to the younger sister’sist NHG der jungen Schwester )J ן MHG der jungen/junger {wester Y der ijnger Miters >‘the young sister’s* NHG der jungen Schwestcr J} mhg din - den - der grSfen - grSpu - grSger hiiuer' Y di groisy hoaxer the / to the / of the big houses’ NHG die - den - der groflen Hauser - Hdusern 1

One of the two m hg forms of strong inflection survives (in the neuter only) in Y but not in NHG. As against MHG, it is used for the dat. and poss. too.

Nom. MHG ein sthctnez/sckem kint' Y a tain kind NHG ein sr hones Kind Acc. mhg ein sehanejluhirn kinr Y a Iain kind NHG ein u hones Kind Dat. MHG einem sehcenem kinde ' Y a tain kind NHG einem schonen Kind(e). י Gcn./Pass. mhg ernes sehames kindes Y a lain kinds nhg fines sthonen Kindes J

The uninflected form of the adjective grois ‘big, great* is used also with masc. and fern, abstract nouns, without an article: mit grois derxei(e)ryc *with great respect,’ ‘Yours faithfully’; mit grois hasmuudy ‘with great diligence, industry.’ These indications that Y originated in the m hg period will now be foUowed up by an attempt to arrive at a more precise date. Valuable relevant material exists in the dialectal division of n ey. The southern branch and the northern branch are divided, among other ways, by the important oijei border line, e.g., oibjeib ‘if.’ It is evident that oib was the original form from which eib was derived by way of oib (one dialect still has this /0/) since the speakers of the Northern dialect were descendants of emigrants from the territory of the Southern dialect. When they left Poland for White Russia and Lithuania, they must still have said oib. 55 The Age of Yiddish

ney /oi/ is developed from m h g /6 /, e.g., kretn < kr&ne ‘crown,* and from m h g /0/, e.g., in our example, oib < ob. This development was possible because such short vowels had already been lengthened in m h g since the thirteenth century. From this it follows that the emigrants, who took with them a still later form, oib < ob < ob, could not have emigrated earlier than the thirteenth century. This then is our terminus a quo for the branching out of the Northern dialect. The terminus ad quern is to be found in another vowel shift, that of Y /i, i:/ < MHG /u, uo/. This /i, i:/ is present today in the whole Southern dialect, whereas the Northern has /u/, e.g., /zin - zun/ ‘sun,’ /zi:n - zun/ ‘son.’ We have reason to think that the /i, i: / or perhaps its predecessor, /ii, ii:/ had come from Germany. It must have spread northward until it reached the frontier between Poland and Byelo-Russia-Lithuania. Here it stopped. (See p. 327, No. 159.) When could that have happened? Probably not after 1569, when the two countries were completely united and there was no barrier to free movement. Nor is it likely that it stopped during the preceding period, that beginning with 1385, when the two countries were united under one crown. Only before this date is it probable that the frontier would have formed an efficient obstacle to the spread of the new phoneme. It would be reasonable to assume that the new forms had already been established some time before the barrier disappeared, say, not less than a generation. This would take us back to about the middle of the fourteenth century, and make a connection possible with the big wave of emigration from Germany immediately after 1348, the year of the Black Death and the great persecutions consequent on it. We have fourteenth century literary documents in w y which show that the change from /u, u:/ to /ii, ii:/ had taken place by then. The middle of the fourteenth century therefore seems to be the latest date at which the southern and northern dialects could have started diverging. Perhaps we might place this divergence roughly in the first half of the century. The development of y /oi/ < m hg /0,0:/ would then have to be fixed at some time previous to that, since it falls into the period before the northern dialect was severed from the rest of the language. This brings us, very roughly, to the year 1300 as the time when phonological evidence shows the separation of Yiddish and German to have already been a fact. Morphology provides another chronological clue. Y has, although in a restricted use, a marker for the possessive which corresponds to the original genitive: amikls *grandchild’s.’ This form has disappeared from the g dialects and from normal conversational speech. The process by which it was lost seems to have been at work even in the thirteenth century, and by the fifteenth the loss was an accom- plished fact. The survival of this marker in Y shows that Y did not participate in that process. It would thus follow that Yiddish and German had already diverged before this period, or at latest, by the beginning of it. That would bring us very 56 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language roughly to the year 1300 as the latest date for fixing the beginnings of Y - the date we arrived at from the evidence of the dialectal development. ,.final /t/ in n h g but not in Y, as, e.g ג There are some words which have Papst - poips. This dental accretion was present in later m h g : b&bes > bdbest. The Y form, being derived from the earlier m hg word, leads us back to the central period of MHG, to the thirteenth century, as the dividing line between Y and G. A slightly earlier date is indicated by a phonological feature of the SI element in Y. There are Y words which have /r/ instead of jij (spelled rz) in the corresponding Polish forms, e.g., Y Raiiy - p Rzeszow, i.e., [iejuf], (name of a town). This means that such words were incorporated into the language of the Jews at a time when the original P still had a wholly or practically unpalatalized /r/. In the earliest P manuscripts extant we find the /r/ already on the way to its modern pronunciation. As these manuscripts date from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the words in question must have been acquired by the Jews somewhat earlier. The immigration into Poland by Jews from Germany began at the end of the eleventh century. The incorporation of those words would therefore have taken place between the eleventh and thirteenth, say the twelfth century. A still earlier date is suggested by the following evidence. As against the G l>air /x/ - /5/, e.g., in Tochier - Tochter, Y has uniformly [x]; toxier - tixter. It would be difficult to explain this by reference to the High Alemannic and South Bavarian dialects which show the same characteristic, because nothing else in NEY points to these regions. Thus it seems possible that the uniform Yiddish /x/ might be derived from the original uniform G /*/. It has been assumed that already in m h g the twofold pronunciation prevailed. The uniform state in Yiddish would then go back to pre-MHG times, to the ohg period, which ends, conventionally, in the middle of the eleventh century. The field is still practically unexplored, and these problems are very complex. I can therefore offer the preceding inferences and suggestions only as a modest attempt at finding a date. But it seems, on reflection, hardly a coincidence that there should be so many pointers to the period from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries. As regards the Semitic and Romance elements, which have been constituents of the Y language up to this day, they were already present before the fourteenth century. We are, however, able to follow them even further back than our earliest sources, without difficulty. The Romance element was inherited from the Zarphatic language the Jews had brought with them when they migrated from northern France to the G-speaking lands in the east. Zar contained a Sem element and this, together with some Zar became, from the very first, part and parcel of the new language. Thus the presence of these two elements at once made their speech distinct from the German of the Christians. Here the philological criterion touches another, which we might call the sociological. 57 The Age of Yiddish

THE SOCIOLOGICAL CRITERION

Language belongs to group life. Hence, when the Jews settled in Germany, with an intensive group life of their own, and adopted the G tongue, inside their society it was at once Jewish, and Y had come into being. This is not a paradox nor is it a theoretical construction. We have only to open our eyes, or, rather, our ears, and we shall be aware of analogous facts around us, wherever we have an opportunity of observing a group of immigrants in a new environment. The language they acquire would constitute the first phase of a new language if, under favourable conditions, it were to have an independent development of its own. Thus, it was during the period of immigration that the new language came into being, in the case of Y as well as of Eng. To ascertain the age of Y we must therefore go to history and enquire when the Jews began to settle in German-speaking regions. Unfortunately, there is no precise answer to this question. It is from the ninth century onward that we have definite information about their presence there and so, on the basis of the sociological criterion, we may regard the ninth century as the date when the Yiddish language originated. 3

The Elements of Yiddish and Their Phonological History

The immediate predecessor of Y was Zarphatic, which the Jews had brought from Northern France. From this the new language which was born in Germany inherited an element1 of Semitic origin. Zar, of course, did not disappear without a trace. Thus it may be said that Y at its birth consisted of three elements: Semitic, Romance and Germanic.

THE SEMITIC ELEMENT

The Semitic element is to be met with in every sphere of the language, except in its phonetics.

Vocabulary We may safely assume that certain ideas were never expressed other than by words of Sem origin. We are not, or course, in a position to speak with certainty about every individual word but are probably right in assuming that from the very beginning words like the following formed part of the Y dictionary: iabys * Sabbath,' cduky ‘charity,’ ‘alms,’ saifer ‘book.’ Hence, such words are not to be regarded as H loan words introduced into the G spoken by Jews, they are not a later admixture. We might even express it the other way round: In the Y vocabulary the Sem stratum was the primary one, and the Germanic stratum was added to it. Words like those just mentioned were inherited by word of mouth and not through the medium of literature. In exactly the same way as the English word eye was inherited orally from an earlier Germanic source, so the y word iabys is an oral inheritance from a pre-Yiddish stage. Words like Sabbath, charity, book belong to a certain category: they are essentially connected with the sphere of religion. It may perhaps be asked: Why should 1 See footnote on p. 82. 59 The Elements of Yiddish

book belong to that sphere ? The answer is simple: The medieval Jew, to an even greater degree than the medieval Gentile, had hardly any but religious books: the Bible, the Talmud, the liturgy, his legal literature, his poetry - all these, like his life, embedded in Talmudic tradition, centred on religion. It is a common- place that in those times the sphere of religious life was much more extended than it is in today’s secularized world. Hence, the Sem element in Y consists not only of so-called religious terms but also of a great many words which have apparently no connection with religion. Take, for example, ordinary words like puunym ‘face,* aicy ‘advice.* We need not assume that all Sem words in Y were orally inherited. Quite a number would have been acquired at school, as in the language of any civilized society.

The Hebrew element The words of h origin come from various sources. The Bible accounts for not more than a small number, and these words belong also to the h of the Mishna and medieval literature. Take, for example, lyvttuny ‘moon.’ It literally means *the white one,’ and in biblical H the term is a poetical expression only, as distinct from the common yareah. The latter disappeared in later H, and the expression which had formerly been confined to poetical language now became the every-day term. In y only lyvuuny is used. It is, therefore, only indirectly biblical. The bulk of the Y words of H origin are of Talmudic derivation. Examples are: iker *principal thing,’ nifter *deceased person,’ sxjs (< zxjs) ‘merit’ (ethical-religious term). Finally, a considerable number of words have their source in medieval times: hulaavys *fervour.’ Y contains inflections of H origin, both nominal plural endings being in use, e.g., soifer *scribe,’ iysod ,basis’ have the plurals sofrym, iysoidys. This is an important point which the mere fact that these words are of Hebrew origin does not suffice to explain. Contrast, for example, the words of Latin and Greek origin, or the artificial formations from Latin and Greek stems, in our modern languages. Apart from some few exceptions, their original plural endings were replaced by the endings of the modern languages in question, e.g., hospitals, not hospitalia, telegrams, not telegrammata. In Y the singular and plural forms of a noun are generally identical with those in H as in the above two examples. However, sometimes the endings are switched, e.g., mykor *source* (metaphorical) - plur. mykotrym as against h mykoirys (mjqdrot), i.e., what we have here is not a word and its plural form taken over as a unit, mykor - mykoirys, but a word plus a morpheme mykor + ym. This analysis finds confirmation in the fact that there are words of non-Sem origin with H plural forms and vice versa. 60 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

How did the first Ashkenazic3 Jews pronounce h and Ar? It might appear surprising but we can discover quite a lot from the phonology of present-day Y. This phonology is identical for all the elements of the language. As we know a great deal about the history of 0, we can relate this knowledge to the G element of Y, and draw conclusions from the present stage of its phonology about earlier stages and hence about earlier stages of its Sem element. We might perhaps ask whether, at first, the phonology of the Sem element of r differed from that of Ashkenazic H and Ar outside Y. However, as the phonology of both groups is identical today, there being only two inessential points of difference, we may conclude that this indentity reflects the original state of affairs. The two exceptions are: (a) In the liturgical recitation of the Bible and of the prayers, the vowels of the unstressed syllables retain their full value, whereas in y they are levelled down to /a /; (b) Whereas in stressed closed syllable the original value of a vowel is retained: H sod - Y sod ‘secret,’ the liturgical pronunciation employs here the Y form of the open syllable: Y sod - l h soui. The diphthong of the plural, Y soidys - LH soidois, was presumably felt to be the *correct’ H form and so was transferred to the singular. In what follows we shall compare the phonemes of the Sem element of Y with those given in the Sem grammars.

Hireq is (1) short /if in dosed syllable:

din dbt ‘(religious) law’

(a) long Ii/ in open syllable:

diinym dinfm ‘(religious) laws’

Sere is (1) short open /e/ in closed syllable:

git ‘proselyte’ gfr ‘stranger; proselyte’

:ai/ in open syllable/ (ג)

gairym ‘proselytes* gerim ‘strangers; proselytes’

It is obvious that /e/ is the original form and that the development followed was /e > e > ei > ai/. The non-Ashk pronunciation groups have /e/ as well.

2 Since the Middle Ages (he biblical name Ashkenaz has been the traditional name for Germany. Aahkraarim ire the Jew* of Germany and their descendant* elsewhere 61 The Elements of Yiddish

Seghol is (1) short open /e/ in closed syllable:

hitpyd kfspei 'funeral eulogy’

(2) /ai/ in open syllable: mailex mflfji *lung’

(3) /ei/ in open syllabic: biigyd bfietf ‘garment’

This group (3) consists of words whose vowel, for some reason as yet unknown, remained short for a longer period that the vowel in group 2, and therefore did not take part in the diphthongization process. The fact that seghol 2 and sere 2 are not differentiated indicates that in the earliest stage of Y they were identical too.

Pattafe is (1) short /a/ in closed syllable: malty malki *queen; (female name)’

(2) long /a/ before aleph, ayin and consonant i: maaxl ma’&k&l *food’ maaly *a virtue’ ma'ild *ascent; superiority’ Uzaaiym likaiitm *your health I cheers I’

(3) short /a/ in open syllable before feet:

naxyt nahaf *joy’

(4) long /u/ - but mostly shortened - before het in open syllable: Nuxym/Nuuxym nahtim *Nahum’ Hateph pattah is (1) mute after (Ashi) stress: maxtty *group; troop’ making *camp’ (2) mute before the (Ashk) stress: xtHdym * Khassidim* hasijbn *pious ones’

(3) short /a/ in (Ashk) stress syllabic: xstyny *wedding* 62 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(4) short /a/ before the (Ashk) stress: xatuuym hif&im ‘sins* (5) long /u/ in (Ashk) stress syllable: xttulym hiUhn ‘dream’

Qame? is (1) short /a/ in closed monosyllable: klol ‘rule; community* kllii ‘general rule, principle’ (2) short /a/, in the participles of pi“el and hitpa“el of verbs med. r: mykaryv zaan mtqdrty ‘to bring near’ ‘befriend, treat with special attention’ (3) short /a/ in the verbs which are derived from the form of the qal in the perfect (ydrai, ydrtid, yarastd, etc.), with elision of the vowel in the second syllable, thus closing the first syllable: ex iariy ‘1 inherit.’ (4) long /a/, in the participles pi"el and hitpa"el of the verbs med. aleph or ayin: myidyS zaan zex miya'ti *to give up hope’ myvder zaan mlta'fr ‘to clear away’ (5) long /u/ in open syllable: kluulym kllalim ,rules’ (6) short /u/ - shortened from No. 5 - before /g, k, x, v, f/: mugn Duvyd mdgen dau4d *Star of David’ kuf kip ‘(letter) kaph’ bruxy bfrdjri ‘benediction, blessing’ cufn fdpSn ‘north’ (7) short open /0/, when the next vowel is a so-called shewa mobile, i.e., when its syllable was originally open but is closed in Ashk: borxj barZfa (the first word - ‘bless ye’ - of the call to community prayer)

As regards the quality of the vowel, in Nos. 1-4 it is /a/, as taught in our H grammars and is thus not in conformity with the Tiberian vocalization. Nos. 5-6 differ from both systems. No. 7 agrees with the Tiberian vocalization. 63 The Elements of Yiddish

Is the Tiberian /0/ the original form from which the Ashlc/Y forms developed - the /a/ one the one hand, and the /u, o/ on the other ? Or does the /a/ (which we also find in most of the other Jewish pronunciation groups) represent the source from which the Y /0/ and /u/ sprang ? The phonological history of the non-Semitic elements of Yiddish provides the answer, as may be seen from the following examples. In the same way as the short /a/ in the closed syllables hart ‘hard’ and cap *he-goat’ have their source in m hg and SI. short /a/ in closed syllable in hart and cap, so Y k/aJ, mykaryv zaan, myvder zaan, ex iariy must go back to earliest Ashkenazic Hebrew k(3)lal, makarev, rmvder, yaral. Analogously, just as Y fuuter, ituui, buby and suud reflect m hg vater, stat and SI. baba, sad, so must Y kluulym and cufn stem from k{3)Ialtm, cafon. Thus it is clear that the earliest Ashk/Y qame? was an /a/. Hence the general opinion that the Ashk pronunciation as /o/ (later /u/) comes from Palestine is erroneous.

Qamcs ha(uph is short open /0/:

xoxmy (tokmd *wisdom'

Holem is (1) short open/0 /in closed syllabic:

os ol ‘letter of alphabet’

(2) short open /0/ when the next vowel is a so-called shewa mobile, i.e., when its syllabic is historically open, but is dosed in Ashk:

rmilym moiilbn ‘rulers’

From holem 1 and 2 we can see that its original Ashk pronunciation was /0/ (in .Y preserved even in open syllable, as o:). This is a parallel case to qame§ 1 and 3׳w

(3) /oi/ in open syllable:

moiti moiil ‘ruler’

(4) /oi/ in syllable which was originally open but has been dosed:

oiays tySjPf *letters of the alphabet’ oicrys ,Cforot *treasures’ from oistjys, oicerys. 64 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Shureq and qibbu$ are:

(t) short/i/in closed syllable: mjm mum ‘blemish* (3) short fij before a consonant with dagesh, i.e., a long consonant in ancient H, functioning as the dosing consonant of one syllable and the beginning of the next one; in Y the consonant is short and begins the next syllable; thus the preceding syllable is opened. This, however, did not have the effect of lengthening its vowel: tjky wkki ‘booth for the Sukkoth festival’ (3) long Ii/ in originally open syllable: tkjjfy tlqSpi ‘period’ Shewa is (1) mute, as in the Tiberian vocalization,3 (contrary to what our K grammars teach about shewa mobile):

(3) /3/ between certain consonants. There is, however, no historical connection with the shewa mobile of the H grammar: mysjny ‘strange, queer’ msurmf *changed, different’ ruxumy nhamd ‘consolation’

(3) /ai/ (rare) iaivy Imd *shewa’

We saw that sere, seghol, qames and holem were originally short. Hireq and shureq/qibbus provide additional proof of vowel shortness in early Ashk H and At. Both must still have been short in open syllables even at a very late time. Otherwise they would have participated in the development of m hg 1 and u, and would today be /aa/ and /ou/, respectively: ‘daan’ instead of din, ‘tkoufy’ instead of tkjjfy (< tkufy). The same holds good for /a/ and /0/. /A/, in closed syllable, did not take part in the lengthening and change of articulation undergone by the G element of Y: MHG tal ‘valley’ > tal > til > tol > Y tuul but HY klal; MHG lob ‘praise’ and gr£% are Y loib and grois but H os ('<>/) ‘letter of alphabet’ is y os (not ‘ois ’). Hence the absence of long vowels in closed syllables in the Sem clement

3 There seems to be no reason for assuming that the scholars who created the Tiberian system would have used the same sign for two different phonetic facts, i.e., zero vowel is well as foe [»]. They obviously used the phonetics of their Ar mother tongue, where the zero vowel exists up to this day. (The Samaritans have it frequently.) 65 The Elements of Yiddish

goes back to the early stages of Y, and must therefore have been inherited from the Zar language.

The Ashkenazic accent system Nearly all of these phonetic developments could only have taken place if today’s Ashk stress accent was already in force at a very early period. As this system differs entirely from the ancient H and Ar one, the question arises as to when the accent shift took place. Could it be an Oriental inheritance from a later period of antiquity ? Could it have originated in Zar times ? Or was it an Ashk innovation ? As to the first question: since the accent system of the Ashkenazim is not shared by any of the Oriental Jewries, it is clearly not of Oriental origin. On the matter of a Zar derivation for the accent shift, the accent system of the French language does not favour such an explanation. An East European language as the source of the Ashk system can be ruled out because the West Ashk system is identical with that of the East Ashk. Hence the accent shift must have taken place in West Ashk, and at a very early time. The original H stress on the ultimate has been preserved in only a few exceptions, otherwise it has been shifted to the penultimate, and in a number of cases, to the ante-pen ultimate. The fact that many words of the Sem element are disyllables and thus have the same stress arrangement as the disyllables of G origin, is no doubt the reason why the accent shift was often explained as an adaptation to the G system, where the first syllable takes the stress: masdl *example’ becoming m&ial > muuil, on the G pattern, its stress being now identical with that, e.g., of muuzlyn ‘ measles.’ However, this explanation is open to a very serious objection. If we assume, for argument’s sake, that the stress here is really of G origin, we would expect this system to have been extended to Sem words of three and more syllables, leading to forms like *muuiylym ‘examples’ - instead of the actual myiuulym. But dactylic plurals are exceptional, and require investigation: buxerym *youths, unmarried males,' adraby *on the contrary,’ roxniys *spirituality’ etc. Some words of this type have lost the middle vowel and are now disyllables: toisvys (certain medieval Talmud commentaries) < *toisyvys ... < tos&fos < tos&fos - while, in a parallel formation from the same root, the middle vowel is preserved and thus carries the stress: hois'ufys *additions’ ... < hos&fos < hosafos. The normal form of a trisyllable is an amphibrach. In other words, the stress is on the penultimate. From this it follows that the place of the stress in disyllablcs is to be analyzed in the same way: the essential point is not that it is on the first syllable of a word but that it is on the penultimate. The position of the stress in Ashk H and Ar is still governed by a rhythmic principle, just as it was before, except that the rhythm has changed: Instead of the ancient anapaest or iambus, Ashk has an amphibrach 66 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

or a trochee. The principle underlying the German accent, however, is not rhythmical but semantic: it is not fixed to the first but to the stem syllable {singe, gesungen, Gesang). It could not, therefore, have been transferred to Sem words, there being no stems in Sem languages. Here there are roots from which words are formed. A root docs not exist as a pronounceable unit, it is a theoretical kernel of meanings and ideas. It consists of consonants only (three, in the vast majority of cases). A root materializes into words by the addition of vowels and affixes, e.g., from the root smr we have verbs, participles and nouns: /Jmir, Smor, iomer, iamur, samiru, nismdr, famdrti, simartika, jihnfrfka, mismdr etc. The Ashk stress may even be located before the root, e.g., midber ‘desert* from the root dbr. This actually happens very often. It seems hardly possible to explain the transition from one rhythmic accent to another rhythmic accent via a non-rhythmic one. Unless such an explanation can be shown to be correct, or even possible, the G system cannot be regarded as the source of the Ashk one. This accent shift must therefore be considered as an independent, internal Ashk development. How and when it took place has yet to be discovered.

THE ARAMIC ELEMENT

The word *Semitic’ is used in this book as a convenient term for covering the Hebrew as well as the Aramic element. We cannot, however, group these two efcments together indiscriminately and say: ,the Ar element does not come to Y direct but by way of Hebrew; it was incorporated into H from Mishnaic times onward, i.e., roughly from the beginning of the Christian era; it is therefore not correct, or, at least, not necessary to speak of the Ar origin of such Y words as dafky ( < davky) ‘just,’ ‘exactly,’ laxljjtn ‘absolutely,’gymuury ‘Talmud,’ xavrjjsy ‘company,’ the term H being more correct, or, at any rate, adequate. Such a line of argument would not take into account the fact that this element came to Y not only from the H of the so-called rabbinic literature - into which it had been incorporated - but also quite direct from the Talmud itself, with which the Jews were even more familiar than the Englishman was proverbially said to have been with his Bible. Only a smaU number of Ar words come from other sources, e.g., from the Cabbala. The discussions in the previous chapter apply to the Ar element, too.

THE ROMANCE ELEMENT

As we have no texts from the earliest period of literary or spoken Y, we do not know the extent of the Romance dement of that time. Today it is only small. 67 The Elements of Yiddish

The words are clearly of Zar origin. Some examples: laiynyn ‘to read’ from older laiyn from Zar leier (already very early the stem incorporated the /n/ and became lain ~ laiyn), c'uulnt, (a certain dish kept warm on the Sabbath until dinner; cf. French regional forms: salat ‘galette cuite au four,’splat, cholante, tsildd, ckalande), Bendyt (male name) < Benedeit, Baily (female name) < Bela, antipoizn ‘to betroth ’ (in the language of the traditional Bible translation taught in the elementary schools) < espouser; words restricted to w y : 00m ‘to say the liturgical prayers’; some WY ones survived in certain localities: praiyn ‘to invite’ < preier, pile I ‘girl’ < pule I < pulce lie, poost ‘meal’ < past. Bitten ‘to bless; to say grace after a meal* is a living word in both W and EY; it must be derived from a Zar form •bendicer, which did not participate in the development from Latin bene- dicere to French benk but was a straight continuation of the Latin form. This indicates that a Jewish Latin (Latinic) existed. (Another indication to the same effect is the name Ladino, by which the Sephardim call the language of their Bible translation. Incidentally, their verb ladinar is exactly parallel to the Y taain, both meaning ‘to translate.’) The Romance element, although insignificant in the linguistic set-up of Y, is of great historical interest because it shows that the Jewish immigration into Germany came from a western, not from a southern, let alone south-eastern, direction. PalaeogTaphical research yields the same result: the Ashk type of the H script is at first identical with the Zar type.4

THE GERMANIC ELEMENT

For the Germanic element, as for the Romance one, there is only one source, i.e., the German language. The term G language signifies a very complex entity: a number of written and literary standards and many dialects, all of them at different periods and stages of development. One point is evident without any research: y cannot have originated from standard NHG. For that language is much younger than Y. A large number of Jews had left Germany many centuries before nh g , a creation of Protestantism, had become a standard medium of conversation. Phonological tests, too, confirm the fact that their tongue cannot have its source in * Luther’s German.’ It is therefore necessary to go back much farther - to MHG times.

Comparison with Middle High German (a) In Y, the short vowels of MHG in stressed, closed syllables:

4 See m j work Tht fftfrcw Scripts, ▼01. 1, coL 300, and compare No*. 318 and 319 of vol. a with No*. 34a and 343. 68 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(1) have not been changed: MHO Y NHG hant (d) hant (t) Hand , hand* mifgen miitn messen ‘to measure* (ith)gibe & gebe *give’ דgequoilen ‘swollen’ gykvoln ‘been gequoilen ‘swollen delighted’

(2) have been lengthened: narre ‘madman* ndr ‘fool’ Narr ,fool* ir iier ihr ,her* horn hoorn Horn ‘horn’

(3) have changed their articulation: (Uende ‘fir from ilnt *lonely; elertd ,miserable; home; unhappy’ friendless* pitiful’ quelle kval Quelle ‘source, spring* kerse kari Kirtche *cherry* harm 'sharp, acrid’ harb ‘difficult* hah ‘harsh’ etc. ticker tixer ticker ‘sure, safe* kirf hiri Hirsch ,hart’ vol m vol! *full’ tohter tixter Tocher ,daughters* ’Sonne *sun ״עג svnne durch dor{e)x durch ,through* gunnen farginyn gomten *not to grudge* kuche hex Kiche *kitchen* gurtel gartl Cirtel *girdle’

(4) have been lengthened and have then undergone change of articulation: act ituut Stadt *town’ taixl(*) ‘tablet, twl ‘board. Taft I ‘tablet, painting, tablet, board, table* book cover* table*

(5) have been lengthened and then diphthongized: pfSrt(d) ffierd Pferd *hone* killer Uiler Keller ‘cellar* kof hoif Hof ‘court* 69 The Elements of Yiddish

(6) have changed their articulation, then been lengthened and finally diphthongized stirne ittitm Stim *forehead’ morhejmore maier Mohre *carrot’ 61(e) ail 01 *oil’

(b) The long vowels o f MHG have in Y: (1) been diphthongized: sptme {pettier Spine *splinters’ ewu ailnk evig *eternal’ 6re oier Okr *ear’ hUh hoi(e)x koch *high’ his houz Halts *house’ (2) changed their articulation and have then been diphthongized: bibttjpSbet poipt Papa ‘pope* hahe hai(e)x Hohe *height’ (3) been diphthongized, and then monophthongized to a long vowel: liloth Lutlex Leilath ‘sheet’ tiutuh ‘G erm an’ taai ‘meaning’ dcutsch *German’ futuer haazer Hauser *houses’ (4) been shortened: salde *bliss, Zildy (female name) cf. selig ‘blessed, happy’ happiness’ (5) changed their articulation and have then been shortened: mdge ‘scales’ vug ‘weight, scales’ Wage ‘scales’

(c) The following correspond to the mhg diphthongs: (1) new diphthongs, probably after monophthongization of the original ones: loup (b) Imb laub ‘deaf’ hou hat Heu *hay’ meizt vaic Weizen *wheat’ (2) long vowels, after monophthongization: vUegen J&yn fliegen *to fly’ vucf fjjs Fuss *foot’ brutier briider B ruder *brothers’ 70 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(3) short vowels, after monophthongization: iettith illex (jeglifh) ‘each’ (4) short vowels, after monophthongization and change of articulation: titht lixt Licht ‘light’ urgent bgyt irgend(...) ,somewhere’ siufzen tifcn stufzen ‘to sigh’ bluot bljl Blut ‘blood’ muoi mjz muss ‘must’ kleiner kliner kleiner ‘smaller’

Changes in consonants: (d) Initial MHG /b/ is split up into two series, /b/ and /p/: \ base *bad, useless’ baiz ‘bad, angry’ bote ‘bad, wicked, angry’ buter pjter Butter ‘butter’

(e) The same holds good for initial mhg d, with the series /d/ and /t/: dine/tune ddr *meagre’ durr ‘dry; lean' ,dry; lean’ dunkelllvnktl ljnkl dunkel ‘dark’

(f) Change of articulation: fiths fjks Fuekt *fox’

(g) MHG /pf/ is /f/ at the beginning, but /p/ in medial or final position: p/ert (d) fUerd Pferd ‘horse’ lop/ top Topf ‘pot’ lopflln tipi Topflein ‘little pot’

(h) After /1/ or /n/, before /s/, jzj or /5/, a dental has developed: kunst ‘knowledge, kjnc ‘trick, stunt’ Kwut ,art’ skilfulness’ hats huldz Hah ‘neck’ minsche mM Menseh ,human being’

(i) m hg /ss/ is /5/ in Y: messe/meislmessine mii Messing ,brass’ (OE mottling) The Elements of Yiddish ך1

(j) In the past participles of the mhg verbs uhrien and spimen the hiatus is avoided by the development of a g: gesckrim/geukriuwcn/ gyirign geukrien ‘[his] shouted’ gesekrmen gesptuwenjgetpumenl gjifign gap** '[has] spat’ gespim

As to the relation between Y and MHG on the one hand and Y and NHG on the other, see also pp. 51-54. The term mhg designates a literary language. However, this is far from uniform, there being dialectal variations. Up to a point, it was probably also the spoken language of the royal and ducal courts and the upper class. Y cannot, of course, have originated here. The Jews as a mainly urban group would have spoken the regional languages in which the pure local dialect was somewhat attenuated, because these languages were based on a wider area. We wiU now try to establish which dialect(s) constitute the source(s) of y. There arc two main groups of G dialects, High German and Low German. Y has no connection with the latter, as may be seen from the following examples: nhq/mhq Y NLQ ZaJtn cutm Tahn ‘to oth’ itk ex 1k ‘ 1’ teU tail deil ‘p art’ Pferd fiierd Perd ‘horse’ Stkiff &f Scheep ‘sh ip ’ St ad! [Stat] sluut Stadt [stat] ‘town* dein daan < dain dbt ‘th y ’ der I die ierjdi de ‘the* mUkjmir mex/mir mi, mik *me/to m e’ gekert gyUiert hurt *heard* Himmel kind Heben ‘heaven’

Since Jews settled only very late in the northern regions, the absence of a LG element in Y is not surprising. HG divides into two main branches, Upper and Central German. We shall now compare Y with each of them.

The Central German element (mhg) The following Central German features appear in Yiddish. 72 A Brief Survey of die Yiddish Language

(a) Monophthongs correspond to the diphthongs /110/, /lie/, / ie/: uo y co ibw Kuh ‘cow’ f « * grim grim ‘green* knie kmi Kme ‘knee’

(b) m hg jouj is Y joij. This might be explained by the CG /0 / which corresponded to [oul, joining the old /0/ and lengthened /0 / and participating in the development to /oiI: As MHG rose ‘rose’ and kole ‘coal’ became Y roiz and koilso MHG CG kgm (= bourn) became Y botm. (c) The Y faij which corresponds to MHG /«’/ might have an analogous explanation: The cx; /r/ (= mhg m) might have joined the development of old jej and lengthened jej to y /ai/. As m hg site *snow* and kebet1 ‘to lift’ became Y Snai and haibn, so m h g CG stfn (= stein) ‘stone’ became Y it am. In other words, the four sets of vowels and diphthongs in c (oujau, o/p, eje, eijei) have been reduced to two (ai and ai): Under einem bourne in Rome sten sie uf einem steine-Unter einem Baum(e) in Rom stehen sie auf einem Stein - Jnter a boim in Roim itaiyn zai of a itain. (d) The prefixes be and ge have preserved a vowel: beuhtpfe baiifymi ‘creature’ gesagt gy**gt ‘said*

Exceptions must be explained individually: gekceren Miern *to relate to ;ought ;should ;to be probable’ geringe ‘small’ gring ‘easy’

(e) To the foregoing may perhaps be added that the MHG short vowels were lengthened in CG earlier than in UG and the changes of articulation and the development of diphthongs were thus made possible: uo Y CO mule m il mule ,m ill’ va n find,e)m vim *to ride’ vedere /Oder vedere ‘feather’ tor toier tor ‘door’

(f) Similarly the shortening of vowels may perhaps be traced to CG:

Ujen lezn lajen ‘to let* kriht gybraxt braht *brought* 73 The Elements of Yiddish

(g) Umlaut in words like the following is a Central German feature. knukt brik brieke . ‘bridge* drucltcn drikn driuken ‘to press’ stuck ilik stick ‘piece’ xerutk cjrik XMUCk ‘back* Umgnenjlouken laikynyn lougnenfleuken ‘to deny’ gelouben glaibn gelouben ‘to believe’

(h) The same holds good for the vowel of the verb ‘bring’: bringen brengyn brengen *to bring*

(i) Initial Germanic /p/ is represented by /(f : pfurtt(i) fjnt fund; pund ‘pound’

(j) Germanic /pp/ undergoes no shift: apfel ipl appel ‘apple’ kopf kop kepp *head’

(k) Medial /5/ before /t/ has not become /|/ in cg, y having the same feature, might have inherited it from here.

tarsi [tarft] luu(e)rst mil tarsi ‘darest’ ‘direst’ *must not*

(1) The final /1/ of the 3rd pers. plur. of the present indie, was lost very early in CG, which might thus be the source of the Y form. lobent loibn lobtn ‘to praise’

(m) The assimilation /mb > mm/ is possibly of CG origin: krump (b) ‘crooked, krjm ,crooked, not krumm ‘crooked, slanting* slanting* right, wrong, lame*

(n) The loss o f /b/ in gekabet gyluu gehat ‘had*

is a CG feature. (o) CG origin is indicated for: turn torjm turm ‘tower’ kugel koul kilt ‘globe, bullet’ 74 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(p) Some examples from the vocabulary: prtiglyn breglen ‘to fry’ fiiln Julen,fuekn ‘to feel’ hofn hoffen ‘to hope* irgyt iergaif) ‘somewhere’ itaiger ‘tune; steiger ‘play in high manner’ and strong notes’ farzjj(e)xn versuchen, versuochen ‘to get a taste oF [finyPfiery {Junf^rtt ‘ [five] persons’ (‘ [five] o f them *)

The Upper German element The following features point to a UG source: (a) In certain words there is no mutation:

UG Y CG sumen/soumen zoumyn zex soumen/soumen *to tarry* koufen koifn koufen ‘to buy’ bueken ‘to bend, b jk n zex 'to bow’ butken ‘to bend, bow* bow’ stupfen itjpn stupfen ‘to push’

(b) Y continues (in a new form) the MHG /u/, i.e., there was no lowering of /u/ to/o/: trueken trjkn trocken ‘dry’ geschwumtnen gyhjmyn geschmommen ‘swum’ suime zfti soime ‘sun’ sun zjjn ton ‘son’

(d) The diphthongs /ou/ and /ai > aa/ may perhaps be explained by the fact that the m hg /u/, /1/ and /iu/ w ere very early diphthongized in Bavarian: zit > [zeit] (ail > caat zit ‘time* mis > [mous] mouz m£s *mouse’ liut > [lout] bit > laat ‘people’ liut *(a) people’ ‘(a) people’ 75 The Elements of Yiddish

(e) The fact that /o, oc, u, iu/ were unrounded very early in Bavarian, might indicate that this feature came from there into y: dorfer > [derfer] dir/er dorfer ‘villages’ sc home > [fin] ien > sain sckcene ‘beautiful’ vroude > [freid] fraid vroude ‘joy* ’fit y f funf ‘five < /״ £/ tnous > [mats] rrtaiz > maaz mous ‘mice’ (f) Vowels are lengthened before /r/: ban - birt buu{e)rd bars ‘beard’ (g) In medial position jhj has merged with the /x/ of the final position: hick, hiker, kScher hoi(e)x, koi(e]xer hSch, kSher ‘high* (h) Preservation of final m, instead of change to /n/: btsem(e) biizym bezen ‘broom’ (i) Development of /d/ between /n/ and /1/: kuendlin *little kiindl'little kuenlin ‘little hcn/cock* hen/cock’ hen* 0 Initial /t/ instead of /d/ in a number of words: diutenjHuten ttutn diuten ‘to point*

(k) In probably the greater part of the Y speech area the 2nd person pi. of the personal and possessive pronouns has been replaced by the old dual forms: i f ic ir ‘you (ye)* im ink iuckjiuwick ‘you* (acc.) enc ink iu ‘you’ (dat.) inker inker iuwer ‘your’ (1) Verbs of movement form the past with the auxiliary ‘to be’: sie sind zai zJnyn sie haben ‘they sat/were gesi1;en gyxisn gese;;en sitting* geligen gyMign gtlegen lay/were lying’ gestanden gyilanyn gestanden stood/were standing’ gesmmmen gyhjmyn geswommat swam/were swimming* 76 A Brief Survey of die Yiddish Language

Synthetis of the German elements The above comparisons show clearly that there is a twofold source for the a element in EY. From this it would follow that there were two main groups among the Jews who emigrated to Poland, the one coming from central and the other from southern Gcrmay, and that in their new country a welding together of their dialects took place, the dialects in question being the Thuringian-Upper Saxonian one of CG and the Bavarian one of the UG group. But even among the Jews who did not emigrate to eastern Europe, a similar development can be traced. The economic life which the Jews were compelled to lead was very different from that of those around them. They had no choice but to engage in occupations far removed from the soil, and hence they constituted, of necessity, a much more fluctuating element than did the non-Jews. A normal feature in Jewish life was therefore frequency of migration, which, in addition to economic causes, was by no means rarely due to expulsion. As a result, individuals and even communities speaking a different dialect were brought into close contact with each other. In this way a synthesis of elements originating from various G dialects took place. Thus the G element in w y became a synthesis distinctly different from any G dialect.* This docs not mean that the Jewish speech of a given region was absolutely divorced from its Christian surroundings, but it formed a distinct unity with the Jewish speech of other regions in Germany - it was a Jewish synthesis. This is a reconstruction, of course. But that it is on the whole correct seems very probable, since the main historical facts are more or less known to us. We have even outside testimony to the existence of this Jewish kouU, although from a late period: the remark by an Alsatian scholar of the sixteenth century: ,You must know that nearly all of them pronounce the vowels in the Nuremberg or Fran- conian way, especially the a which is almost like an 0 ’ (See p. 353, No. 596.) If such a development was strong enough to shape a Jewish tongue in the midst of the G speech territory, it must have been still more powerful in eastern Europe, where there was no,or only very little, influence from G-speaking communities. And it was in proportion to its growth that the momentum of independent development increased.

THE SLAVONIC ELEMENT

It was here, in eastern Europe, that a new constituent of Y was added to the language: this was the Slavonic element. 5 In O, the Silesian dialect offer! an interesting parallel. It came into being in tbe second half of the thirteenth century by the synthesis of dialects belonging to the same main groups as those from which the Y synthesis originated, viz. the CO and tbe UG dialects. The phonological result of the Silesian synthesis is, however, totally different from that of Y. Cf., for instance, alkene - alain, Schnie - inai, geinichen - gykroxn, 1u -anoi, gmB - grois, Oogt - oig, Beeme - burner, bar - mir ipL), hiendu - htient, schund - toin. 77 The Elements of Yiddish

Cxeek In the eastward movement of the Jews, the first station to be reached geographically within the boundary of the Empire was Bohemia and Moravia. Czech was therefore the first language to influence Y. There are very few words of Cz origin at present in ey, but among them there is that well known expression of regret, sympathy, pity and self-pity: nebex ‘alas, poor him/her/them/you/you people/ me/us.’ Its derivation from Cz is proved by the /x/ (< /h/) and the unpalatalized /n/: Cz nebohy as against P nicbogi. The Y word is an interjection, the SI one an adjective. It is one of the very few ey words that spread to WY and is still alive to this day in the language of West Ashk Jewry. The earliness of the borrowings from Cz is clear from a case like praidyk ‘the forequarters of an animal carcass,’ in which the old sound /r/ survives, while later Cz has changed it into [ii]: pfedek [przedek],

Polish The second SI stratum in Y is the Polish. Like the Cz element, it is common to the whole of EY. This is only natural since Poland was the starting point for further migration north, east and southward. (Words which were adopted after the emigrants had already left show a later stage of p phonology and are not to be found in the other regions.) That the P element was incorporated into Y at a very early date is clear from the rj£ relation between the two languages (see p. $6): Y prikry - P firzykry [pjtkr■]. ‘unpleasant,’ grby - grzywa [gfiva] ‘mane.’ (That grivy is derived from p is proved by the lg/. Cz, Byelo-Russian and Ukrainian have /h/, Russian, which has /g/, cannot be the source (see p. 78). The age of early loan words is betrayed not only by the absence of later P sound changes but also by the presence of datable Y ones. Y slrjny ‘string of a musical instrument’ corresponds to p struna. As the Y shift /u/ > /if or /ii/ is not later than the middle of the fourteenth century (see p. 55), such words must have been acquired before that time.8 In other examples both the Y and the p sounds have been shifted from their common origin: y txoier ‘a polecat* - p tchdrz [txufl. These forms prove that the word was acquired at a time when p 6, i.e., [o:], and oy [o :] had not yet been developed into /u/ and /oi/, respectively, so that [txo:r] joined the Y words with [o:]. Since the development [o:] > [oi] took place not later than about 1300 (see p. 55), this date must be regarded as the latest one for the introduction of such words.

6 When word! which tre evidently of • Urer date show thil change, the exploration might be that *n i-dialca w u adopted by a group in whoce ipeech the original /u/ had tunrived, tad who now turned every /0/ into fif. A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language ך8

Byelo-Russian An early source from the SI group is the Byelo-Russian language. But it does not belong to the common basis of ey; its influence is restricted to the northern dialect. However, there are exceptions, e.g., zaver ‘rust* seems to be used everywhere.7

Ukrainian Ukrainian is a later source and has influenced only that part of the Y language which is on the Ukrainian speech territory.

Russian Until the last few decades there were no Jewish settlements on the Russian speech territory apart from small groups of specially privileged immigrants. Thus no normal communication between the two linguistic groups could take place and so no x element in y was to be expected. However, R had for some centuries been the language of the authorities in the occupied non-Russian countries, so that words and terms from the vocabulary of these authorities infiltrated into V. Nevertheless, in general literary y (apart from Soviet writing) there is no R element.

International words In the Western languages, words on the Greek-Latin pattern are not, of course, quite identical: university, univrrsitc, university, unhersidad, universitat (Catalan), uni- versidade (Portuguese), Universitat, unhersiteit (Dutch), universitet (Scandinavian), 1mivbsitet (Russian), uniwersytet (p), etc. Which is the source of the international words in Y? Forms like te^oriy ,theory,’ komiflet ‘committee,’ asimil[aciy ‘assimilation’ were clearly not adopted from G or a Romance language but from a SI one: tchrija, komit'kt, osimWatja. Whether that was p or R cannot, in most cases, be decided on linguistic grounds. The reason for this uncertainty is the close similarity among the SI languages. This often makes it impossible to decide which of them was the source of a Y word. For example, Y kohnyn might be derived from the komm9 of Cz, p or br. Here other criteria must therefore be applied. On the other hand, it is dear to which of the SI languages a word like Y brig ‘bank, beach’ belongs. The p form is brzeg [bieg], in Cz it is bfeh [brfeh], in BR b{erek, in Uk berih, in R b'ereg. The y form must therefore be derived from p, from an earlier stage, [breg].

7 By tbe my, it cannot be derived from the Byelo-Rtraian noun which ii rla, bat appears to be formed from the v verb; tavern which represents the Byelo-Rutsian rltviei. 8 It has the same meaning and origin as Eng tkimtuy < Ft ckemitUt < Late Latin ttmn»t4 < Lat ra n u < Gk ktmtnos. 79 The Elements of Yiddish

OTHER ELEMENTS

The Semitic element and the Romance and Germanic ones have been the fundamental constituents of EY, not only throughout its history but also over the whole of its linguistic territory. The SI element, on the other hand, belongs only to its eastern branch. There arc other languages whose influence is restricted to ey and then only to certain regions. In the north, Lithuanian and Lettish left their mark on the Y of their respective regions only; in the south the influence of Rumanian, Hun- garian and Slovak is similarly restricted. Only H, Ar, Zar, G, Cz and P elements form the basis of literary Y. All the other languages mentioned do not. This holds good for the influence of English on literary Y in Great Britain and North America. It is felt, however, in the press. Words adopted from English generally denote things, actions and relationships which, while remaining essentially the same as they had been *back home,’ now appeared as part of a specifically different world. But why should words like ‘letter* (liter) or ‘to try’ (traiyn) be adopted even though britv and prjjvn continue to be used ? It would be interesting to discover when the old word and when the new one is used. Sometimes the borrowing is of a semantic nature. When a jour- nalist in America writes admmistraciy he means the *Administration,’ i.e., the executive body of the government of the United States.

NEW HIGH GERMAN

There was a language that was very remote geographically but that none the less exerted a strong influence on the language of modern y literature. This was G, i.e., New High German. We did not discuss the matter in the section ‘The Gcr- manic element’ because its role in the history of y has been of an essentially different nature. Its logical place is here, where it belongs chronologically. How did this influence come about ? The pioneers of the Jewish Enlightenment in eastern Europe looked upon the German Jewish Enlightenment as their spiritual home. They adopted its attitude towards Y, and to them it seemed quite natural to want to replace ‘jargon’ by G. The protagonists of the new movement, generally used Hebrew for literary purposes. In this they followed traditional practice. The masses of the people did not, however, know it well enough for that. Hence, in propagating their ideas in the fight against the old ways of life, the Enlighteners were compelled to use the despised ‘gibberish’ itself. Right from the beginning in their work of educating the people, of ‘civilizing’ them, as they called it, they turned their attention to the language. As they could not abolish it to order, they tried at least to Germanize it as much as possible. They did this to the vocabulary, phraseology, grammar, style, and even to the spelling. I say ‘even’ because this 80 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

is particularly striking, since the alphabets o f Y and G differ completely and it would appear to be impossible for the one to influence the other. One example will suffice: the introduction of ayin, in imitation of the G e in unstressed syllables, e.g., gezugt, koimen instead of the traditional gizugt, koimin. The process of Germanization went farthest in the north among the writers of Vilna and resulted, of course, in horribly distorted Y. In the south, the instinct for good language was stronger, and here some of the protagonists of the Enlight- enment themselves wrote in pure and popular Y. All in all, only a small circle in Eastern Europe was reached by modern ideas and writings and so the written and spoken language of the vast majority remained unaffected. But that circle was gradually extending and their written language was of the Germanized type. The next step was not, however, the adoption of G but a conscious revolt against the whole trend, due to the awakening of nationalism. Coming in the train of secularization, this movement was actually basing itself upon Y as the guardian of Jewish peoplehood. Being essentially secular, it did not aim at returning to the old Y nor at continuing in its footsteps but along newer paths. The main achievement of the linguistic revolt - it had begun late in the nineteenth century and gained great momentum in the course of the twentieth - was the removal of Germanisms, mainly from accidence. In all the other linguistic spheres (except phonetics, which had not been affected) what resulted from it was merely an exchange of new Germanisms for old, rather than the emergence of an un-Germanized Y. Not surprisingly this linguistic nationalism failed to undo what had been done, for it was, after all, just a more advanced stage of the Enlightenment. A few examples will suffice. There had not formerly been a word in Y for the modem idea of development. No attempt was made to create such a word, not even in the shape of a translation from another language. A word was simply adopted. There is nothing unusual in that, of course. The source from which it was taken was G, and thus modern Y had the word entviklung. The parts of this word have their Y equivalents: ant, viklyn and jng, but there was no word ant- viklyn, either in an abstract or concrete sense, from which to construct a noun by means of the suffix jng. Later the prefix ant was substituted for the G ent: but up to this day, no attempt has been made to Yiddicizc the word ,׳antvikljng completely, in which case it would have to be antvikyljng. In this particular example the reason for the adoption of a loan word was that it introduced a new idea. In other instances a new shade of thought was responsible. But very often there is no obvious explanation. For example, the Yiddish word for ,danger’ is s(a)kutmy•, in modern Y there is also from the German Gefahr. There are a very great number of words of both categories. Sometimes words achieved currency because poets and poetasters borrowed from G to increase their supply of rhymes. As there are, for instance, very few rhymes with y fact ,light’ 81 The Elements of Yiddish in the northern dialect, they simply appropriated the G Geskht (pronouncing the G [5] as Y [x]) when they needed a rhyme word. No less than vocabulary, phraseology too, was affected. German idioms were translated literally, part of the new idiom often consisting of a German word, e.g., dimjm als bavaaz ‘to serve as a proof,’ from G als Bemeis dienen: dimyn cannot have the meaning *to function,’ als is G, bavaazn means ‘to produce, exhibit, show’ but not beweisen ‘to prove.' Finally an example from syntax: a fjn Rjsii ibergyzicty bambkjng. Such a con- sanction is impossible in genuine Y, just as it is in English: ‘a from Russian translated note.’ In Y the article cannot be separated from its noun except by attributive adjectives. The correct position is: a bambkjng (g word) iber gyzict (g word) fjn RjsiJ, exactly as in English: *a note translated from Russian.’ The construction was borrowed from G: ‘eine aus dem Russischen iibersetzte Bemerkung.’ There was only one domain where this type of language had not gained ascen- dancy, and that was in the traditional religious literature: biblical and other translations, edifying and Chassidic writings, etc. Here the old type of Y from before the advent of the Enlightenment continued to be used, although the spelling was much influenced by the secularized type. The press of the religious majority of East Ashk Jewry, however, succumbed to the secularized language. It was only among the adherents of the above-mentioned (p. 38) traditionalist linguistic movement between the two World Wars that the incongruity between religious traditionalism on the one hand, and a secularized language on the other, was recognized. They aimed at shaping a language built upon the foundation of traditional Y and adapted to present needs, without, however, identifying those needs with the ideas and ideals of the secularized world. The result, as far as the N H G element is concerned, amounted to its complete rejection, although success in the practical execution of this aim varied from writer to writer. 4

Synthesis

The elements1 described above did not remain separate entities but reacted with each other: synthesis took place.

MORPHOLOGY

There is umlaut in plurals, diminutives, comparatives and superlatives, not only in the Germanic element but also in the others: fuunym (h) ptinyma (pi.) *face* suud (SI) siider (pi.) ‘orchard’ ruuv (h) rfivl (dim.) ‘rabbi’ drong (SI) dr Jng I (dim.) ‘stick, cudgel’ xuusyv (h) xeiiyvtr (comp.) 'respected; important’ xeiiyvtier (superl.) The plural endings o f H origin, lym/ and jysj, are used also with the other elements: dokter (o) doktoirym *physician; Dr’ ndr (a) narvunym ‘stupid person’ (the uun is a suffix for nouns and adjectives and is also of Semitic origin). The ending /s/ys/ serves for nouns of SI origin, no SI plural endings having been incorporated in Y: rak (SI) rakys *crayfish’ kliamky (SI) kliemkys ‘door handle’

1 The words ‘ element ’ and ‘ reactiontaken from chemistry, seem to provide a suitable metaphor for the linguistic processes in question. Thus ‘element’ is preferable to the term 'component,' which was introduced some time *go is a substitute. However, 'components’ suggests things placed side by side without interaction. 83 Synthesis

This development is clearly due to analogy. The singular ending /y/ is very frequent in words of both Sem and SI origin, and so the plural of the latter was formed by analogy with the H plural: toivy loivyt ‘good turn, favour* resulted in kUamky khamkyt ‘door handle’ This happened in the Germanic element too: 'yjmy ngjmys ,aunt״ In these forms /s/ seems to be the marker of the plural (while, historically, it was lysf) and that might explain forms like: miser misers *knife’ itikn itikns ‘stick’ On the other hand, there are also formations like: loiyk loiykys ‘foal’ itikn itikynys *stick’

SEMANTICS

Expressions like uun zugn or up giibn have a purely Germanic body. While they correspond to G ansagen and abgeben, they have a different meaning. In G they signify ,to announce’ and ‘to deliver,’ respectively, but in y ‘to command,’ ‘warn’ and ‘to give back.’ It would be futile to seek these meanings in m hg or to try and discover the psychological road leading from *announce’ to ,charge’ etc., and from ,deliver’ to ‘give back.’ The Y constructions are simply built on the pattern of the p nakazac ,to command’ and oidac ‘to give back’; uun + zugn ‘on + say’ and up + geibn ‘off + give.’ Although these two adverbs and others arc G in origin and are linked with verbs of G origin, they very often have the SI meaning, side by side with the G one. The Y word for ‘donkey’ is aizi> the H one is hatnor [xamoir]. The latter word is also Y: xamer, but it does not mean the animal; it is reserved for the human species as a term of abuse. This does not strike us as remarkable, for we got used to being called *donkey’ in our childhood. But in the Arab orient, the donkey is an important animal and its name is not synonymous with stupidity. In the Bible the Messiah himself is pictured as riding on one. The reason for the fall in the prestige of the donkey in y seems clear: it is a case of synthesis, an oriental form wedded to an occidental meaning. 84 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

WORD FORMATION

The Indo-European system of word composition is transferred also to Sem material, e.g., dam-somy ‘mortal enemy,’ literally ‘blood enemy.’ In H this would mean ‘blood of an enemy’ (which is not an idiom) because in that language the determining word follows the determined one: Dam somy (dam ibtu) in H would be a so-called construct, i.e., a genitival construction, not a composition. On the other hand, in Y the Sem method is occasionally used, a Sem word being linked with a non-Sem one, e.g., kol kamtiglexkaitn *all (of the) possibilities’ (Sem and Germanic), bal-takty ‘tax farmer’ (Sem and SI).

AFFIXES

Sem affixes are combined with (1) Semitic words: g04(i)y goo(i) + h feminine ending A > y y ,Christian woman’ ;00(1)0' goo(0 + Ar feminine termination td > r ty (Also with double suffix: goo{i)yty.) (2) Germanic words: paa(i)erty pouer + umlaut + Ar feminine ending td > Y // *peasant woman’ Germanic affixes are combined with (1) Sem words: (a) jmhtvyd jm + kuvyd ‘un + honour’ ” ,dishonour’ xavertmtrn xaver + ty (see above) + itw < MHO dr + (1 > MHO in ,female friend’ broigyzerhait broigyz ‘angry’ + erhait *being in a state’ (< brtngyzer hail) , in a cross mood’ ’ynyn ,to sl»y ־+ derhargynyn der mho prefix er < ur + harg (b) Conjugation: patent (and pers. sg.). patert (3rd pers. sg.), patemdik (contemporal), gypatert (ptc.) ‘to get rid 0P (2) SI words:

(a) ftrblondzyn *to lose one’* way’ (b) Conjugation: ratyvya (and pers. sg.), ratyvyt (3rd pers. sg.), ratyvyndik (contemporal), gyratyvyt (ptc.) *to rescue’ 85 Synthesis

SI affixes are used with (1) Sem words: mekmyiky melamyd + feminine ending ky (< SI ka): ‘wife of • teacher’ tvjisk tvjjiy (h but not y) + suffix ok (pejorative): ‘hypocrite’ (2) Germanic words: klovzmk kloitz *house of study and prayer’ + rdk suffix denoting a man who has some individual or social characteristics: *a man who spends all his time in a klouz' Spontaneous Development

PHONOLOGY

Examples from phonology have been given in other connections - in Sections 2 and 3; see also Section 6. Dissimilation occurs, e.g., in iamyi ,community beadle’ which has become iamys; the oy iffttyit, the inflected form of iffn ‘beautiful’ has changed to iamym. Similarly, one of two r’s in adjacent syllables is expelled by the other: mhg martem ,to torture’ against Y matem zex ‘to exert oneself, toil.' We have assimilation in, e.g., kimpyi ,confinement’ < kinpet < mhg hint- belle; xezbm ‘account’ from xctbm < xeibn < hesbon; vaampcrt ‘currant’ from mhg winbere.

SEMANTICS

Modni in SI means ‘fashionable’; it goes back to G Mode or French mode ‘fashion.’ But modny in Y has developed the idea of the *striking, unusual, strange, odd’ - evidently because such are the feelings of an ordinary conservative mind at the sight of a fashionable novelty. In the H of the Mishnah the noun batlyn (bat tan) means ‘a person who is not engaged in work.’ In the popular view this was apparently only possible if he was an ‘unworldly, unpractical person,’ for it is in this sense that the word is used in Y.

ISOLATION

Here are some examples of new forms or constructions arising through the process of isolation. The ending s in y is a sign of the plural or of the possessive. But, in the expression׳ 87 Spontaneous Development

01 am vdgs, there is no visible connection between the s and those endings. We may, however, assume that viigs was originally a genitive: am vfigs meaning ,at the same time.' When the determinative power of the genitive was lost, a preposition had to be added: m ams viigs. In the consciousness of the speaker, the /s/ here could have no relation to the possessive. The /5/ of ams was dropped, presumably, through dissimilation, on account of the /5/ that follows straight after in the word viigs. The same explanation seems to hold good for the /s/ in iliit-viigs ‘sledge way.' The formula used for wishing somebody good luck on the way is: (H)ol(s) mir a gjtn ilHt-viigs! '1 wish you good luck on the way’ - in spite of the surviving genitival /5/, iliit~viigs is an accusative today, as shown by the form of the adjective (gjtn)} The adverbial suffix erhait was originally a genitive, e.g., gyzjnterhait ‘in health’ cgyzjnter (adjective, sing., gen., fem.) ‘of a healthy’ + hait ‘state, condition.* Another example that is derived from an original genitive: The G irfikr (3rd pers. plur.) has been replaced by zaier in Y. However, the G genitive trjikrer survives in the word iiery. naan iiery ‘(a group of) nine persons’ (‘ikrer neun,' ‘nine of them*). But it is no longer understood as a genitive, as is clear from the fact that it may also be used for the first person: mir zinyngyv&n finyf titry ‘we were five of us.* There is a conjugation where a H participle is linked with the auxiliary ‘to be’: er it mexabyd ‘he honours.’ This has the appearance of being a predicate plus an auxiliary verb, literally ‘he is an honouring person.’ But that this is not so is clear for the following reasons. Mexabyd is not a Y adjective - it has none of the adjectival characteristics, it cannot function as an attribute, it has no inflection and no comparative or superlative; the construction can take an object, i.e., it functions as a verb:3 er iz ym mtxabyd *he honours him’; in the past tense its auxiliary is not *to be’: ,he was an honouring person,* er *izym gyvim mexabyd, but ‘to have,* the usual auxiliary for the inflection of the past tense: er (h)otym mexabyd gyvitn. This construction is clearly not a loose syntactical group but an entity, a periphrastic verb. This holds good even in cases where the Hebrew element contains an object or adverbial phrase, or two participles, e.g., er vet ys oiker min haloiryi zaan *he will uproot it.* We may therefore regard such combinations, of which there are a great many, as a special conjugation. Its origin seems to be connected with a construction we know from MHG where there was a way of stressing the continuous nature of an action by combining the auxiliary verb ‘to be’ with the present participle, e.g., alle die mich sehende 1 Cf. the preservation of the genitive in O: Effing seines Wefts. a It occurs without an auxiliary verb only in cllipticxl uie, wherein it docs not diflier from any other verb. 83 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

smt ‘all who are seeing me.’ We might assume that a H participle had sometimes been used and that when that construction was disappearing from g and the G element of y, the combination with the H element became isolated so that a new conjugation came into being. One relic of this construction has survived in the G element of Y: the way special emphasis can be put on the word vim ‘to know*: by combining it with the substantive verb, e.g., Zai darfn vim zaan az ..J *they must take note that ...I', zaa(i) vim az ...! ‘take note that ...I’ (singular), zaat(s) vim az ...! (plural). However, this use survived only in the infinitive and the imperative, as in the examples. The apparent infinitive vim is what remains of the original m hg participle m^ende.

ANALOGY

The verb baatn ‘to change* has the participle gybitn. In mhg the verb biuten was weak: gebiutet. Thus baatn has left the weak conjugation and become linked with the group raatn - gyritn ‘to ride (on horseback),’ btaadn - gyinitn ‘to cut’ etc.; the weak g verb 1vurgen -geviirgt *to choke’ (trans.) is strong in y: vargn - gyvorgn, like itarbn -gyst or bn. Some of the strong verbs have changed their gradation class: mhg m e^en - gemifttn, Utn - gyloin, mhg leschen - geloschen: but Y mistn ~ gymostn ‘to measure’. The first and third pers. pi. of the substantive verb were mir j zai *zamfzbt * we - they are.’ This monosyllable was an exception among all the di- and poly- syllabic verbs where the ending for these persons was /yn/. By analogy with them it acquired the /yn/ for rhythmical reasons, i.e., the old form was felt to be too lightweight in comparison with all the other verbs and so zainyn - zbiyn arose.3 In the infinitive, however, the old form, which was identical with the two finite forms, survived unchanged (zaan). The infinitive zaany however, underwent a different fate, when it was required as an absolute infinitive. The regular form of this construction was infinitive plus finite, e.g., iraabn iraabt zi ‘as to writing, she writes ...’ Thus in the case of our verb the form would have to be zaan iz zi ‘as to being, she is ...’ But zaan did not fit into the usual rhythm. By analogy with iraabn iraabt zi, the required infinitive had to consist of the form of the first/third person singular, iz, plus the normal ending, syllabic /n/. Thus the pseudo-infinitives binynjizn arose which do not exist outside this construction: bmyn bin izn iz zi. Similarly, the stem vowel of the infinitive vim ‘to know’ differs from the stem vowel of the present tense, er vaist. On the analogy of iraabn iraabt er the pseudo- infinitive vaim arose which occurs only in this construction: vaim vaist er.

3 Cf. the Bawiw form smitn. 89 Spontaneous Development

Some nouns which belong to the weak declension in mhg have becomfc strong in Y:

k&lze - kotzen hoc - kdc ‘cat’ hacke - hot ken hak - hik ‘axe*

On the other hand, we have the opposite too: j i r - j&r iun(e)r - iuu(e)nt ‘year’ tsl - teler tuul - tuuln ‘valley’

Within the strong declension there are many changes from one class to another:

bodem/Boden - bedenujBiden ‘ground’ bcidym - baidymtr ‘attic’ ruottjRute - ruotejkuten rjt - riter ‘rod’

The source of zaidy *grandfather’ is the SI didjdziad. We should therefore expect the Y form to end in a consonant too, *zaid. It seems likely that this was the original form but that the influence of the very frequent words taty ‘father,’ mamy ‘mother,’ buby ‘grandmother,’ belonging to the same category of associations as zaidy, occasioned the addition of the final vowel. The same, no doubt, holds true for the word mjjmy ‘aunt’: the final vowel is not that of the MHG form, muome, as is proved by the WY form, which is muum. The same explanation would apply also to the female names with a final vowel as in mhg, e.g., Hindy. It corresponds to mhg hmde *a hind* but again the final vowel is not that of the mhg word which exists in y and has the form kind, but Hindy is an adaptation to the frequent female names of Sem and SI origin which end in /y/: Xany *Hannah/Anna/Anne,’ Zlaty ‘Gold.’ This is proved by, e.g., the Germanic parallel to Zlaty, it is Goldy. However, the MHG/0HG form is a monosyllabic, gold, and none of the other Germanic languages have a final vowel in this word. Analogy appears also to be the general ca use for gender change in Y. For example, the words imy *change’ and maiky ‘beverage,’ masculine in H, have become feminine in y, because here their ending is identical with that of a very great number of feminines, of both Semitic and Slavonic origin, e.g., micvy ‘religious command- ment,’ xvaliy ‘wave.’ Sabys, originally feminine, is masculine in Y, presumably by analogy with the other days of the week - der Muuntyg ‘Monday,’ (because of der tug ,the day’). Words ending in ys < H esjet, e.g., maxloikys ‘quarrel,’ have changed from feminine to neuter in Y, obviously by analogy with words ending in < Hebrew js[u!, like, e.g., dusguulys ‘exik.’ Since these words, too, 90 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

are feminine in H, one might think of explaining the change to neuter by reference to the Y suffix kait ,-hood, -head,* which has the same meaning as the H jtjut and gives the words the neuter gender: dusgadlys like dtugroiskait ‘(both:) greatness.’ But the problem would then arise why words with the suffix kait are neuter. For kait is abstracted from ik + hait (mhg ic + keit) and keit as well as kait *state, condition* are feminine: die keit, di kait.

RISE OF NEW WORDS

Yiddish contains a considerable number of so-called h words which did not exist in H but were constructed out of h material on analogy with the H element. For example, bal-tohy *benefactor,’ baabt ‘a man who wants to have/get/do something),’ balumys ‘ the wish to have/get/do (something),* iaxsn ‘ man of distinguished descent,’ iaxsuunys ,distinguished descent.’ Most of these were introduced into H from Y, since the two languages, although clearly separate in the writers’ consciousness, cannot be kept apart precisely. (In the H dictionaries the origin of such words is discreetly - and misleadingly - hidden by the phrase ‘in the language of the people.’) There is an interesting group of words, Semitic in origin, built in a semi- Semitic way by a sort of reduplication, e.g., bizy-bizioinys ‘a very great disgrace,’ byzilyzol ‘very cheaply,’ xjly-xaluuiys *great repulsiveness,’ dilydal (Talmudic: dalle dallut) ‘very poor.* They appear to be formed on the pattern of Sem con- sanctions like iir kaiitrm ‘Song of Songs,’ qod’ie qojailm ‘holy of Hohes.’ This is still more evident in sod soidys *great secret,’ dor doirys (Biblical: dSr dorm) ‘many generations, a very long time.’ Another class of words are those developed from compounds. The H ySm 'day,* together with the attribute fob ‘good,’ had already attained the meaning of a simplex -yom fob ,festival.’ In y, the /m/ was assimilated to the following /t/, and the vowel of the second word, under the influence of the stress on the first, became so much weakened that it lost the stress it had had as an attribute in H; with that it lost its separate meaning - it became the unstressed second syllable of .disyllabic noun: the two words of H had become, also phonetically, a simplex ג The good day was now able to receive the attribute good, in the greeting gjt iontyv or agjtn iontyv *(I wish you) a happy festival,’ or it could be combined with formative elements, e.g., iontyvdik *festive.’ It remains a simplex in the plural too: iontohym, while H has iumym tohym (yamim tofrim), each of the two words then having the plural ending. That the second syllable in Y is now stressed and has a full vowel, is no departure from the general pattern, e.g., xaver - xavairym, xuulym - xaloimys (see p. 229, No. 43). Another example of this kind is amuuryc ‘an ignoramus,’ plur.: amracym, abstract: amracys *ignorance,* both of which 9! Spontaneous Development do not exist in H - in fact they would be impossible there, as am-huuryc (cam hd’are{) is not a simplex but a genitival construction. Iontyv and amuuryc show by their spelling that each of them originally consisted of two words. But in a V word like boiml '(olive) oil’ the compound nature of the original is no longer apparent. While in the now obsolete G word, Boumol, the second word was preserved, in Y the strong stress on the first word weakened the vowel of the second word to /9/ and finally caused it to disappear, the /1/ taking over the syllabic function. Thus the original compound boim ‘tree’ + ait ‘oil’ became a simplex, boiml, which had the meaning of the original compound.

SHIFT IN SYNTACTICAL CONNECTION

Y iiryv ‘before’ is a preposition. In H iiryv [c{r(t) is a noun, ‘evening.’ The exp la- nation for this change is clear. In Y, the word occurred in the common expressions iiryv iabys ,Sabbath eve, Friday,’ iiryv iontyv ‘eve of the festival, the day before the festival’ etc. From here it was isolated and used with other nouns too, in the sense of ‘ before,’ e.g., iiryv dym groisn ibtr-keirynii' before the great upheaval.’ What is the etymology of tomer ‘if, perhaps, lest’? It obviously had its origin in the world of learning. The Talmud is studied audibly - the text is read and partly translated, explained and discussed, even if the student is going through it alone. When he anticipates an objection to the argument or considers the possi- bility of a different explanation, he will introduce these with the formula vyim tomer (wi'Jim tomar) and he then adds its Y translation, jn oib dj vist zugn ,and if you were to say,’ or he omits the jn oib ‘and if’ and places the finite verb at the head of the sentence vyim tomer vestj zugn ,you might say.’ This phrase became stereo- typed, but the vyim was dropped and tomer lost its original meaning and function. It became part of a Y sentence and turned into a Y conjunction, meaning ‘ if, maybe, perhaps, lest’: tomer vestj zugn ,if you were to say,’ without a break after tomer.* Vuurn ‘for (= because),’ through a slightly different form, vuurym, is etymologically identifiable with m hg 1varumbe ‘ why,’ The development in the meaning may have been like this. In answer to a question, a lively speaker tends to repeat

4 This development seems to be old, to judge by the 0 of tomer. It preserved the short quantity which the holem must have had in early Y (see p. 64) in contrast with the general lengthening and diphthongization in open stressed syllable: {qmer > ifpmer > toimer ‘guard, guardian.' It belongs phonetically to the group V z/'dht-mhg turner ‘summer,’ V kvater ‘the man who carries the baby to the tircumtisor' - m h o grvattre ‘godfather,’ v tfner - mvsjhur ‘that one.* Thus, whereas v his preserved the earlier, Hebrew pronunciation of that word, its liturgical pronunciation his the v diphthongized form: toimar. Tomer is now so detached from its source that people no longer realize its origin. Hence it is not written in Sent orthography but in the spelling system employed for the Indo-European elements of Y. 92 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language the why before replying, e.g., Question: Vuurjm hobn zai zex myiaiyv gyvem? ‘Why did they change their mind ?’ Answer: Vuurjm? Zai (h)obn gyzitn az s iz nox caat. ‘Why ? They saw that there was still time.’ The constant use in this way of vuurjm - which developed into vuurym and finally vuum - made it assume the role of a link between a principal and a dependent sentence; it was felt to be the introduction to the subordinate one, i.e., it had become a conjunction. (Cf., e.g., Italian perchi.) The meaning ‘why’ disappeared altogether and far vuus, a loan translation from p, became the new word for ‘why.’ The y conjunction saadn ‘unless’ is similarly derived from the mhg sentence c% sf dime*

THE ABSOLUTE INFINITIVE

Fuu(e)m fuu(e)rt er azoi a gancn tug ‘As to riding, he rides like this the whole day ’: This construction - infinitive plus finite form of the same verb, which is the predicate of a sentence - serves to emphasize the meaning of the verb. This might be a case of spontaneous development. Or is it an inheritance from a G dialect ? Could it be due to H influence ? Biblical H has the identical construction with a similar meaning, e.g., mabk thnltik (2 Sam 24:21) ‘you will certainly be king,’ literally ‘(to) be king, you will be king,’ However, there is a difficulty: the absolute infinitive does not seem to be a feature of post-Biblical H - which is the source of the H element in Y.

WORD ORDER

Another case of uncertainty as to origin is the word order in sentences. It is identical in principal and dependent sentences: Mcndl bait dus broil ‘Mendel bakes / is baking the bread,’ zai vaisn az M fnil bakt dus broit ‘They know that Mendel bakes j is baking the bread.’ But this was not always so. In Old Yiddish the verb of the subordinate sentence had its place at the end: das er mir s mqqxyl zai6 ‘that he should forgive me (ney: az er zol mir ys moixl zaan). Logically, the auxiliary is placed after the participle or infinitive: di mhr Zfflikmangysamxyt haat7 (NEY:

5 Unteis itself developed on similar lines from on lent 1in 1 less case (than).’ 6 As in German - in standard Language as well as dialect: Da 1ckaa, ma-r-a i n Wign aussasdegi 1Look how he is pulling out the carriage.’ This is not an innovation on the part of German but a case where the original Germanic construction has been preserved; it occurs in Old English too: pttt he pint Uod-eraft Uornaie ‘that he learnt that song-craft.’ 7 German: Er kit gtigt, H it tr tarn i Sthua tcka no uhitktn Bird ‘ He said that he would yet send him the boots’; Old English: pat kte t>ine Gidttmaundbltans scoUen ,that they should devour the man of God.’ 93 Spontaneous Development vtu mkr Ziilig (k)ot (zai) smii(e)xy gygiibn) ‘whom Rabbi Zelikman has ordained.* When the predicate was a compound structure, the object was originally placed in between the parts: Ir mixt voylmaairt inter gykent kooubyn (ney: hr (k)otgykeiert kinyn moan ivcier) ‘you might have known my father-in-law.’ Later the word order underwent a change: x (h)ob dir gybrengt dus doziky biiexl ‘I have brought you this book.’ The Dialects

In the vast stretches of central and eastern Europe, frontiers came and went. They created more intensive communication and intercourse within each political or administrative unit, while restricting it with those outside these boundaries. Within such a major or minor region a certain uniformity of speech developed: a dialect came into being. If border-Iines remain stable for some time, such dialects become firmly established and survive a subsequent change of frontier. (Cf. the dialects in England, where there have been no frontiers for hundreds of years.) On the other hand, border-Iines do not, of course, check traffic and communication altogether. Dialectal influences cross frontiers, and so does migration. The table at the end of this section shows the basis upon which the border-Iines of the dialects have been established. The historical map should provide a sufficiently clear picture of the Y spcech territory. It goes without saying that all the bordcr-lines described below arc very approximate indeed and those on the map even more so. -as a result of emigra ־ In the greater part of this territory, Y is no longer spoken tion, war, annihilation and assimilation. Poland, for centuries the numerical and cultural centre of East European, as well as of world Jewry is now a blank on the Jewish map. Considering the far flung territory of y, the number of dialects is small. There are three (they are only slightly subdivided): WY, CY and EY. There are no extreme cases where mutual intelligibility becomes impossible (such as exist in some languages, e.g., Italian and g). Their geographical distribution has now become largely a matter of history. West Yiddish When people speak of Y today, they generally mean East Yiddish, and mostly do not even know of the existence of West Yiddish. But historically w y is an important part of the linguistic realm of y and comprises its oldest regions. 95 The Dialects

Historical Map of the Yiddish Dialects

w y was the language of the Jews living on the hg (i.e., the ug and cg) speech territory, with offshoots in North Germany, the Netherlands and Lombardy. The western border-line ran - very roughly - along that separating Germania and Romania, i.e., the southern frontier of the Netherlands, the western one of the Rhineland, Alsace and Switzerland, turning east into Lombardy, and then North via Venice to the southern frontier of Austria, then along it to the western frontier of Bohemia, proceeding along that to the eastern frontier of Germany, and finally along this to the Baltic. Accordingly, WY was spoken in the following countries or other historical units: Germany, Austria, Lombardy, the Netherlands. Some of the words and forms characteristic of w y are:

Badikn *to examine the innards of a slaughtered animal,’ bavn *to drink,’ dormyn ‘to sleep,’ ety ‘father,’ fraly ‘grandmother,’ frimytii ,a certain dish,’ hafit ‘pot,’ harly ‘grandfather,’ houlykros ‘the name-giving ceremony for girls,’1 knoblix *garlic,’ man *a certain wedding custom,’ mil *more,' mimy ‘mother,’ minix ‘usable with meat dishes as 1 See page 339, No, 363 n. 1. 96 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language well as with dairy products,’ nydumyjnydiniy ‘dowry,’ 00m ‘to say the prayers of tbe liturgy,’ Qumcm ‘to count the days between Passover and the Feast of Weeks,' pikl *servant girl,’ planxynyn ‘to weep,’ praiyn ‘to invite,* ram/zoon/imant1 cream,’ rozainyn ‘raisins,* sargynys ‘shrouds,’ sivloonys ‘certain presents exchanged by bride and bridegroom during their engagement,’ liier *white Sabbath loaf,’ titn *to blow the ram’s horn,’ tfilyjffily ‘prayer book,’ tipn ‘pot,’ vtin ‘to wash.’

w y shares certain words and forms with CG. See below. The main differences between the wy vowel system and that of the other two dialects are shown in the Dialect Table of Vowels under Nos. 14-18, 25-29, 32, 34» 35» 3&-40. 5». 52 (PP• 101 ff•)• Central Yiddish To the east of the Austrian and Bohemian part of the borderline described above, was the territory of CY. Its area comprised Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia, Burgen- land and western Hungary. Some of the words and forms characteristic of CY are:

Cvftbn *raisins,’ cvoortxjcvuurex ‘cottage cheese,’ diidy ‘grandfather,’ daigycn ‘to talk about one’s worries,’ Ulycn ‘ to smeU of oil,’ liberer ‘grave digger,’ napycn ‘to doze,’ mem ‘mother,’ tit ‘father,’ belropyct *dejected,’ tukycn ‘to taste of tallow,’ xoxmycn ‘to talk too cleverly.’

Some of the characteristic words and forms common to CY and w y are:

Barxysjbtrxys ‘festive bread,’ bik ‘baker,’ gfign ‘against,’ griivn *the bits of goose skin remaining after the fat has been rendered,’ krein ‘horseradish,’ mem ‘mother,’ nydan *dowry,’ niks *nothing,’ o ly f'aleph,’ planxynyn ‘to weep,’ porin *to remove certain veins etc. from the meat of slaughtered animals,’ ioglyt ‘a certain Sabbath dish,’ trendl *teetotum’ (a combination of a die and a top).

On the other hand, CY shares some characteristic words and forms with ey too. See p. 98 f.

East Yiddish To the east of w y and CY is the area of ey. The most characteristic difference between the phonologies of the first two and ey is in the treatment of mhg /ei/, (ij and /ou/ and the corresponding Sem phonemes; see the Table, Nos. 18, 51-53,62. Here is a short mnemonic sentence:

MHG er meinet mbten bourn w y and c y [er ma:nt main ba:m] EY [er mtitit main bom]. 97 The Dialects

This relationship may be presented thus:

EY W i CY

The w y and c y integration of m h g /ei/ and /o u / was an inheritance from G.

[ ei > ai > a:i > a: ] [ au > au > a:u > a: ] [wit > vais > va:is > va:s] [byitm > baum > ba:1tm > ba:m] ‘(I) know’ ,tree’

In e y the reflexes of m h g /ei/ and /ou/ have not been merged but have been kept separate as /ai/ and /oi/: [vais, boim] - except in the Northern dialect where both are [$i], a development which took place within Y itself: the Southern [jm| became, in the north, [ai] and, finally, was unrounded, [$i], and joined the [$i] < m h g /ei/: weij > [vfit] [boum > boim > bttm > bfim\

EY is divided into two groups, a southern (eys) and a northern (eyn). The main differences in their phonologies appear in the Table of Dialect Vowels on pp. 101 ff. On the basis of Nos. 25-32, 34, 35, I introduced the names U-dialect and O- dialect, for the Southern and Northern, respectively.1 However, since Nos. 1-5 or 14-18, 33,42,43, 45-53 and 62 would present equally good claims, a geographical nomenclature seems to be preferable. The eastern border-line of ey ran, very roughly, from Riga to Rostov; the southern border was defined by the Danube. Thus ey was - and to some extent, stfl is - spoken in the following countries or historical regions: (ai) Poland, Galicia, eastern Slovakia, ‘ Carpatho-Ruthenia,’ (a2) Volhynia, Podolia, Bukovina, Moldavia, Transylvania, Bessarabia, Vallachia (today these form the Ukraine

a On p. 15 of my Gramma till der jiddischen Spnchc (Vienna, Preface 1915, printed 1918). I coined these terms because tht designations *Potiih’ and ‘Lithuanian,1 which were then in use, did not fit in with the facts of political geography. Moreover, I wished to *void *the concept of [poltticai] territory in 1 description of nationaJ(i.e., ethnic] matters. Such 1 concept is even less suitable in a Jewish context than elsewhere.’ My attitude was in line with a pre-1914 movement in Austria, which aimed at rebuilding Austria-Hungary as a structure of national-culnini [Lc., ethnic] units. This state would then 00 longer consist of [the historical] countries but of peoples ('nations‘ «* ethnic, cultural units), and one of these peoples would have been the Jewish people. 98 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

and Rumania), (b) Byelo-Russia, Lithuania, Latvia, Zamogitia, Courland and Livonia. The border-line between (a) and (b) is that between the southern and northern groups. It began approximately between Mtawa and fcomza and ran southeast- wards via Brest-Litovsk and Kiev to Poltava and the Black Sea, i.e., from the Vitebsk gubemiya to the Yekaterinoslav gubemiya. The southern dialect is subdivided into a western part (eysw), comprising the area (ai), and an eastern part (eyse), comprising the area (a2). The border-line separating them ran via Siedlce, Brody, Tamopol and Horodenka to Kolomyja; it then crossed the Carpathians in the general direction of Szeged, becoming the southeastern border of Y. From here the line turned, crossed the Beskides, and, in roughly the area of Auschwitz (Pol. Oswi^cim, Yd. Oipycim), it joined the former German-Polish frontier. The main differences between the phonologies of the two subdialects are shown f *he Table. The main features characterizing the° ־in Nos. 20-23, 44» 45» 4752 Northern dialect and differentiating it from the Southern one appear in Nos. 1-5, 14-18, 25-35, 42, 43, 45-53 and 62. One region is marked by an important phonological feature distinguishing it from the rest of the Northern dialect. Its phonology is at a stage which links it with the Southern dialect, although there was no geographical contact between the two: It has preserved the morphemic function of vowel quantity which has been lost elsewhere in the north. E.g., [zu:n] is ‘son’ but [zun] is ‘sun,’ like [ziin] and [zin] in the Southern dialect. The area in question is that of Courland and Zamogitia.3 Some words and forms characteristic of EY are:

A lyf' aleph,3 cvoncik ‘twenty,’ (uulnt ‘a certain Sabbath dish,’ draidi ‘teetotum’ (a combination of a die and a top), haivn ‘yeast,’ jndz ‘we,’ kaign/ingn ,against,’ nadn ‘ dowTy,’ nisi ‘not,’ xrain ‘horseradish’; in addition: all the words of SI origin.

Some words and forms characteristic of EY as well as CY are:

Badkynyn ‘to examine the innards of a slaughtered animal,* eibeiy ‘onion,* davynyn 3 It his been proposed that the Y speech territory be divided into south-north hands according to the reflexes of original Vei/ and /e/-diph1hongs, whereby the Northern dialect and the eastern pan of the Southern dialect would form an /ei/-territory. However, as all the other phonemes of eysc tally with those of eysw, it would not be reasonable to separate the two. But quite apart from that, the alleged identity of the /ei/ in the two dialects is illusory. It exists only in the inaccurate phonetic notation of the sounds in question - as e + i in Roman letters and as ayin + yodh in h letters. The phonetic reality is wholly different. In the Southern pronunciation tbe first vowel of the dipthong is a very open [e]; in the Northern, a closed [e]. The [ei]of the south is thus much closer to the [ai] of the west than to the[ci] of tbe north. In short, there is no such thing as a north-south band of [ei]. 99 The Dialects

COUNTTtY S O tm a S N DIALECT NOKTHOIN DIALECT Ptitod: Vojerudthips: Wanaw, Bulyftok, N0w0gr6dtk, Lodz, Kieloe, Lublin, Poleaie, Vilm VoihjmU, Cracow, Lemberg, St1ni1Uw6«, Ttrnopd 2,475,000 4 9 5 •°°° S*vitt Uaitn: Tbe UkniiK (except Polesie) Polesie, Central Rustii, 1.605.000 Byeio-Ruiii* 1,365,000 fu a a M 760,000 Hmgtry 270,000 Cuckailtnmki* 250,000 LithiMmm 165,000 Lanim 85.000 5.360.000 2,010,000

‘to pray the prayers of the liturgy,* (c ‘you, i.e., ye,* Me ‘you’ (dat. acc.), inker ‘your,* knobl ‘garlic,’ kox ‘kitchen,’ main/mein ‘more,’ paryvy ‘usable with meat dishes as well as with dairy products,’ sfii(e)ry cailnjchln ‘to count the days between Passover and the Feast of Weeks,’ sider ‘prayer book,’ taxrii(e)xym ‘shrouds,* top ‘pot,* troibern/treibem ‘to remove certain veins etc. from the meat of slaughtered animals,* um- ‘un-,’ vain ‘to wash.*

Both our lexical and phonological examples show that CY shares characteristics with WY on the one hand, and with EY on the other. It might be called a transition dialect, which it is geographically, too. The fact that its reflexes of mhg /u, uo/ are [y, y:] - which is an intermediate stage between wy [u, u:] and ey [i, i:] - would mean that cy preserved an earlier stage whereas ey unrounded the [y, y:].

DIALECT STATISTICS

It is impossible today to compute the number of people speaking one or another of the Y dialects, nor did such statistics exist at any time before World War 11. However, in the twenties and thirties it was possible to make a fairly reliable estimate on the basis of official population statistics, and on the basis of what was known of the dialect frontiers. The above table shows the result. To these figures must be added those of the emigrants living throughout the world (including the sccond generation). Their total was about 4,505,000 (see pp. 40-42). There is no evidence that emigration from any one dialect area was too A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language disproportionately great and it is therefore reasonable to assume that the number of those emigrating from the southern and northern subdivision of EY was in about the same ratio as on the home territory, i.e., 73:27. That gives us for pre- War y outside the home territory the figures 3,289,000 and 1,214,000, respectively. The grand total of speakers of the Southern dialect was, accordingly, about 8,649,000 and about 3,226,000 for the Northern.

STANDARD PRONUNCIATION

There is no standard pronunciation in Yiddish. However, the members and friends of the Yivo Institute for Jewish Research, New York, have strong views on the subject. They are convinced that y should not differ in this respect from the great Western languages, and so they are working to introduce a standard one. In their publications they speak as if it were already in existence, but that is wishful thinking - acceptance of their system being restricted to their circle. The original proponents of this ‘standard’ were speakers of the Northern dialect and so, without further ado and without discussing the matter or giving any reasons, they decided that their own pronunciation was the ‘standard.’ However, the man in the street knows nothing about it. If he happens to be a Southerner he does not exchange his rich phonemic system for the meagre one of the Northern dialect. He does not even know that this is ‘supposed to be’ the ‘standard.’ And if he is a Northerner, he goes on speaking as before, without realizing that he would need to change only one of his vowels in order to qualify as a speaker of the ‘standard.’ It is ironic that the partisans of the ‘standard’ - all convinced democrats - should ask the majority of Yiddish-speakers to switch over from their own pronunciation to that of a minority, comprising only a quarter of all Yiddish speakers. The exception referred to above is the treatment of the Northern /$i/ when it corresponds to Southern /oi/. For example, instead of Northern bfim ‘tree,’ the ‘standard’ is to have boim. However, the Northern dialect already has an /oi/, corresponding to Southern /ou/, e.g., hoiz ‘house.’ Thus we have here an artificial merger of two different forms - Northern eijoi: (bfim[hoiz), Southern oijou (botmj houz) and MHG ou/u (bourn/hus). In NHG a single form, /au/, corresponds to the two MHG ones: Baum, Ham. This is a merger, exactly parallel to the one proposed for ‘Standard’ Yiddish, except that in a it was not artificial. No doubt the proponents of the merger for their ‘standard’ had no intention of imitating the G, but they certainly noticed the parallelism and, in spite of that, were not deterred from deciding on the change. That too, is ironic. The adherents of nationalist Yiddishism have, from the beginning (the early twentieth century) up to this day, sought to eliminate the influence of G, i.e., n h g , which had so strongly invaded the written Y of the 101 The Dialects

Enlightenment - and here we find them actually introducing a feature which, in effect, brings ‘Standard Yiddish* closer to nhg. Apart from this, there is a practical disadvantage. This merger creates new homonyms in addition to the existing old ones - and this is not desirable. For example, koil has to serve for koul ‘globe, bullet’ and koil *coal,’ toib for toub *dove’ and toib ‘deaf,’ hoizn for houzn ‘to dwell’ and koizn *trousers, pants,’ zoii for zoul ‘column’ (in building) and zoil ‘sole’ (of foot), arois for arous *out’ and a roiz (pron. rots) ‘a rose’ etc. Finally, a basic consideration: Is the need for a standard pronunciation really of major importance ? It does not appear so to me. There are languages without one and yet they do very weU. Did the Greeks have one at the time when their greatest poets and philosophers flourished ? On the contrary, they used diverse dialects to fulfill diverse literary functions. As far as Y is concerned, I have never noticed that there were ■any difficulties of communication between Southerners and Northerners. However, if a standard pronunciation is regarded as necessary, then it ought surely to be the speech of the three-quarter majority.4

STANDARD LANGUAGE

As regards the language itself, literary Y is practically uniform, and this applies to the pre-modem as well as the modem period. The language of the former is, of course, WY, but it was used also in eastern Europe where the spoken language had meanwhile undergone major changes. The modem literary language is based on this East European form. Its grammar is that of the Southern dialect and is thus linked with the pre-modern literary language, which, in this respect, differs only little from the Southern dialect of ey. The very first authors who may be said to stand on the threshold of modern literature were Southerners and wrote good folk-based y (whereas their northern colleagues created a misshapen, Germanized lingo, the after-effects of which influenced the modern literary language and are continuing to do so). The authors who initiated modem literary y proper were speakers of the Southern dialect: Mendaly,® Peretz and Shuulem Alaichem.

DIALECT TABLE OF THE VOWELS

Where two or more examples are provided, they apply to subdivisions of the dialect in question. 4 Students who may have recently learnt their v with the new ‘standard’ pronunciation will be in no way surprued to encounter in this book a different ‘standard,’ because they will either have heard it in their homes, or will be aware that it is used by most Yiddish speakers. 5 He was born in the north but moved in his youth to the south and adopted its language (see p. 3*8, No. 704, coL *»). 102 A Grief Survey of the Yiddish Language

The Sem words in the first column are given in the form they probably had in early Ashk - as I have deduced from the phonological history of Y . This form is followed, in brackets, by that used in Sem philology. The examples are given in phonetic spelling. This table is not exhaustive.

MHG

Sem e y SI WYCY s N

(I) vrum fnun frym frim frum ‘pious’ w guf (gup) guf gy f gif guf ‘body’ (3) ship ■ — slip slup ‘post, pole’ (4) kuo ku: ky: ki: ku ‘cow’ (5) rvua (tabirt) tvu:a tvy:a tvi:a rvua ‘crop, grain* (6) durch dar9 dar(a)x dar(a)x durx ‘through’ derax (7) xurban xarbm xorbm xarbm xurbm ‘destruction’ xerbm (8) szcz6r -- -- W ar JtJur ‘rat’ JtJer (9) 0? OUS aus ous OLS ‘out’ (10) vrost frost frost frost frost ‘frost’ ’dom darn dam do:rn darn ‘thorn )נ*( (12) kol (qdl) kol kol kol ’ kol* ‘voice’ («3) btoto —— bloto biota ‘mud’ (•4) tobcn 10 :bin laybm loibm leibm ‘to praise’ loubn laubm ׳Jsyta Joito Jeita ‘fool ט : Sote ($0J$) Jo (5!) Jouta Jouta Jauta (16) kolad ko:latJ koylatj koilotj keilatj ‘plaited white loaf for Sabbath, and festivals’ (17) gro:s grays grois greis ‘big; great’ grous graus (18) bourn ba:m ba:m boim beim ‘tree’ 103 The Dialects

MHG San EY SI WY CY s N

09) hant (d) hant (d) hand (d) hant (t) hant (t) ‘ hand’ (20) man man mo:n man man , man' mo: mon m u:n mu: (3 1 ) iam (yam) iam iam iam iam ‘ sea’ ism (22) davka (dawqa) dafka dafka dafka dafka ‘just, exactly, dafka actually, only’ ’feta lata iata ‘patch )3־( lata (*4) lampc lamp — lamp bmp ‘lamp’ (*5) sagen za:gn zo:gn zugn zagn ‘to say’ zo:gn zu:gn (26) baxur (baljilr) ba:xar bo:xar buxar baxar ‘ a youth’ bo:xar bu:xar ’stat Jto: t Jto:t Jtu:t Jtat ‘town )לג( (3$) kahal (qahll) La: I 10:1 ku:l kol ‘community, ko:l ku:l congregation’ (*9) dalat Ja:bt Jo:lat tju:lnt tjalnt ,a certain Jo :!at Ju:lat Sabbath dish’ Ju:bt (30) baba baba bab buba baba ‘grandmother’ baba (30 Saa (Sal) I«: Jo: Ju: J» ‘ hour’ Ji: !»: Jo: (3*) kaier (kaier) koujar 10 :Jar ku:Jar kajar , kosher* kotjar ku:Jar (33) maala (m‘iU ) maib maib ma:b maib ‘good quality’ (34) In oun 0:n u:n an ‘ without’ aim u:n 0:n u:n 104 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

MHG Sem ______EY SI WY c y s N

(35) slifen Jlouftn Jloyfin Jlufm Jlsftn *to sleep’ /10:ftn J10:fin Jlu:fm Jlu:fm (36) enwec vek avek avek avek ‘away’ (37) sleht Jlest Jlaxt Jlext Jlext *bad’ (3») g?ste gEjt gest gcst gESt ‘guests' (39) nahte nest next next next ‘nights’ (40) kopfe kepf k£p kep kep ‘heads’ kep ( 4 0 get (get) get g* get get ‘bill of divorce’ (4a) mel me:l me:l meil mel ‘flour’ mi:l mi:l (43) kzse ke:s ke:s keis(z) kez ‘chcese’ ki.s ki:s ki:s(z) (44) drsejen dre:n drc:n drabn drebn ‘to turn’ dri:n dri:n dreisn (45) heben heibm heibm haibm heibm ‘to lift, heave’ heibm (46) xesed (hesed) xe:s9t (d) xe:sat (d) xeisat (d) xesed ‘kindness, favour’ (47) etsa (*€$») e:tss eitsa aitss eitsa ‘advice’ eits9 eitsa (48) schcme Jein Jein Jain Jein ‘beautiful’ Jain Je:n (49) melex (m^k) meilax meilsx mailsx meilax ‘king’ me:13x (50) snfi Jnei Jnei Jnai Jnei ‘snow’ Jne: Jnei ( 5 0 (ich) meine mun mun main mein ‘to mean; mein think’ (5a) glduben/glouben gla:bm gla:bm glaibn gleibm ‘to believe’ gleibm (53) dn zain zain zaan zain ‘his’ (54) wint (d) vint vint vint (t) vint (t) *wind’ 105 The Dialects

MHG Sem EY SI WY CY s N

(55) jikor (Jildflr) Jikar Jikar Jikar Jikar ‘drunk’ (56) tirxa (tirhl) tirxa tarxa terxa tirxa ‘trouble, effort' (57) liet (d) li:t li:t(d) li:t(d) Ud ‘song’ (58) madina (madini) madi:na madiina madi:na madina *region, land’ (59) funnen ginan ginan farginan farginan ‘not to grudge’ (60) mul mi:l m i:l mi:l mil •mill’ (61) sune zi:n zi:n zin ‘sons’ (62) liute lait lait la:t lait ‘people’ Appendix 1

Old Yiddish or Middle High German

THE LINGUISTIC PROBLEM Nobody would deny that there existed in Germany 1 specifically Jewish form of the spoken and written language. Whether it be classified as a language in its own right, a dialect, the lingo of a social class, corrupt German, or a jargon, the fact of its separateness remains. It was the means of communication among the whole of German Jewry, the linguistic self-expression of a community with a culture that was independent of the German, Christian culture: its vocabulary contained elements not present in German - an extensive one of H and Ar ancestry and a small one of Romance and SI derivation - while its main element, that of G origin, was to a certain extent a synthesis of diverse dialectal material, some of which was no longer alive in G itself; and last, but not least, it was written in the Hebrew script. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, at the period when it began to decline, its condition was obviously not the same as it had been in earlier times. There must have been a development leading up to that stage, and that development must have had a beginning. In looking back through the centuries to discover when that began, we are never able to say, on linguistic grounds: 'Here is the precise starting point of the new, specifically Jewish form of G.’ This holds good right back to the time when French Jews began to settle in the German-speaking regions of the Rhineland and to adopt the language of their new surroundings, and so that period - the ninth century - must be regarded as the birth date of the new language. Bearing this in mind, let us consider the language of the Cambridge manuscript, Taylor-Schechter 10 K 22. Its seven poems, which were intended for a Jewish and not a Christian public, were copied out in 1382 (finished on November 9). By that time the Jewish vernacular had undergone about five hundred years of development. It would therefore hardly be correct to describe the language of the poems as simply mhg. How then is it to be designated ? 107 Appendix 1: Old Yiddish or Middle High German ?

We shall find some help towards answering this question if we turn to Eastern Europe. During the Middle Ages German Jews settled there in considerable numbers; the language they brought with them underwent development and, in the course of centuries, grew into the entity now generally known as Yiddish. In spite of the great changes that took place in it, the East European Y of present-day speakers is the direct continuation of the Jewish vernacular their forefathers had spoken and written in Germany: both are thus branches of the same language. Now, if the eastern branch is called y, it is only logical for the western one to be termed Y too. Hence the language in which our manuscript was written is Y, or more precisely West Yiddish, Old West Yiddish. Or let us consider the matter from a different viewpoint. The main purpose of language is communication. This holds good for written even more than for spoken language. The Jews in medieval Germany set down their vernacular in the H alphabet, which made it inaccessible to practically all Christians in the same way as the written language of the Christians, with its Roman characters,1 was practically inaccessible to the Jews.2 The written language of the Jews thus served as a means of communication among themselves only - it was a Jewish language. The fact that we have to recognize its existence as such will, in turn, affect our classification of the spoken language. Since it is the counterpart of the written form, characterized as Y, the same designation must be applied to the spoken form. That does not, however, imply that this medieval wy was anything like as far removed from mhg as modem ey is from nhg. On the contrary, there was a large measure of overlapping, and it is that circumstance, of course, which makes oy works of such great interest to German philologists. But overlapping is one thing and identity is another.3 In addition, the extent of such overlapping should also be taken into account. The language of non-literary texts is often highly Judaized, unlike, for instance, that of our manuscript. This fits into what we know of the relationship between any spoken and written language.

THE PROBLEM OP TRANSCRIPTION

Let us now consider the question of how oy texts should be transcribed. For most MHG scholars it might seem a matter of course that the standardized

1 The ability to write at all, but especially in Latin, was more or less a prerogative of tbe clerics. That language and in script are therefore called, in the Jewish sources, glhm = g a lxjj (approximately,' monkish’). a Isolated Jews acquired a knowledge of the Christian script, and some learned Christians got to keow the Hebrew alphabet - but this is of no relevance to tbe subject under discussion. 3 This delimitation is not based on a higher degree of abstraction than any generally accept cd border-line between related languages: languages as synchronic systems are abstractions. 108 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language spelling employed in philological works should be used for the purpose. However, on reflection it will be seen that this is not necessarily the best way. An extraneous pattern is imposed thereby on the material, and this prevents the scholar from uncovering new information which the m hg sources cannot reveal.4 Is there a better way? We shall first of all examine the relation between the OY and mhg systems of spelling. Are they identical, i.e., is the OY system just the transference of the mhg

Transliteration into MHG Hebrew characters OY spelling

װכש וךהס wahs אץ in r ברײט ברית breit ורװא וריזזד vrouwe איד יכה ich הזא ס? hase השא הצן hazze לצא .קתצ katze מישסט, מישטוט מיסס?ם missetat װד j&r T םערא 9_י msere ריםן רתוע retten ארשרוקן _ רסכהרוכיןג erschrocken )ברחדד בחילר bruoder) )גרושן גךיןנ griiezen)

4 Examples from our manuscript: The mhg lenis t it spelt with z»ym, e.g., zrnmN = zoomjn (mho sin e ), ,12s — *Jzy (mho •he). It seems out of the question to take zayin as the rendering of an unvoiced s: it was voiced in H just as it was in Zar, the spelling system from which it was inherited. The same holds good for b ,g , 4, v. The v is especially striking, as it is spelt (for purely graphic reasons) in two ways, and both symbols indicate voiced sounds: b (also in Zar) and v (in Zar occasionally w ). That v should be simply a transliteration of the MHG 11 — /v/ seems hardly possible. As the scribe differentiates carefully between s = /5/ and s = /1/, it is clear that as late as the last quarter of the fourteenth century the transition from /si, sm, sn, sp, st, sw/ to /il, 5m, in, ip, St, tw f had not yet taken place in his dialect. How much mho phonology will gain from the study of OY cannot, as yet, be estimated. There is a very large amount of Jewish material awaiting investigation and publication. 109 Appendix 1: Old Yiddish or Middle High German ? system to H characters ? Let us transliterate some MHG examples into the H alpha- bet8 and see whether Y words are produced. As the Table indicates, the transliterations and the actual OY spellings are utterly different. The oy spelling system cannot, therefore, have had its source in that of m hg,8 and the Jewish texts are not simply moulds into which we have but to pour Roman letters in order to turn out m hg texts.7 This applies also to manuscripts which are assumed to have been copied from a G exemplar. If we want to create a transription system for OY texts, we must not base it on the m hg or o y spelling systems but on the phonemes of o y , as far as we can discover them in the o y spellings and as far as we can make use of our knowledge of MHG phonology.8 This will not by any means result in anything like the MHG speftng. Moreover, even where it would be possible to employ the m hg signs, this should be avoided:* the reader needs to be constantly reminded not to over- look two essentia) facts - firstly that the text in front of him has not been printed from a m hg manuscript, and secondly, that the phonetic values of the letters in m hg manuscripts, and printed editions of these, are not to be taken for granted.

THE TRANSCRIPTION ALPHABET FOR OLD YIDDISH

This table shows the spelling system employed in the Cambridge manuscript. It represents the 0Y spelling, which remained practically unchanged for centuries. Two significant features are to be met with here for the first time: the diacritic on (S and S, to indicate /pf/ and /£/. Could the reason for its absence in later manuscripts be that the device was invented by this particular scribe ? Or did the ticks disappear because people were able to read the words correctly without the diacritics ? In the case of /jty there is also the fact that /pf/ was needed only in texts with an UG background.

5 The h signs of our ws are rendered thus: *, b, g, d, h, ▼, z, h, t, y, k, K., 1, m, M, n, N, i, *, P. P, *, S, q, r, s/l, t. 6 The source of the o r system is the Zar system, which, in its turn, goes b*ck, vis Latinic (‘Judseo-Lann*) to that of H and Ar. 1( is difficult to understand why, even today, when scholars discuss the spelling systems of the Cambridge Manuscript or of the Rashi glosses, it is with the tacit assumption that the scribe of the Cambridge Manuscript, and Rashi himself, were the creators of these two systems. 7 A modern parallel: the problem which confronted East European Jews when they immigrated to England and the United States - how to write English words in their Y letters or newspapers. They naturally based their spelling of these words on the system of Y, not of English. 8 Although a vast amount of research has been done on mhg there are still things one does not know - an additional source of doubt and uncertainties to anyone attempting satisfactory transcriptions from oy. Sometimes, on the other hand, the Y spelling aw help to resolve doubts and uncertain ties about questions in mho. See footnote 4. 9 In my transcription of 1932 (see p. 343 No. 431) there were some unnecessary mhg signs. 110 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Transcription Original Transliteration MHG symho

_ K > — a — — a aa — — a yy ei ײ ai b b כ b c s $ Z, IZ 6 3 1 tsch d d ד d ( 4,» פ 6 c # V *,(«) י ? y ?,(*) י « y £ > e K e e — — e f ס׳ ף f g ) g g h h ה h h h ח h y », i י i י ii y i י i y ie q c, k, ck, q ק k 1 1 ל 1 m, M m מ. ם m n, N n ג ן n v 0 ו 0 v a ו oo V 0 ו 90 w o u װ ou V 0 ר 0 V ce ו W w ou װ 5u P D P P Pf 0 P Pf r r ר r ?,s s ש s i sch ש s t ז ס t i n Appendix 1: Old Yiddish or Middle High German ?

Transcription Original Transliteration MHG symbol (standard)

V u ו u V u ר u u V, W u o ו , װ u V ii ו ii v , vy iu ו , ױ uii A vy tie ױ u v , b v / u , f ו, ב V w w װ w k , K c h , h כ׳ ר X z s ז 2

THE MHG STANDARD SPELLING AND THE TRANSCRIPTION ALPHABET

a - a i - ii pf (ph) - f> a - a a ; 0 0 ic - i q -k ii - e iu - uii r - r x - ti i - i s -z ;s b -b k -k sch - s c - k 1 -1 t - 1 ch - x m - m tsch - d d -d n - n u -u ;f, v e - e 0 - 0 u - uu W ii - ii ־ 0 ? ־ c e - e 6 - 0 uo - u

W lie - ii ־ oe f - f ou - ou V - V g ~g ou - OU w - w h - h; h;x p -p z - c s ־ ? i - i Appendix 2

Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

The spelling system of Yiddish has a few digraphs, one of which consists of two waws. This symbol corresponds exactly to the 1double u,’ i.e., the a of the ortho- for instance, is identical ,װיל graphy in the Germanic languages. The spelling with that of G and Eng will (originally: will). It is therefore not surprising that this s> has been regarded as the pattern upon which the Y digraph was formed. A date has even been given for the time when the adoption is thought to have taken place - the sixteenth century.1 But why so late a date ? In G uu, uv, vu and w (where u and v arc only slightly different forms of one and the same letter) were already being employed before the tenth century - why should the Jews have waited six centuries or so before adopting the device ? As a matter of fact, the double u is far older than that. Latin scribes had been employing it to render the » in Germanic and Celtic names. The earliest example of this kind known to us dates from the year 102 ce. In what follows we shall try and investigate the history of the double waw. We shall first of all check the date for the alleged beginning of that spelling in Y. In order to get reliable results we shall collect a fairly large number of examples from pre-sixteenth century sources. With the exception of two of the sources, the examples come from manuscripts (from photostats in my collection).

1 M. Weinreich, ProUkl ftr a* tsnhMlltm Iiditn ous-Uig(in: iIdiSbi viSNKAmcxzx iNSTrrvr, Ott ainkaulexer-Itdiitr eus-l*ig, Viliu, 1930, pp. is ( , No. aa.): , A spiciiiitr grtfiier amjm darf gjitfk wiiem f t r dym klang w. Praktii hobn mir dus gyiafn nox in 16tn iuur-JijnJerl dorx im jnrn di coat mam. Win myn hot gynjmyn ous laign dym m-klang dtrxcvai m am ,izdusgy{itn Ui sufyk jatcrn twflus fjn der *iroptUser sraabjng, wjj myn hot gynjmyn w ftr a ix b 1 attorns w. D i tax merl khar, win myn dermant te x , az d) m fi-diferncm jng aptit1 a wckakfa jn a ksnumantiin u {tout der kaantiktr fraak/ng a jn t) iz m di lataamiy msiys tax p a r a ijngy tax. Our der haantiker £ngtiier w u anif zaan namyn double u a fjlkjm y anaUgiy tjjndur mmyn ‘ m i n w ," ' See contim1*tion on p. 399, footnote 1. 113 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

In assembling our material we very soon discover that there is another letter which is doubled, and that this is, significantly, the other semi-vowel. We shall therefore include examples of double yodh as well.

YIDDISH

1478 (Munich: Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv: Abt. r: Gemeiners Nachlass, Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv: Abt. r: Gemeiners Nachlass, (Munich: 1478 )א( ענטװ׳, ו מ ר, װידר, וואל, )ב( דיין, הייש, ריין, אימס, שרייב׳ נ ײ׳ א ײן, Nr. k (:12 12:)

:)לקט היזשר Joseph/Yoslin b. Moses [?c. 1423]~149? in his b. Moses [?c. 1423]~149? in his (Joseph/Yoslin 1463-1475) 1463-1475 היזשר :)לקט )א( װארמש, רױישנבורק, װאשד, ודייכשלץ, ו דין, ודגר, ודעלגרלן. )ב( וויישנבורק, אייז, אייז, וויישנבורק, )ב( ודעלגרלן. ודגר, ו דין, ודייכשלץ, װאשד, רױישנבורק, װארמש, )א( אייזן, ערבייס, ז״ער, זייפא, ליישטתג זייפא, ז״ער, ערבייס, אייזן,

0קיb[and &0] תרומת הדשן .c. 1390-1460 (Israel/Isserlin b. Pethahiah in his [a[c] הדשן תרומת :)וכתבים )א( ]a [ סי׳ כס: לסװידגא, ודכשילן, וד־רץ: סי׳ רצ׳׳ו: תמייש: סי׳ שמ׳׳ב: װיג ר. ]b [ סי׳ סי׳ קי׳׳ב: וולעדער ודיש; סי׳ קצ׳׳ב: שודגר. סי׳ קס״א: ס מז א, ודר, ודיון, דאו, מארדץ; דאו, ודיון, ודר, ס מז א, קס״א: סי׳ שודגר. קצ׳׳ב: סי׳ ודיש; וולעדער קי׳׳ב: סי׳ קצ״ב: שודגר; סי׳ בודודזא: סי׳ רל״ ב: שוזבן: סי׳ רמ׳׳ב: וח־יידא, וועסלן. וח־יידא, רמ׳׳ב: סי׳ שוזבן: רל״ ב: סי׳ בודודזא: סי׳ שודגר; קצ״ב: סי׳ )ב( ]a [ סי׳ קכ׳׳ט: שטיין; סי׳ רצ׳׳ו: וומי׳יש, קנדיפל; סי׳ שמ׳׳ב לייפסיק, אושטרייך.( אושטרייך.( לייפסיק, שמ׳׳ב סי׳ קנדיפל; וומי׳יש, רצ׳׳ו: סי׳ שטיין; קכ׳׳ט: סי׳ שסייר. [b] סי׳ ר: צחרייס; סי׳ ח׳: שסייח! סי׳ י׳׳ב: סערלייץ; סי׳ ס׳׳ז: היירטן סי׳ ק׳׳ד: סי׳ היירטן ס׳׳ז: סי׳ סערלייץ; י׳׳ב: סי׳ שסייח! ח׳: סי׳ צחרייס; ר: סי׳ [b] שסייר. ליישסתגא; סי׳ קס״א: גפליין, איינם, גיליים; דריי, װײזן; סי׳ קצ״ב: זיין; סי׳ רי׳׳ט: סי׳ זיין; קצ״ב: סי׳ װײזן; דריי, גיליים; איינם, גפליין, קס״א: סי׳ ליישסתגא; בוחוימא; סי׳ רכ״ב: בייא; סי׳ רכ״ג: ]מרת[ מיידל; סי׳ רכ׳׳ט: אושטרייך; סי׳ רל״ב: רל״ב: סי׳ אושטרייך; רכ׳׳ט: סי׳ מיידל; ]מרת[ רכ״ג: סי׳ בייא; רכ״ב: סי׳ בוחוי מא; פיי ע ק, לי׳יפסיק, אושטרייך, שטייר)סי׳ שי׳׳ב(. שטייר)סי׳ אושטרייך, לי׳יפסיק, פיי ע ק,

First half of fifteenth century (Shondlin, the wife of the preceding; letter quoted above] [.(see לקט היושר in היושר לקט [see above).] )א( װ ע ר ^' װ א ר, וד, װאז״ ודא, ודש, תאל, דאס. )ב( שרייבן, מיין, איעש, ליים, ליילך, ליילך, ליים, איעש, מיין, שרייבן, )ב( דאס. תאל, ודש, ודא, װאז״ וד, װ ע ר ^' װ א ר, )א( ריי ק, בלייבן. ודיש. בלייבן. ריי ק,

(:13 >-??45°/5 (Jacob b. Judah Weil in his Responsa(Jacob >-??45°/5 (:13 )א( סי׳ כ׳׳ח: וראוון: סי׳ כ׳׳ט: ודל, גודלם [;val] סי׳ ל׳: װארן: סי׳ ל׳׳ט: ענטודרט, װאל, ענטודרט, ל׳׳ט: סי׳ װארן: ל׳: סי׳ [;val] גודלם ודל, כ׳׳ט: סי׳ וראוון: כ׳׳ח: סי׳ )א( ודר. ודדר; סי׳ קמ׳׳ז: בור ודרקט; וואלן, גודעץ, ודיפא, װען! סי׳ קמ״ח: װערס. סי׳ װערס. קמ״ח: סי׳ װען! ודיפא, גודעץ, וואלן, ודרקט; בור קמ׳׳ז: סי׳ ודדר; ודר. ק׳ץ: װש. )ב( סי׳ כ״ח: דיט. סי׳ כ׳׳ט: מיינר; סי׳ ל׳׳ט: דין, דיא, בור אייניגם, דין אייניגם, בור דיא, דין, ל׳׳ט: סי׳ מיינר; כ׳׳ט: סי׳ דיט. כ״ח: סי׳ )ב( װש. ק׳ץ: ]להיות(; סי׳ פ׳: קיץ: סי׳ קמ׳׳ז: אייזק, לייהן, בלייבן, גהיישן, ודיפא, טייל; סי׳ קמ׳׳ח: סי׳ טייל; ודיפא, גהיישן, בלייבן, לייהן, אייזק, קמ׳׳ז: סי׳ קיץ: פ׳: סי׳ ]להיות(; דריין; סי׳ ק׳ץ: לייבא. ק׳ץ: סי׳ דריין;

1396/7 (Cologne: Archiv der Sudt Koln: Heb. 4): )א( װשר, צווא, אינודינדיק, ורוואן, זווכטא, אודק, ודנא, ודרם, ודל, אומא, בווכש, בווכש, אומא, ודל, ודרם, ודנא, אודק, זווכטא, ורוואן, אינודינדיק, צווא, װשר, )א( שווער, לװטא, אלווענן, וד׳שא, גוונדא, צודלפטא, װעשרער, קרװט, הװבם, נםװרא. יב( יב( נםװרא. הװבם, קרװט, װעשרער, צודלפטא, גוונדא, וד׳שא, אלווענן, לװטא, שווער, איץ, לייך, רייניגט, קיץ, לייטן. קיץ, רייניגט, לייך, איץ, 114 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

1382 (Cambridge: University Library: MS, t,-S. 10 K 30): )א( װש, ווש, חדף, זעלוזד, שורק, װכש, שוויק, װאסט״ װישן. װאסט״ שוויק, װכש, שורק, זעלוזד, חדף, ווש, װש, )א( )ב( ברייט, ברייטן [,ba] איין, בייסן, שריי, אייא, קליינא, מיינא קליינא, אייא, שריי, בייסן, איין, [,ba] ברייטן ברייט, )ב(

(:1386-1344 (Frankfurt deeds. The Nos. are those of Urkundenbuch by Krakauer(Frankfurt (:1386-1344 )א( (.94)וזעשטדבורוק װשמוט (,84) װלםורק (.83) )ב( הי׳ילמז (,322) ריעלה (,116) (,116) ריעלה (,322) הי׳ילמז )ב( (.83) װלםורק (,84) װשמוט (.94)וזעשטדבורוק )א( (,86)טרײזא (.85)ברםילמײש (,86)טרײזא

1338, 1337 (Vienna: Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv: 1338.11. 5 and 1337. XII. 9): )ב( ״ץ.טרשאו )ב( l329 (Vienna: Archiv der Stadt Wien: Urk. 198): )א( װארפירג >ב( פרת ריעדל, אזשטרייך ריעדל, פרת >ב( װארפירג )א(

1307 (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books and ( א, ב( װרמײזא :(mss: ms. Add. 26970, f. igir

HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN ASHKENAZIC SOURCES

occurs-a װרידץ In the Hebrew tide of the above document of 1396/7 the noun Semitic word written with two waws. Was a Y spelling transferred here to H ? To answer this question we will extend our investigation regarding the double waw to Semitic material. Yiddish being the language of the Ashkenazim we shall first of all look at some Hebrew material copied by Ashkenazic scribes.

ססקים [and [b תרומת הדשן [C. 1390-1460 (Israel/lsserlin b. Pethahiah in his [a וכתבים): ב)) [a] סי׳ ל״ג: שזזחיינו; סי׳ קל״ב: מצויירץ, עי׳ירותיו. [b] : סי׳ י׳׳ב: דהיינו; סי׳ קס׳׳ו סי׳ דהיינו; י׳׳ב: סי׳ .ריר

13??-145°/5 (Jac°b b. Judah Weil, Responsum No. 147): )א( סי׳ כ׳׳ח! כומתו; סי׳ קמ׳׳ז: אווזא. )ב( סי׳ ס׳: גדתייתי; סי׳ קס״ז: רבותיי, דייגים, דייגים, רבותיי, קס״ז: סי׳ גדתייתי; ס׳: סי׳ )ב( אווזא. קמ׳׳ז: סי׳ כומתו; כ׳׳ח! סי׳ )א( דיין.

1396 (Hamburg: Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek: Hs. Levy. 116): )ב( ענימים, עיין, תתחייב. עיין, ענימים, )ב(

1377 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Opp. 333, f. sr, f. 58V): )ב( חייב, חיישמן, סייג חיישמן, חייב, )ב( 115 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

1343 (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books and ( י״צײיז׳ב( יײני״ ®“MSS: MS. 18828, f. 86r): -F

( א( שיתכװנו :(Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Or. 146, f. 35r) 1342

( ב( עניין, ראייה, קיימים. :(Vienna: Archiv der Stadt Wien: Urk. 198) 1338

( ב( בייטים, עיין, לסייע. :(Spires: Archiv der Stadt Speyer: No. 257) 1337

ב( ראייה, מקדימים. :(Vienna: Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv: Urk. 117) 1329

( ב( שהחיינו :(Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Opp. 758, f. 304r) 1327

( ב( מניץ, שייך. :(London: British Library: Ms. Add. 26970, f. 19ir) 1307

( ב( בניין. :(Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Koln: Nr. 269) 1305

1272 (Jerusalem: Jewish National and University Library: Osarot 40 781): ( א( וזנותי. )ב( מעיין, חלייתה, לחייו, קיים.

( ב( הייתה, דאדיה. :(Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Koln: Nr. 109) 1272

1237 (Paris: Biblioth£que Nationale: MS. H6b. No. 1408, f. 51r): ( א(שודין. )ב( לבגיינה, למניינה.

( א( שווים. :(Munich: Bayerischc Staatsbibliothek: MS. 5, f. 8v) 1233

( ב( עניין, אורייתא. :(Cambridge: University Library: ms. Add. 667.1, f. 24) 1218

We see that Ashkenazic Hebrew and Aramic too, had the double waw and double yodh. Are these spellings to be found in the Hebrew of the non-Ashkenazic Jewries as well ? Let us take a look at a few of these groups, beginning with the H of the Zarphatim, the immediate ancestors of the Ashkenazim.

HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN ZARPHATIC SOURCES

1397 (Cambridge: University Library: ms. Add. 490): )א( דווקא. )ב( מניין, איילתית, מיירי. דייקי. מיירי. איילתית, מניין, )ב( דווקא. )א(

(3) מתײ״ בדי, משיי. 14th cent. (Vatican: Ebr. 322, f. 186v(:14th:) משיי. בדי, מתײ״ (3) 116 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

1317 (Hamburg: Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek: Heb. 17, f. 152V): ( ב( הודייה, שמייא, דיירי.

( ב( חייב• :(London: British Library: Cott. Ch. Aug. it. f. 1071) 1286

( א( לאחוואה, אדוװי. :(Ibid: MS. Lansd. 667) 1280

( ב( יורשיי, חייב :(Ibid: Add. Ch. 16174) 1268

( ב( מחוייבת, יורשיי. :(Ibid.: Hari. Ch. 43. a. 68) 267!

1250 (Paris: Bibliothequc Nationale: MS. Heb. 164, fols. 41-42 and 2 Chron. ( ב( משיזזיי, נביאיי, מסױים, ליישבו, עיניין, ברייתא. :(21 ,4

( ב( שיתגיירו :(Cambridge: St. John’s CoUege: MS. A. 3: Jonah) 1239

( ב( חייב. :( London: British Library: Harl. Ch. 43. A. 60. b) 1233

( א( הװלדו. )ב( חייב. :(London: British Library: Harl. Ch. 43. A. 62. b) 1221

( ב( מניין, ראייה. :(c. 1208 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: MS. Opp. 50, f. 54V

( ב( חועיי, יורשיי. :(13th cent. (London: British Library: Cott. Ch. xxvi. 29

( ב(חייב, יורשיי :(13th cent. (Ibid.: Harl. Ch. 43. a. 63. b

( ב( חייה. :(Ibid.: Add. Ch. 1251) 1182

12th cent. (Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: ms. Heb. 635, f. 16r): ב( עיירות, חברייא. עיירות, ב(

HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN ITALKIAN SOURCES

From the western neighbours of the Ashkenazim we shall turn now to their south- era ones, the Italkim.

( ב( עדידי :(Cambridge: University Library: ms. Add. 173, f. 298r) 1289

:(r־Berlin: Staatsbibliothek:] Or. 2" 583, f. 340v341]) 1288 ( א( וולד, וילדות. )ב( חגייה. 117 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

1272 (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books and ( ב( מחוייבת, מתחייב, עיניינים, ער׳ינו. :(mss: ms. 14763

126$ (Paris: Bibliothique Nationale: MS. Heb. 599, f, 42r): )כ( שולליי, אחריי, עדריי, אמוניי, מעחניי. אמוניי, עדריי, אחריי, שולליי, )כ(

ioth/nth cent. (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed ( א( מצוק, װתרן, יתוותוץ. )ב( זכיי :(Books and mss: ms. Add. 27169, f. 183V

( ה1א(סיוסםי , 4th/5th cent. (Venosa: Catacomb [rej 6:206]): WOOTB From these examples it is clear that the Italkians, too, had the double waw and double yodh, and that takes us even seven or eight centuries farther back - into antiquity.

HEBREW AND ARAMIC IN ORIENTAL SOURCES

Finally an Oriental group, that of Syria and Palestine.

( ב( מרץ. :(Paris: Biblioth&que Nationale: ms. Heb. 343, f. 239r) 1488

( א( שװה. )ב( מתחייב, מתיינזד. :(Ibid.: !074, f. 1 or) 1482

( ב( דיץ. :(Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Hunt 166, f. 108r) 375*

1019 (Vienna: Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek: Papyrus-Sammlung: H. 83): )א( שווה. )ב( קמיין, הודייה, ראייה, קנתייה, יורשיי, אחריי, קיים אחריי, יורשיי, קנתייה, ראייה, הודייה, קמיין, )ב( שווה. )א(

1013-1019 (Cambridge: University Library: MS. T.-S. 13. J. 1. 2): ( ב( חייב, ראייה, קייס.

( ב( קדין, פיצױי :(ion (Ibid.: 13. j. 33. 5

1 oth/11th cent. (Oxford: Bodleian Library: ms. Heb. e. 43, f. 59r): א( תהודן, ווהודץ, יהוון. )ב( שביעי׳־תה, תריץ, תהודץ, ביכורייה, קודשייה, אמרייא), .קיימץ

( א(הווא. )ב( ביידיה. :(c. 9th cent. (Ibid.: Heb. b. 4, f. 18r

א( ןןװא. )ב( בייתה. :(c. 9th cent. (Ibid.: Heb. b. 4, f. 19V 118 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(א) c. 9th cent. (Cambridge: University Library: MS. T.-S. b. 8, f. 3r): WtW

( ב(דיינץ :(c. 9th cent. (Ibid.: t.-s. e. 1.107

8th/9th cent. (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America: ms. 605 [ena )ב( שבסייה, יתקיימו, אמייא 2587:)] אמייא יתקיימו, שבסייה, )ב(

c. 8th cent. (Oxford: Bodleian Library: MS. Heb. d. 49, f. 47O: )א( לװתך״ יהוזי, לילוץ. )ב( תריץ, בייתך, קודמיי, דכייה, בידייתה. דכייה, קודמיי, בייתך, תריץ, )ב( לילוץ. יהוזי, לװתך״ )א(

Here again we have the double waw and double yodh, examples of which are to be found going back almost to antiquity. Having met with these spellings not only in Y but also in the H of a number of Jewries, we might go on to ask whether the doubling occurs in any more of the Jewish languages as well. Let us look at a few of these.

ZARPHATIC

We shall start with the immediate predecessor of Yiddish, i.e., Zar.

14th cent. (Strasbourg: Uni vers W: Biblioth&que: ms, 3950 [heb. 24], Nos. 11, )ב( טרא?איןיץ, מרריש. פוצױירש, דןזײאלרי 12,14,15,17:) דןזײאלרי פוצױירש, מרריש. טרא?איןיץ, )ב(

After 1291 (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books ב( קתטריירא, גולייא) :(and mss: ms. Add. 19664, fols. 9sr, 99 ריךנצץ, שדי, דרי, לירדי, יראיי,5 שיגייור, פוי שנ ם, לדי, ?קאללא, מוייש, ריקןינדןסרא מוייש, ?קאללא, לדי,

( ב( טײלאבוץ :(Ibid.: Cott. Ch. Aug. n, 107r) 1286

( ב( םארױיש :(Ibid.: Lansd. Ch. 667) 1280

1250 (Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: ms. Heb. 164, fols. 41v~42r): )א( םדרותטישװש )א(

13 th cent., middle (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America: Machior ( ב( איי,6 בסיילא, שדיש, ייא, סוייץ, איינץ, רמיינא, שרים, אינריאה :(Vitry, f. 160v

( ב( ױי,6 שטײלמתץ1א. :(C. 1240 (Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: ms. 302, f. 107r

ב( (רוייר :(London: British Library: Harl. Ch. 43. A. 60. b) 1233 119 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw 2nd Double Yodh

( א( שלוודתא. : (Ibid.: 43. a. 62. b) 1221 c 1208 (Cf, Schlessinger, Altfranzosischc Wortcr etc.): ( א( גלוד, וח־ילא, װליא, ותיד, ודמדליר, מסור, ודריליס. )ב( ציפו״יל.

(ב(טופי׳ים. :(C. 1208 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: MS. Opp. 50, f. 54V

( א( יייסדיר :(Paris: Archives Nationalcs: AE II 8r) 1206

( א( װיקהם :(13th cent. (London: British Library: Cott. Ch. xxvj. 29

( א( וזמזדייא. איחדרט. )ב( קט׳יי־נש. :(13th cent. (Ibid.: Cott. Nero. c. 111. a

( ב( סרוייש, בוי׳יסונא :(13th cent. (Ibid.: Cott. Nero. c. 111. b c. 1150-1226 (Samson b. Abraham of Sens, on Mishna Kelim): )א( אתטוגוזיר. )ב( ביירטדיל, קגךילא. דױילא. קגךילא. ביירטדיל, )ב( אתטוגוזיר. )א(

ITALKIAN

We shall now turn to Italy and examine the spelling of the Italkian language.

( א( יײה,3 װלודי. )ב( מאייור. :(r־Venice: Book of Proverbs; fols. 37v38) 1617

1595 (London: British Library: ms. Add. 27050, fols. 94-95O: )א( קוזאלי. סיטיראװה, טתקוי,1קוךא דא־יוזה, קוואגד־ו. )ב( ,1דמיי ייתגא, ,1דמיי )ב( קוואגד־ו. דא־יוזה, טתקוי,1קוךא סיטיראװה, קוזאלי. )א( ,

(:1561 (Mantua; prayer book(Mantua; (:1561 )א( גװרלראי, קװילו, װה, אןןוןזז. ?ןוױםסה. )ב( ליי סײנםאטו. קקײירי׳ ?דןץיןךנסו. קקײירי׳ סײנםאטו. ליי )ב( ?ןוױםסה. אןןוןזז. װה, קװילו, גװרלראי, )א(

1538 (Bologna; prayer book Psalms; fols. nv-13r and 2r): )א( ?ןײאלי, לאיזדה, קאװ?ה יןיויא, סלוואו, וױךי״ ןאװליךי.’ חז רה, ,1וךןט א?ןתי, ,1וךןט חז רה, ןאװליךי.’ וױךי״ סלוואו, יןיויא, קאװ?ה לאיזדה, ?ןײאלי, )א( ?ולחלל, ןטוךךיאו.5 )ב( סיליידלי, פאללה. סיליידלי, )ב( ןטוךךיאו.5 ?ולחלל,

)א(לאיךלילא^ו. )ב(סלסזג*ו, פלטאדי 15thcent. (Ibid.: m s . Or.15thcent. (:74. 74:) פלטאדי )ב(סלסזג*ו, )א(לאיךלילא^ו.

1383־London: British Library: m s. Or. 2443, fols. 37v(London: (:40r) )א( ?ץיװאו, וךדי. )ב( ?ילייולי, איגבילי^יר״ז, בטללה, ךנלרה, רײ. ךנלרה, בטללה, איגבילי^יר״ז, ?ילייולי, )ב( וךדי. ?ץיװאו, )א( 120 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

d 2 id y 6

Diidy6/D£ide2mu> the language of the Sephardim:1

( ב( סאנייאנה, למייום. ייו, דמדיאר. ייאמו. :(Vienna: Bible translation; p. 7) 1891

1867 (Salonica; Leqtf hazZohar, f. j it ): )כ( סידיורים, מדי. צאי׳יאן, לייה, סריה, איליידס, ייו, םמײאן״ איי, ייאמה. איי, םמײאן״ ייו, איליידס, סריה, לייה, צאי׳יאן, מדי. סידיורים, )כ(

)ב( שידיור, קונייאת, קולאיי, ייאה, אילייום, איי, ייו, אגי־יד, מדי. 80s (Leoer! (:80s:) מדי. אגי־יד, ייו, איי, אילייום, ייאה, קולאיי, קונייאת, שידיור, )ב(

)ב( ,0גא?דלייו לל?ארין, אילייי, מאױיאגה, _קא> Leghorn; Book of Job(Leghorn; :(1783) 1783): _קא> מאױיאגה, אילייי, לל?ארין, ,0גא?דלייו )ב(

(:753 (Salonica; Ketubat hatTora* (Salonica; (:753 )ב( קרילייו, לייו, אילייה, מאנייאנה, שרנייורזז, ריבילייה, אלנסיזנייאר, רוייה, לייה, איי, איי, לייה, רוייה, אלנסיזנייאר, ריבילייה, שרנייורזז, מאנייאנה, אילייה, לייו, קרילייו, )ב( ייוז.

)א( אלאוזאדו. )ב( אנייז, ?ינםמלא. Venice; Haggadah, f(Venice; .1609 (:1) 1609. 1:) ?ינםמלא. אנייז, )ב( אלאוזאדו. )א(

(:13 .16th cent. (Oxford: Bodleian Library: MS. Heb. c.16th (:13 )ב( האלייאדו, דתייא, עובדי׳יה. דתייא, האלייאדו, )ב(

1588 (Venice: Hdeq Selomo, fob. 71-72): )ב( מאייוראל, אקאלייארסמסו, קאלייו, סואייא. קאלייו, אקאלייארסמסו, מאייוראל, )ב(

1547 (Constantinople; Polyglot Bible; f. 102v): )ב( מסילייוש, דייו, ,1אריסיי8$ יישיון, ללאמד, ן,1אםריאיסײ איש?ןלאמא כדיון, יןזיןא. כדיון, איש?ןלאמא ן,1אםריאיסײ ללאמד, יישיון, ,1אריסיי8$ דייו, מסילייוש, )ב(

CATALANIC

Catalanic (Cambridge: University Library: MS. T .-s. k . 24. 28): I have, unfortunately only a fragment of four pages (photostat) with little text.

( ב( פלא, יקרחןמ^ ?לרש, מיןקױנא .c. 12th cent

1 It cannot be repeated too often that Sephardim is the correct name for the descendants of the Jews of the Iberian Peninsula only and that it is absurd to use this word as a general designation for ail non-Ashk. Jews. (‘Yemenite Sephardim’ I) 121 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh 121

PARSIC

Parsic, the language of the Persian Jews:

)א( חשוק, אװלי תאן, רװיד, גוזישתן. נוויסק, נװארי :)letter 1941)

)א( וזשדואן, תווסות, אוורדן, מישווד. )ב( בטייאר. :)letter 1937)

)א( אחוואל, בשודד. (3) עזרייה, ודי, גחמייה, עיידת. :)ktter 1937)

)א( ברוום, גתשתה. .c. 1924 (letter(:c:) גתשתה. ברוום, )א(

(New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America: ena 72, f. lojr(New (:1743 ()ב(באייד א( אודרד, שזזד,.

( ב( גויים, עלמין. :(London: British Library: m s . Add. 7701, f. 130V) 1666

( א( אתל. :(Constantinople; Polyglot Bible, beginning) 1546 c 1339 (Leningrad: Publichnaya Biblioteka: 11 Firkovich 75): )א( האוק, סותגד, אווסי, כוזש, אוזטדה, הווא. )ב( אייגד, מייל. אייגד, )ב( הווא. אוזטדה, כוזש, אווסי, סותגד, האוק, )א(

)א( שװז*. )ב( חייף. London: British Library: MS. Or. 5446, f. iogv(London: (:1319) 1319:) חייף. )ב( שװז*. )א(

BAVLIC

Bavlic, (Mesopotamia:)

)א( ,1כוו) אג׳ה אוו ק א ת כו ם, וו ק ח. letter (letter (:1943) 1943:)

)א( אוז ק א ת כו ס, א מוו א ל, ק ה װ ה, שתווי, קנודצה. :) letter (letter 1943) 1943

)א( אוו ק א ח כו ם, סווי תו ם, אכוד אן, א תו ת סו. )כ( מ די ה, עיי ק. letter! (letter! (:943) 943:)

)א( ח לוו ה, י תוו אג ה, ה ת א, אוו ל א ד, ד עווזז, לוו, נ סוד )ב( ג איי ה, מ ליי ק. :) letter (letter 1940) 1940

)א(וו»קת. )ב( ת אן ^י א, ד ך א. Baghdad; prayer book(Baghdad; (:1905) 1905:) 122 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

( א( לאותו. )ב) Leghorn: Haggadah): .r*rtn) 1844

( א( אוזלן, חשודאן. )ב( חכייאת, אעייאן. :(Jerusalem: S.D. Sassoon: m s . 229F}780!

TEMAN1C

Our last examples come from Temanic, the language of the Yemenite Jews.

( א( דעזזתי, מזב. מוות, יסודי. )ב(הייאך. :(letter) 1942

1451 (Oxford: Bodleian Library: Hunt 129):

( א(ווקעת, תווחש. :(Ibid.: ms. Opp. Add. 40 154, f. 2!4r) 1372

1222 ([Berlin: Staatsbibliothek] Preussischer Kulturbcsitz: MS. Or. Qu. 568, Ch. (ב(יתעײן :(beginning ,10

From the foregoing it is abundantly clear that at the time when the Jews were only starting to settle in Germany, the double waw and double yodh were already in existence. So the theory that the German w was the source of the Y double waw is patently wrong. That the earliest dates for the appearance of doubling in the above lists differ from group to group is, of course, only to be expected: that these examples happen to be preserved is accidental, and the fact that they were available to me is also partly accidental. As far as the Ashkenazim are concerned, we cannot have any material from the fourth/fifth or even the eighth century because this group was not yet in existence.

THE TALMUDIC SOURCE

In the Babylonian Talmud, in Pes. fol. 64r, we come upon the following passage:

מאי סעמא דר׳ שמעדן דכתיכ זבחי זבחי תדי דמגי קרי בי זבח זבחיי למאי הלכתא למאי זבחיי זבח בי קרי דמגי תדי זבחי זבחי דכתיכ שמעדן דר׳ סעמא מאי סלגינהו רחמנא מהדדי ולא כתב זכחיי וכר זכחיי כתב ולא מהדדי רחמנא סלגינהו

Rashi explains:

תרי כתיבי שקול י׳ ד חד מידיהו ושדי אאידך וקרי בי זבח דהיינו ססח וקרי כי זבחיי כי וקרי ססח דהיינו זבח בי וקרי אאידך ושדי מידיהו ד חד י׳ שקול כתיבי תרי לשאר זבחים וכר זבחים לשאר 123 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

In his argument on a point of law, R. Simeon b. Yohai mentions the double yodh in a matter of fact way, which shows that his audience was familiar with that spelling and used it themselves. It must therefore have originated at least a generation or two before it was mentioned by Simeon in about the middle of the second century BCE. How did this orthographic device come into being? Perhaps it developed somewhat like this. A long (‘geminated’) /1/ with consonantal function, i.e., Uj}, is preceded by an /i/ in vocalic function, and followed by vocalic /i/ or /e/, e.g., /qijjem/. In scriptio plena both these vowels are expressed by yodh: qjjm. People got used to the picture of the word with its two yodhs - these seemed to form an integral part of it. The result was that by analogy they transferred this spelling also to cases where the vowels were neither /i/ nor /e/ but /u/, /0/ or /a/ and where, consequently, there would not be a yodh for plene spelling. Thus [qajjam] was written exactly like [qijjem], i.e., qjjm. Although there does not appear to be a textual reference to double waw in the Talmud, we may presume that this spelling was also in existence at the time of R. Simeon, since it is, in our later material, always a parallel feature to double ,לװה :yodh. It would have developed in an analogous way to the double yodh ,.etc מלװה gave rise to ,(לוה for לוןה ,.i.e) לוה originally the scriptio plena for where no scriptio plena was needed.

THE QUMRAn SCROLLS

The foregoing part of this chapter is based on a Y article of mine, published in 1931.1 Nearly two decades later the manuscripts from the desert caves next to the Dead Sea were discovered, making it possible to examine material three centuries earlier than the time of R. Simeon. I did this in an article published in 1953,3 and I have used it as the basis of what follows here. The five main manuscripts and their palaeographical dates are: (A) The War Scroll: third quarter of the first century ce; (B) the Hymns Scroll: second quarter of the first century ce; (C) the Habakkuk Scroll: middle of the first century BCE; (D) the Yahad Scroll: last quarter of the second century BCE; (£) the complete Isaiah Scroll: middle of the second century bce.3 Here are the examples from the Qumran Scrolls:

a. (,8:1)קצװת הוו ה)!: ״(, והשתחוו(xn:4!). B. בהווה, ההווה, הוות רשעים( vm: 2), עוון, בעוון, עותם(ix :2).

t See p. 33®. N°• % S t* p. 330, No. a!0. 3 S et my The Hehrtm Stripts, vol. !, cob. 130-143,150-159, roL a, Not. 81,8a, 84-87». 124 A. Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

.v^ C:5)מוו תר (.14:1x)קציויז ^v:5)מוו תר .C .D הװא (,x1:4) (׳15:111)הװה 1s:v)pw) 12:11)ww)) (.23:1)עותות (,7:111)עװנותו (,7:111)עװנותו (.23:1)עותות (ww ((1s:v)pw(12:11 (׳15:111)הװה (,x1:4) הװא .D (,22:111)ועותותם (,8:11)עװניך 13:1v.))בהװזת (,8:11)עװניך (,22:111)ועותותם .E גדודתיו)ח:ז(, ותהוז)מ:יז(. הװה )מז:יא(, חזווץ)כב:א( גאוו)מכ:ז(, עודן)א:ד, יד:כא, עודן)א:ד, גאוו)מכ:ז(, חזווץ)כב:א( )מז:יא(, הװה ותהוז)מ:יז(. גדודתיו)ח:ז(, .E כו:כא; ננ:ו! מ:יז: טד:ח(, העוון )כב: יד( עותה )מ:ב(, עודנך )ו:ז(, עוונם )יג:יא(, )יג:יא(, עוונם )ו:ז(, עודנך )מ:ב(, עותה יד( )כב: העוון טד:ח(, מ:יז: ננ:ו! כו:כא; עװנותיכמה )גס:ב:סה: ז(, בעוונותיכסה )ג:ב(, ועוובותינו )נטױבן ד!ה(,0 מעוונותינו מעוונותינו ד!ה(,0 )נטױבן ועוובותינו )ג:ב(, בעוונותיכסה ז(, )גס:ב:סה: עװנותיכמה )גגה(, ועומותס >נג:יא(, )סד:ו(.עװמו יקוו)ס:ס(, קצודת pהא )מ:כח(, מקצוות הארץ מקצוות )מ:כח(, pהא קצודת יקוו)ס:ס(, )סד:ו(.עװמו >נג:יא(, ועומותס )גגה(, )סא:ט(, קצאװת הארץ )מא:ה(, לשאוות גלים )לז:כו(, ישתחווה )מה:יד(, והשתחוו והשתחוו )מה:יד(, ישתחווה )לז:כו(, גלים לשאוות )מא:ה(, הארץ קצאװת )סא:ט(, )ס:יד(, ישתחוו)ב:ח! נם:כג( ישתחוו)ב:ח! )ס:יד(,

It is clear from these examples that the double waw here does not signify /w/ but is to be read as two phonemes, w + vowel, or vowel + w, in other words, .case of scriptio plena, the use of which is characteristic of these documents ג it is . זןוון, הווא, בהויות. והשתחװ וכר With Tiberian vowel signs the above words would be As a matter of fact, this spelling with two waws, one for /w/, the other for /0/, occurs - exceptionally - in the Bible, too: in 2 Kings, 7:9; Prov. 5:22; 2 Sam. עוץ, עותותיו, ביצוות, ומצווה■:Neh. 9:13,14 ;18:5 In making the list of examples with double waw, two instances have been Hab. x: 10, 11). In the Bible this word is) עבודת שוו and עיר שוז :omitted appear to be a case where doubling is used שװ so that the two waws in שוא spelt to express the non-syilabic function of /w/: iaw. This interpretation is not invali- ,present in another scroll (Hymns a xn) but is, in fact שוא dated by the spelling being also the Biblical form whose pronunciation - iaw - we שוא ,supported by it know. Thus it would seem that the date of the Habakkuk Scroll could be regarded as the terminus a quo for double waw = /w/ in non-syllabic function. But we still have to apply a final check. Could we not read the double waw of iww like aU the double waws in the other examples in this document, i.e., as two phonemes ? with /3/, /a/ or /e/ after the) שיי and שװ We would have a choice between on the other. The former two are out of ,שײ and שיי on the one hand, and (/$/ the question, as we know from the Hymns Scroll and the Bible that this word must be a monosyllable. Sow and iuw, however, are possible and make the reading iaw, with double waw as the symbol for /w/ in non-syllabic function, very doubtful. The form sowjsuw does not create much of a problem. The Qumran Scrolls contain quite a number of words whose vowel is expressed by waw, where, in the ־גסןגוםן,:Bible, they have various other vowels, e.g., in the complete Isaiah Scroll . פד - קסוד, שובגא - שבנא, רוכסים - רכסים, שוחוד - שוחד, בורך - ברך, רוגע - רגע<41 etc. Clearly these are not just ( 4:4°י 3:^3. 5יז 45: >3. 45:23. 54=7. 34:8 .34:4) scribal errors and so the spelling of our word could very well denote low or sum. There is a fact that militates against double waw <= /w/ in non-syllabic func- 125 Appendix 2: Double U, Double Waw and Double Yodh

w/ is preceded or followed by /i/, /e/ or /a/ (i.e., not /0/ or /u/) then only tion. If jw/ is preceded or followed by /i/, /e/ or /a/ (i.e., not /0/ or /u/) then only (,3:1)צח? (,6:11)זעװל (.8:111)עניה single waw is written: E.g., in the Yahad Scroll waw is written: E.g., in the Yahad Scroll :single: (.8:111)עניה (,6:11)זעװל (,3:1)צח? Thus we have no conclusive evidence that at the Qumran period עולה (9:1v) וכר. (9:1v) עולה Thus we have no conclusive evidence that at the Qumran period the double waw = /w/ in non-syllabic function already existed. Turning now to the double yodh, we find that there are two kinds: in non-syllabic function + The two yodhs represent two phonemes: (a) jij in non-syllabic function (1) Ii/ or /e/ in syllabic function; (b) both yodhs are non-syllabic:

.A 5)נױים : (,xiv )!:כתיים (,4 לױים viii : (9(, :3)פלשתיים (,xi גדי :7.))רשעה xiv :7.))רשעה גדי (,xi :3)פלשתיים .B :11)היי תי -n,) 2 2:v חיים ,v)! !2, 1,+ (11!6:6 חו ליים v iii: (26(, ל פ תיים (.9) ח: (.9) ח: ל פ תיים חיי (.17:11)ג בר חיי .C :8)ייעסו (,x.) x:8)בעיץ מאיי 1:111)הים (.ז (.ז 1:111)הים מאיי (.x:8)בעיץ (,x :8)ייעסו .C •D חייט •0 (׳3ז החייט »0 (.7: :7.))חיי III :7.))חיי (.7: »0 החייט (׳3ז •0 חייט •D .E איים )ם:ס(, לאיים )נט:יח(, ו)א:ט(,1היי והיית )סב: ג(, הייתה )כה:ד(, והייתמה והייתמה )כה:ד(, הייתה ג(, )סב: והיית ו)א:ט(,1היי )נט:יח(, לאיים )ם:ס(, איים .E )כח:יח( חיים )מ: ח(, לחיים)ד:ג(, דיבשו >מ:כד(, ייגעו)מ:ל(, ריראו)נט:יט(, יישן יישן ריראו)נט:יט(, ייגעו)מ:ל(, >מ:כד(, דיבשו לחיים)ד:ג(, ח(, )מ: חיים )כח:יח( )ה:כ׳׳ז( כשדיים )ינ:ים; !1כג:י נע!יד; מז:אן מז:ה; מח:יד; סט:יב(, כתיים )כנ:א; כתיים סט:יב(, מח:יד; מז:ה; מז:אן נע!יד; !1כג:י )ינ:ים; כשדיים )ה:כ׳׳ז( כג:יב(, ללרים )םו:כא(, הנלדים )נו:ו(: ייטול )מ:טו(, סוניים )מט:יב(, ספריים ספריים )מט:יב(, סוניים )מ:טו(, ייטול )נו:ו(: הנלדים )םו:כא(, ללרים כג:יב(, )לו:יט; לז:יג(, ערעיים )יט:יד(, ענייה )נה:יא(, עניים )גטו! כו:ו! כס:יט(, העניים העניים כס:יט(, כו:ו! )גטו! עניים )נה:יא(, ענייה )יט:יד(, ערעיים לז:יג(, )לו:יט; )מא:יז(, ועניים )נח:ז(, פלשתיים )יא:יד( ציים )יג:כא(, ציץ )כג־יג(, לשבויים )כג־יג(, ציץ )יג:כא(, ציים )יא:יד( פלשתיים )נח:ז(, ועניים )מא:יז(, )םא:א(.-באיי הים )כד:טו(, מאיי הים )יא:יא(, חיינו )לח:כ(, עניי עסי )י:ב(. עסי עניי )לח:כ(, חיינו )יא:יא(, הים מאיי )כד:טו(, הים )םא:א(.-באיי ולחיי)נ:ו(, ייליל)טז:ז, טז:ז(. ייליל)טז:ז, ולחיי)נ:ו(,

2) The double yodh fairly frequently denotes /i/ in non-syllabic function, at) 2) :the beginning as well as at the end of a syllable:the a. ד(.111תהיינה)א: .c Bהייתה)ב: .vm). (.2:11מי היי ם) .D (.15:111)נהייה (.15:111)נהייה .D (.2:11מי היי ם) .c .(vmהייתה)ב: .B ד(.111תהיינה)א: .E והייה )יט:כ(, והיית )ק:א(, והייתה )ו:ע! יא:טז: יט:ת; כח!ד; כט:ב; כס:ב; לג:טן לג:טן כס:ב; כט:ב; כח!ד; יט:ת; יא:טז: )ו:ע! והייתה )ק:א(, והיית )יט:כ(, והייה .E לג:מ(. הייותך)ם:טו(, בעיים)יא:טו(, מצריי)א:כד(. בעיים)יא:טו(, הייותך)ם:טו(, לג:מ(. Thus, we have reached here, three centuries before Simeon’s time, the earliest use so far known of the doubling device, and have found that the psychological explanation for its origin given in my article two decades before the discovery of the Qumran Scrolls has been confirmed. for instance, what we have ,הײנו To apply it to our material: In the word a vowel letter, as , אם הקריאה is just scriptio plena - the second yodh being an it were. But when people were used to seeing and writing two yodhs in so frequent a form as this (as well as in others with med. yodh) they unconsciously transferred the double yodh to forms of such words where the conditions do not apply, i.e., arise. The הייה where the second vowel is not /i/ or jtf. Thus spellings such as double yodh has become a digraph. Finally, the digraph cuts loose altogether and .צרײ or ײם,.is transferred to words that never had a second /i/, e.g 126 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

haim and חיים Returning to Y, we may now say that when, e.g., the words haant are spelt today with double yodh, then it is done because about הײנס twenty two centuries ago the doubling device had developed. When, a thousand years later, it became necessary for the Jews to render their new language in the H alphabet, it was not a matter of having to transcribe written German1 - they were unacquainted with the Latin alphabet,9 - they went by ear. The G /ei/ (joined later by [ei] < [5]) presented no difficulties. That diphthong, or a very similar one, was known to them from Zarphatic, their mother tongue, as well as from h and Ar. In all three its grapheme was double yodh (the preceding vowel sign for patah was only very rarely written). Finally, to return to our starting point: the theory that the double waw in the spelling system of Y had its source in the G w. It is erroneous. The double waw entered the spelling system of Y at the very time the language was bom. It was .װידױ or in H װילון Aramic ,װירדורא just as it had been in Zar יױל employed in y

1 Cf. p. 108f, and p. 317, No. 158. *■ ’one who shaves* גלח galxyi ‘ the clerical script and/or language,’ i.e., Latin, front גלחות 2 Christian priest/monk,' (Both are quasi-Hebrew words originating in the Semitic clement of Yiddish and from there adopted alio into Ashkenazic Hebrew.) 12 Introduction linguistic communities living side by side and did not meet with pressure of Ian- guage nationalism, as we know it today. These facts, together with the fact that the Jews were generally living in compact groups and leading a concentrated Jewish life, explain why they did not abandon their languages in favour of the local *language of the country.‘

Tht group-forming factor None of the foregoing explanations adequately explains why and how the Jewish languages came into existence. The geographical explanation is relevant to some extent when applied to some of the Jewish languages, although it does not provide the whole explanation for them. The cause that we are seeking must be common to all of the Jewish languages. Could we not expect to find it expressed by the presence in all of them of certain common features? There are such features. All Jewish languages contain elements of Hebrew and Aramic origin and are written in Hebrew characters. Where do these Hebrew and Aramic elements come from ? And why are these languages written in Hebrew characters ? These elements belong to an uninterrupted development in speech and writing. They represent the present linguistic stage of a continuous process, previous stages of which had crystallized into the language of the Bible, that of the Mishna, the Gemara, the Prayers, etc. In other words, they are connected with the sphere of religion.* Language is an expression of group life. These elements are linguistic evidence that the groups employing them have their basis in religion. In other words: The group-forming factor among the Jews has been religion. That this is true of the past is beyond doubt, even if, in certain cases, it is controversial today. If the Jewish religion creates Jewish groups, and if group life creates language, then the Jewish languages have been the creations of religion.

a That docs not imply that such word! are exclusively *religous terms.’ On the contrary, only • small minority of them can be thus styled. Moreover, these element* are not confined to the vocabulary but are to be found also in mast of the other linguistic spheres. 131 Appendix 3: The Sources of the New East Yiddish

(90) Shewa + aleph + qames: (dfdgd) - da'aga > daagy ‘worry.* (91) Shewa + aleph + qames: Some words have nasalized parallels: [da:gy], (92) Shewa + ayin + qamcs: (qtfdra) ‘bowl’ - ka'ara > kaary ‘collection plate.’ (93) m hg a before long r: narre ‘fool’ > ndr ‘blockhead.’ {94) m hg a before r + nasal: warm > vdrym ‘ w arm .’ (95) m hg e before long r: sperren ‘to close’ > Spdm ‘to push/press.’ (96) m hg e before r: gem ‘to desire’ > gdm ‘to long, yearn.’ (97) MHG / before r: bire > bdr ‘pear.’ (98) MHG /: hmte > haant ‘today.’ (99) m hg ii before long r: dune > ddr ‘m eagre.’ (100) m hg iu:biutenl to take as booty ;trade’ > baatn ‘ to change, exchange ’; liute (liiite) > laat ‘people’; hiuser (hhser) > haazer ‘houses.’

vil: [e]

Y short /6/ corresponds to the following phonemes of the source languages: (101) Seghol before two consonants: (he^rS) - xevra > xevry ‘society.’ (102) Seghol before long consonant: (hezzeq) - heztk > hizyk ‘damage.’ (103) Ha{eph seghol at the beginning of a word: (*imet) - ernes > emys ‘truth.’ (104) Sere in closed syllable: (til) ‘mound of ruins’ tel > til ‘(the same, but only figuratively).’ (105) Hireq before h: (mihya) - mixia > mixiy ‘livelihood.’ (106) Hireq before k: nikpe ‘epileptic’ - nixpe > nixpy ‘epilepsy.’ (107) Hireq before r + consonant: (biryS) *creature’ - biria > beriy *capable, efficient person.’ (108) Hireq before dr: (mijfrSI) - midrai > midryl ‘Midrash.’ (109) Qames hafuph before r (in eyse): (me tor dp) - meturaf > myteryf'ins»nt.' (no) Qames hafuph or shureq/qibbu? before r (in EYSE): (hgrbdnjhurbdn) - xurban > xirbn ‘destruction.’ (in ) Shureq/qibbus before k + hateph (in ey se ): (rSkiniyu/) - ruxmus > rixmiys ‘spirituality.’ (112) Qame$ ha(up before h (in EYSE): (mghizdq) - muxzak > mixzyk * presumed.’ (113) m hg e before two consonants: vlikten > flextn *to plait.’ (114) m hg i before long consonants, including ck and stk: treffen - trifn *to meet’; stecken > itexn *to prick.’ (115) m hg f before two consonants: mfnseke > mini *human being.’ (116) m hg f before long consonant, including ck and sch : Ifffel > lift ‘spoon,’ bfeker > bixer *goblet,’ wfscke > vei ,linen/ (117) In individual cases: jfner > Urur *that, that one,’ ridtn > ridn ‘to speak.’ 132 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

(118) m hg ii before two consonants: nahte > next ‘nights.* (119) m hg a before long consonant: blatter > bleter ‘leaves.’ ( 120) MHG 0 before two consonants: a>drtelmja>drtel‘little word' > virtl ‘saying, proverb.‘ (121) mhg 0 before long consonant, including ch: abgotter > upgeter ‘idols,* locher > Uxer ‘holes.’ (122) MHG or before h(ch): karher > hixer ‘higher.’ (123) m hg 1 before h + consonant: gewikte ‘weight’ > gyvixt *a weight.’ (124) m hg i before ch: sicher > zexer ‘sure.’ (125) m hg i before h + consonant: gedikte > gydext ‘dense.’ (126) MHG ie before h + consonant: light > lext ‘light; candle.’ (127) m hg i before r + consonant: zkkel > cerkl*(pair of)compasses.’ (128) m hg ie before r + consonant: viertel > firtl ‘quarter.’ (129) m hg ii before h + consonant: ziiktec > ‘well behaved’ > cixtik ‘clean.* (130) MHG ii before ch: kitchen > kix ‘kitchen.’ (131) m hg ii before r + consonant: ge&iirze > gyvbc ‘spice.’ ’.consonant (in eyse): kurz > hire *short ־MHG u before r 4 (132) (133) SI e: bekiesza > bikyly ‘kind of caftan.’ (134) SI I: (brzeg) brig > brig ‘shore, bank.’ (135) SI ijy before r (in eyse): syrop > siryp ‘syrup.’ (136) SI u before r (in eyse): burnttr > biryk ‘beetroot.’ 037) SI u before r (in EYSE): tvr'ma > tinny ‘gaol.’

vin: (y; e]

The Y central vowels correspond to the following sounds in the source languages: (138) Shewa in the pre-penultimate or penultimate, after b (except bl, br, often bs > ps), g (except gl, gr)t consonantal /, kfq (except 4/, kr), /, m, it, r: (yiniqi) ‘sucking’ - ienika > iyniiky ‘Uvelihood,’ (Umay) - lemai > lemaa(i) ‘what for, why,* (n/ftamd) - nexama > nexumy ‘consolation.’ (139) All Sem vowels in the Yiddish final, unstressed, syllable: (ddroi) - doros > doirys ‘generations,* (bdruk *blessed*) - barux > Buurex ‘Baruch,* (iimhf) ‘joy* - simxa > simxy ‘joy; festivity,* (helfq) - xelek > xailyk ‘part,* etc. (140) All Sem vowels in two final syllables: (bihurtm) - baxurim > buxerym ‘youths.’ (141) Patah furtivum: (reak) - reax > raiex ‘smell.’ The Y vowel has no counterpart in the Sem source - a svarabhakti vowel has developed (142) between hireq and h: (jtih&s) - tixus > itexyt ‘descent.’ 133 Appendix 3: The Sources of the New East Yiddish

(143) between hireq and x: (takrikm) - taxrixim > taxriiexym ,burial garments.’ (144) between shureq and x; (du^an ‘platform of the priests in the Temple’) - duxan > djjexynyn ‘to perform the Kohen benediction.’ (145) between hireq and r: (ge&ii:r) - gcvtr > gviier ‘rich man.’ (146) MHG e in unstressed syllable: genomen > gynjmyn ‘taken,’ getragen > gytrugn ‘carried,’ miuler > maaltr ‘mouths.’ (147) All m hg vowels and diphthongs in unstressed syllable after the stress: Uuken > laikynyn ‘to deny.’ (148) All m hg vowels and diphthongs in syllable that had originally been the unstressed word of a compound: mihrouch > vaarex ‘incense.’ The Y svarabhakti has no counterpart in the mhg source (149) e develops between diphthong and r: fiur > faa(1)er ‘fire,’ erde > iierd ‘earth.’ (150) e develops between diphthong and ch: Touch > roiex ,smoke,’ buch > boucx ‘ belly.’ (151) c develops between r and ch: march > mar ex ‘marrow.’ (152) e develops between / and ch: milch > milex *milk.’ (J 53) y develops between u: (< m hg a) and consonant if the word is emphasized: mal > muuyl ‘a time.’ (154) SI vowel in final and penultimate syllables: fypata > lopyty ‘shovel, spade.’

ix:[du] The Y diphthong /ou/ corresponds to (155) m hg u: luter > louter' clear.’ x: [oi] The Y diphthong /oi/ corresponds to the following phonemes of the source languages: (156) Holem, preceding a syllable with a full vowel: (morfi) - mora > moiry ‘fear.’ (157) Qames, in some cases: (hap tar a) - ha/tajora > ha/torry ‘haphtara.’ (158) MHG 0: stro > Stroi ‘straw .’ (159) m hg 0, in stem elosed by a single consonant: kol > koil ‘coal,’ obe% > oips ‘fru its.‘ (160) mhg 4, in bdbes > poips ‘pope.* (161) mhg a in gewar > gyvoterjgyvuur ‘aware.’ (162) m hg ou: loufen > loifn ‘to ru n .’ (163) SI 0: tchdr (> tchdrz [txuf\) > txoier ‘polecat.’ !34 A Grief Survey of the Yiddish Language

xi: fai]

The Y diphthong /ai/ corresponds to the following vowels and diphthongs of the source languages: (164) Sere in open syllable: (sidhrt) - Sedim > iaidym ‘demons.’ (165) Seghol in open syllable: (pesah) - pesax > paisex ‘Passover.’ (166) Shewa in the first syllable of a disyllabic: (piri) - peri > pairy ‘fruit.’ (167) MHG i: emc > aibik , eternal.’ (168) m hg f in stem closed by one consonant: hfve > haivn ‘yeast.’ (169) MHG ce in open stem syllable: turn > naiyn ‘to sew .’ (170) m hg jmflattik ‘filthy.’ (171) MHG ce in stem closed by one consonant: stce^el‘instrument for pushing’ > itaisl ‘mortar.’ (172) MHG ei: spreilett > ipraitn ,to spread.’ (173) MHG ou: gelouben > glaibn ,to believe.’ (174) SI I: plecy > plaicy ‘shoulder.’

x u : [ei]

This diphthong corresponds to the following vowels of the source languages. (175) Seghol in open syllable: (begej) - beged > beigyd ‘garment.’ (176) m hg a: atemen > titymyn ‘to breathe.’ (177) MHG ce before r : gehoeren ‘to be meet’ > keiem ‘to have to.’ (178) MHG e before r: meren > meiem ‘to increase.’ (179) m hg ( before r: sa>?m > sviiem *to swear an oath.’ (180) m hg ( in stem closed by one consonant: mfgen > meign ‘may.’ (181) m hg e in stem closed by one consonant: mil > meil ‘meal (flour).’ (182) MHG e in some stems closed by two consonants: meste > miistl ‘dry measure.’ (183) MHG a in stem closed by one consonant: sich schamen > iiimyn zex ‘to be ashamed.’ (184) MHG e before r + consonant: pirle > piierl ‘pearl.’ (185) MHG i before r: slime > titiern ‘forehead.’ (186) m hg ie in ieman > iimyc ‘somebody.’ Appendix 4

Toponymical List

From the following short list it may be seen that the forms of most geographical names in Yiddish differ considerably from those they have in other languages. There is a great need for further research in Yiddish toponymies. A very short list of geographical names based on personal knowledge was given in an appendix to my Grammatik (pp. 180-81). Since then (1915) a number of lists have been published (cf. Section 10 of the Bibliography, pp. 340-42) and utilized in the present list. The accent marks indicate the vowels stressed. The historical names for the various regions where East European Jewry lived are, of course, no longer politically valid but they are used here in order to give a more precise geographical location as well as to connect them with the historical and other literature in which they constantly recur. In addition, each of these names evokes the associations that link it with a particular Jewish cultural group.

ABBREVIATIONS

B Bohemia C Galicia P Poland BL Burgenland Gm Germany R Russia BR Byelorussia H Hungary Rm Rumania Bu Bukovina L Lithuania S Slovakia at Girpatho- La Latvia Sw Switzerland Ruthenia M Moravia Tr Transylvania E Estonia Ml Moldavia u Ukraine

Ad'is Adyesa/Odessa (u) 'Aiznitqgt Eisenstadt/Kismarto (b l) 'Afriky Africa A hi'ad Alsediiai (l) ’Aibynic Eiwanowitz/Ivanowice (m) Ah'er iky America Air’opy Europe 'Amiyny Mszana dolna (p) 136 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

,Atniynyv Mszcz'on6w (p) Byi’uut B'uJai/B'uczacz (G) Antm'iiy Ott'ynia (g) Byz'enc, Bzenc Bz'enec/B'isenz (m) Apt 'Abtau/Op'at6w (p) Byz'om Bi'ezun (p) 'Apthky Opat'owek (p) Aziy Asia Candz Sandez/Nowy S^cz (o) Cfflym Deutsch-Kreuz/N6met Keresztur (b l) BaU Biecz (g) Bais-Liixym Bethlehem C/as Safed Balsk Bielsk (p) Citavi'an Tytuvcnai ( l) Bard'Uyv Berditchev (u) Cnam Znaim/Znoimo ( m ) Basar'abiy Bessarabia Couzmer Sandomierz (p) Batnic B'rtnice/Pimitz (m) C'enstexyv Cz^stoch'owa (p) Bdzyl Basel/Bazal/Basle (Sw) C'emyvic Czemowitz/Cemiwc'i/ Be’ldz Belc (g) Cerni'ufi (Bu) Bbid'im B'^dzin (p) Cxob Czchow (g) BM Bircza (G) Cyb'im Trzebinia (g) Biri Biriai (l) Bjsk Busk (g) Daacland Deutschland/Germany B'jkynyv Budz'an6w/Bud'aniw (G) Dane Danzig/Gdansk (p) Bbiny Bl'onie (p) Deinyborg Diinaburg/Dvinsk/ Bluuzyv Blaz’owa (g) Daugavpils (La) Bobyv Bob'owa (g) D'embic D^b'ica (g) Boc'an Boto$an (Rm) Dbpyt Dorpat/Tartu (e) Botherik Bobrka/Bibrka (g) D’iitiky D'ietikon/D'istiks (Sw) Boiirdic Bolzs'owce/Boli'ovci (g) HindU G'yongyos (h) BoskyvU Boskoviec/Boskowitz (m) Djbny Dubno (p) Braslyv Braclav (u) Dombryv D^br'owa (g) Brisly Breslau/Wroclaw (p) Driznic Straznice/Strassnitz (m) Br'izyvy Brz'oz6w (g) Drildz Itza (p) Brigi Brzesko (g) Dr'uubic Droh'obyC/Droh'obycz (g) BriiziSky Brz'ezina/Briesen/Braiza, Dv'uuert Warta (p) Vraiza (m) Brin Briinn/Bmo (m) 'Eiryc-Iir'uul Palestine Brisk Brest/Ber'estia/Brzes

G'dlmgyjiyy Gailingen/Gailirp (Sw) 'libu Izb'ica (p) Gaiy Gaya/Kyjov (m) Galiciy Galicia 'Jlynyi1 Ul'an6w (g) CVr, Gib G6ra Kalwarja (p) Jngem Ungam/Hungary/ Glandy Galanda/Galanta (s) Magyarorszig Glmy Glini'any/Hlyniany (g) Jngoer Ungvdr/TJihorod (c r) Gnizny Gniezno/Gnesen Jsty Uscie Zielone/Ustie Zelene (g) G'ottam K'ojetein/K'ojetfn (m) Jstrik Ustryki DoliSin/Ustrzyki dolnc Gomb'i{i?)n G'^bin (p) (g ) Gorzd Gargzdai ( l) Gostl Kostel/Gosdl (m) Kadlborg Karlburg/Oroszvir (b l) Graidik Gr6dck Jagielloiiski/Horodek Kaid'an K6dainiai (l) Jahailonsld (g) K'amynic Kami'eniec Podolsk/ Griey Gr6jec(p) Kamianec Podilskii G'uulil Galilee Kile Kielcc (p) K'iliky Kollikon/Koliks (Sw) Hanivic HanuSovce/Hanusfalva (s) Kilym Kelme ( l) Hirlic Halicz/HalyC (g) K'iiynyv Kiiincv/Qiisiniu (Ml) H'ilyiau Holleschau/HoleJov (m) Kiinigriic Koniggratz/Hradec Krolovi H'jbnyv Uhn6w/Uhniw (g) («) Hjmyn Uman (u) Kuyv Kiyev/Kyyiw (u) Houzy Hausen/Hu:za (Sw) Kilsbirg Kilchberg/Kilxbcrg (Sw) H'imyny H'umenne/Homonna (s) Kilym'ai Kolom'yia/Kolom'yja/ Kolom'ea (g) (usr6w (br) Kjnck Konskie (p׳I'agystyv Aug Iam hamiilex Dead Sea Kjtny Kutno (p) Iam Kmiirys See of Galilee Kjtyv Kuty (g) I'ampyly Yampol (u) Klaazait Kleinseite/Mali Scrana (in las Iasi (Rm) Prague) I'indrexyv Andr'ych6w (g) KYimw Klomn'ice (p) Iergn St. Georgen/Svati Jur/St. Klouznborg Klauscnburg/Quj/ Gyorgy (s) Kolozsvir (Tr) lerjlul'aaiym Jerusalem Kmarny Kom'amo (g) I'irysly Jar'oslaw/Yarosl'aw/J'aroslau Knim K'onin (p) (Kobr’im K'obryn (p )־<(_ Iisr'uul Israel Koil K olo (P) ,litiky Otikon/Oatika (Sw) Kop'tfynic Kopycz'ince (g) livomic Iwonicz (g) Kosyvy Koss6w/Kosiw (g) Italiy Italy Koiiblsdorf Kobersdorf/Kabold (b l) Iuunjro Jan6w (p) Kovl Kowcl (u) 138 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Kovny Kovno/Kaunas/Kowno ( l ) LM'im L'ublin (p) Kr'hnynic Kremeni'ec/Krzemeni'ec (u) Lubyky Hl'uboka/Frauenberg (b) Kr'btic Kryn'ica ( g ) Liimpenborg Lundenburg (m ) Krifc Kriw£a/Krzywcza ( g ) Luudmer Vlad'imir Vol'insk/ Kros Krosno ( g ) Wlodzimierz (u) Kruky Krak6w/Krakau/Cracow ( g ) Luusk Lask (p) Kntmyn au Mahrisch-Kromau (m ) Lyv'umyn Lebanon Kruuiy Nagy-Kiroly/Carei (Tr) Lyk'buk Lezajsk ( g ) Kruuinik Krasnik (p) Kianyv Chrzan

Nmck Nisko (g ) Proskeryv Proskurov (u) Nuuxyt Nachod (b) Prostic Prossnitz/Prostejov (m) Prug Prag/Prague/Praha Oipyc'iin Oswi$cim/Auschwitz (g) PUti Przedecz (p) Oitr'o/cy Ostrowiec (p) PSibrom Pfibram Oustr'aliy Australia Piixyv Puchov/Pucho (s) OSvn Ofen (= Buda, o f Budapest) (h) Pyd'aaiyc Podh'aice/Pidhaic'i (g) Pdbianic Pabian'ice (p) Rat'o'mdz R'aci^z/Reetz (p) Paiym, Paim Bohmen/Bohemia R'adyvie Radiwc'i/Radajui/Radautz Pal'ongy Palanga (l) (Bu) P'ardyvic P'ardubitz/P'ardubice (b) Ramil Rheinach/Riinax (Sw) Par'iiz Paris Raiiy Rzcsz6w (g) Pffzyng Bosing/Peszinok (s) Ranibarg Ronsperg (b) Peiterborg St. Petersburg Ranyc Hraniec/Miihrisch Pibram Pfibram (b) Weisskirchen (m) Pile Pil'ica (p) Rasim Rosieny (l) Pilyn'uuy Polonnoye/Polennoje (u) Raxyv Rachov/Racho (s) Pihyiik PilviSkiai (l) Rffdii (1) Ungarisch-Hradisch/ Pintk Pinsk ( b r ) Uherske HradiSti (m) Pi'uusk Pi'aski (p) Rffdii (2) Mnichovo Hradiiti/ Pjlt'jsk P'ultusk (P) Miinchengratz (b) Pljntk Plorisk (p) Riidym Radymno (g) Plggn Plan (b) Revl Reval/Tallinn (e ) Poiht Polen/Poland/Polska Riity Rietheim/Rista (Sw) Poizn Posen/Poznan (p ) R'imalyv Hrym'aliw/Grzym'alow (g) Poln Polna (b) Rjbyi'ob Hrubi'esz6w (p) Pom'uurn Pomorz'any (g) Rjdnik Rudniki (l) P'onyvii Panevezis ( l) Rjsland Russland/Rasiya/Russia Praam Preussen/Prussia Ropiic Ropcz'yce (g) Prainiec Przasnysz (p) R os tic Rausnitz (m) Priery Prcrau/Prerov (m ) Rot'tin Roh'atyn (g) Prbniil'an Przemysl'any/Peremyslany Rom Rome (G) Riiiky HruSky/Bimbaum (m) Pr'emtiiy Przemysl/Peremysl (G) Ruudytn Radom (p) Pren Prienai (l ) Priip'org Pressburg/Bratislava/Pozsony Sadygby Sadagora, -gura (Bu) (S) Sal'ant Salantai (l) Prtiyvy PreSov/Preschau (s) S'atmar Szatmir Nemeti/Sathmar/ Prjl t. Prut Satu Mare (Rm) 140 A Brief Survey of the Yiddish Language

Seda Siad (l) T'amypol Tam'opol (g) ShiyS Szollos (cr) T'artykyv Tart'akow (g) Sernnic S'enica/Sz'enica (s) Tas r. Theiss/Tisza (h ) S'Mt Scr'et/Sir'et (Bu) Teldz TelSiai (l) S'iget Sightt/Marmaros Sziget (Rnt) Ttrk'aa(i) Tiirk'ei/Turkey Sips Szepes/Zips (s) Tikt'im Tyk'ocin (br) Sk’bnyvic Skiemiew'ice (p) Tjny r. Donau/Danube Skvin Skav'ina (g) Tljmac TVumacz/T'owmai (g) Skuul S'okal (G) Totem Toruri (p) Slab'odky Slabada (l) Trnyiyv Tom'aszdw (p) Solydom Sobto:m/Solothurn (Sw) TopU'im Topoltany/Topolcsany (s) S'osnofey Sosn’owiec (p) Torky Turka (0) St’anisly Stanisl'awdw/Stanislawiw (g) Tomy Tumau/Tumov (b) Strilsk Novi Stril'yska/Nowe Toust Towst/Thiste (g) Strzel'iska (g) Trtipil Tiraspol (Ml) Suun r. San Trisk Tur'isk/Turzysk (U) Suunyk S'anok (G) Triiik TrySkiai ( l) Tuumy Tam6w (g) Tvariy, Tvbiy Tiberias Sac Suczava/Suceava (Bu) Safouzy Schaffhausen/Sof'u: z3 (Sw) Savl Savli/Siauliai (1.) Otic Wottitz/V'otice (b ) Sebryi'im Szczebrz'eszyn (p) Sidlyc Siedlce (p) Vaasl Weichsel/Wisla/Vistula Sips Sierpe (p) Vaisk'arx Mahrisch-Weisskirchen/ Sidlyv Szydl'owiec (p) Hraniec (m) Sn'azigy Schn'eisingen/Sn'aizigs (Sw) Variy Warschau/Warsz'awa/Warsaw S'oisborg Soh'osberg/S'aStin/S'asvir (s) (P) StS Stein/Stai (Sw) V’axtylic Cht'elnica/Wittenz (s) Stampn Stampfen/St'upava/Stomfa (s) Verbal'ovy Wierzbol'owo/Virbalis/ Stanyc Uhersky Ostroh WirbaUen (l) Stfftl Mfateiko/Uj v6roska (s) Verylouz Wurenlos/Viiralo(:)2 (Sw) Strousberig Strassburg/Srrasburg (Sw) Vim Wien/Vienna Slukart Stuttgart (Gm) Vilkom'iir Ukmerge (l) S'uutlsdorf Schattmannsdort/Cseszte Vilkov’Uk VilkaviSkis (l) (S) Vilny Wilno/Vilna/Wilna/Vilnius (l) Viinic Viinica (Bu) Tarkyv Taurogd (L) Vlom Wi'eluA (p) Tamy Tymau/Tmava/Nagyszombat V'oidyslyv Wodzislaw (p) (s) Volin Vol'yn/Volhynia 141 Appendix 4: Toponymical List

Vrehty Wrzesnia/Wreschen (p) Z'dibit Saybusch/2ywiec (g) Vuulex‘aa(i) Wallachei/Valachia Z'aloiic Dzialosz'yce (p) Zamyt Zcmaiten/Schamaiten/ Xaify Haifa Samogitia Xarkyv Xarltiw/Xarkov/Kharkov (u) Zidyi'o'm 2ida£iw/2yd'acz6w (g) Xelym Chelm (P) Zikyv Dzikow/DyLiw; Tamobrzcg (g) Xevryn Hevr'on/Hcbron Zlozk Zal'oice/Zal'iici (g) Xjst Xust/Huszt/Huste (C») Zuuter Zator (G) Xoi Ch'odecz (P)

Z'abltyv Z'abolotiw/ZaW'ot6w (g) fcuuryk 2arki (p) Z'ablytic Zabl'ocie (g) tyl 'iin Zolgaia ( l)

PART THREE

SPECIMENS OF YIDDISH OVER EIGHT CENTURIES

Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

The following short texts aim at providing no more than a very cursory glance at several periods and regions in the life of the Yiddish language. This material is not sufficient to illustrate its development. Not only would a whole long book of texts and discussion of these be needed for that, but research has not yet advanced to a stage when such a work can be successfully attempted. Many more years, or even decades, wiU have to pass before then. One of the reasons, of course, is that the amount of material at our disposal is scanty in relation to the expanse in space and time taken up by Yiddish. Quantitatively it is, however, not too small and it is virtually untouched by the philologist and linguist. The collecting of the texts, the editing of these and the attendant research - all this is still waiting to be done. Practically all our texts represent the written language, and only occasionally do we get a faint glimpse of the spoken language. In order to transcribe, we must, however, know how the authors pronounced what they wrote. From the spelling of the early texts it is not possible to get much help in this respect. Within the limited amount of space avaible it would not be feasible to discuss how and why I arrived at this or that transcription; a long article or a book would be required for each specimen. In view of the complete absence of detailed phonological research about the various periods and regions, 1 cannot hope to have achieved more than the merest, vague approximation to the facts. These specimens cannot therefore be used as a basis for phonological work. The originals from pre-modem times contain little or no punctuation, and I have supplied it. In view of the nature of the material and the purpose of the present section, it was not possible to employ a uniform system of transcription to cover all the periods and regions. In specimens Nos. 1-40, i.e., those from West, Central and 146 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

earlier East Yiddish, the transcriptions are adapted to the individual pieces. Symbols occurring here only are: ,dose, short p close, short 99 o-umlaut, close ץ long Cf close, long qq close, long ii u-umlaut, open, short 5 o-umlaut, open, u-umlaut, close, short long

Nos. 41-74, i.e., those in New East Yiddish, are given in the system used generally in this book.

WEST YIDDISH

Ca. thirteenth century. Two episodes from the poem Avroohom txroimu, which describes the child Abraham’s conquest of paganism.1 (From an ultra-violet photo of the Cambridge University Library ms t.s . 10 K 22)3 Date of copying the MS: 3rd November 1382.

(a) Abraham’s father, an idol manufacturer, sends him to the market to sell a sackful of idols (Fols. 12r-!3r)

tr va$te zi vil (bene, ir maxte zix hin vur, ir koorte ziine vir$en cu ziine$ vater tur, ir wirf din zak cumc rukken, er maxte zix cu din vilden, ir began di apgote zeere iilden.

,vor woo$en apgote, vor woo$en mu$etir ziin ״ :[ir $prfax ir ha bet vil gar cu riten din armen rukken miin. wil mir dir woorhaftige g{ot] ziine hutfe z^nden ix wil uuwern gelouben gar vor $wp1den.“

ir owgete hin cu markte, dir wik duuxte in cu lank, d ir la$t wa$ ime cu $weere, dir liip was ime cu krank. ir kam cu aime wa$$er, brait un[de] $tr?nge trouwen, gedooxte ir, hi h$bet zix ain grpps ge$pr?nge.

1 See (a) p. 343, No. 433: pp. 46-51; P■ 344. No. 444: pp. 59-61; (b) p. 343, No. 433: pp. 61 -65; p. 344, No. 444: pp. 66-68. a See tbe facsimiles in No. 433: (1) 47, 48, 51; lines 339-381; (b) pp. 60,6a, 63; line* 412-461. !47 West Yiddish ir warf den zak cu dir irden, cr begunde gar Zffre vor cagen, ,hodretir?, ir gote, ich haan uux l>ir gctragcn״ :[ir 5p1(ax nu traget mix hin uber, di? habetir umer ??re, entflt ir? nixt, uuwer latter berait ix ummer mf?re. truge ix uux hin uber, zo t??tc ix alzc ain gik. iox hoot da? was?er hin gevurt brukke un[de] $tik nu traget mix hin uber; des mogetir wol geni$en; entflt ir? nixt, ix loos uux zilwer vllsen.“ wa? ir in cO ge?pr{ax], zi ?wigen alzc ain dax?. ir vor gilbcte vor come alze ain gewunden waxs. ir warf din zak cu dir irden mit ha$$en un[t] mit grimmcn, ir sutte zi uus un[de] Us zi hine swimmen. ,watet hin uber, loot uux nixt ziin goox״ :[er spr[ax zflxet mir den vurt, vor ix wate uux ale? noox; komet ir hin uber, 26 ioltir miin doo baiten entflt ir? nixt, uuwer lifter wil ix beraiten.“ zi koorten uuf di dnken, zi vlu$en hin cu tal ir irai in noox vil luute das e? vil verre erial: .k?fret wider, k??ret ir habet uux vor gi$?en״ ir habet din rixten vurt nixt wol gcmi^en.1’ wa? ir in noox gerif, da? was in alze ain wixt, zi vlusen hin un[t] koorten zix an ziine r?de nixt, ir korte in 6x din rukken un[t] was ime gar umiire3 ir kam cu ziine? vater? huu? vil l&rc.

(b) Abraham in King Nimrod’s (Fols. 15V-16v) doo spr[ax] e? zix Nimrod, dir doo gewaldik was: ,,zage, vil zinnen Mze? kint, wir hoot dir gerooten da?, da? du dize gote hoo$t vor brant oone Gulden ? di? mO?tu, kint, di zilbe vime dulden.“ ,kx> wooren e? nixt gote,“ ?pifax] da? kint cu hant״ .z6) maxte zi miin vater mit ziin zilbe? hant)״ di gote, dl miin vater maxen kan, dir haan ix luccel axte - der i?t G[ot], dir miinen vater maxte.

3 ? umm&rt, ? unraiire. 148 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries dir G[ot], der doo geiflf di wiite wirelt al, baide loup un[de] gra$, birk un[de] tal, an ziimc gelouben wil ix liben un[t] ytirben. ix getrouwe ime wol, er l??t mix nixt vor dir ben.“ ,den G{ot] du hoost erkant״ :doo sprfax] e$ zix Nimrod mak dix dir gclftzen von unzer aller hint, da$ du mu$t genezen vor dize me $tarken viiure. z6 wil ix diinen gelouben koufen tiiure. geiQx bant wart da$ vil klaine lundlin, zi maxten ainen oven hai$ unft] wurfen £$ dar in; e$ lak alze ain knouweliin cu zamene gewunden, bii blik aine$ ougen. 1d wart es enpunden. doo gink der hailige Mixoo^fl] vor unzeren liben trixtin $uan .vil liber hcrrc G[ot], nu Ioo$ mix dare gaan״ :[cr spr[ax ix kan in wol erlAzen unfde] di vor burnen. di dix alter tiglix ercurnen. ,vil liber hirre miin״ :[doo $pr[ax] dir hailige Gavriil nu loos mix dare gaan ix wil dun bote ziin ix kan den den gluienden oven harte wol erkulen, das dun vruunt4 dir hicce nixt win vulen. ,ioo hoot ir mix erkant״ :doo jprfax] unzer Uber trixtin ix wil in erl&zen mit miin zilbe$ hant. ix wil luunen boten an miine $tat dare z^nden, zilber wil ix ziine tat vol ?nden. dime liben, trouwen kinde di gfotes] ??re eriain. dir oven luuxte inen alze ain karvunkel $tain. di br;nd[e] un[de] di hiccc begundcn her vure dringen, di haideniaft mQ$te alle [von] dannen jpringcn. doo $pr(ax] unzer liber trixtin dime carten kinde c

4 ms here has the meaningless tvrnt, apparently a slip for vrvn( m triiinl. This would accord with tbe biblical designation (Is. 41:8) for Abraham u *friend of God,' in the daily morning liturgy: ‘we - the sons of Abraham, thy loving friend.’ (Islam has taken over this designation (׳.for Abraham, speaking of him as 'the friend* or *the friend of Allah !49 West Yiddish

dhne kinde wart gcufihet des zilbcn oven; tur, i? $tunt uuf vil liize un[t] maxte zix hin vur. ime luuxtcn ziine ougen alze der lixte morgen $t6me. da? zax der arme bilden&re vil gcrne.

2 Thirteenth century. Glosses in the margin of a 1237 MS of miscellaneous contents. (Paris: Bibliotheque Nationale: MS Heb. 1408.) (Fol. 131 r :) vonken (zyq wqyn), marel (Nsqwndry), iaihcabel or wortcabel (pyspysyn); (fol. 131V:) b(dlaxyn (1lwnfyt); (fol. 132r:) darmgiirtel (qylqy), vorbiige (hbq), goltsmit (zh b n ); (fol. 1341■:) gaizel (prgl); (fol. 134V:) blahe (mrswf, bgd gdwl), kartyn (?) (mw$ hrym), kbwel (mzlg), rixe (malgez); (fol. 1351:) erwise!(grysyn), kute (sygws), fankuxe (Ibybwt), swpne (kmyhym wp!rywt), darmgiirtel (synr); (fol. 136r:) rephiiner (prgywt) (fol. 136V:) ftfgraif (qlydrys); (fol. 137r:) huuzne'ftelj (twbrwt; srygy hlwnwt).

3 1272/3. Inscription in a manuscript: Good wishes from the scribe Simha b. Judah to the recipient or sponsor of the m s, his uncle, Baruch b. Isaac, have been worked into the big letters of an initial word. (Jerusalem: Jewish National and University Library: m s. 40 781 [The Worms Mahazor]), vol. 1, fol. 92r) guut tak im beiagc $ew$r/$w?r di$ maxzor in b$$ h!k(kc)n^e5 trage betage 1: One it tempted to assume that the raphe on the gimel indicates that the Utter represents a voiced velar fricative, as that would be in conformity with Masoretic rules, besides fitting in with the phonetics of Central German (in whose area Worms is situated). However, it is possible that in the scribe's pronunciation of Hebrew a daghesh meant a long consonant (e.g., yammim ,seas’) as in the Masoretic system. Since a patah must be followed by a daghesh, he would have had to write tagge. But knowing from his vernacular, the difference between short and long consonants, tagge, he could not have used a daghesh. So, to avoid the daghesh, he would have employed the only other possible sign, raphe, without this having anything to do with his pronunciation. But more important are these two considerations: I f the Ashkenazic pronunciation of Hebrew had a voiced fricative g: (t) where has it gone without a trace? (2) It would have been a Zarphatic heritage and we would then have to assume that it had come down unchanged from the Masoretes, and that does not seem likely since there is and was no fricative g in French. The whole question must remain open until research m Zarphatic and early Yiddish phonology will, perhaps, yield an answer. 150 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

the final aleph is mute. This spelling is an inheritance ־,[Both shewas represent [a :2 from Zarphatic, and, from there, goes back to Roman times. I f we had MSS in Latmic (Jewish Latin) we would find the Latin final a written as qames followed by a mute aleph. This spelling would have been inherited from Aramic, where it appeared m practically every noun} The aleph remained when the Latin a evolved to French c. In Zarphatic this was written as a shewa, when the vowel signs were used - which was rare. An even clearer illustration of the fact that the Zarphatic spelling system is rooted in Roman times is provided by the representation of Zarphatic [tf] as qoph with a tick on top - 3, e.g., qnt*, i.e., tjanta *sings.' It is obvious that the diacritic was introduced to give a new value to plain q. Now plain q has the value [4], as in qwrd’ = korda 'cord,' tkus [tfanta] must go back to [kants] which is, of course, the Latin canca. sew$r/sw$r, dis: The letter sinjstn stands for [j], a spelling that survived into the nineteenth century. It was inherited from Zarphatic.a Since the Ashkenazim pronounce the sin in Hebrew and Aramic, as well as in the Semitic element in Yiddish, we may conclude that their ancestors, the Zarphatim, had done likewise.3 se: The se cannot be written by itself because in Hebrew, Aramic - occasionally in pre-modern traditional spelling - Yiddish, a word consisting of only one consonant and one vowel has to be attached to the next word. We must therefore write $ew$r/$w?r. £ew$r/?w?r 1: There is no way of deciding whether the shewa was pronounced or mute. In our sentence both cases occur: doubtless pronounced in betage and doubtless mute in trage. $ew?r/sw?r 2: The spelling v for w seems to be due to there being no room for even such a narrow letter as waw. sew$r/sw?r 3: The vowel sign under the waw differs clearly from the examples of patah in our text, and is distinctly a fere in the facsimile in zm f. Hence the yodh after it is not orthographically puzzling nor is there a phonetically puzzling a. However, the MHG form is swer/wer. Does our form indicate a local pronunciation or the absence of differentiation between ? and c? maxzor: I am somewhat doubtful about whether the hateph patah was pronounced in this position. No trace of it has survived in Yiddish. b?s hak(ke)n?scs: It seems that in early Yiddish there was no difference between fere and seghol, since, on the whole, that is the situation in present-day Yiddish. It

1 In Yiddish tbe aleph became a real vowel letter although this it not acknowledged in traditional printing, where the patah or qamcj precedes the aleph to indicate the vowel. a Medieval French had no [J], the modem ck was then still [tf], so no Sin was needed in the Zar• phatic spelling system. Hence the letter could be used unambiguously as sin, i.e., [s], there being no need for the dot on top left. 3 Elsewhere - in Sephardic, Maaravic and Yevanic, for instance - the letter tin is actually pro- nounccd as [s]. A history of the Sin/sin pronunciation is a desideratum. 151 West Yiddish

would follow that this is an inheritance from Zarphatic. DztdezmujDudyd presents the same picture. This whole complex of problems needs extensive investigation. hak(ke)n£se$: It seems possible that the form was hakn^ses.

4 Ca. fourteenth century. From a Bible glossary (here Ps. 5,10-7,5), added in the margin of a Zarphatic Bible glossary in about the first quarter of the fifteenth century - according to my palaeographical examination of the script. This is also the basis for the dates of the following specimens. (Leipzig: Universitiitsbibliothek: Cod. 1099.) (5) bruxde - a glitun - maxmi$tondi - er rat - bor4to$e - zi wfder 4p£nugut - hofut - dunt ^ruin - wile - zol umkrainunun? - (6) zolto kf$tungun mix - zai pinugunmix - bor initun - zint ur£rokun - mingeb?n - be^rme - lobut - inminemzifcun - ix incubere - .donkult - £tundc - (7) mi$grifonge - zank - brokut זminb?te - corgot - is 1>0

5 Script: About end of fourteenth century. From a Bible glossary to the Hagio- grapha (here Ps. 5,13-7,5). ([Berlin: Staatsbibliothek:] Preussischer Kulturbesitz: Orientalische Abteilung: Or. Qu 701, fol. 2r). (5) az ain tarce - wer zuenuk/zunuk - wilegunk - du ume rinkst - (6) das klf z h n ir wont den ehxt zaiten - ix bfnweriniten - be$irme - ix be$ulfere/be$ulfere - ix max wiht/wixt/wuxt - werlanderent (or) wer glancert - werahet - (7) misgraifunk - usraist (or) wercugt - main geltunk - un1 ix u$cihe.

6 Script: About end of fourteenth century. From a Bible glossary covering Joshua to Chronicles (here Ps. 5,10-7,18). (Karlsruhe: Badische Landesbibliothek: Cod. Reuchlin 9, fol. 242v-243r) (5, 10) muglix kait - ir gedank in binin in - bruxni$ - az wait az ain ofin grap - mit ?rcr cungin - zi Smaixilen - (11) max iuldik zi - bun wigin bozin rat - bor $to$ zi - win zi hon wfder £piniget - (12) un1 du zolt be^frmen - un zi zolin zix vrouin - (13) az ain tarce - wiligung - du !!1[m] ringilft in - (6) da§ zaitin ipil da? do hat £xt zaitin (or) loute - (2) du zolt ftrofin mix - du zolt kf$tien mix - mit dinem corn - (3) bor initen - hail mix - (4) zi zint dir frokin - main gebain - (5) be^rm*[e] (or) cug ou? - (6) da in gedoctni? - in dir grubcn - wir wil loben cu dir - (7) ix bin wordin mude - mit mainer zufcung - mit mainen trihcnen - main ipan b it - ix maxin bu*t - ix wirdinlJor unraint - (8) zi i$t bor vin$tert - bun corn - zi i$t bor aldet - urn■ wilen al mainer laidiger - (9) kfft ab - main wainung - (11) zi zolin wdrdin bor iimit - un1 zi zolin wir din dir iriket - 152 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries in ainer klain itonde - (7,1) da$ zaitin spilhi? alzo(«■) mi$graifung - um* da$ ir zang - Soul dir do wa$ gl?xcn cum ainem moren - der bun fcun biniomin - (3) er moxt to r cukin (or) cu rai$cn - cu raisin - un1 n?manin bcs^rmct - (4) ix hon bor goldin - minin 1k>r gilderen - un1 ix hon ou; gicogin - lir - (6) un1 4r 201 graixin - un1 ix zoln 1ior tridin - un1 ir zol dun ruin - zi dir habin - mit corn - un* dir wik - (8) un1 ob zamilung der boiker - zi um1 ringilt dix - un1 um1 ?rent wilen - cu dim1 himil w?der k?r - (9) ir zol rixtin (or) strofin - un* az main ginckait - (10) er zol maxin cu g?n - un1 du zolt dun beraidin - un1 dir da priilbet di hircin un* di gcdink - (11) min be£frmung - gcrixt virdigin hire - (12) un1 got ir cumet - (13) zin Swert ir iirfet (or) lutert - zinen bogen it ipant - (14) zin fail - cu den iigeren - ir dut wirkin - (15) ir irbait unrext - ir drait valihait - (16) ain grub ir gribet - un' ir gribet zi - un1 ir filt in di grubcn - (17) zainen w?rwil - zain geroubet gut - (18) ix wil lobin - un1 ix wil zingin.

7 1396/7. From ‘Ksav min kol koxys hahakozy vehavridin’ (‘Document about all the pouters of blood-letting and the veins' Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Koln: Heb. 4). das zint di ver worfen tage an din kain m?nie zol nox Idsen kainer laie an vdhen das er a(n)d(e)r(s) wil br;ngcn cu ainem gutcn ?nde.... z6 trinktkun spikanardi un'tlun musk/g... un1 ingeber, zalbaic zol kain m?n£e esen. Das c?hende caixen 1st der bok, zfl zol man das houbet diken fcor an vroste un1 zolt di houbet oder Idsen, warme spi... mit guten wurcen/ wurcen 1st gut cu escn. Das iilfte caixen 1st der wesercr, 76 zol man zix halten az in dime bordcren monde aber man zol haise b(a)den un1 nit vil trinken. This MS is carefully vowelled. But whether this was done by the scribe or somebody else, the phonology here differs from that o f the text.

8 Ca. fourteenth century. Translation of Psalms (here Ps. 6). Script about first quarter of fifteenth century. ([Berlin: Staatsbibliothek:] Preussischer Kulturbesitz: Or. Qu, 310, first part.) got, nit mit dainim com (ג).uber zigung mit gidon uf den ext zaiten. gizank cu dowid (1) du zolt itrofen mix un1 nit mit dainem grim com du zolt ki$tigen mix. (3) herbarm mix, got, wen veriniten bin ix, hail mix, got, wen zi zain erirokcn main gibain. (4) un1 main laip if hersrokcn zir un1 du, got, bis wi lang. (5) wider kir, got, bisirm main laip, hilf mir um wilen dainer gnoden. (6) win nit im tod dainer gidinkenii, in der grubcn wir lobet dix. (7) ix hon giirbait mit mainem zufcen, ix biunzduber in aler naxt main bit, mit mainen triheren main ipanbet ix bebuxten. (8) zi werlanteret bun com, main ougen veraltet in aler mainer belaidigung. (9) kerent ab tun mir, al wurker un rixt, win er hot gihort itim mainer wainung. (to) hdr, got, main gibit, got min biten er zol nimen. (11) !53 West Yiddish zi zolen wirden ver&mt un1 zi zolen herirckcn zir, al main vaind zi zolen wider kiren, un1 zi zolin warden veriimt ougen blike;. More specimens of Ps. 6 in transcription are to be found in my contribution, Die jiddische Psalmeniibersctzung in Hans Vollmer's, Die Psalmenverdeutschung, Potsdam, 1932}

9 First quarter of fifteenth century. Zimlin of Ulm delivers a public apology before a (Jewish) court. (From the Responsa of Jacob Vail (Weil), No. 147, Venice, 1549, fol. 60v.) Hddrt cuu, rabpgsai, ix haan mysiirys gytaan, ix haan gybroxyn di ha$koomys, di di raboonym haan gymaxt, daa ix uuf gyxa$mut bin, ix haan aax p9g??y vynpg$?y gyv^zyn an koovyd miipooxy 4il mhr Z^likman, ix haan aax mhr Zftlilunan an zain koovyd gptft, das ix haan gy£proxyn, er zai nit aan raav, aan kind kon vin ir. daa mit haan ix aax din raboonym ubyl gyrtft, di mhr Z^likman gy$amxyt haat cu raav. ix haan aax mhr Zfflikman m?$ ubyl gyr^t, un aax kail, ix haan aax den daioonym un aan taal Cfdym ubyl gyr^t- xootoosi, ooviisi, po$aiti/posaati. ix bit din bpgry iisboorex, das er mir s mppxyl zai, un di rcboonym, di mhr Zfflikman gysamxyt haat, un aax mhr Z$$likman un aax kaal un aax di wdym un aax di daioonym, ix bit zi al mexiily.

10 Script: Middle of the fifteenth century. Bible translation, glossarial type; Exodus 19,21-20,18. (London: British Library: Department of Oriental Printed Books and mss: Add. ms. 18694, f°l. 78■) (31)Un[t]erziit / got / cu Mpgfy: / nider / forvfr / am folk / liixt / zi cubrixyn / cu got / cu zihyn / un[t] is vin falyn / fon im / fiil / (22) un[t] aax / di h?ryn / di doo gyniihyn / cu Got / zi zolyn zix byraaityn / liixt / er virt cubrixyn / an zi / Got / (23) un[t] er ziit / MpoSy / cu Got / nit is tar / das folk / cu ouf g^n / cu birg / Sinai / vin / du hoost forvfryt / an unz / cu zagyn: / gymerk / din berg / un[t] du zolst byraaityn in / (24) un(t] er ziit / cu im / got / gf? / nider / un(t] du zolst ouf g?$n / du / un[t] aaryn / mit dir / un[t] di hfryn / un[t] das folk / nit / zi zolyn cubrixyn / cu ouf gffn / cu got / liixt / er virt cubrixyn / an zi / (25) un[t] ir niden / Mppic / cu dem folk / un[t] er ziit / cu zi I (1) un[t] er rffdyt / got / at di rf?d / di diizyn / cu zagyn / (2) ix pin / Got / diin Got / das / ix boon ous gycohyn dix / fon lant / Micraiym / fon houz / doo ir vooryt knixt / (3) nit / is zol ziin / cu dir / got / aain anderer / di viii ix nox pin / (4) nit / du zolst maxyn / cu dir / bild / un(t] kaainer laai / gliixnij / das / im himyl / fon 99byn / un[t] das / an der irdyn / fon untyn / unft] das / im vaser / fon untyn / cu dir

1 I published the original( in tbe Yidduh ■ecdon of SJLL, pp. 526-500. !54 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

irdyn / (5) nit / du zolst niigyn* I ain j unft] nit / du zolst diynyn zi / vin / ix pin / Got / dein got / Got / 1st aain rexer / er gydinkyt / zund / dir forderyn / ouf / di kinder / ouf / das drit gyburyt6 / un[t] ouf das 6erd gyburyt6 / cu miin ftindyn0 / (6) un[t] er / .unft] cu diy doo huytyn / miin gybot / ׳tuyt gynood / cu toazynt4 / cu miin* froundyn (7) nit / du zolst 4v$ryn / namyn / Got / diinys Got / cu fali / vin / nit / ir loosyt Iffdig / Got / das / er iv?ryt / ziin namyn / cu / um a(in) zunst /. (8) zii gydinkyn / ug / din iabys / cu haailigyn in /. (9) zexs / tig / du zolst irbaaityn / unft] du zolst tuyn / al I diin virk / (10) un[t] tag / din zibyndyn / ruyunk / cu Got / diinym Got / nit / du zolst tuyn / kaainer laai / virk / du / un[t] diin zun / unft] diin toxter / un[t] diin knixt / unft] diin maaid / un[t] diin fix / unft] diin flynder / das / in diinym tor /. (11) vin / zfxs / teg / cr hoot bySafyn / Got / din himyl / un[t] di irt / das m?r / un[t] alys / das / an zi / un[t] ir ruyt / am tag / dim zibyndyn / um das / ir hoot gybinfyt / Got / tag I din £abys / un(t] er hoot gyhaailigyt in / (12) $?r / diin fater / un[t] dfin muyter / derum / zi virdyn derlingyt / diin tig / ouf / der irdyn / das / Got j diin Got / hoot gibyn cu dir /. (13) nit / du zolst murdyn / nit / du zolst unkou^yn / nit / du zolst itilyn / nit J du zolst bycougyn / an diinym gyz?lyn / gycouknii / fali / (14) nit / du zolst glustyn (gylustyn, glustyn, gyiustyn) / houz / diinys gyz^lyn / nit / du zolst glustyn (j. above) I viip / diinys gyzflyn / unft] ziin knixt / unft] ziin maait / un[t] ziin oxs / unft] ziin $zyl / un[t] alys / das / cu diinym gyzflyn / (15) unft] al / das folk / zi zoohyn / di itim / unft] di print / unft] $tim / dis Sppfer / unft] der birg / raauxyt / unft] is zai / das folk / unft] zi forvagyltyn / unft] zi £tuyndyn / fon firyn. The variants in Deut. 5: (a) dix naigyn (b) gyburt (c) haseryn (d) touzyntyn (e) ziin (0 frMintyn. It is obvious that the extant Bible translations are not originals in the sense that they represent marks of individual translators. Copy after copy was made century after century, based on the traditional rendering, as taught m the elementary schools, with slow and gradual modifications allowing for changes in the language and, occasionally, for an individual choice from various traditional translations.

11 Fifteenth century. From the Samuel Epic. Text of the edition Augsburg, 1544. naain, iprax der kiinig, Iiiber zun miin, zolt ix mit miinen knixtyn hiint diin gast ziin, mir wurdyn dir aauf esyn al diin £piiz cu hant, mir hetyn dir diin dur hole gar bald aaus gibrtnt. in bat zir Avfootym: gft mit mir, vater miin. Doowid iprax, liibcr zun, es mag dox nit giziin. doo binit in der kiinig un* wolt nit mit im goon, doo £prax ir: al miin bruuder, zolt ir mit mir loon, 15S West Yiddish ziit ix, liiber vater, dux nit mag gihocm. doo iprax der kunig Doowid: zun, das zii gitoon. mit im iikt der kunig Doowid al ziin zun gimaain in din plwn xoocer doo haaimyn bleib ir kaain. doo zi nun iiir haten g&yn nox hoot Avioolym di bppshaait nit for gisyn, dii ziin bruuder Amnyn Toomer hit gitoon ir iprax cu zeinyn knixtyn: nun gibyt Amnyn ziin lppn win er ziin Ifct hoot gisyn un1 vroolix wirt bun wiin, zoo ilagyt in cu tQpt, ir zolt vrii manyn ziin. doo tityn ziini knixt als Avioolym hiis. aainer iluug in cu toot, aain iwirt er durx in itiis. doo iprungyn bun dem tii di kinder mit giwalt, zi rantyn zir bun danyn. ir mouler liifyn bald, man wurd dem kunig Doowid cu leruioolajim zagyn: Avioolym het ziin bruuder1 al derilagyn. der kunig riis ziin klaaid un1 hoot ungimax, er zank cu der irdyn, 1>or ioomer wurd er Swax. un1 al des kunigys knixtyn cu risyn ir k!!aider doo, zi traauertyn mit dem kunig un1 waryn al un vrpp. A facsimile of the original of these may be seen in my The Hebrew Scripts, vol. 2, No. 368.

12 1453. Jewish registration note on a legal document in German. (Landcsregierungs- archiv Innsbruck: Max. xiv 1516 Nr. 52a. - Published in R. Straus, Urkunden und Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte der Juden in Regensburg, Munich, i960, p, 1, No. 1, and Obersetzungen der hebrdischen Texte und Umschriften der altjiddischen Texte, ibid., p. 455, No. 1.) gerixc hindil/hcnd?!(?) miipyt im $uyl hob.

131478. Letter smuggled to a Ratisbon (Regensburg) woman who was in prison on a charge of having bought, tortured and sold a host (consecrated wafer). (From a photo of the document in Munich: Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv: Gemeiners

1 Slip or mil print instead of truuder, as is clear from next stanza. 156 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Nachlass: K. 12/1. Published in R. Straus etc. (see preceding No.] p. 170, No. 502, and p. 456, No. 502.) The oldest Yiddish letter of certain date. Cf. my publication of the letter Dus e It sty brirvl of lidii in lidii London, No. 2 (1939), pp. 106-109. (The printer omitted the diacritics in the transcription.) Liyby froundin, du liyby krppn, ix kasvyn di[r] fit, du entvferst] mir nixcit. ob du nit kasvyn kanst oon di inuiym ? ix vir morgyn mit dem iiryn rfdyn, ob ix diin zax k6nt cu guyt ous maxyn. iik di houb vider herous. haais das lox doohcran fer maxyn. kox raain pulver in aainym apyl. hoost vol h ioomym. iriib guyt ddu& naai iin.

14 1495. Jewish registration note on a document in German, a confirmation by Emperor Maximilian of the rights of the Jews. (Published in R. Straus etc. [see in No. 12], p. 219, No. 655, and p. 456, No. 655.) ksab byititung mi-melex Maksimiian ioor[um] h[p9dp] im virefhyn hundcrt un vunf un naunctigyn ioor

15 Sixteenth century. From a Sabbath poem by a certain Benjamin (of Zurich ?). (Hamburg: Hebr. Hs. 238, fols. 111-112.) It follows on the text of the m s but is written by a different hand. To judge by the script, it was added soon after the date of the MS which was 1574. (Cf. my publication Cvai alt-IUiiy liidtr, in Irmu-BlettTy vol. 13, pp. 172-177; 1938.) Got der htr hoot gyhaailigyt, gy??rt cvaai malooxym byiofn zinc,* din iabys for alyn tagyn. dii den iabys goor ??rlix antfangyn, an1 im ruyt er un[dy] tect nit miir, un(dy] vir den iabys in der ciit bygint,8 for voor ix dux das zagyn,2 di zun ist unler gangyn - feieryt mit gybit un[dy] vizyt itiet, der malex iprixt: gybinit zeistu, kind, ir frunt un(dy] Ax ir magyn. nun loos dir nit fer langyn, Got der gybot din iabys hf^r, ix vil nox hiint bei dir zint, door zi cu Moory lagyn. vil ziyn, vi diin lixtlix hangyn. ii, ziks tagyn byiuyf Got himyl ii, ziks etc. un[dy] ird,3 am zubyndyn ruyt Got der vird.

1 ms.: oon a MS.: zagy 3 MS.; irdy? 4 ms.: ziin 5 MS.: bygint in der a it !57 West Yiddish am friitag zolstu diin meeser8 gibyn fer gist trourikait un[dy] al das laait, haaimlix diin armyn frundyn, das gum 11 ou* Got der h£ty.1a zoo vert dir gygibyn das ffbigy libyn, ir zolt an13 tuyn ain guytys Idaait, is biser vider das (?) di houbytT dem haailigyn iabys cu «ryn. zundyn. ii, ziks etc. huyt dix for dem vider itribyn der uns das zmiirys nuu, . gyzank, undy for das8 tootlix zundyn, d ir is uns alyn un bykanl. zpp virstu byhuyt for der h?lyn piin er is fon cirxys ous der itat, un(dy] for der• apy grundy.10 Binioomin is er gynant. ii, ziks etc. er zang uns das un[dy] nox fil m iir, am iabys zolyn ziin drii isyn beraait, nun byhuyt uns Got for aler not az uns die viizyn liiryn. unfdy] fer lii uns ziin mildy hant. uuf dem tte zolyn vizyn gymaait, zoo bityn vir in18 das es uns vol goot. zmiirys zagyn zc$ryn. ii. ziks etc. 16 Early sixteenth century. From the epic poem Akffdys licxyk (‘The Binding of Isaac'). The stanzas published here are, according to the investigation by W.-O, Drecssen, later additions. (The poem itself might belong to the second half of the fifteenth century.) (Paris: Biblioth&que Nationale: ms. Heb. 589, fols. 129v-!30r. The ms was written in 1579 by Anshel Levi in Lombardy. Edited by W.-O. Drecssen: Akidass Jizhak. Ein altjiddisckes Gedicht uber die Opferung Isaaks. Mit Einleitung und Kommentar kritisch herausgegeben. Hamburg, 1971.) Vii muugyn mir al ciit KQQdy£-borxu lggbyn, das er unz mit der ck??dy hoot toon bygoobyn, mir muugyn vol ^ryn ziin namyn, der haailig un’ derhpgbyn, cu for ous in dem tiifyn goolys, doo mir inyn vuutyn un' tqxjbyn. un’ itikyn dinyn biz an den grund drum muugyn mir vol lppbyn got (iis’) mit unzerym mund, un’ deran gydinkyn fun itund cu itund, es zii riix oder arym, !trank oder gyzunt. 6 i.e., m1‘i*er; cf. Bcrtnek, Sprachatlas, Kartcn 10, it , 14, 15. 7 MS.: biibyt/htibyt 8 din? 9 din? ir? 10 ap griindy ? ab griindy ? *by grfindy ? 11 ms.: gim 1a hiiry? Author: hpry? h$$ry? 13 MS.: oon 14 MS.: ntlfl 15 M S .: ir 158 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

mir muugyn vol bcniyn Avroohom un’ Iicxok, di manyn biider, gybinit zci das mcser, gybinit zii das viider, gybinit zii er foor, gybenit zei er ziider, gybinft zii er in al gyzang un in alyn gliider. gybinit zii der berg un’ der doryn, gybenit zii das aaiyl, das zix hoot for voryn, gybenit zii ziin hout, ziin flaaii un’ ziin horyn, vin mir es bloozyn, z99 tuut Kppdys-bonu ab ziin coryn.

vin mir es bloozyn, z q o muz zix der Sootyn bald for birgyn un muz bald hin vik fliihyn mit al ziin iirgyn un’ darf zix nit loosyn ziihyn den zilbyn morgyn un for iandyn muz er zix kriixyn unter di birgyn. voorum der Sootyn vir zix beruumyn g$?&yn got dem hiryn, vir er vol vilt di ekffdy for it doryn, vi er vist gyvis, Avroohom tiit es nit giryn, das vilt er mit der voorhaait byvieryn. nun hoot ir gyhodrt, vi er for zuuxt al ziiny for nuftyn. er kiirt zix cu Soory, di zas bytuftyn. er viiz ir di ekcedy ppbyn in luftyn - 22p9 ging ir di nyioomy ous mit vaainyn un’ zufcyn. aax 4tfft in unzeryn sfoorym, vin mir maxyn tkiiy, tmuy, ivoorym, zoo tuunyn zix ouf fill raxmy iyoorym un’ cu riisyn al boozy gyz«rys un’ boozy nydoorym. un’ nox mffn il$$t in unzerer Tppry, das diin tag hoot uber unz kaain maxt der i$tcer hory. das guutys habyn mir alyz fon Avroohom, Iicxok un’ Soory, nouert das mir viiryn frum un’ bysvoory. un’ niixnynl viider unz virt konyn ziin sctdig un’ Kppdyi-borxu virt unz al ciit ziin gyniidig, un fun dim goolys zolyn mir virdyn bald l??dig, un’ zol unz My&iax zindyn afily biz g?$n Kr^rnQpna un’ Ven^fdigl

17 1514. From the long polemical poem H a m a vd il by Elia Levita, the famous Jewish grammarian of the humanist period {‘Father of Christian Hebrew scholarship’) and translator into Yiddish of Buovo d’Antona. (From a photo of the Oxford MS !59 West Yiddish

Can. Or. 12, fols. 205-206.) The poem was published by N. Shtif in vol. 1 of Cautbift, Minsk, 1926, pp. 150-158. A text with variants is in Cambridge: University Library: Trinity College MS. F. 12.45 1 hamavdil been kppdy£ lexol, 46 doo bii vil ixs loosyn bliibyn, cvisyn mir un hilyl, den nivzyn knol vi vol ixs linger hit an cu rriibyn, er ist aly biiberei zpp fol obcr mix klikt nit, zolt ix alys iriibyn, az fill az di koxoovym balaily. arbooym ton vyarbooym laily.

a hilyl, du boost dix mit mir gytr^ct 48 vin du vist, vi diir diin riim an tin boost dix ouf mix gyzict - ciimyn: cs virt ziin diin Ifct, aain riim cu maxyn virstu dix iiim yn. t f ous gtet di laily. vilstu dix riim gctgyn miir an niimyn ? 4 [is] daz nit aain grppser ioomer, lyhavdyi b ^ n iom ub??n laily. daz du bist aain gooi goomcr, kaain tag oorstu nit biz boorex 50 ix ferhaais dir, et doo ous g$?t aain iioomer. 1Qpdy4, az fer voor nit ouz liibyn di laily. ix vil aain ouf dix maxyn in Ippifyn hakpodyi, 35 er hoot mit im drii, fiir gooiym, gymaxt noox dem miikyl fon £iikyl iityl baxuurym, beezy kanfooym,* hakppdy£, di must er bycalyn, azpp hiiltyn try vyhogiiso bpp ippmom vylaily. tnooym itlixyn for aain sxiir iom un aain sxiir laily.

18 1518. Gdc (Gotz) of Fiderholtz addresses a complaint about Man/Mindyl his stepfather, to the Jewish community of Ratisbon (Regensburg). (From a photo of the document in Munich: Kreisarchiv: Generalregistratur: Fasz. 1260.) (Published in R. Straus etc. [see No. 12], p. 340, No. 957, and p. 457, No. 957.) Mincyl iamys,1 ix tuy dux das cu visyn un’ kol9 hakaal3 cu zagyn den grppsyn gyvalt un’ das grpps un rixt, das unz vaaizyn ist vider faryn in Rigynspurk fon unzerym Stif fater Man, dox red ix fur mix a !aain. das & r&t, doo vir ziin gyzisyn cu Altorf, doo ist miin fater ziilig ab gangyn mit tppt, doo ist miin muyter zilig morgyn goob gyvist z$xs hunderft] guldyn. doo hoot zi gynumyn den Mindy!3 fon Rigynspurk, un’ hoot im for

* Italian canvegKo ? (N. Shtif). The scribe it teems, first wrote k u foo m , but when correcting to ktnfoeym forgot to delete the a in the seoond syllable. 1 Secretary of tbe community, a *tbe whole community.’ 3 Diminutive of Man. 160 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

4proxyn un* gygibyn drit halb hunderft] guldyn riinii, das ander ficrd halb hundert guldyn riinii uns armyn un dercogyn vaaizyn cu haltyn cum b^styn, un’ zi gykaauft hoot das hous, doo der Man inyn zict, fon der gynuain iudii haait, das iyderman cu visyn is, doo ml er inyn zicyn, doo viii a libt, un’ noox iirym tpf?r, habyn unzer foot miinym jtiyf filter cvaai hunderft] guldyn, gilt un’ gilt v^rt, al (adas)s das in im hous gyhMrt, as miin fater ist gyvist aain riix man, er zol uns haltyn un’ ciyhyn drii ioar lang, mit isyn, mit drinkyn, mit klaaidem, mit limyn noox dem iud&yn ordyn. dir es nit gytoon hoot, das is Hr gyvist, das ix nit me$n bin bii im gyvist vin aain ioor. alzpp hoot er zix alzpp arm gymaxt, un’ er zii for dorbyn, un hoot miin army gyivistrix gy haltyn az aain foritcr un’ boozvixt, un’ kaainerlaai hoot gyhaltfyn], vas er unz hoot cuy gyzagt, das aaincr gancyn gymaain iudii haait cu visyn is. mccr, kan mir armyn man nit vcrdyn miin gylihyn gilt, das ix oft hab gyfodert, zilbs, un’ gy£ikt hab andert lout an im, er miincr gyipot hoot, un forlaaikt mir armyn man das miin. m?$r, is aaincr gancyn gymaain iudii haait cu visyn, doo miin gySvistrix ist bii im gyvist, doo hoot er zix alzw arm gymaxt un’ hoot for 2fct di hppuzyn® fon baain um brppt, ouf aaim 4im,7 un’ hoot aain gancy gymaain iudii haait das iir for haltyn, das er uns for dribyn hoot ouz dem houz hunger hatbyn. alzpo bald az di drii ioor ouz vooryn, doo tiet er zix her foor un’ fand zix, das aaincr gancyn iudii haait vol cu visyn var, az guyt az zixefhyn hundert guldyn. das hoot er gyvunyn mit unzerym gilt alzpQ vol az mit ziinym gelt, nun bin ix icunt am iun[g)styn gyvizyn cu Rigynspurk un’ hab an in gySikt den ?Utyn r?by mit namyn r’• Mf?ier,• un’ gyfodert hab das miin gylihyn gilt, un’ hab g10 bygirt mit im cu rixynyn for guytyn Idutyn, vas mir cuy gybuurt, mir cu miin taail, doo hoot er zix loosyn mirkyn, er vdl mix um troubyn,11 doo viii ix nit hab, un’ vdl alzpp fon rmirkumyn az fon miinym bruyder Mppiy, din hoot er uber tppbert1“ in aainym trunk, un* booz lout dar cuy gyholfyn habyn. nox hoot er mix gybrooxt um all miin zilber gyiir biz ouf aain kopf,ls din vil ix dariin vagyn riterlix, biz ix miincr iidyn aain kum, un’ tuy im cu visyn, das ix im ab

4 Slip. ?#׳* 5 ?#׳* 6 Slip instead of k ffty n l diphthongization? 7 Slip instead of double yodh ? i.e., mho stUme but with the meaning *Anschein, appearance'? 8 Abbreviation of rabbi. 9 Mefr. 10 Presumably tlip, anticipating tbe g of the next word. 11 Inverse spelling, i.e., waw yodh instead of double yodh (because mutated vowels had already been unrounded) ? i.e., um trtikyn to m h o umkttrihtn *to torture; to fool !omebody; to sue’ ? 13 k tliu k n *To numb, stun, •end to ileep'? 13 ms koupf. 161 West Yiddish

zag, miinym itiyf fater, Mindyl cu Rigynspurk, ziinym liib un’ ziinym guyt, un’ aainer gancyn gymaain iudii haait, un’ aax aaincr gancyn gymaain stat Rigynspurk, das zi zix nixs dirfyn guyc cu mir foor zihyn. volt Got Ton himyl, das di burger un’ aain gancy gymaain fon Rigynspurk zolt visyn den gropsyn gyvalt, der mir gySixt, mir armyn man, fon dim Mindyl, miinym Stiyf fater. es mdxt Got fon himyl der barmyn. ix Gdc fon Fider hole

1519.19 Signatures on a document in German. Ratisbon (Regensburg) (Munich: Hauptstaatsarchiv: Juden in Regensburg Urk. Fasz. 38.) Published in R. Straus etc. (see above No. 12), p. 394, No. 1056, and p. 460, No. 1056.

Buyberl Iud miin hant gisrift Meriam H64yl miin hant gyirift Ooicr br Iuudy zai miin hant gyirift Bendit Altorf miin hant gyirift Mpgiy Nurbek miin hant gyirift Sogyliin miin hand gyirif Mp

20 1541. The final two stanzas of Bovo iTAntona, Elijah Levita’s (see No. 17) translation of the Italian Buovo d’Antona (which is based on Sir Bevis of Hampton). Isny (Wiirttemberg). Dox vil ix aix ninyn foor, vir das buux hoot gymaxt un gySriibyn: Eliy Bppxer nint er zix, c voor. aain ganc ioor hoot er deriber for triibyn

1 On p. 318, No. 893 of 1517 appears Pinman, Jgdt von der Freienstat jetz zu R[cgen$purk]. In dxu document there is also an AUter Pyman voro Hellein bei Salrpurgkh, in other documents we find the forms Piman, Byman, Pynman and Pymann. 162 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

un hoot es gymaxt das ztilbig ioor, das man c ^ lt cvaai hundert un zixcig un ziibyn, cr hoot es aauz in Nisyn un hppb es an in lier. Got zol unz gtfbyn ruu for alyn beczyn tiler.

un zol unz derle$zen muz unzeryn piin On zol unz di gynood g^byn, das mir al misyn zpoxy zein, Myiiiax ciit cu der lffbyn. der zol unz fiiryn kaain Ieruioolaiym hinein, oder irync in aain dirfyl der nf^byn, un zol unz das bfes-mikdy£ vider baauyn. vexten iehii rppcyn. pomyn, traauyn. 21 1544. Psalm 6, from a prayer book, edited and published by Joseph b. Yakar. Ichenhausen. (2) Got, nit mit diinym com zolstu $trofyn mix un’ nit mit diinym grim com zolstu kestigyn mix. (3) loutzelig mix, Got, den aain swaxer bin ix, haail mix, Got, win zi ziin der irolsyn, miini gibaain, (4) un miin z?I iz der irokyn z$r, un’ du, Got, wi lang wilstu cu zihyn. (5) wider k?r, Got, bysirm miin z?l, hilf mir um wilyn diiner ginood. (6) win nit am toot iz diin gydixtynis, in der grubyn wir kan dix lobyn ? (7) ix bin mud mit miinym zufcyn, ix byzulper ali naxt miin bft mit miinyn trihem , miin Span b$t ix max vouxt. (8) ez iz ver vinstert von com miin aaug, es iz bor altert um' wilyn at miini laai- diger. (9) k$rt ob von mir ali di doo wurkyn unrixt, win Got, er hoot gihoort/gihoort itim miinys waainyn. ( 10) er hoot gihoort/gihoort. Got, miin gibit. Got, miin gibit er wirt an nimyn, (11) zi zolyn wirdyn ver iim t un zi zolyn der Srikyn z$r al maini vaind. (12) zi zolyn wider k$ryn un’ zi zolyn werdyn verSimt az in aainym aaugyn blik.

22 1677. From Ioslin Vicynhauzyn’s (Yoslin Witzenhausen) preface to his Bible translation, Amsterdam. (Last paragraph of the second page of the preface.) Aax vin aaner mixt vilyn froogyn, im kin dpgs azou fiil iz 9pn aaner hatppky gyleegyn, dijps Talmy ha-miilex hot lozyn zibyncig zykiinym houlyn fun Ieruiolaaiym, un hii tuut is aan man alaant, iz dcr tiryc, Talmy ha miilex hot drum fiil gynumyn, er hot vilyn ztfyn, oub zi aly glaix verdyn iraibyn, aaner az vi der ander. nun, doo iz aan nis gyiiiyn al-pii ruuex hakoudyi, dpps zi aly glaix for taidt un gyiriibyn hpQbyn. ober vin man vil freegyn, man hot dox iou in kfily] kfydouiy] Firara gyhat miiy xaxQpmyn gydoulym, dii dp9 hppbyn maitik gyvf^zyn toury nyviiym u-ksuuvym lyl99$yn Sfardym; un aax hot mydiinys Holand inas xamiiiys alppfym 379 lypak in dem mppkym Dort oder Doct rext 163 West Yiddish gyhat 25 mylumppdym gydoulym, dii dpp hppbyn toury nyviiym u-ksuuvym maitki gyviizyn; un vii lozt nun is din nun it ein uf aanyn nun, der es maitik iz, un oon aanyn, der di hatppky hilft iber lainyn. dpp gib ix din tiryc: ix hppb in aanym siifer gylaiynt, dpps aaner iraibt in zainer hakdppmy, un friigt aan ka$y: vi kumc es, dpgs icundert kumt aan gymaaner, Slixter lamdyn un freigt aan grousy kaiy uf poskym hagyounym hakad- mounym? vii saaiex, hppbyn is zilxy gyounym gydoulym nit gyziiyn oder dpp ppn gyitousyn ? intvert er un jprixt: is iz aan mppfyl: is giit dpp aan riiz, der kan goor vait ziiyn; dpp kumt ain gycvirglain, dpps nimt er uf di aksl; dpp kan dos klaany gycvirglain nox vaiter ziiyn az der grousy riiz. azou aax di gyounym gydoulym hppbyn goor vait gyziiyn, un der gymaany lamdyn nimt iiry sfoorym in di hant un lirynt dpp inyn aly di kaiys vpps den gyounym iz kppfy gyviizyn hppt er for zix. mppg din laixt, dpps er nox aan v^nig vaiter kan ziiyn un aan kaiy aus findyn. n 1727. Fiirth. Henely Kirxhaan (Henele Kirchhaan):1 Simxys-ha-N^fys, part II, preface. (Fotografiier iber-drjk fjn der cirltcr jn ainciker ousgaby ... Mit a kultuur- ktstoriln araan-fiir by Jacob Shatzky, New York, 1926.) Mffaxer hob gyzffyn, gyiixt in gymaan grpps fr$$vyl, un’ niim yn zix nit cu hircyn dos alys iz h^vyl, di sfoorym ouf taiti un’ main x$?lyk riiyn Simxys ha-N«fy$ iz bai fiil um zunst, din cu bringyn, dos zolyn flaisig lainyn di muser un’ diinym iz aan kunst, vpps hilft nun di sfoorym cu maxyn, vin nit laiynt, un lirys fomaaiym Stilyn cu ruk viigyn veltlixy zaxyn. zolxys mit caar hob bytraxt drum hob ix diizy zmiirys gymaxt. fiil diinym fun aly toog un iabppsys ve-ippmym tppvym zainyn drinyn gymilt, un vppl nppx gyzang in gyraim gy&ilt, aax gyftilt di muziky cu maxn bykant d o n erfoorung bai aanym muzikant den rixtyn niigyn. drum, main liiby lait, lozt aix un aiery kinder den rixtyn v O g liigyn un lozt aix byniigyn for liib cu nimyn alys voos Got aix tuut cuu fiigyn. bysxus z$? zolyn mir zppxy zain bald den gppyl c^fdyk cu kriigyn. un der vail der iker iz der cuu, doos man in £abys haltyn iz gut un frum, un gyjixt rov xilyl iabys dos gnyn txumyn, di zainyn krum, drum hob ix gy&ilt di rixty diinym, vii man gfft un vii nun mist din txum.

1 There arc many Kirchhains. The one in Hesse might be the source of our author’s appellative name (he lived a century before the Jews had to take surnames). 164 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

*4 1798. Ipuxynyn Lcivi Roufy (= physician): Diskurs gyhaltn cvibt iyhuudym in Sif fun Itrit (Utrecht) noox Amsterdam, No. 1, p. 1.

a n sl h o l a n d e r kumt in Sif, frppgt: kapitiin, kin ix *an huk-plac kriign? ilFER zppgt: is Sif iz nox !??dig. GUMPYL £p a n je r kum t un frppgt u x nppx aan huk-pliciy. ilF E R Zppgt: iou. GUMPYL giit in Sif un zppgt: pp vii guut, dou kin ix guut Sloufn, nox kuncr dou. - iou, voor haftig, dou zict nox aan menS in. 09, doo kin ix Sloufn. guut morgn! 09, AnSI, duu bist es. ix hob nit gyvust, dpps du aax in Itrit bist, ix hob gymaant, du bist iabys in Amsterdam gyv$$zt, um uf gyruufn cu vim. for axt tpog Sabys zinyn aly di kytiinym uf gyruufn gyvom, hob ix gynuant, Sabys kumt es oon di dalfppnym. a n J l : vpps maanstu din, dpps es bai uns cuu giit vi bai aix lait, dpps xilyk gymaxt virt cviSn kppcn oder gymaaner man ? mir zinyn aly goer egaal, der manyg iz niks biscr als der gymaaner man, aly goor cu glaix kinyn dox nit uf gyruufn vim. gumpl: iou, maar voorum iz din losyf Suu-raan-maxer nit dy ir ity Sabys uf gyruufn gyvom? a n Sl : du bist aan rixter nar. haftoury virt dox for kaaft. dox ix voul, dpps du aax aan souny bist fun di naiy kily. ix vil amppl main biixlxy fun dy xinex, vpps ix hob, laiynyn. g u m p l : hiiramppl, AnS!,ixzppgdir main hire rixt araus: du bist dir oon mir un oon fiil andcry lait grab touy. ix bin bai main lc?bn kaan souny fun di naiy kily, nor ix zff nit, dpps ir lait ipys gybiscrt zait. An £l : vpps mir gybesert zinyn, pp Smaa bynii! din vaastu goor niks!...

25 1867-1952. Daniel Braunschweig, Lengnau (Surbtal, Switzerland): From his reminiscences. (Florence Guggenheim: Surbtaler Jiddisch, Frauenfeld, 1966, p. 27.) (Nos. 25-29 are given in my spelling system.) Es sin i?c bald drayndraisig ioor, das mai fraa un ii mitynand xasyny gh?t hpn. Das is gyv^sy amy m?$ntig, amy cvaity d u m b e r naincii hundert 41s. un vii ii daa e Siiny daag gyvff. Tags cufoor hot s geregynt un tags nooicir in Strodmy. s hot dii(r)fy mitti mai sai, so hot di sun gSiny. cu der xasyny crugg! Mai khaly is fon Endigy un is fon dort ous mit de resly-bpSt uf Siggedaal, un fun dort ous mit de baan uf Baady. un i£, de xppsyn, direggt mit de rfsly-bpSt u f Baady. uf ym baan-hpf sin mer d?n camy khpmy, un nox fiU andery xasyny- lait ous der miSbppxy.

26 1886-1961. Emanuel Bollag, Endingen (Surbtal, Switzerland): From his reminiscences. (Source as in No. 25, p. 29.) 165 West Yiddish

Guty morgy mitynand, simmers mppxyl, v?n ii sou frii cu aii khum. ii tub en ajnSlaag, ppny grousi coorys. Mai fraa lost mer khj ruu, uf iontyf sol ii e naiy ... mus ii e naiy hut hou. si hot mfdiumy riit, d£r khan poser kha staat mei maxy, mit dffin, vu ii hab. s is hfint e iftny daag, da hab ii gyd?nggt, my khfnt uf Baaden *iy gii, esou e hut ge khaafy. un da hab is gydfnggt, duu Smuul, h?t$ aax der cait, mit mer c khumy, is h?t gttrn e xafruusy. My kh^nty io c fuus gft dori yn vald un kfny iou uns dy cait Iou, s prfsiirt iou nit bis mer uf Baadyn aiy khumy. Vqner gegy di ceiny c £ndingy fort giingtyd, vOry mer gegy di usy drin. un vcgy di ycQpys, vuus khfnt gee cy Baady, mee& poser khgni djgiys hou, for dii khftny is iou uf. V?mer denoox c miid sin, de v^g nox emol maxy c fuus, kheny mer io de cuug nfmy im Siggetaal aaby, denooxd vier mer aax reit-caitig vider dehaam.

27 1881-. David Maier, Mullheim (Baden): From his reminiscences. (Source as in No. 25, p. 39.) Un demooxyd bin is als fon Mily uf Baasyl un hab gafangy mis s£lb4t£ndig c maxy. 14 bin nox nid emol cvancig ioor alt gyvees. un das hab ii alys misy maxy, um dehaam e bisly c hilfy, mer sin sivy khinder gyv??s. un am fraidig coovy bin is imer ivcr iavys vider uf Mily. un bai de gTpQsmuter, di hot e stuubser ghft. Visyner, vas e ituubier gyveisyn i4? Dpp hpt mer am fraidig cpovy holc-khoply druff gymaxt un das hpt gybr?nt biis am Savys, 4toisys-cnaxt. un do hen mer als di aarbsy-sup mit dery-flaai hii gybroxt un hfn si am savys-milaag misy hpply, das is unser iavys-suudy gyv??s. un am JWisys- cnaxt sin mer ali in di iuul. Daamaals hot s c Mily nox epy hundert-cvancig familiy iyhuudym ghft.

28 1882-. Arthur Ziwy, Diirmenach (Upper Alsace): From his reminiscences. (Source as in No. 25 + Jiddische Sprachproben aus Elsass und Baden, p. 41.) D£rmynax i4 haint nox e ganc 4

2q 1873-1957. Paul Gerschel, Weissenburg/Strasbourg (Lower Alsace): From his reminiscences. (Source as in No. 25, p. 45.) Is ferctil so girn ous di alty caity. v?n ii an di fiily 4£ny khilys d£ngg, vii mer als im Elsas gh?t hin, s hire due mer vii. si sin slamasligervais g grgd parti nimi dou oder sin ganc 166 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries camy gsrumpfl, doudors das di derfer un di gglaanery mouggymlis ali leer vory sin, sin i?ct vider ous Strousboryg, Kholmcr, Milhousy un M?c grousy khilys vory. in deny fiir grcisty khilys sin vider rebppnym dou, vu derfor soriy, das unscri cmuuny blaibt, vas si cu ppvys avouseiny gyv^n ii. s Elsas hpt aly vail fait ganc Carfys mit rebppnym un rgs, bis uf der haidigy daag, hen ous ym Elsas gstamt'׳xazounym fcrsorjt. ali grj-rabi de I un mer derf e gjgfy han uf di mcrigg-verdigy miner ... R?dy mer nox c bisyl daxlys un ccily nox e paar fo deny guty spris-vertlis uf, vuu mer ous deny ally, guty caity gyiaait hen. [We give a selection here.] e lustiger dalys geit iver alys. m j[ ioxtym vi hiiner. Iou lppnu itiit in hall. mer kh?n dii brouxy for ggr£i (der) xiiiixym itiigynt. cu raivy. noox siggys khumyd esrouxym. trit ym Spptyn uf der kopf. dajiys for ungylfgty aaicr. s flaas is s b^sty gymiis, s ganc ioor siggcr un am e m?sly masyl is b?ser vii e Puurym nistery. setter xoxmy. dcr alt Aisigg ii aax nox dencerig. d lomp nuf un di d!3iys erundcr. iiggcr vii Lot. v$n mer maant, s ii lerppy, ii s lytoufy. diiu soli der macy ganyfy. im Tamys friiry di $syl.

CENTRAL YIDDISH

3° 1619. From a letter written from Prague to Vienna by Miriam, daughter of the doctor Moysy Moper Kootyn Lucerny (Moses Maor Karan Lucerna) to her sister-in-law Rc^zel,1 the wife of her brother, the doctor Arn Mpoer Kpotyn Lucerny (Aaron Maor Katan Lucerna). (Vienna: Osterreichisches Staatsarchiv: Abt. Haus-, Hof- und Staats-Archiv: Cod. suppl. 1174: Letter No. 1). Cf. Alfred Landau und Bernhard Wachstein, Jiidische Privatbriefe aus dem Jahre 1619, Vienna, 1911.)

... Bykiccr, liiby iv$$gerin, vis, dpps mir hoobyn dainy ksppvyfm] mykabyl gyv??2yn. mir zain zttr der irokyn fun v??gyn di psuury rppy bavfoynoys?enu] h[orabym], az dpp iz nifter gyvorn ben a x f e n u , boorex daaiyn imys. m f f n zain mir zcer dcr srokyn maxmys ipyi. ix hob byd$$y gyhat ahiin cu ciiyn mit m[ainy] kind[er]lix, got byhiit Zff. nuun vail es azpy cuu g?^t, kan es nit zain. vil es Semisboorcx byfolyn, aax hobyn mir nox *an ksav mykabyl gyvffzyn a[l]i(yd;{] sliicx. aax zain mir zix zcer mycaacr, az du dix bav[oynoysc?nu| h[orabym] muzt azoy gyn?elyn. ober vpps zol man toon? ix hob main bruuder goor zMr gykiplt, vi man in hot auf gynumyn, er zol dix hcer ncmyn, hot

1 Rcfzcl is ‘Rosie,’ ‘little rose,’ not 'little Theresa.' 167 Central Yiddish

vi viltn ppn vaib hauzyn ?“ ober hie״ :er Ual uklal nit gyyilt. iz hob imer cuu gyzppgt iz miin dffy goor nit un aax di ganc miipppxy. Got byhiit z$?,zain aax dervider.inaan zilxyn raai, es ciit avik vir nor kan zain gyzind fariikyn. nuun vi viltu, main hirc-liiby iv$fgerin, dir in aan zin nimyn, in aan zilxyn v$?zyn hiir cu kumyn. aans: man lozt niimynt ain, di lait di dpp zain hiir kumyn, Bftly ir toxter un du mit iir zain kumyn, dii hot man nit vilyn ain lozyn, hobyn muzyn 3 ioomyfm] auf den b^s xaaiym ligyn, dernppx hobyn z?$ goor avik muzyn ciiyn. un dpps andcr, mit aan gyzind un mit kinder auf den v^g Iffgyn. aax hot man z$$ bygazylft], man hot vilyn goor in leeger fiiryn, iz goor fiil derfun cu iraibyn. iz goor cuu fiil fun B$?ly gyvfctzyn], az zi hot di toxter in aan zilxyn vffxyn h&r gy&kt, zi hot sxus ppvys gynosyn, vir nit kan derfun rf^dyn, der kan nit l$?byn. nuun, main hirc-liiby ive^gerin, ix bit dix goor z6& un ziir un nim dir nit zilxy um glaixy drppxym fur, vpps nit miiglex iz. vin es nor aan miiglex kaat viir, vilt main bruuder kaan mynuuxy lozyn, er muzyt dix hiir nimyn, vii i[x] foor mit gancer maxt hob vilyn hppbyn, er zol dix hiir nimyn, azpy bin ix hie der vider ... ix hob zilber byd??y mit main ivppger rib Slpymy in Ppylyn cu ciiyn. nit ix alaan, indery la[it] m^n, dii nor kinyn ob kumyn. ix vaas vpyl, az du dix ziir muzt gyneetyn. vpps zol man toon, Sim- isboorex zol es amppl biscr maxyn, az vii mir hofyn....

3* 1619. From a letter written by R??zyl (Rezel Landau), Prague, to her daughter (.J) in Vienna. (Source as in No. 30. Letter No. 34 י Xany (Channe [‘Hanna, Anna ... Liibys hire, am io[m] bfcts], & der £liiex iz kumyn, zpy iz B^ly toxter kumyn un Maatly un hob{yn] mir kaan briiv gybraxt, zpy bin ix £iir gybliibyn, zpy hobyn mir gyiv9yry(n] dpps ic lang mit liib al gyzunt zait, zpy hob ix mix aan v??nik bynuugyn gylozyn. di ganc kily kan zix nit gynuugyn for vundem dpps man di maad icunder hot hiir gy&kt, iz ir gynaa gynuugyn gangyn, zi viir iiir ins lfeger kumyn, hit zi nit mit zix gyhat iiry zaxyn, dcr mit hot zi zix, got cu foor, aus gylf^zt. viir ober kaan vunder gyv?$zyn, azpy aan frfevyl I zi hot gyvis sxus ppvys gynosyn. irft hot man zi hit nit viifyn] •in lozyn, iz cu Liibyny, den dpps kol gftt vii xas vyipplym grpyser aver vier, man hot di maad drum hiir gyfikt. drum for langt mix, biz ix viir mircyiim vider briiv fun ink hppbyn. liibys hire, az du £raibst dpps dpp fiil frimdy lait bai ink zain, iz kaan vunder, zainyn hii aax 4iir azpy fiil 12 hiigy. vpps zol man tuiin ? vpps Simisbpprex tuut, iz vpyl gytppn, gylpybt zai er. zol ix dir &aibyn, vii es unz gcet? Simisbpprex zols iber (r)al guut maxyn. mir zainyn imppl gynuugyn gyitandyn. man iz aan mppl ain gylofyn, iz boon aiem vpyl aus gangyn, mir hobyn sxus ppvys gynosyn....

3* 1619. Letter written by Sloymy (Solomon) Auerbach, Prague, to Zanvel Lintz, his son's father-in-law in Vienna. (Source as in No. 30. Letter No. 12.) 168 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Ahuufvi] raexutooni lunar Zanvyl. vilt aix giryn bariixys iraibyn, kan nit visyn, oyb di ksppvyfm] ppn kumyn. dox muz ix iurysaaifym] iraibyn, dermit iir s aax tuiin zolt. un bit aix, virt aix losyn mainy kinder befoylyn zain. aax kan ix dinkyn, dpps icunder di mixiy cu Viin aax nit iz vii ys zain zol. virt ir Zftyn, bynii aan ppn itilung hilfyn, dpps er bai den zainigyn blaibyn kan un x[as] vfyipplym] nit derum kumt. aax fer hof ix, aicr cuu zppgyn nppx kumyn, doos ir iin vilt myhiny zain ppn hycppys/hoycppys. fer hof, ir tiiut On tuun virt. fer hof, iz aix caaiys. viryn mercy&m ovrym vy-ippvym zain, vil ix bariixys Sraibyn. griist zugosxy fun unzeryn vttgyn. volt Gutret byfolyn, dpps zi unz aax iraibt. vy-spp ipplym mi-mini mcxutonxo Sloymy Aucrbax.

33 Nineteenth century. Moravia. Proverbs. (From Der Urquell, 1897, pp. 271-272. Spelling changes are mine.) 1. af e nam iz kaa kaiy cO froogn. 2. af c nam iz kaa p&it cu zppgn. 3. e nar iz irger vii e mamzer. 4. mit c nam braxt my dy baan.* 5. mit e nam, e pppkyd un e pfCger zol my nit miipytn. 6. puiirym iz als frai, ober npps puurym vaas my dox, vier e nar iz. 7. ipai dym nam in pppnym, zppgt cr, ys r^gnt. 8. liiber fun e xppxym e pad vii fun e nam e tad. 9. af e dora-baam vaksn kaa cvoorex-kriplex. 10. grois moiry voint in G$?vid. 11. kaa duiivy iz aax e duuvy. 12. az zi haast hindl, toor myn isn aus iir find). 13. e slaxter iabys maxt e gutn zuntyg. 14. af aa bak kon my iraibn lang vyhuii-raxym un af di andery tmaniy-apy. 15. Got byvoor unz for aly coorys, zin orxym aax derunter. 16. e Sidex un e ipplyt gyrpptn ziltn. 17. aly ilampydigy vaiber zin fraityg nppx-mitppg di gristy vartyn- istns. 18. fun e ioiryi un e ganyv iz ilixt cu kaafn. 19. kaa briery iz aax e gyziiry. 20. Spoort s der mund, frist s der hund. 21. e xilyf iz e xalyf. 22. kuuzl dex elaan un lax elaan. 23. alt Aizik vart tincerik. 24. e kvintl mazl iz mier vii e cintn xoxmy.

34 Twentieth century. Mattersdorf (new name: Mattersburg), Burgenland. (From the Jahrbuch fu r jiidische Volkskunde, /9 ^/9 2 5 , pp. 463-472. SpeUing changes are mine.) t. Vot er mo hakl-ioiduuxy aus dym sidorl eraus raisn! 2. dy brauxst dox niks fo mo cy forxtn, ex hob kaany cuzamyn-gyvaksyny aagn-braunyn. 3. koidym kol ruufts miiox axryn auf! 4. vpps kumsty mitn vom-proixys hiir? 5. hund, hund, hund, du zolst mox niks baisn, zunst vot dox der taifl ceraisn - iiox kiir Iaikyf, diiu kiirst Efsyv. 6. £storl, my ivistorl, vii g$$t ys doi cuut vin mo vil isn g$?, stilt mo irit cuu I vin mo vil triakn gff, hoilt mo n vail ven mo vil iloifa fait ys bit ail 7. bal-xpplyra, i$$cer-hory, g$? vik fun miior! 169 E•8* Yiddish iiex glaab niks an diior, iiox glaab nor an al-maxtign got, der miiox byiafn hot. in Gynffdym t e baam, dccn vint iiox aly tnainy bpfzy traaiti. vin iiox haint naxt va ipys ilaxts xpplymy, vir iiox morgn nit drauf fastn.

EAST YIDDISH

35 About 1534. From the preface to Mrkbt hminh Iqwnqwrdasytp, Cracow, a Bible Concordance by Uuser Andl bin Iosyf (Asher Anshel b. Joseph). (From the copy in the British Museum.) oux vist, dppus man fint oft in diizym biixlain a vort, dpps hpt a itfyryi in goor fiil minxy daaid. doorim hob ix itlixs vort in mcnxer lii diiid far diaidt, ober baii iklixyn hob ix gyciixnt, in vilxym siifer oder kapityl in pppusyk es hot dppus diaic, (n in iinym anderym siifer oder kapityl oder pppusyk hot es an ander daaid, am drityn oder am firdyn ort ober an ander daaid, ober aly v$$gyn itlixs ort gyciixnt vii zix dppus daaid far indert. al diirex mppuiyl: iad - in briiiifs] iz es daaid, hand; in imi[ni] iz es daaid ‘bortyn‘ i[4^]10mrym] ‘maxt‘ ifttj^omrym] slak*, in in siifer ‘bamidber‘ iz es daaid ‘itpput‘. in der daaid zain derouf zibyncihyn oder axcihyn, in baai iklixym hob ix gyciixnt, vii es aza daaid iz, vii es 991m iinym anderyn daaid iz, in oux derbaai gyciixynt dppus zii big ort in kapityl in pppusyk....

36 1579. From a witness's evidence before the (Jewish) court at Koouzmcr. (Printed in Syatrys Iosyf [J’ryt ywsp] by Joseph Mordecai b. Gershon hakKohen; Cracow, 1590, fol. 44V. Koouzmcr — Casimir, modern Polish Kazimierz, modern Yiddish Kuuzmark - near Cracow, now part of ir.) Idnd[ert] iin ippur bin ix iber iam gycpygyn, dppu bin ix gylumyn kin Rodos, grpys Rodos, dppu bin ix krank gyvooryn, dppu iz an alter lid gykimyn ci mir (n hot mix gy- ,fin Krppuky“. dppu hot er gyiproxyn ״ :fr$?gt, fin vinyn ix viir. dppu hob ix gyiproxyn idndert kin ix niimynt nit.“ dppu״ :er viir oux fin Krppuky, oder baai langy igpuryn hob ix gyiproxyn: ,,ir mixt vpyl maain iviir gykint hppubyn, er hot gyhiisyn mpyiy Dls, zaain vaaib heiit Ester.“ dppu hot er ppun gyhpybyn: ii, der dppu dcr trfnkyn iz, icik mpyiy Dls ziin, diir iz daain ivppuger gyvffzyn? ix hob im mit maainer hant bygrppubyn. ix hob in gykint baai zaainym Iffbyn. er iz gyfangyn gyv(ezyn, in aaizyn gangyn afily dernppux, dppu myn in hot ous gyliizt. ix hob in vpyl gykint. Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries ך10

37 1588. Cracow. Part of a letter from the officials of the community to the absent community leaders. (Wroclaw/Breslau: Gty Library. Published by B£ier Vaanrib (B. Weinryb): A pikl briiv in lidii, Kruky-Prug in Historiiy iriftn fjn Jldiin visniaftlexn mslitut, vol. 2, p. 66, pL 2. Vilna/Vilnius, 1937.) ... Liibyn rabpysaai, vppus zolyn mir aaix fiil iraaibyn in goour hpyx der manyn. mir b??tyn aaix lymaan raxmy vexasdy haiim, zolt Got pQun zefhyn In zolt der di din, byfrat zolt z$$hyn, dpQus pyb es meeglix iz, dppu ir zolt d dan starosty tiihyn kin der Lane Krpyn in zolt maxyn, daz er iraaibt den irpynym mi-Krppuky, hin den irpynym mi-Kppuzmer, hin den pod starosty, haainy Lagovnicki, daz er raait ouf dppus rpput houz. Iaankyl iz aax/oux d der Lane Kroyn, men kon zix ober niit ouf in fer lasyn, den er iz loy aliixym nit bykav habriiys. Dcrim zixt h.S.i. (Simisboourex) ppun, dppus ir d anander kimt irgync vii, daz ic derous iicy halt, aax mizt ir hiifyn mit gilt, es kimt (b.'w.h.) bavpysiiny hppu-rabym-ouf di cdppuky laait, dii myn nit gydooxt hit, daz es Got der barym, byfrat vaail niimync tppur in di itpput tppur giin, di hpycppuys zaain b.'w.h. cii fiil, min hpycppuys kabrppunyfm] bar mynyn, hpycppuys iomrym gooiym, hpycppuys iomrym Iyhiidym lyhavdyl, hpycppuys aniiym, dii zaain b.'w.h. nit d iraaibyn. Derim zixt Got ppun in hilft mit alyn zaxyn, dii dppu d hiifyn zaain. zixt iikt d laaityn di ir vist dppus zi fin kppul i. ‘zaain, dppus zi aax hiifyn. ir vist vpyl, dppus ir hot mit ins kiinym kiin ort gymaxt, nox blaaibyn mir fin hi.i. v$fgyn, In vppugyn zix in (in) zilxyn faaier in flam in in zilxyn sykppunys. h.i.i. zol ipymer lisrppuyl zaain. vii nit x.v. xas vyippulym, dppu vist, daz mir aax vilyn vik lpyfyn in vilyn vaaiter nit aaiery haaizer hiityn, hin in der gas, hin in dym mppukyfm], din es tppur kiin Iyhiidy nit in dppus mppukym. - dcrim zixt Got is.i.2 ppun in hilft rpputyn.® ir vist, zaait al aain vik gylofyn in di haxrppuzys aly vpyl gyvist, dii men virt tiin. in hot alty mit anander nist gytiin nort aain vik d loyfyn, in di kily i.e. azpy ai k^ryn cvii gylosyn. piiity, es zaain fiil inter kppul i.cv. di zix fer intvem zaain niit nic, ober dox it hot gyzfthyn, vii di zax hot gyhat iin gyitalt. derim zixt al kol pppunyfm], daz ir zixt oder zilbert dm starosty d ciihyn, oder maxyn iin iom, vii men d anand kiim, in dppus er iriib briiv dm mppukyfm], haainy lyirpynym mi-Krppuky, hin lyirpynim mi-Kppuzmer, hin d Lagovnicki, by-frat dppu er ouf dppus rpput houz raait.... 1ui&merem ciirom *iisbppurex Smoi. *ratyn?

38 Late sixteenth century. Jacob b. Isaac Ashkenazi: Sefer Ham-maggid (Lublin, 1623 ?): Psalm 6. (1) D??n mizmer hot gymaxt Dppuvyd, dppus in zol zingyn der mynaciicx, dppus zaain di Iyviiym, az gydaxt iz pybyn cvii mppul, dppus di lyviiym hiisyn mynacxym. zppugt der pppusyk alhii, dppus Dppuvyd hot den mizmer gymaxt, dppus in der liivi zol zingyn mit gyd«n, mit azpy iin nigyn, der hi pi iz d ipiilyn ouf azpy iin harf, dppus dppu hiist East Yiddish ך11 imiinys, der vaail axt ziityn derppun zaain. d dem zilbigyn vppur der dozig mizmer d Dppuvyd. er iprppux Dppuvyd: (2) Got, £trppuf mix nit mit daainym coryn, in di zolst mix nit kestigyn, mit daainym grim coryn. (3) dcr barym mix. Got, den ix bin fer inityn in fer dorbyn mit mopugeryn kpycx, heil mix, den zi zaainyn der £rokyn, maain biin, (4) in maain laaib iz zer der irokyn, in dii, Got, biz kin vi lang virsti dppus di zffhyn in virst (az nit hiilyn. (5) vider kiir, Got, in cii ous maain laaib, hilf mir im vilyn daain xt?syd. (6) din es iz nit in tpyt daain gydixyniS, iiner dcr dppu £tarbt, kon dix nit gydinkyn, in oux in der grfib, vir kon dix Ipybyn, vin er niin tpyt iz, derim 102 mix l^byn, vir ix dix ioo Ipybyn. (7) ix bin mild fin vffgyn maain zifcyn, ix max miiys, az ein £paaibixt in byzilper aly naxt maain bit, oder: ix vii maain bit, in mit maainy tr?$- heryn max ix faaixt. (8) es iz fer tinkylt maain pyg fin vccgyn coryn, es iz fer iltert, oder: fer riltt, fin v$$gyn al maain liidiger, dii mix miicer zaain. (9) Duuvyd gprppux vaaiter: keirt ub fin mir avik ir al dii fnrixt verkyn, ir virt nimer niks kinyn tiin, din Got hot gyhftrt dppus kol fin maainym viinyn. (10) Got, der hot gyhffrt maain birymlix gyb$$t, Got, der virt ppun nimyn maain tfily, (11) zii viryn fer 4$?mt viryn, oux der irokyn viryn, zii viryn zix der irikyn, al maainy faaind, in zii viryn vider amppul fer s??mt viryn in iin pygyn blik.

39 Late sixteenth century. Jacob b. Isaac Ashkenazi: From his Cinereny (Tsen- ncrenne): Exodus 3, 1. der minyg iz gyvfezyn fin aly cadiikym, dppus zii pflftgyn d viidyn £ppuf in der midber, der vartyn zii vilyn zix vaait aain vik maxyn fin den laaityn. din vin men baai laaityn iz, dppu kimt fiil aviirys der fin; rcxiilys in kiny in Ippuiyn hory imasig gvfl. in derim itiit gyiribyn axer hamidber, klomer er ging vaait, er volt nit viidyn ouf fremdy filder. in di xaxppumym zppugyn: fircik ippur iz MpySy gyzisyn in micraaiym, in fircik ippur in Midiyn, in fircik ippur in der midber. in azpy vppur oux rib Akiivy fircik ippur handlyn mit s x p y T y , in der nppux vppur er fcrick ippur lernyn, In dcr nppux vppur er fircik ippur iyiiivy haltyn. in MoySy vppur kimyn baai dem berg Xpyrv, vii men virt di Tpyry geebyn, dppu hot zix byvizyn di ixiny dorx faaier. in dppus faaier vppur ouf einym dom bpym, in der dorn vppur nit fer brent, dcr Xizkiiny in der Bexaaiy iraaibyn: vppurim hot zix Kppudys bond byvizyn dorx faaier? dppus iz derim, dppus Moy$y zol zix kinyn gyviinyn faaier d zefhyn, in vin er virt kimyn d dem berg Siny, vii men der nppux virt di Tpyry gffbyn, dppu virt fiil faaier zaain.

40 1614. From a witness’s evidence before the (Jewish) court at Florianow, as abridged by Joel Serkes (‘Bach’) b. Samuel halLevi Jaffe in his Bayis Khudosh (byt hds), responsum No. 57. (Frankfort/M., 1697, fol. 37r.) 172 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Mir 11 balbatym zaain im xaaiyl gyv^zyn, iz irous gyspringyn a lid, Brppuxy bin ha-kppudy£ Aryn mi-Tiiyvic, hot gydiint ouf 3 sisym, iz gyiprtngyn dm xaaiyl id Mosk viler 2 vy 3 pyppumym kysiider himilxppumy. di Moskvitcm hobyn goiver gyvfezyn, iz der lid d rik gySpringyn, azoi hot myn im nppux gyiosyn ous den vald. hob iz gyz/^yn di Ippudink Stikyn im am rfkyn. iz er nider gyfalyn ouf den zpputyl, hot zix vilyn ppun haltyn ppun di hoour fin sis am halz, dppu hot er zix gyviklt hiin in hiir, in azpi hot in dppus sis avik gytrppugyn in v$$g in hob in nit gyzwyn, iz mit den xaaiyl antlofyn. oux hob iz gyz^tyn dppus er nider gyfalyn iz ouf den sis dppu iz im der roix dm moul arous gangyn, bin nppuynt baai im gyvffzyn. dcr nppux zaainyn mir dem xaaiyl nppux gylofyn, dppu hob ix gyzeeyn zaain sis loifyn in iir iz nit derouf gyv?$zyn, naaicrt der zpputyl iz krfm gyveezyn. dppus sis hob ix voil gykint vyax[er]k[ax] hot der roi haxaaiyl lozyn poukyn, iz dppus xaaiyl, vppus myftzcr iz gyv^zyn, dhoif kimyn, hot dppus folk mysaper gyvtezyn byisky hamilxppumy, hobyn kamy pyppumym kamy kozakyn gyzppugt: ,,zaai got gyklppugt, dppus der ricer, der lyhiidi Brppuxy, iz iaaielix (aain) azoi [a] vik kimyn, man hot im mit den bardys d hakt in d Stoxyn“ kily. den iom arim hobyn di kozakyn gyslppugyn di Moskviter in hobyn gybraxt a 4 la I in dppus sis iil Brppuxy hanal, in zaain hiit hob ix voil gykint, in zaain xiiryv, din hob ix nit voil gykint. azoi hot der sar miiy vilyn hppubyn di kiilym Si! Brppuxy hanal in der sar asppury iiloi, diir hot s oux vilyn hppubyn, in hobyn gymiipyt far den kali, azoi hot der sar asppury gyiproxyn: ,,ix bin bilixer der di, miiaxer dppus man hot inzery hariigym far sarfyt, azoi hob ix den Brppuxy hanal mit maainer hant ous gycoigyn in hob im far sarfyt“, in hot iidys dppu arouf gybraxt kamy kozakyn, dppus er in hot in a houz araain gyilipt d far brinyn, in hot in far brim. d66u hot man den ilal iil Brppuxy den sar asppury di gypaskyt. der nppux hob ix gyhiirt fin a kozak, hiist xvidor, iz gyvooryn der nppux a galex d Kiiyv, hot mysaper gyvf^zyn lyfii timoi, dppus er iz der baai gyv$ezyn, dppus der kozak sar asppury hanal hot den lyhiidi far sarfyt, der dppu hot gyhiisyn Brppuxy. oux viis ix voil, dppus kiin lyhiidi in inzeryn xaaiyl hot gyhiisyn Brppuxy naaiert der lyhiidi hanal kily. vyaxer kamy iviiys arim, bcxaaiyl iil Niloviki, dppu zinyn gyv$$zyn kozakyn axiirym, hobyn lyfii timom gyzppugt mi-gviirys Brppuxy hanal—

41 About 1800. Passage from the tale Maasy maihaiivy biitiers by the Khasidic master Naxmyn (Nachman) of Braslyv (Braslav) as written by his disciple, Nathan b. Naphuli Hertz. (From the Saifer sipjjry maasys, Berdytchev, 1815, fol. 71r.) Jn s iz faranyn a barg, jn ofn barg itait a itain, jn fjnym itain gait a kval jn itlexy zax hot a hare, jn di vilt in gancn hot oix a hare, jn dus hare fjn der vilt iz a gancy koimy mit a puunym jn mit hint jn fiis, liimer der nugl fjnym f jjs fjnym hare fjn der vilt iz hardker aider an andems hare, jn der barg mitn kval itait in ain ik fjn der vilt, jn dus hare fjn der vilt $tait inym andem ik fjn der vilt. jn dus hare itait akaign dym kval jn gljst jn binkt tumyd zaier, az sy zol kjmyn cjm kval. jn dus binkyn jn dus gljstn fjnym hare cjm 173 E*51 Yiddish kvai iz guur vild. jn sy iruait tumyd dus hare, az ys 201 kjmyn cjm kval. jn der kval gljst cjm hare oiex. jn dus hare ot cvii xliiiys ... ainc, vuum di zjn iugt ya zaicr jn brint ys ... jn dus andery ilafkait ot dus hare, maxmys dym binkyn jn dym gljstn, vus dus hare binkt jn gljst tumyd jn ys gait nor ous cjm kval jn sy sraait ale, sy zol kjmyn cjm kval... vuum dus hare it ait tumyd akaign dym kval jn Sraat na gvald ... liimer az dus hare badarf zcx a bisl up rjjyn, az sy zol zex up sapyn a bisl, azoi kjmt a groiser foigl jn far iprait di fUgl of iim jn farltilt ym fjn der zjn. dimlt rjjt zex dus hare up a bisl. jn afily dimlt, az sy rjjt zex up, kjkt ys oix akaign dym kval jn binkt ale cjm kval. liimer az sy binkt ioo azoi cjm kval, far vuus gait er nit cjm kval ? nor vi bald dus hare vil cjj gain nuuynt cjm barg, vus oivn iz der kval, azoi zeit er ioin nit arous dym spic, kon er nit ziiyn dym kval. jn vi bald er kjkt nit ofn kval, gait er ous, vuum guur zaan xaaiys - fjnym hare - iz nor fjnym kval. jn az er itait akaign barg, ziit er arous dym ipic barg, vus dort iz der kval. ober taikyf vi bald er vil cjj gain cjm barg, zeit er ioin nit arous dym ipic. ... kon er ioin nit kjkn ofn kval, kon er xas vyiuulym ous gain, jn az dus hare zol xas vysuulym ous gain, volt guur di vilt xuuryv gyvoom, vuum dus harz iz ex dus xaaiys fjn itlexer zax, jn vii kon di vilt a kiiym hubn uun dym hare ?

4* Nineteenth century (?). A lullaby (folksong). Der taty iz gyfuurn ofn iuulym zuxer, it er bringyn far Laidalyn a iainym buxer: mit giily paiys, jn mit gjty daiys, mit ivarcy oign, cj der Toiry vit er toign.

43 Nineteenth century. Folksong. Jndz homir dox a tatn in him], vus er tjt kain muul niit kain driml. vus er vil, tjt er, jn viimyn er vil, git er. viier kin ym daiys zugn? cjker-ziis iz zaan ilugn. mit simxy, Ildalei, mit simxy lomir iim diinyn! jndz homir dox a tatn in himl, vus tjt kain muul, kain muul niit kain driml. !74 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

44 Nineteenth century. Resignation to God's will. (Folksong.) Ci kin myn arof gain in Kunl araan, jn friign baa got, ci sy darf azoi zaan? sy darf zoi zaan, sy mjz azoi zaan, sy kin of der vilt dox guur anderf nit zaan.

45 Nineteenth century. A Love song. (Folksong.) Tiif in vildaly &ait a baimaly jn di cvaagalex bliiyn, jn baa miier, uurym £naarderl, tjt maan hircaly ciiyn. of n baimaly vakst a cvaagaly, jn di blitalex cvityn, jn maan uurym, £vax hircaly ciit cj maan ziiser Ijtyn. of n cvaagaly £tait a faigaly, jn dus faigaly pi&yt, jn baa miier, uurym gnaaderl, maan ivax hircaly tri&Jyt.

46 1844. The first lines of a translation from Hebrew (incorporating short elucidations) of the tenth section of Bahya’s Xohys hahuvys (hwbwt hlbbwt). From the edition JSzefiw, 1848, vol. 2, fol. 122v.) Vaal mir hobn oivn inym naantn iir gy£telt dus ba&idynii fjn di iniuunym, vii myn zol zex up &aidn fjn di tanjjgym fjnym oilym, jn jndzer kvuuny iz gyviin, az der mind zol zaan hare farainikn, jn ous laidikn ys fjn aly zaxn, cjm liib£aft fjnym ba&fer iisbuurex, jn zol gljstn cj zaan viln, drjm hob ex fai&anyn derbaa cj itiln dus ba&idynii fjn di oifanym fjnym liibsaft fjn Got, kloimer in vus far an oifn myn mjz zex noiyg zaan in di liib&ft fjn Got iisbuurex. vuurym dus iz der taxlys fjn aly ieruiym jn dersoffjnalymaalys jn di madraigys fjn di frjmy laat vus diinyn got. !75 East Yiddish

47 1848. The beginning of an appeal by one Judah b. Abraham of Lemberg/Lviv, to the Jewish population of Galicia, published in March, a fortnight after the beginning of the revolution in Vienna. (From the facsimile in Historiiy iriftn fjn Iiditn visniaftlexn inslit ul, vol. 2, opp. p. 632, Vilna/Vilnius, 1937, where the whole text is printed. The original is in the Harvard University Library: Leo Wiener Collection.)

VUS IZ DUS AZOINC GY&IYN IN VIIN JN IN L£mBERYG ? Liby harcydiky briider, hiirts a puur virter, vus zinyn aax cind naitik cj visn. 4c hot Riinystam ioin gyhiin, 12 ys hobn zex farlofn vjnderlexy zaxn in viin jn in Limbcryg, jn ic hot eSer guur moiry, az ys vit nox ipys ilixts dirfjn arous kjmyii. ibcr diim «1 ex aax akorat der cailn jn der Idiim, vus ys hot zex gytjjn jn far vus ys hot zex azoi gytjjn, kydai az ic zolt aan ziiyn, vus far a nisym iimisbuurex ot bavizn jn vus far a toivys ys zinyn ioin arous gykjmyn, jn vus far a gjts us vit nox arous kjmyn far aly mincn, s miign zaan Iidn oder Gooiym, vus ys zinyn por duu in aly linder, vus ys kiim cjm istnuxisn kaizer. ifntzy of baidy oiern jn hiirts mex ganc gjt cjj. jndzcr gjter lcaizcr Ferdinand hot arjm zix gyhat itlexy ioiacym, vus zai hobn ym ilixty aicys gygiibn jn vus zai hobn niSt cjj gylozt, az er zol hiim di bykuuiys fjn ?aan folk, jn zol niit visn, vus zai badarfn cj diim, az zai zoln kinyn gliklex liibn. dus hot aly gjty mindn zaier vai gytjjn. iber diim zinyn zex in der lict(n)fer] caat in Viin cj anand gykjmyn miirery gjty jn kljgy mindn in ainym mit di studintn fjn di hoixy ikolys, vus zai zinyn zaier gylimt, jn hobn of gyzict a bykuuiy cjm kaizer. in diir bykuuiy zinyn gyitanyn ous gyrixnt aly gjty jn gyrixty zaxn, vus dus folk bagiirt fjnym kaizer. dii bykuuiy hobn miliasn mindn jntir gySribn.

48 Mendaly Moixer Sfuurym (Mendele Moicher Sfurim, i.e., Suulym Iaankyv Abramovid [Shalom Jacob Abramovitch], 1836-1917): From his autobiographical story Sloimy rib Xaaiyms, 1899. From the edition of his collected works, 1911, vol. 2, p. 23.) Lipy Rjjvns iz gyviin a direr, a korc-zixtiker, mit a blaix puunym, a ftiler, a gjter jn zaier baliibt baa itlexn inym itiitl. zaan xarakter, zaan voinjng, zaan itaiger liibn, 2aan tjjn jn ale mit anander ot ba&erlex gyvizn, az in iim iz duu dus pintaly, der brin fjn a kinctler. er ot gyhat a hant cj inicn, cj muuln, cj iraabn jn cj kricn of kjper jn of itainer, niit cj maxn zex derous a pamuusy, nor glat azoi, vaal dus iz gyviin zaan bister fargynign, vaal ys ot ym dercjj ipys gytribn jn ct ot badarft, gymjzt maastera. baa dym klain-itiitldikn oilym Iidn ot er gyhaisn a biriy cj alcding, a kiner, ipys guur a irik, jn zai obn baa itlexer gyliignhait zex mit zaan biriyikait banict. M ot ym mexabyd gyviin 176 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries mit Snicn dym uurn koidyi, muuln a mizrex, ilugn mycaivys, lcricn xstmys. maidlex, kalys, fliign ym matriiex zaan, mit zaan gjtn viin cj maxn for zai mustern, of kaitl-stexlcx, of hiftn, ous naiyn far zaiery xasanym tviln-ziklei.

49 &uulym Alaixym (Shulem Alaichem. i.e., Suulym Rabinovid [Shalom Rabino- vitch], 1859-1916): From the story Sprmty, ca. 1900. (From the Warsaw edition, 1909, second printing, vol. 1, p. 234.) Vaaihii haaiym, trift zex a maasy, iiryv Svjjys iz dus gyviin, kjm ex cj fiium mit a bisl milcxiks cj ainy fjn maany koinytys, a ijngy almuuny jn a raaxy fjn Iikaterin061av, vus iz gykjmyn cj fuum mit ir ziindl, Arontik haist er, kain Boiberik ofn zjmer. jn dus faritait m ot״ .ir dox akin, az dus 4-irste bakentiaft iirs in Boiberik iz gyviin mistumy mit miir mir gyrikomyndiirt - zugt zi, di almuuny haist dus - az baa aax iz dus Wsty milcxiks.*4 - vi kin dus zaan anderi ? - zug ex cjn iir, cj der almuuny haist dus - nit jmzist - zug ex ״ zugt Sknmy hamailex, az a gjter numyn lozt zex hiiem vi a iotfer iber der gancer vilt. jn oib ir vilt - zug ex - vil ex aax dercailn, vus ys zugt derof der midryi.“ ilugt zi mex iber, di almuuny haist dus, jn zugt cj miir, az zi iz an almuuny jn iz in dii zaxn, zugt zi, niit gyniit, zi vaist mi£t, mit vus m ist dus. der iker, zugt zi, az di pjter zol zaan frtf jn der kiiz zol zaan gyimak. - njj gait, rit mit a nykaivyl

5°. Ijjdy Laibis Pdiryc (Judah Laibish Peretz) (1851-1915): From the story Mysiirys niifyi. C. 1904. (From the edition in his collected works, vol. Folkstmlexy ereailjn- gyn, p. 195, Warsaw, 1908.) Mit doirys cjrik ot gy&mt in Cfas a lid a gviir jn a groiser balmazl, vus ot gyhandlt mit ciirjng jn alerlai avuunym toivys jmarguuliys. jn gyviin iz diir ild an oiicr an imyser, niit kain of-gybluuzyner vi haantiky caatn. jn gyhat ot er zaan aigns a palyc, vus ot arous gykjkt mit lixtiky fincter-oign ofn iam Kiniirys. jn arjm gyringlt ot dym palyc a guurtn a groiser, mit alerlai gljstiky baimer, mit kol hamiinym pairys jn zingyndiky faigl, jn mit alerlai &nikydiky kraatexceT jn andery gyviksn hin lynooi vyhin lerf jjy. jn gyhat ot der guurtn viign braity, ous-gyiity mit goldynym zamd, jn di baimer iber di viign obn zex in der haix cjzamyn gytrofh mit di kroinyn jn cjzamyn gyfloxtn jn fariuutnt di viign.

5» Moris Roznfeld (Morris Rosenfeld) (1862-1923): Beginning of the poem In iap. (From Songs o f the Ghetto. With prose translation, glossary, and introduction by Leo Wiener. New and enlarged edition, p. 2. Boston, 1900. Text in transcription according to modem German standard spelling.) 177 East Yiddish

es roufyn in jap azoi vQd di ma£iinyn, az oft-muul fargci cx in roui (rii ?), az ex bin. ex viier in dym frddexn tjml farloiem, maan iiex v irt dort buutl, ex vtier a maSiin. ex arbyt, jn arbyt, jn arbyt, uun x&bn, ys iaft zex, jn £aft zex, jn iaft zex uun cuul - far vuvis ? jn far vtimyn ? ex vais nit, ex friig nit - vii kjmt a ma&iny cj dinkyn a muul?

52 Avruum Raizin (Abraham Raizin/Reisen, 1876-1953): Vjhiin? About 1900. (Prom his volume Vvnt-klangyn, p. 12, Vilna/Vilnius, 1914). vjhiin vilstj, nyiumy, vjhiin ? di b£rg zinyn hoix, di volkndlex blaix, di tird jn di baimer - vi griinl vTiiin vilstj, ny&my, vjhiin ?

o horx, vi di biin zjmzyt jn fliit, zi flatert jn ciit ahiir jn ahiin - v’hiin vilstj, nyfamy, vjhiin?

o kjk dort in maaryv ahiin - di zjn, zi fargait kaalexdik, roit ahiin ale, ahiin - v’hiin vilstj, nyiumy, vjhiin ?

S3 Duvyd (David) Pinski (1872-1959): End of the drama Der frbndtr (originally Der aibiker ltd in the journal Der arhyter, New York, 1906), New York, 1914.

S tim y n : v u s ftaiyn mir? lomir loifh zjjxn. DER FR&MDER (vi o f gyvaxt): itaitl OORIYN: vus hostj fuur? der f r £m der (farzinkt vider in gydankyn). d i ijn g y fr ou (dorx tr&ero): hob ex dir nift gyzugt, az dus iz an jmgliks-kind f DER FRtMDER (ciiyndik zaany virter, mit an uun-gystiltn blik in der vaatns): rjjf ym nist azoi. niit kain jmgliks-kind iz ct, hob ex dir gyzugt. in dym tug fjn zaan gybiirt iz der bismigdyi xuuryv gyvoom, ober er iz gyboiern gyvoorn of cj bouyn jndz a naaiym. ex 178 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

gai ym zjjxn. Got hot dus arof gylaigt of miier. ex zei ys Iduur (viiert mit a muul gyiltert jn zaan huur jn buurd vtiem vus).

54 Simyn Smjjl Frug (Simeon Samuel Frug) (1860-1916): Simxys Tovy (written between 1896 and 1916). Frailex jn 614 Zict zex cjm ti$ maxt sjjdys mail ex kviktzex jntrinkt, Ildelex, zingt, liibydik, frailex! uun vug jn uun muus, a kos nuux a kos, hot nit kain moiry, kviktzex jn trinkt, Udelex, zingt lykuvyd ha-Toiry! lyhoiys (pseudonym of Iyhoiys Sloimy Bljmgartn[Jehoash Solomon Bloomgarden], 1872-1927): Zjnyn-jnter-gang. (From the volume Gyzamlty liider, p. 235, New York, 1907). Ys fait arjnter of der iird a idlkait vii fjn irik, di rtindy, faaierdiky zjn ftarbt bisiexvaaz avik. der him! hot ir toitn-bit nut lixt arjm gyitdt, jn s hot mit fiamyn zex cjbrint dus gancy maaryv-fild. 179 East Yiddish

us iepdyt in di hoiiy gruuz der vint baklimt jn ivax, zugt kadyi nuux der groiser zjn of uvnt-vintn-iprax.

56 Suulym As (Shalom Ash/Asch) (1880-1957): From the volume A M it I. (From the edition Minsk, 1906, p. 14). Ainc akin jn far zex akin itait zex a haazl in tuul cviin cvai hoixy birg, vus lozn zex vaat jn hoix in der vilt araan, baam brig fjn taax (vaaksl)[vaasl]. vinter iz ys. gots vilt iz in gancn in inai fartrjnkyn. jndz^r haazl, vi an alter balbuus in taxriixym, Stait zex baam brig, kjkt zex cjj cjm farfroirynym uax, zaan Suxn, jn ys Svaagt, biz der taax vit cj txiiys hamaisyn of itain. dervaal iz der taax gy&orbn, gyfroiern jn mit a vaasn kitl aan gyhiilt. rubn flnyn of zaan brait jn ling, itiln zex ofn taaxs rjkn, jn lixem zaan upgytokty diky. tail muul gait a mind ibim taax, jn dym mindns fits tjkn inym vaasn, tiifn inai.

57 Zalmyn Shnaier (Zalman Shneur) (1889-1959): Liibj (before 1914). Liiby haist: faint hubn alytnyn jn liibn nor diiex - ys loint zex, ys loint zex ale faant hubn jn liibn nor diiex. ys loint zex, ys loint zex farlozn dex jn kjmyn cjrik - s iz liib jn s iz ziis, cj farvilkt viiern jn bliiyn cjrik. jn vuiis iz a itiiern uun finctemiS, a flaker uun frost? jn vuus iz maan hasn jn liibn dex ? a faaier in frost. an aibiky ruud mit a riitynii: dj iugst zi - zi kjmt. ex traab dex jn bin a fartribyner, jn vain, vin dj kjmst.

58 Hilyl Caitlin Zcitlin) (1871-1942): Passagt from a booklet Vus darf Iisruuyl tjjn m ictiker coat fjn xivly MyHiex? (p. 7, Warsaw, 1934). 180 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Vin ex Ljk uun aly jndzcry bisery jn tiifcry mindn, vi zai itaiyn iiider in zaan ituut ci itiitl, faritikt irgyc in a vinkl, vainyndik jn klugndik ofn gancn gyziliaftlexn liibn jndzem, vus iz ict farvildyt gyvoom, ii of di maasym tatjjym, vus viicm ict up gytjjn dorx di partaiyn, ii ofn ftnctem, bitem daiys, vus ist of aly Iidn, vaal ys iz baa jndz ni&uu kain kluger, niituu kain rixter, jn ys iz niituu viir ys zol a kiap tjjn a finger uun a finger lytoivys dii biz cj biitleraa ruiniirty Iidiiy masn, xod m ot in fljg azoifl farzorger (vaal byimys iS lyvicoi mikucaihj“), ii of der gyzairys kylooiyn״ :mjz vitgn dii farzorger gyzugt viirn fjn hitlerizm; ii of der gyzairys kylooiyn fjnym komunizm, vus vil of an ander oifh a sof jn an ik mazn cj dcr igzistinc fjn Iidn ak folk; ii of aly jndzcry inyvainiksty baviigilngyn, vus der viig zaierer iz ofyner nationalism, jn bahaltyny asimilady iz der licter poiyl ioicy - di up-mikjng fjnym cailym fcloikim jn di u pm iking fjn cailym lisruuyl. vin ez zii ot dii aly gjty mindn vainyndik in di vinkalez, derman ez mez uun dym ... .vyhaimu boixym piisez huoiyl“ loutn bild fjnym magyd״

Xiiiym Naxmyn (Chaim Nachman) Bialik (1873-1934): From his collected poems in Yiddish: Poiziy, (Warsaw, 1913).

X bin nit o f aaier rjjf gygangyn, ez kjm cj aax mit zibn viign. ez &1 of a u vi tou of zangyn, jn vii o f trjkn gruuz der ritgn.

jmzist hot ir gerouk, gyliirymt, jn miix bagiignt mit gyzang: ez hob far aax • toub gyvirymt, jn ous gypikt hot zex a ilang.

jn ziit, mez riiert nit aaier &ln, jn aaier hilziker gerjjs ligt tait cj maany fiis gyfaln, jn ez cjtriit ym mit dym fjjt.

fjn aaier ous gylote oig bin ex der licter ivarcer blic, fjn aaiery fkrfckxnty cain der licter, comdikztcr kric.

jn rid a - mjzn himlyn ftjmyn, di iierd baviigt zez nit fjn ort, di ftainer kouklyn zex jn kjmyn jn ilingyn doritik G o a a ▼ort. 181 East Yiddish

60 lisruul fifroilrin (Israel Ycfroikin) (1884-1954): A passage from Traduiy, caixtu jn stmboht, from his book A xilbn ha-ntifyi (Paris, 1948, p. 172). Prjjvt zex ober xoi of ain riigy four itibi dus mindlexy liibn uun tradiciy, uun der ierjiy fjn friierdiky doirys. Dus antkaign itiln tradiciy jn progris (haist doch baa jndz progrisist“ diier vus ,,halt niit“ fjn ,,altmodiiy“ zaxn) iz niit miir vi amracys, oder ״ a puuiyt - a niriikah. kain ijm progris, kain ijm vaater gain kin niit gymuult zaan uun iox״ icrjiy. vin ys zol amuul of itain a dor, vus zol byimys viin arup varfn fjn zex dym ,min61־fjn ierjiy“, volt er zex gymjzt jm kiiem cjm ciiitand fjnym firhistoriin hail fjn di trogloditn, jn cjrik gain cjm dzungl. iliktrii lixt iz a ierjiy, pjnkt vi banyn, iroplanyn, vi bykhl aly giiter fjn jndzer civilizaciy. der dor, vus volt 2ex byimys up gyzugt fjn gaisdker ierjiy, volt gydarft zex iafn a naaiy Sprax, a naaiy visniaft, a naaiy kiinct, mit ain vort - uun haibn fjn beraiiys. nor di ierjiy, materiiily jn gaistiky, maxt byklal miiglex dym progris fjn mindexn miin.

61 Zlilik Kalmanovid (Zelig Kalmanovitch) (1881-1944): A passage from Ci iz miigUx a forutiier ous-laig fair der Iidiier literariier ifrax? Ys kon guur kain sufyk nit zaan, az in lidii iz faran a klang alyf. x taad ous byfairyi dym klang, nit dym os. in di airopiiiiy alyf-baizn iz far diim klang kain os nituu. in fon it iin afyf-baiz virt er bacaixnt dorx an apostrof, ’ , Buurexov hot dym dozikn klang araan gyitilt in zaan oibn dermuunter tabily, nor in kantiky klamem: dermit iz er ousn gyviin cj zugn, az der klang iz faran nor in Hcbritis, in lidii ober nit. jn of z. 73, vjj er bringt a ryiiimy fjn di Itdiiy ilymintar-klangyn, iz der alyf taky nituu. dus iz ober a groiser tuuys. der doziker klang, der ‘fister ainzac,’ vii er haist in Daad, igzistiiert baa Iidn nox ict, jn zai banicn ym baam ridn lidii. der alyf vus virt gyiribn, a itaiger, in di virter: ‘jn, in, ain, aimer, uurym’ ... iz laxljjtn nit itjm, naaiert er virt daitlex arous gyrit farn vokal. er nimt zex derfjn, vus aider mir haibn uun arous ridn dus vort, zaanyn di itim-binder in gancn farmaxt. in dym momint, vi mir ifynyn zai, raast zex di Ijft arous dorxn itim-ipalt - derhiiert zex a miin knal oder a knak. iiirit demuux virt arous gyrit der vokal; dym alyf gjjfy darf myn batraxtn far a !consonant azoi vi b, g, d ..., miier nit vus er iz ivaxer artikiUiiert. dcr zilber alyf-klang hiiert zex faritiit zex oix far a jn o, jn oib mir 20 In pAscx alyf jn kumyc alyf batraxtn, nor far ikvivalintn fjn di vokal-caixns a jn u/0, voltn mir fctUtii gymjzt iraabn: ,alt, ,uudlcr j.az.v.

62 Der Nister, pseudonym of Pinxys Kahanovii (Phineas Kahanovitch) (1884-1950). From his symbolical story In vald. (In his collection Cydaxt, vol. 1, pp. 183-4, Berlin, 1932). 182 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

Jn a hie hobn mir in vald uun gytribn, jn in vald an uutym-ingynii gymaxt... jn der rjjex blondiyt a derilugyner arjm, er kon zex kain ort jn kain Suutn-vinld niit gyfinyn. Hobn mir nuux iinym voLkndl in himl a vintl arous gyiikt, jn der rjjex of der pouk hot zex dan mit gringy flis of der pouk avik gylozt baa di brign pouk jn arjm jn arjm gylofn. jn gring gyiugt jn gytrugn hot zex kaalexik jn dus vintl hot iinc volkndl dergraixt, jn nox volkndlex hot ys dort cjnoif gynjmyn jn in ym haisn tug cj ainym jn a groisn zai gymaxt. jn a vint-iliiexl iz in vald araan, jn a liftl iz cviin di baimer jn spicn dorx gylofn, jn uun gyzugt hot ys: ipys hot zex uun gyhoibn ouser vald, jn bald vit dus oix ahiier derlangyn...

63 Duvyd Ainhom (David Ajnhorn/Einhorn) (1886- ): Bytuxn. (From Maany liider, Vilna/Vilnius, 1912, p. 36; Gyzamlty liider, p. 187, Berlin, 1924). A My naxt, a itiiern fait fjn himl tiif jn viiert niit bald, ex haib maan oig jn baig maan kop. maan hiiter vaxt jn hiit mex up. maan hiiter vaxt, maan hiiter vaxt, jn &kt zaan grjjs mir dorx der naxt. der viig iz vaat jn ex bin miid. diitily naxt, zi zingt ir liid. fartrou daan kop maan itiln iois, jn iluf jn iluf, of morgn hof daan veig cjm sof iz vaat jn grois.

64 Smjjl Iaankyv (Samuel Jacob) Imber (1889-1942): From the poem £sterky Statnslawow, 1911; reprinted, in his Gyklibyny dtxtungyn, pp. 79-125, No. Ill, Vienna, 1921. 183 E*51 Yiddish

Oi, toxterl, toxter dj maan, ex kjk in dym guurtn araan - vi di roizn f jl xain, vi di liliyn rain, azoi zol maan tixterl zaan oi, toxterl, toxter dj maan, ex kjk in dym himl araan - vi di zjn azoi 4ain, vi dug himl-fild rain, azoi zol maan tixterl zaan. oi, toxterl, toxter dj maan, ex kjk in maan harcn araan - vi maan harens gyvain, azoi gjt, azoi rain, zol maan tixterls hircaly zaan.

65 Iosyf Opatosu (Joseph Opatoshu, formerly Iosyf Maier [Joseph Meir] Opatowski, 1886-1954): Beginning of the story A farlaat haabl (about 1915). From vol. 15 of his collected works, yUnajVibuus, p. 141). A jabys-firii-morgn inym iuur 1840. cjm ijjl-fiirn iz di zixcn-iuuriky ftidy, dym raaxn Faavii Opatovskis toxter, gyzfen in mitn dcr saliy in a gyinictn kaly-fotil. zi iz gyviin gyilaiert in ivarcn zaad. fjnym ftiirn-tiixl, fjn di oiering biz di akslyn, fjn di fingerlex, fjn di brouny, lixtiky oign - vjj a kiir, hobn anip gyfinklt jn arous gyfinklt diimytlex. iber di imuuly akslyn a din Itali- iini£ ial-tjji fjn £picn jn ^piclex. ofn kop - a gypast haabl, gyviklt fjn ivarcy, zaadyny koronkys, bapjet mit roity baa&Iex kriln jn mit a citer-£pilky. der gyboigyner haldz badikt mit iniirkx piirl jn in der rixter hant a korbn-minxy-sider in a zilbemym aanbjnd. arjm dym ijngyn vaabl, vus iz £oin iber a £uu fiks jn fartik gyviin, my zol zi fiirn in ijjl araan, hot zex gytjmlt. dym oivn-uun obn dus muul niit farnjmyn di raaxy Zdoinsky-volier vaabcr jn vaablex, afily niit faiiys mjter jn ivister, nor di cvilyf ribyens, vus zinyn mit gykjmyn of der xasyny fjn xuusns cad jn zinyn farblibn biz iber di iiivy bruxys.

66 1911. From the Warsaw daily Der fraand of July 4. di baciijngyn fjn di Airopiliiy myljjxys cj di militiir-opcraciys fjn Frankraax in Maroko zinyn biz der licter caat gyviin nit kluur. ipys hot myn gykjkt of Maroko jn of dus balybatyvyn fjn Frankraax dorx di finger, myn hot, imys, gyrit, az Daadand iz nit jtark cjfnidn mit der Francaizi&r Maroko-poUtik, az in der stil hot zi taanys jn tviiys cj Frank- ran, nor myn hot gyzugt, az Daadand vit zex lozn myfacy zaan fjn Frankraax in an ander 184 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries ort. Daadand hot gy£vign. ir £vaagn hot zi derkliirt mit diim, vus zi i2 nit miir fjn ilymyn interysiirt mit Maroko, jn hiitn di baitQsn fjn der Aliyziirys-konferinc darfn aly A1ropiii$y myljjxys, zi iz guur nit mexjjyv, cj bazorgn di gancy vilt.

67 Duvyd Kiinigsbirg (David K5nigsberg) (1889-1942): From his Sonetn (p. 18, Lemberg/Lviv, 1913). A klaindik xuusydl mit iiicx jn zikalex, a ljstiks, kjmt araan, a liibydiks, a laxydiks, jn vi der tug a kljgs, jn graazlt zex di lange likalex. jn vaas jn fri£ di kinderiiy bikalex, a klaindik xuusydl, a xainyvdiks, ijng vi an iierst arous gyiproct gyviks, sy Idingt zaan kilcxl vi zilber-glikalex. fraa fyringt jn tanct ys vi a iiidys kind, nor vin dj ifhst of far iim a saifer, di aigalex, vi kiiniglexy Iaifer, don ijjrys iugn, kjkn azoi tiif in os, az, vin ys rit, kjmt infer-rjjf vi s ixo fjn a tiifer brjnys grjnt.

68 From the translation by Eliy Olsvanger (Elijah Olsvanger) of a school textbook by W. and G. H. Young: Der klainer geometer (Dresden, 1921, p. 147). Der iiitex fjn a gruud-vinkldilm draa-ik iz di hilft fjnym jiitex fjn a gruud-ik, vus zaany £xainiiy zaatn zaanyn di katctn fjnym draa-ik.

69 A passage from Ainitaim relatwiteits-teoriy by Ijjdy Liicnan (Judah Lehmann). (Berlin, 1921, p. 25). Ainitain iz cjj gygangyn cjm dozikn probliim mit der fragy, vus bataat der ousdnik in ain jn der zilbiker c o a t oder in algymain gyrit, vus bataat dus, az cvai eriainungyn ״ glaax-eaatik " ? jn ot iz er, ofn grind f jn a ral batraxtjngyn... gykjmyn cjm ״ kjmyn fuur "coat ״ jmgyhoier vixtikn rizultat, az der bagriffjn ghuuceaatikait jn dermis der bagriffjn bykiil iz fjn fizikaUin itand-ptinkt oix ipys rilatiivyt. er iz gykjmyn cjm ous-fiir, az of iiidn fjn a ral kirpers, vus gyfinyn zex bynygaiy cjj zex in cuitand fjn gruud-liniker, -bavii״ rjju jn ״ glaax-miisiker baviigung, hirit an ander coat, jn pjnkt azoi vi di bagrifn 185 East Yiddish

gting“ zinyn, vi mir hobn oivn ous gyfiirt, far iiidn fjn zai andery, jn a mind, vus gyfint zex of ain kirpcr, kin niit cvingyn di mincn fjn di ibcriky kcrpcrs, cj anerkinyn, az cut“ far ״ uun duitand fjn rjj jn baviigung iz giltik oix far zai, azoi iz oix der bagrif iiidn fjn zai an anderer, jn kainer fjn zai kin niit zaan coat cjj iraabn dym cvaira. der tuuys fjn baobaxtcT, vus it ait of der iird jn bahouptyt, az dus gyzic fjn lixt-faripraitjng gilt niit fam baobaxter fjn kirpcr, baitait alzo in diim, vus er varft um zaan caat-muus dym baobaxter fjn andern kirpcr.

70 licxyk Naxmyn Stainbirg (Isaac Nachman Steinberg): From an article Cj a folkistiier baviig&ng. (In the journal Ofn toil. No. n o /m , pp. 2-3, New York, >955)• Aza oufgaby ken zaan der ciil fjn a naajer folkistiier baviigung, vus zol gyiafh viiem dafky fjn di mindn fjn haantikn dor. farstait zex, az dus tuur niit viiem nox a partai, a *folks-partai,’ vi amuul. ys mjz zaan a braity folks-baviigung, in vilexer ys kinyn gyfinyn zaier plac frjmy jn fraai-dinker, Ciiynistn jn Bundistn, Fraai-landistn jn Iidiiistn oder hibritistn. vuurn zai aly uun ousnam naitikn zex in der ljft fjn ixter Iidiier folkstim- lexkait, jn ys zinyn faran draai gybiitn fjn liibn, in vilexy azi baliibjngs-procis mjz ous gyprubiim viiern. dus zinyn di gybiitn fjn kultiiur, fjn moral, fjn ikonomik.

71 Maks Vaanraax (Max Weinreich) (1894-1969): Beginning of the chapter Dus Smjjl-bjjx in his Bilder fjn der Iidiier literatuurgyiixty, p. 68, Vilna/Vilnius, 1928. Baa der fori-arbyt fjn jndzery naaiy literatuur-historiker iz ain virk gyblibn itain uun a zaat; dus iz dus Smjjl-bjjx. Myn dermant ys, myn zugt viign diim a puur virtcr, ober ir vit in crgyc nit gyfinyn kain braitery uraktcristic fjn der poimy. mir viin duu nit gain zjjxn, vus ys iz di siby derfjn; nor dus iz zixer, az dus virk iz gyvis nit viiert azi baciijng. vuurym ii lout zaan farnim, ii lout zaan forym, ii lout zaan xarakter mjz ys itain in dcr mizrcx-vant fjn jndzcr alter litcratuur. di iltery forsir fjn jndzer litcrariicr fargangynhait, Iidn jn nit-Iidn, hobn zex gruud interysiiert mit n Smjjl-bjjx; fjn uunhaib 18tn bizn sof 19m iuur - hjndert hobn ilser fjfcn gylimty in grisery oder Winery arbytn bariiert di doziky timy.

גל Avruum Am Robak (Abraham Aaron Roback) (1890-1965): From an artidc Far vuus holm nit Litvtiy Iidn dym naitrain miin?(Iidi!y iprax, vol. 4, pp. 81f. 1944). Vi azoi di jmbaliibty zaxn viiem aan gytailt in zuxer jn nykaivy - dym sod far diim darf myn zjjxn in psixologiy. - duu kin myn of itiln a teoriy in aan-ldang mit der psixo- analitiier iity. efscr vit zex lozn dorx fiicra di s ist an az dus ous-ziin fjn zaxn, zaier 186 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries drousndiker ilndnik, baitimt dym gnnuti&n miin. fficr vit zex lozn dergain cj der simbolik az dus soliidy jn linglexy bint zex mit n minlexn miin jn dus kaalexdiky jn xuulyldiky mit n vaablexn miin. of azi oifn voltn mir gyfjnyn a psixologiin iysod fara gramatiin miin. ys varft zex dox in di oign der toxiker, nit der klangiker xarakter fjn der sistim baam gramatiin miin. ak vus iz agresiiv, vus iz aktiiv iz luuin zuxer; ak vus iz pasiiv jn cart, oder dililut iz luuin nykaivy, mir zugn der hjnt viign gancn miin hint, afily viign a coug, jn di kac viign dym gancn miin kic, afily of a kuuter. Far vuus f vaal hint hobn byklal di xarakteristikys fjn miner jn kic - fjn frouyn.

73 Laizer Sindler (Elieser Schindler) (1891-1951): From his book Ildii jn xstidii, pp. 81 and 87, New York, 1950.

A malxysdiky kroin A malxysdiky kroin iz far jndz daan ot, xol guulys and gito, xoi giily laty. fjn brinydikn Snii hiiern mir daan kol... aincikcr Gotyniu, bist jndzer taty, jn miier, di aibik gyroidyfty, daan bxor. trugn mir mit hislaavysdiker fraid daany lixtiky ljjexys, fjn dor cj dor, of di vugt-viign fjnym aibikait...

Xorbn Galiciy Dj amuuliky Iidiy, xsiidiiy mydiiny, maan gyviizyny haixn fjn di Beskiidn jn Karpatn; vj touznt muul touznt Iidn hobn zex raxmymdik gytjliyt q der Sxiny, vi sy tjliyn zex kinder cjm tatn. - vin vistj, got, tikn a naaiym mykoinyn, vus zol mit kinys bavainyn di groisy akatdy fjn daan gyldibyner aidy, Avruums hailiker zumyn, jm gykjmyn cj axpem daan numyn of Galiciys farxuulymty ploinyn?!... 187 East Yiddish

74 Beginning of an article on biochemistry (Algymamy tnciklopidiy, vol. 5, cols. 363-364, New York, 1944). Bioximiy - dcir tail fjn algymainer biologiy jn organiser xemiy, vus farnimt zex mit ous forin di ximiiy jn ftzikalii-xemiiy procisn in leibydiky organizmyn. jmytjm vj s iz faran liibn, kjmyn ksaider fuur ximiiy procisn: ximiiy farbindjngyn viiem ksaider qiteiert jn naaiy viiem gybout. liibydiky organizmyn zaanyn laboratoriys, vus farindem ximiiy itofn of azi oifn, az zai zoln zaan cjj gypast farn gybroux fjnym organizm. iiider liibydiker jn normal funkcioniimdikcr organizm bout ieny ximiiy farbindjngyn, vus zaanyn um naitik, kydai of cj haltn di normaly funkcioniirjngyn fjn aly zaany organyn. vin der oganizm iz nit bykoiex cj riguliim zaany bioximiSy procisn, demit viiert in iim cjstiiert di ximisy glaax-vug, jn der poiyl-ioicy iz a patoiogiier (krankhafter) cuirand. mir kenyn di doziky eriiinungyn baobaxtn baa mindn, vus farliim tailvaaz maxmys a gyviser siby (c. b. an uun-£tikjng mit ieidlexy bakteriys) dym kontrol iber dym itof-baat.

75 Zamy Fiider: Azoi hot ys zix uungykoibn. (From the anthology Zamljng fjn kacet- jn geto-tiidtr, pp. 19, 21, published by the Central Jewish Committee, Bergen- Belsen concentration camp, 1945/1946). Azoi hot ys zex uun gyhoibn. zol myn iiisn!! I Myn hot gyiosn a ltd., Wer schreit denn hier so ?! gyvorfn in vaser araan, Schnauze halten! fargvaldikt a maidl, Willst du ruhig sein, gylozt zi nakyt alain. du Judenschwein ? I jn dan... maan brjjder... dan hot myn gyhongyn lozt mex ... ainym, cvai, draa ... giiex... aly mjzn kjkn, giiex... zaan derbaa. oi! lozt mex, mindn, myn hingt join vaater ? hot raxmuunys far vuus? raxmuunys ... x vais niit... raxmuunys... my hingt... Herr Soldat, ha ben Sie Erbaraien, my hingt... das ist mein Bruder. s iz Buurex, Ach, bleib nur ruhig, Buurex, maan brjjder. du kommst ja auch noch dran. ia! maxt niit kain gyrjjder Verzieh dich, du Judensau, my vit iiisn. Pass auf, dass ich dir nicht eins zol myn iiisn. noch in die Fresse hau. 188 Specimens of Yiddish over Eight Centuries

...taty Bleiben an dan Ort I ־oi, gyvaldt Iidn, da maaner iz dox dort. t r u l ... trax!... tn x l... lozt mex I zjnaly, zug kzdii, oil lozt mex adorxf dcr taty hingt ioin dort. £vaag, ivaag, maidaly, lisgadl vyiiskadyi imai raby ... irca niit, es volt niit viin ivijem ... rid niit kain von - Alles stehen bleiben!... my vit iiisn, ilugn, Mai her horen my vit jndz nox iugn und sich ruhig verhalten, jn plugn, wird euch nichts geschehen. jn dan do it hingyn, Blcibt nur stehen... of maan Ehrenwort, Bleibt nur stehen... derfar ivaag biser, maan kind, So wird jedem Juden passieren, zol zaan itil. der nicht die Judengesetze vus! itil zol zaan! Genau wird durchfuhren. zol myn iiisn ... Die Judengesette zol myn hingyn ... werden morgen uberall miiex oux ... angeschlagen sein, miiex oux ... dass es jeder lesen Lann. oi! Iidn, hot raxmuunys, O, dann mochte ich packen das Schwein, hilft, lozt niit, welches es nicht richtig macht, oi, lozt niit hingyn der hat das letzte mat gelacht. maan man. Ihr Judenbande! dus houz brint... Das Hangen gefallt euch, s kind ligt in viig... was? niit gykont ys ratyvyn ... Wie sie da baumebi. avik mitn roiex... [)as ist schon... Iidn, hilft, Das mart Spass... ex hob dox kain koiex. So, traxl... rrax!... Jetzt konnt ihr ruhig nach ha use gehn. gyvaldl Los ... 10s... nicht stehen bleiben ... gyvald! Nicht stehen ... myn hot mex gyiosnl Judenpack!... Iidn, loifi niit, myn iiist... Kulturloses Volk I ... myn iiist!... Totschlagen musste man euch! Stehen bleiben!... Hier herumspazieren, Stehen bleiben!... Was?... trail... trax!... trax!... Das wurde euch gcfallcn. Haut abl... Got, vjj bistj?! Bis an den Amur. imi Itsruul! Merkt euch, hier herrscht nicht Juda, Stehen bleiben! sondem die deutsche Kultur. 189 East Yiddish

76 Esther Stub (twelve years of age): Liid fjn bouyn barakn. (From the anthology Zamlung fjn kac/t- jn geto-liidtr, published by the Central Jewish Committee, Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, p. 27. Bergen-Belsen, 1945/46). Ainc, cvai, draai - vin viin mir zaan fraai ? hjngerik, buurvys, up gyrisn, fjn taty-enamy guur niit visn - Gotl vi tjt dus vaL ainc, cvai, draai - der tug vil niit farbaai, ilipn dgl, briiter, itainer jn fjn toity minia, bainer. Gotl vi tjt dus vai. ainc, cvai, draai - hiier cjj maan gyirai, fjn jmbakonty masn-kvuurym, Idainy kinder fjn xaduurym, uun mamys baa zai.

ainc, cvai, draai - glaibn mir gytraai, vartn mir jn hofn, vus djj hast jndz fariproxn - am Iiiruuyl xaait

PART FOUR

AN OUTLINE OF YIDDISH GRAMMAR NOTE TO PART FOUR

This grammar is based on part of my German Grammatik (see p. 323, No. So). However, it includes a number of changes I made when translating that part into Yiddish several decades ago. (Being preoccupied with palaeographical work I left that translation in my drawer, where it still lies.) Among these changes was a chapter on the verbal aspects. For publication in this book, some further changes and additions have been made. Contents

SCRIPT AND SOUNDS

The Script 197 The Soviet Orthography 217 Spelling, Transcription, The Phonology of the Northern Pronunciation 200 Dialect 218 READING EXERCISE 20Q Stress 219 Phonetical Remarks 211 The Phoneme Inventory of READING EXERCISE 213 Yiddish 220 The Vowels in the Semitic THE VOWELS 220 Element 213 THE DIPHTHONGS 220 THE VOWEL SIGNS 214 LENGTH OPPOSITION 220 READING EXERCISE 215 THE CONSONANTS 222 WRITING EXERCISE 216 INVENTORY OF CLUSTERS 222 INDEX OF TRANSCRIPTION Initial clusters 222 SIGNS 216 Final clusters 22%

MORPHOLOGY

Noun 224 Class II I 229 INFLECTION 224 Class 1v 230 DECLENSIONS 224 Class v 231 GENDER 227 Class Vi 231 PLURAL 228 C lassy 11 231 Class 1 228 NOUN FORMATION 231 Class II 229 DIMINUTIVE 238 !94 Contents

MINUTIVE 239 Special cases 263 Adjective 241 Preterite present 263 INFLECTION 241 breng and vais 263 First Declension 241 Prefixed verts 264 Second or Substantival Declension 242 Advert-linked verts 264 COMPARISON 243 Auxiliary verts 265 Inflection 243 Other tenses 269 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES 244 Past 269 True adjectives 244 Pluperfect 269 Compounds 244 Future 269 Participles 244 Future past 269 Affixes 245 Other moods 269 Prefixes 245 Imperative 269 Suffixes 245 Optative 270 Pronoun 247 Permissive 270 PERSONAL PRONOUN 247 Prohibitive 270 REFLEXIVE PRONOUN 250 Oblijrative 270 POSSESSIVE PRONOUN 250 Nccessitathe 270 First declension 252 Conditional 270 Second declension 253 Past conditional 271 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN 253 Aspects 2 7 1 ARTICLE 254 Perfective 271 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN 254 Singulative 272 RELATIVE PRONOUN 255 Inchoative 272 INDEFINITE PRONOUN 255 Iterative 272 Numerals 256 Habitual 272 CARDINAL 256 Past habitual 273 ORDINAL 258 Causative 273 FRACTIONS 2SQ Reflexive verts 273 Verb 260 Real reflexive 274 TYPES OF VERBS 260 Psychological reflexive 274 INFLECTION 260 Ethic reflexive 274 FIRST CONJUGATION: WEAK Passive voice 274 VERBS 261 SECOND CONJUGATION: STRONG Active voice: tense and mood 261 VERBS 275 Present indicative 261 First class: jaj - 1 of 276 Verb infinite 262 Second class: Jij - /0(00, uu)/ 276 Infinitive 262 Third class: i, ii - o(uu) 277 Contemporal 262 Fourth class: (i - oi 278 Participle 263 Fifth class: ai - oi 278 !95 Contents

Sixth class: ii - oi 278 FOURTH CONJUGATION: Viitr ■f Seventh class: i - j 278 invariable 289 Eighth class: a a - i 279 FORMATION OF VERBS 290 Ninth class: Miscellaneous From nouns 290 gradations 280 From adjectives 290 Tenth class: No gradation 280 From roots 291 Alphabetical list o f strong verbs 281 Onomatopoeic words 291 Alphabetical list o f strong From verbs 291 participles 284 Adverbs 291 THE PERIPHRASTIC VERBS: Prepositions 292 THE THIRD CONJUGATION 288 Conjunctions 292 (Bin + invariable) 288

SYNTAX

The Statement Sentence 293 APPOSITION 299 THE PREDICATE 293 JUXTAPOSITION 300 THE OBJECT 294 QUALIFIERS OF ADJECTIVES AND Direct object 294 ADVERBS 300 Indirect object 295 WORD ORDER 3 0 0 Direct plus indirect object 295 GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS Prepositional object 295 301 THE ATTRIBUTE 295 NEGATION 302 Adjectival attribute 296 The Word Order Predicate- Pronominal attribute: possessive Subject 302 pronoun as attribute 296 Co-ordination of Sentences 303 Noun unattended by article 296 The Interrogative Sentence 304 Noun with indefinite article 296 Command and Optative Demonstrative pronoun as attribute 297 Sentences 304 Indefinite pronoun as attribute 297 Subordination of Sentences 305 Numeral as attribute 298 CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSES 305 Noun as attribute 299 THE RELATIVE CLAUSE 306 Adverb and adverbial phrase as INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE attribute 299 CLAUSE 306 Co-ordination o f attributes 299

Script and Sounds

The Script

1 Yiddish, like all Jewish languages, employs the Hebrew alphabet.1 For printing the so-called ‘Square script’3 is used, for handwriting the cursive style.3 However, the use of the Square script for Yiddish is a comparatively recent development. Before chat, only mashait4 and cursive had been employed in manuscripts, and only mashait in printing, and this remained so until well into the first half of the nineteenth century. In handwriting mashait had disappeared after the invention of printing, when books were no longer handwritten by professional scribes. The alphabet consists of 22 characters plus 5 obligatory variants which have to be used whenever the letter stands in word-final position.5 The script runs from right to left, and this applies to the construction of the letters too. The chart on pp. 198-99 shows the alphabet in printed and in handwritten form. The remarks accompanying the chart may be useful to readers who are used only to the Latin characters, which are shaped from left to right.

1 Seep. 13 f. 2 This style, used now for printing Yiddish as well as Hebrew, is noc of the Ashkenzaic type: see my The Hebrew Scripts, Part I, columns 270-271. It is the cursive of the Ashkenazic type, Yiddish being the language of Ashkenazic Jewry (each נ of the various historical Jewries having developed a writing type of its own). Regarding the development of the Ashkenazic cursive, see op. dL, Part I, columns 303-309, and Part II, No*. 349-365. 4 A book hand (unreasonably called ,Rabbinic’). 5 T hert is one exception: p. 308, No. 68. 198 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

*4** 34• ai** 21• 20• 19• 16• 13• 11• 2• 1• 27 26 25 24 aj aa 21 ao

ס ףצ ־ן ק ר ש ת א ב כ ל נ ע פ ף ףק ק פ ף ףק ע נ ל כ ב א ת ש ר ק ־ן ףצ ס

בל U avj r , / ז

16 runs well below the base line and mostly sweeps far leftwards. 16* docs not extend below the base line; the leftward stroke is short. 18 is a circle or ellipse, written clockwise. 19 is started on top, right. 19• The loop has disappeared. 20 is written clockwise and runs well below the base line. 20• starts at the base line. 21 starts at the base line as a narrow, anti-clockwise loop, continues upwards high beyond the line ceiling, turning clockwise to run down, forming a narrow loop, that crosses the main stroke, ends as a separate, clockwise curve in vertical position. 21 • The two curves are on the right of the main stroke. 21•• The separate curve has become the continuation of the upper curve by turning anticlockwise (a treble clef in musical notation). 22 The upper curve is generally bigger than the lower one and is above the line ceiling. 23 starts at the line ceiling with a down stroke that, at the base line, turns upwards and runs high above the line ceiling. 24 The top is a smallish curve. The tail is long. 24• The top curve has disappeared. 24•• The letter often has the construction of the Square style. 26 is started anti-clockwise, from the right. 27 The right stroke is written first.

The letters of a word are not supposed to be linked together. However, many writers do link up certain letters; e.g., n + d, n + h, k + d, k + h, even t + p, n + i, q + r, 1 + r, v + i, i + i, c + v, etc. Still, the visual impression of a page of Yiddish or Hebrew handwriting is that of unlinked lettering. 199 Script and Sounds

19 18 17 16 15 14 13 1a 11 10 9 8 76543 31

א ב גד ה! וו חם י כ ךל ט ם ג ן סע ם ט י כ ךל חם וו ה! גד א ב מל^י־ו,i 0 IJ P ?3 '61)1

1 The right put is written first. 1* This is a frequent variant - the letter has come apart. It then very easily becomes indistinguishable from No. 33, p. 304; hence this farm is better avoided.

3 starts in a clockwise direction. 3* Without tbe final rightward turn. 3 The curve hangs down from the (imaginary) base line of the writing. 4 starts clockwise; the upper part is larger; the lower is slightly farther to the right. 7 The curve is below the (imaginary) base line of the writing. 8 The stroke to the right is written first. 9 starts on top, right, and proceeds in clockwise direction. 11 is written clockwise, the bottom stroke sweeps well below the (imaginary) base line of the writing. 11• The bottom stroke does not sweep below the base line.

13 In a variant, the top is rather large, sweeping upwards above the (imaginary) line ceiling. 13 starts at the little slanting bottom stroke. From the bottom it proceeds upwards, to high above the line ceiling, then curves clockwise back to the main stroke. 13• The right-hand part of the loop (i.e., historically the original main stroke of the letter) has disappeared, leaving only a little top curve which may even bccome straight. Neither of these two variants is to be recommended. 14 starts on the right. The letter is usually very narrow and differs strongly from Roman N. 15 starts from the left side of the circle and runs clockwise. On finally reaching the line ceiling outside the circle, it slants down leftwards, usually to well below the base line. 200 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Spelling, Transcription, Pronunciation

2 There are two spelling systems in Yiddish, one for the Semitic element, the other for the Indo-European one. The latter grew out of the former,* Already in very ancient Semitic documents we come across cases where phonetical development had resulted in a consonant letter standing for a new vowel. This gave rise to the practice of using these letters, by analogy, also for the same vowels when they were not of the same origin. This system of scriptio plena was also employed in Hebrew and in the Aramic languages of the Jews, where it grew and spread in the biblical, talmudic and *rabbinic* literatures. When Yiddish came onto the scene it inherited from Zarphatic the principle of full plene spelling, i.e., without the re- straint imposed by the scriptio defectiva which was still the dominant system in Hebrew (and Aramic).1 Although the spelling of the Indo-European element changed in the course of centuries, it remained fairly consistent until the Enlighten- ment, when those under its influence started imitating the spelling of German. But outside their circles these changes advanced very slowly. Among the masses, old spellings have survived until the present. Today several orthographic systems are in existence, and the differences between them are by no means negligible. In this grammar two systems are given side by side: a traditionalist one9 (on the right hand side of the slant-line/slash/solidus) and a nationalist one3 (on the

1 In Ashkenazic Hebrew, wordsoflndo-European origin hive hitherto always been spelt according to the Yiddish system - a natural and practical procedure. In recent times, however, this his been discarded and a ‘strictly Hebrew' system adopted. Those responsible for the change did not appreciate that the Yiddish system is a continuation of the Hebrew one. It is ironical that at a time when the striptu plena is being extended in Hebrew to a higher degree thin ever before - the object being to fadlitite reading - the fully developed plene spelling of Indo- European words in Hebrew context is being abolished, with the result that such words are now ,:Parrallass, par alias ?ו ל difficult or even impossible to read correctly. E.g. qame$ or patah in 0 0 paralass, parrallas, paralass, parrilas, piralas, prallass, prilass, pralias, prilis, parlasi, par last, par lass, par lass, fa n alia ss etc. Unless one happens to know the name - Perks, Perlis, Perels - the word is an enigma. The following case belongs to a different category: The German diphthong au was rendered waw yodh when the Enlightenment authors wrote German in Hebrew characters. In presentday Hebrew this has been replaced by aleph waw, with the obvious intention of avoiding the Yiddish spelling. The general reader and writer, no doubt, takes aleph waw as a transliteration of «11, i.e., aleph = a, waw — u. He is thus misled into using an un-Hebrew formation (even if the scholars who introduced the aleph waw might have had in mind a Hebrew construction - a patah preceding the aleph: a'u would then be an approximation to au, i.e., Ba-um for Baum). 1 It combines traditional elements with a more accurate rendering of the phonological structure of Yiddish. It was adopted, in 1930, by one of the biggest school organizations of Poland’s m y יעקב) Jewish population 3 That of the ‘ Yivo Institute for Jewish Research.’ 201 Script and Sounds

left). However, apart from 2-20 there is a simplification in the rest of this grammar: Where the difference consists merely in the presence or absence of vowel signs, or daghesh, we have given the traditionalist spelling as it makes for easier reading; anyone wishing to ignore the vowel signs can do so. The transcription is based on the pronunciation of the great majority - who comprise three quarters of all Yiddish speakers - if we think of the vowel letters as representing the ‘Italian’ or German values. However, we may also consider the system as ‘neutral,’ ‘interdialectal’ (so that, for instance, u means [0] for a speaker of Northern Yiddish, see para. 17) and this is obvious in the signs j and u.

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

alyf Weak glottal stop, as between the two es — א (1) of Eng. re-entry. It is written only אונדז ’,jm y ‘nation אומה :י or ו before iser איסור ’,oig ‘eye אױג/אויג ’,jndz ‘us indik איגדיק ’,iz ‘is איז ’,prohibition‘ aivl‘little אייװל ’,aaz ‘ice אייז ’,turkey‘ ’,rjjik ‘quiet, calm תאיק/רױק ’;stove -partans ‘of a [polפארטײאיש/פארטיײש sraaiik שרייאיק/שריײק ’,itical] party ’.zeijng ‘vision זעאמג/זעװג ’,garish‘ a lyf At the end of words of the Semitic — א (2) element. Resembles e in Eng. behalf ': ’.maily ‘well; for all I care מילא/ מיל א

This is the only case when a letter is י a b f — א/ — (3) written for a purely graphic reason: it ,from another 1 י serves to separate one when the two letters do not form a ’,vjj ‘where װאו/וװ :spelling unit פרװו/ ’,voint ‘resides װאוינט/וװינט ’.prjjv ‘try פרואװ ארט/ ארט :alyfl Like /0/ in (London) Eng. hot /אא 0 (4) ’,vor cl ‘root װאו־צל/װארצל ’,kumyc ort ‘place plain, ordinary.’1‘ / ^פראסט/פראסט a lyf

1 There is no danger of this sign being confused with Nos. (1) or (2), as it occurs only between consonants, while Nos. (1) and (2) appear only in conjunction with vowels. 202 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

האדן/האוץ :m 00 alyf] Like /0/ in Eng. horn (5) ־kumyc a lyf hoor-n ‘horn.’12 m l ‘bereaved א5 ל .׳u kumyc a ly f Like /u/ in Eng. put א (6) vug ‘weight’ (property of װאג ’,person א3ע/באבעbeing heavy); ‘scales,’ 1 buiy ‘grandmother.* -uuser ‘for ו0א <" :kvmye a ly f Like /u/ in Ger. gut »» 9 (7) muus מאס ’,without‘ אן bidden,’ 1001 Kuuzmark (place קאזמארק ’,measure* name).*•8 (8) 8 a pdsex a ly f Resembles the u in London Eng. cut, זאמז* ’,aser ‘forbid אםר :NA 0 in lot ’.cap ‘he-goat צאפ ’,zamd ‘sand grdm גראם :pdsex a ly f Resembles a in Eng. father * * (9) ‘rhyme.’ אמר/מאמרaa pdsex + Resembles a in Eng. father: 5 . א (10) pdsex maamer *saying; essay.’ a lyf aa(i) pdsex + Resembles a in Eng. father; regionally _אי (11) הלװאי/הלײאי :/a lyfijjd followed by short /i hahaalf) *would that.’ bysod « נ 10ד/ב0וד :b bait Like b in Eng. bee נ/ב4 (12) ’briiv *letter ברקז/בריװ ’,secretly* ’.brjk *paved surface בריק ,(missive) lyvuuny ךיבגה/לבגה :vats Like v in Eng. veil ב ס (3!) *moon.’

•gjzmy *exag גוזמא : giml Like g in Eng. go £ 1 (4«) guul גאל ’,grait ‘ready גרײט ’,geradon *shave.’ davky ךװקא/דװקא :d dalyt Like d in Eng. do י (1S) ד ע םנ/ ’,diiex *thigh דלך/דץ־ ’,just* ’.oak‘ דעמב

W iraw, 1930, I suggested a dot above the letter to indicate length , ילדי*קײIn my ]W 0 2 of the vowel: it 09, y aa, ft d. '.Kuuzmcr *Guunir קןמטעד > 3 4 For handwriting the dot (daghesh) can be dispensed with. 203 Script and Sounds

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

jndzer אונדזער :dz dalyt Like ds in Eng. hands ח (16) zaa(i)yn ‘our’. dzegexc דזשעגעכץ : dz dalyt Like /j/ in Eng .jam דזש (17) zaa(i)yn ‘tar.’ sii(y)n hdnuuy הנאה/הנאה :h hai Like /h/ in Eng. hand ה (18) הערב/ ’,hjjs ‘cough הוס/הום /pleasure‘ ’.herb ‘coat-of-arms הע ר ב -Not pronounced in medial or final posi — ה (19) ה — tion in words of the Semitic element: ’komy koiyn ‘Aaronide כהן/כהן -bruxy, ‘bless ב ר כ ה/ ב ר כ ה ,(’Cohen‘) ing’; however, in final position it reveals the presence of a vowel. A m אהרן :d pdsex + Resembles /a/ in Eng. father _ ה (20) hai ‘Aaron.’ התלהבות/ :aa pdsex + Resembles /a/ in Eng. father _ ה (21) -hislaavys ‘enthusiasm, fer התלהבות pasex hai vour.’ vaiuuder ואדר/ואדר :v vuv Like v in Eng. veil ו (22) ‘Adar II.’ (mjmxy (an מומחה :j vuv Like i in Eng. fit ו (23) קופע ’,kjper ‘copper קופער ’,expert‘ kjpy ‘heap.’ used in international ,׳u vuv Like u in Eng. p u t ו (24) institut ‘institute.’5 אינםטיטוט :words Iiyv איוב/איוב :y vuv Resembles e in Eng. behalf ו (25) רחמנות/רחמנות ’,the Biblical) ‘Job) raxmuunys ‘pity, mercy.’ vuv Not pronounced in an unstressed final — ו (26) ול3מ / :syllable ending in /1/ or jnj ניצחון/נצחון ’,mab-l ‘the Flood מבול nicux-y ‘victory.’

.ו:A popular phonetic device to indicate this special pronunciation of the letter $ 204 Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

j j myljpm Resembles « in Eng. meet: iYVKlfUlM י/י (27) ב #ד ה/ ב » ר ה ’ ת /ת ’,Puj(& y ‘message repose.’ -u& myljpm Like u in Ger. Hut. Used in *inter ו/י (28) *natiur נאםיד/מטור :’vuv national words xoilym Like 0 in London Eng. hot: (a) in ck)6ed * י/ו (29) vuv syllable: TIO/Tto sod ‘a secret’; mytoryf םסירף/מטורף :/b) before /r) darnr רך/דורך1ד ’,deranged, mad‘ -borik ‘beet בידיק/בודיק ’,through‘ root.’ RegionaUy: e (No. 62): m ytbyf, etc. ’.goo ,Gentileגיי/גױ :xoilym Like 0 in Eng. horn י/ו 00 (30) vuv See also No. 34. oi xoilym Like oy in Eng. boy : "VXWpXtW iotmer י/ו 30) haftoiry הפסירה/הםםודה ’,vm ‘a guard ‘haftarah.’ vuv ‘the װאװ/װאװ :v cvai vuvn Like v in Eng. veil װ (32) ’,vuus, vus ‘what 0$װ ,י’ letter ’.vicery ‘evening meal װעסשערע toib יי3/סדבxoilym Like oy in Eng. boy: 0 <° ױיי/ (33) ploit ‘fence.’ When פל 1יס/פלױס ’,vuv + ‘deaf ijjd the diphthong occurs in foreign words, we transcribe it as oi to differentiate it from the usual oi because this has also the regional pronunciation [ei]. :ooi xoilym Like oy in Eng. boy, but with a long 0 יי/ױ (34) (.gooi ‘ Gentile.’ (See also No. 30 נוי/גרי + vuv ijjd ou vuv ijjd The 0 like in London Eng. hot, the u יי (35) ’.toub ‘pigeon ױכlike in Eng. put: 0 (To spell the diphthong [oj] in foreign -is a breach of the inter ױ words as dialectal principle in Yiddish spelling.) z zaa(i\yn Like z in Eng. zoo: pT/]?T zman ‘fixed ז (36) זלאסע ’,zjmer ‘summer זומער ’,time Zlaty (female name). 205 Script and Sounds

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation aby£ זשאבע/זשאבע :zaa(i)yn Like z in Eng. azure £ זש (37) sii(y)n ‘frog.’ חכם/חכם \x xes Like ch in Scottish loch ח (38) xuxym ‘wise man.’ tuuys טעות/טעות \t tes Like t in Eng. toe ט (39) טעסלער ’,tjnkl ‘dark טונקל ’,mistake‘ tester ‘carpenter.’ c'uulnt (a טשאלנט :c tes Like ch in Eng. chalk טש (40) mine ‘human מענטש ,(sii(y)n certain dish ’.c'ipy ‘pester, worry טשעפע ’,being iosyf יוםף/יוסף :i(i) ijjd Like y in Eng. yes י (41) ijng יונג ’,iuu(e)r ‘year יואר ’,Joseph‘ ’,(iener ‘that (one יענער ’,young‘ Mem יערן/יערן ’,Ungl ‘boy ײנגל/ץנגל ’ .iascerky ‘ lizard יאשטשערקע ’,ferment ‘ there can be ײ In words starting with no doubt that the first letter must be functioning as a consonant, and the ײ second letter as a vowel. For if this were to indicate the diphthong ai (No. 46), it would have to be preceded by as vowel letters cannot י or ו since , א begin a word by themselves. In the transcription, however, where there is -the tran ,א nothing corresponding to scription ii might be thought to indicate Her ‘you.’ To avoid איר/איר long i, as in that, a diaeresis is placed on the first i : Ungl. (See also No. 46.) לויגן5גי / :y ijjd Resembles e in Eng. behalf י / ע6 (42) ארימאן/ ’,gyfloign ‘flown געפלויגן ל א פי ט ע/ ’,uuryman ‘poor man ארעמאן ’.lopyty ‘spade ל א פ ע ט ע ??רידה/מרידה :xiiryk + Resembles ee in Eng. see ** •י (43) ijjd meriidy ‘revolt.’

is still alive even though it י Besides being used in the traditionalist system, the spelling with 6 has not been seen in print for decades. 206 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

גיגוץסט/ :Is ***Jk Resembles ee in Eng. see" ל (44) gybrtm t ‘boasted.’ If it געכרימם ijjd follows on a word-initial, the ii of our transcription is replaced by /, to Itdii ץדיש :avoid the sequence hi ,Jewish, Yiddish.’ ai cairy + Resembles (London) Eng. - regionally -י/’ (45) ,aimy ‘fearאימה/אימה :ijjd na - i in time maily , well; for all מילא/מילא ’ ,terror ’.saider *order ?ידד/םדר ’,I care ai cvai ijjdn Resembles London Eng. - regionally יײ (46) ’,btai ‘snow «ײ :na 1 in time xram ‘horse radish.’ In foreign כריץ :י words the diphthong [aj] is spelled 8 transcribed al to differentiate from the normal /ai/, because this has also the regional pronunciations [ej] and M ai (the month) ‘May.’ It פאי :[ej] is thus [aj] in all pronunciations. (To spell the diphthong [aj] in foreign -is a breach of the inter ל words as dialectal principle in Yiddish spelling, since to the majority of Yiddish speakers * means [a:].) %יי (47) aa(i) pdsex + Resembles a in Eng. father; regionally רניתײ/רבותי :/cvai ijjdn followed by short /i raioissaa{i)} ‘Gentlemen!’ (lit. *My masters!’). draa דרל :aa(i) pdsex Resembles a in Eng. father (48) cvai ijjdn ‘three,’ regionally plus !if. יי׳ (49) aa pdsex Resembles a in Eng. father: OX?n haant cvai ijjdn ‘today.’ kaly לה/פלהk k u f Like c in Eng. come: 5 פ (50) ‘bride.’ sxar &?ר/&כד :X x u f Like ck in Scottish lock כ 50) ’,hexer ‘higher ה ע מ ר ’,reward‘ ’.xitry ‘*Jy כיטדע 207 Script and Sounds

No. Sign Transcription Nam* Pronunciation

-x langy x u f Like ch in Scottish loch; used in word ך (52) Buurex ברוך/בריך :final position ’,zox ‘sickness זאך/זאל ’,Baruch‘ nibtx ‘poor thing; poor נעבעך/מגבעך me ’ etc. luubt ^שין/לשין :Like / in Eng. huk ל 1 (53) lapy לא® ע ',Ijft *air לופט ’,language‘ ‘paw.’ ’.liady *any ליאדע:li lamyd ijjd Like I in Eng .failure לי (54) mazl ןמל/מזל :m mAn Like m in Eng. mind 0 (55) מאלםע ’,mist ‘to measure מעסט ’,luck‘ malpy ‘monkey, ape.’ *,iam ‘sea ;ם/ים :Q m ilos-mfm Like m in Eng. mind (56) ’,h im ‘eye-brow נרן ם/כרע ם boiym ‘the wrong באקיס/באקעם way.’ Used in word-final position. nyiumy גשמה/נשמה :Like n in Eng. now ״ע״ ״ 1 )57( njdny ני ת ע ’,nmmt ‘near נאנס ’,soul‘ *boring, tedious.’ Before g or k, and after g, k or x it becomes rj like n in finger [jigger] ‘finger פיזמו* Eng. sing [binkt [beqkt בענקם/בענקט '[finer] [zugndik [zug-rj-dik דאגגדיק ’,longs‘ mikndik םעקנדיק ’,while saying‘ שטעכגדיק ’,mek-tj-dik] ‘whilst erasing] itixndik [Stix-g-dik] ‘while stinging.’ (58) I n ilixty 1 Like n in Eng. now; used in word-final ’,kamcn ‘miser קסצן/קמצן :ttjjn position klm קלין ’,gUtn ‘to stroke גלעטן ‘wedge.’ After g, k ar x it becomes zugn [zug-y] ‘say,’ f W זאגן :]ס] mikn [mik-tj] ‘erase,’ p » W Uixn [itix-fj] ‘sting.’ זשמעגיע :Like ni in Eng. Spaniard * ש״ ש״ « י )59( zminiy ‘handful.’

7 *anight.' 208 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation story םהירה/סתירה : samex Like s in Eng. set ם 1 (60) ’,vaist ‘knows װײםט *,contradiction‘ ’.saly ‘soot םאושע aa(i)yn Weak glottal stop, as between the two — ע (61) akin עקשן/עקשן .es of Eng. re-entry ‘stubborn man,’ uver ‘past,* ’,iiryv ‘on the eve of ץר3/עדב oilym לם/עולם1ע ’,o f ‘fowl ף/עוף1ע iker ‘main עיקר ’,people, public‘ thing, principal thing,’ TVSSjTtTVg aicy ‘advice.’ (i A sound between the a of (London ע (62) ipl ע»ל :Eng. mat and the e of met ‘apple.’ (63) 9 t aa(i)yn Like the e in (London) Eng. miller: װלרעך ’,mUhter ‘miller מילנעקמילנער iorex מאחנך/שארעך ’,vaarex ‘incense *a rustle.’ (64) S y aa(i)yn Resembles the e in Eng. behalf: fSO^n roity (inflected form), V'VSb רױטע gyflotgn לױק6ץ/גע1לױ6ד ’,pary ‘steam uuryman * poor ארימאן/ארעמזן ’,flown * ’.lopyty ‘spade לאפיטע/לאפעסע ’ ,man (65) vpg H sfigl Resembles ay in (London) Eng. day : ’.ttig ,days ם^ג/טעג aa(i)yn :d pdsex + Resembles a in (London) Eng. father . ע/ ע (66) aa(i)yn OWjQ9Q tdm *taste.’ (67) 9/?_ aa pdsex + Resembles a in (London) Eng. father: ,maaly ‘good quality לה/סעלה?pasex 9 aa{i)yn virtue.’ 'patry'frmt $יזײ/פרי : p pai Like p in Eng. pat * (68) ’,paa(i)erty *peasant woman פייערטע plaicy ‘shoulder,’ arup פלײצע ‘down’; used also - as here - in word- final position, not as in No. 70. oifn ן6ן/או6אי :fa i Like / in Eng. four / 6 (69) אליmanner,’ fjn ‘of, from,’ /9 0 8 6‘ ’.fasoliy *bean &ליע$08 209 Script and Sounds

No. Sip 1 Transcription Name Pronunciation

-hoif ,court הייף/הױף ’,s o f'tnd וף0וף/ langjfai 0 / ף (70) yard.’ Used in word-final position. p S l/p # | cufn .׳S c cadyk Like ts in Eng. bits (71) cvang ,tongs,’ V?VgS צודאגג ’,north, cocky ,ornament.’ xaifyc ץ6ץ/ח6חי :c langy Like ts in Eng. bits ץ (72) ’,zifc 4sigh ץ6ױ ’,cadyk ,object, thing buxeric ‘a strong בחודעץ/בחודעץ and/or unruly youth.’ koidym קיז־ם/קידם :P * k jjf Like c in Eng. come (73) kaiil קײשל ’,karp ,carp ק«רפ ’ ,before‘ ‘basket.’ ;r rail Usually velar, like a weak French r ר (74) there are also rolled varieties; the (er sounds like the (London רending 9 ’,rov ‘majority רוב/ריב .English one דאזשינקע/ראזשמקע ’,roig ‘roe רייג/רױג ’.mjter ‘mother מוט ער ’,roiinky ‘raisin ’,Itjs ‘ nonseose שטית:i & (j)n Like sh in Eng. shut ® (75) iafy שא&מ ’,iam ‘beautiful מיץ ‘cupboard.’ ’.simxy ‘joy &ימחוs sH(y)n Like s in Eng. se t:5 (76) tahnyd תלמיד/הלמיד :B t tuv Like t in Eng. toe (77) ‘pupiL’ xasyny ןזתינה/חתתה :suv Like s in Eng. set (78) ‘wedding.’

READING EXERCISE

3 די/דד, דא, הא, װאי/וװ״ /אוװ.1אװא אזא, םו/טו, אט/אט, האם/האט, גום, מ ט, טיט/ מ ט, גום, האם/האט, אט/אט, םו/טו, אזא, /אוװ.1אװא װאי/וװ״ הא, דא, די/דד, tjjt tat gjt (k)ot ot tjj aza avjj yjj ha duu djj מים, גיס, אגל/מכל, אהל/אה*־, די, דל/די, תל/ידי, ד, זל/זי, אזיי/אזד, טויט/טויט, בוים, טויט/טויט, אזיי/אזד, זל/זי, ד, תל/ידי, דל/די, די, אהל/אה*־, אגל/מכל, גיס, מים, 401a toit azoi zii zi vii dii di ahH abii git הויט, ללם,1 חלם, זלם, איי, גייט, היי, ודיי, זייס, טייס, יא/יא. אלא/אלא, װלא/ודא, כװןןט, װלא/ודא, אלא/אלא, יא/יא. טייס, זייס, ודיי, היי, גייט, איי, זלם, חלם, ללם,1 הויט, *wif vioo *too too tait zait vai hai gait ai zaat vaat boat hout 210 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

דאכט, דאך יאך/דאך, זאך, װאך/װאך. לאך, לאך/לאך, איט/לויט, לויס, ללט, לויס, איט/לויט, לאך/לאך, לאך, װאך/װאך. זאך, יאך/דאך, דאך דאכט, loot lout loit lox lax vox tax dox dox daxt ללכם, נילט/בילט, בלוט/בלום, גללך, ווילט, אלל, בלל/בלל, מ ל, ת ל, הולטאי, ת ל, מ ל, בלל/בלל, אלל, ווילט, גללך, בלוט/בלום, נילט/בילט, ללכם, kjltai djl gal baai aal vilt glaax bljt bill laaxt הלל, הייל, וד׳ל, װלל, זאל/זאל, זויל, מאך, מאל, מאלט, מלל, מויל, מלל, לאמם, מלל, מויל, מלל, מאלט, מאל, מאך, זויל, זאל/זאל, װלל, וד׳ל, הייל, הלל, turn! maal moul miil muult muul max zoul zol vaal vil hail hiil 13 ים/בדם, לאם, נאך/גאך, נאך, נאל, גל, ױט, נייט/נױט, גייט, װא1 ט, װינט, װאויגט/װוינט, װינט, ט, vomt vint vant nait noit nit naa(i) nuul nuux nox lum bom וזיינם, האגם, הונס, דגם, טינט׳ אין׳ אץ׳ ׳P ׳r3 ■P/T3 ײז׳1 יי!׳ ז ־ ™׳ לז.ד האן׳ האן׳ לז.ד ז ־ ™׳ יי!׳ ײז׳1 ׳r3 ■P/T3 ׳P אץ׳ אין׳ טינט׳ דגם, הונס, האגם, וזיינם, huun daan diin din gain bain biin bin in jn tint zint hjnt hant vamt הון/הון, אהךן/אהין, װאיץ/וװץ, װלן, וױין, זון, זון/זון, זלן, טון/טון, לױן/לק, מאן, מאן, מאן, לױן/לק, טון/טון, זלן, זון/זון, זון, וױין, װלן, װאיץ/וװץ, אהךן/אהין, הון/הון, muun man loin tjjn zaan zjjn zjn vain vaan voin M in hjjn מלן, מיץ, נלן, ניץ, טונק, אומזיסט, 3 יסט, 3 לםט, גאסט, ױםט, גלסט/גיסט, גייסט, גלסט/גיסט, ױםט, גאסט, לםט, gaist giiit gist gast boast bist jmzist tjnk nam naan main maan הוסט/הוסט, הייסט, װלסס/װיםט, ודיסט, דיסט, טוסט/מוסט, יוסט, מיסט, נלסט/גיסט, מיסט, יוסט, טוסט/מוסט, דיסט, ודיסט, װלסס/װיםט, הייסט, הוסט/הוסט, nist mist ijst tjjst zaist vaist viist haist hjjst אוים, נאם, נים, גאם, גאם/גאם, גלם/גים, דאם, הוס/הום, היים, תאם, ווים, ודים, זלם, ודים, ווים, תאם, היים, הוס/הום, דאם, גלם/גים, גאם/גאם, גאם, נים, נאם, אוים, ziis vais vaas vus hais hjjs dus p is gos gas bis bos ous נאם, נום, דם, גיס/גיס, עט, עסט, בעם, געסם, העם, ה9 נם, וחנל, װעט, מעסט, 3ע, be mist vit vil hint hit gist bit ist it niis nis njs nas בץם/בעם, הןםם/זעסט, מעל/מעל, ױבןט/געבעם, גיהאט/געהאט, גיטון/געטון, גיהאט/געהאט, ױבןט/געבעם, מעל/מעל, הןםם/זעסט, בץם/בעם, gytjjn gyhat gybiit miil ziist biit דמאלט/געמאלט, אלע, כװאליע, דערזעץ/דעחען, דערציילט, הענטלעך, ניסלעך, אם,8 ניסלעך, הענטלעך, דערציילט, דערזעץ/דעחען, כװאליע, אלע, דמאלט/גע מאלט, pas nislex hentlex dercailt derziin xvaliy aly gymuult 9 איט/פלויט, זאפט, זופט, דפט/דפט, סאפט, דזתט/געזונט, סופע, יפם/פויפם,1פ סופע, דזתט/געזונט, סאפט, דפט/דפט, זופט, זאפט, איט/פלויט, poips tjpy gyzjnt tapt ziipt zjpt zapt ploit ,0/םא0םא לי■, פאלט, פאן, פאך/פאך, פול, פון, שלן, פע, גיפינט/געפינט, האפם/האםט, גיפינט/געפינט, פע, שלן, פון, פול, פאך/פאך, פאן, פאלט, לי■, ,0/םא0םא hoft gyfirt ft faan fj* fjl f°x fan fob Up top איפמ/לויפם, האף/האף, הייף/הױף, לויף/לױף, גאפ, גאל, *אן, גייט, ,6גע איצט, ,6גע גייט, *אן, גאל, גאפ, לויף/לױף, הייף/הױף, האף/האף, איפמ/לויפם, ict cep coat cuun cuul cap lo if hoif h o f loift הייגם, היץ, וזייץ, סוץ, קאפ/קאפ, קאכט/קאכט, קאן, קוקם, קען, באקט, דאנקם, זעקם, דאנקם, באקט, קען, קוקם, קאן, קאכט/קאכט, קאפ/קאפ, סוץ, וזייץ, היץ, הייגם, ziks dankt bakt kin kjkt kum koxt kop tjc vaic hie hoict באק, אוועק, ראסע/ראסע, רוט, תיס/רדם, אדא», ארט/ארם, דראט, פארע, פאר, פארע, דראט, ארט/ארם, אדא», תיס/רדם, רוט, ראסע/ראסע, אוועק, באק, far pary druut ort amp roit rjt rosy avik bak שאם, שיל, ץ/שדן,1ש שיין, שמץ, שדרן׳, דישעל, ודאשט, קושם, מעש, זשאודער, סאזשע, זשאודער, מעש, קושם, ודאשט, דישעל, שדרן׳, שמץ, שיין, ץ/שדן,1ש שיל, שאם, saiy lover mii kjit vait diiel irovf ipm iom iom ijjl la* 211 Script and Sounds

פאטשט, קאטשקע, העכ ט, וועלט, ווען, זעט, געל/געל, דע.ם/דעם, זעט/זעט, כ אפ ט, זעט/זעט, דע.ם/דעם, געל/געל, זעט, ווען, וועלט, העכ ט, קאטשקע, פאט שט, xapt zeit deim geil ze't ven velt hext kacky pact סאפע, פיפ ס/פיפ ס, טאפ/טאפ, טעפ, פאן, פונט, §לס/§יס, פויל, לופט, נאפט, זייף, נאפט, לופט, פויל, §לס/§יס, פונט, פאן, טעפ, טאפ/טאפ, פיפ ס/פיפ ס, סאפע, zaif naft Ijft foul fits fjnt fuun tep top piips sapy טיף/טיף, צ אפ/צ אפ, צום, צופט, צעך, ציין, צען, בליצט, זיצט, זעצט, געצט, זעץ, טאץ, זעץ, געצט, זעצט, זיצט, בליצט, צען, ציין, צעך, צופט, צום, צ אפ/צ אפ, טיף/טיף, lac zee nect zect zict blict cen cain cex cjpt cjm cop tiif פוץ, קאלט, קאן/קאן, קאסע/קאסע, קום, קומסט, קויט/קויט, קויל, קי_יכט, אקט, קי_יכט, קויל, קויט/קויט, קומסט, קום, קאסע/ קאסע, akt kaaxt koul koit kjmst kjm kosy kon kait pjc בלאנקט, גיבעקס/געבעקס, ווייקט, מעקט, יק,3 גלאק/גלאק, האק, טאק/טאק, קוק, טאק/טאק, האק, גלאק/גלאק, יק,3 מעקט, ווייקט, גיבעקס/געבעקס, בלאנקט, kjk tok hak glok bik mekt vaikt gybe'ks blankt ראסע, ריפ, רוים/רוים, רי_יך, ריין, הארט, װארף/װארף, װארים/װארעם, מאראנץ, װארים/װארעם, װארף/װארף, הארט, ריין, רי_יך, רוים/רוים, ריפ, ראסע, maranc vorym vorf hart rain raax Roim rip rasy פ ארט/פ ארט, קריי, האר, נאר/נאר, שא, שאל, שאף, ע,5שא שאס/שאם, שאק/שאק, שאף, שאק/שאק, שאס/שאם, ע,5שא שאף, שאל, שא, נאר/נאר, האר, קריי, פ ארט/פ ארט, su f sok sos safy sa f sal sa nor hdr krai fort שווייס, שיט, שלם, שיף, שיק, שויט/שויט, שויס/שויס, שי_ין, שלעכט, שלעפט, שעלט, שלעפט, שלעכט, שי_ין, שויס/שויס, שויט/שויט, שיק, שיף, שלם, שיט, שווייס, sell slept slext saan sois soit sik s if siis sit svais שעפט, מישט, נאשט, נישט, רעשט, שושקע, אש, וואש, וויש, וועש, טיש, פיש, קוש, פיש, טיש, וועש, וויש, וואש, אש, שושקע, רעשט, נישט, נאשט, מישט, שעפט, kjs fis tis ves vis vas as sjsky rest nist nast mist sept בלישטשע. bliicy

Phonetical Remarks

לײג שוץ/שוין ’,zugst > zukst ‘you say זאגםט ’,Uibt > Uipt ‘lives ל ע ב ט/ ל ע ב ט (a) 4 laig soin > laiksoin ‘do lay’: A voiced consonant, followed by a voiceless one in the same, or closely following, word, undergoes regressive assimilation and so becomes unvoiced. ;’... my meig > meik, ober ... ‘one may - but מע מעג/מעג, אבער/אבער (b) ער איז מיד/;’...zaan vaab > vaap, demit... ‘his wife, at that time / זיין ווייב, ד ע מלט ווייב, זיין di די מייז, ער װעט ;’... er iz miid > miit, bin ex ... ‘He is tired, so I מיך, בין איך בין מיך, maaz > maas, er vet ... ‘the mice, he will ....’: The same holds good when a voiced consonant is followed by a break in speaking, even a short one, and, of veig > veik װעג/װעג ’,laab > laap ‘body לײב :course, at the end of a sentence prjjv > p r jjf‘try ’; however, /z/ is פרואװ/פרװו ’,raid > rait ‘words רייד ’,way‘ ’.mjz ‘must מת :then not completely unvoiced Such unvoicing in (a) and (b) is not indicated in the spelling, since it is the norm: ’.arous zugn > arousugn ‘to utter ארויס זאגן ארוי ס 212 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

nemt zi > nemci ‘she is taking5: Unvoicing through progressive נעמט זי (c) assimilation is general with [z], redt > ret ‘is ירעט/רעדט,... vet dox > vetox ‘will װעט ד א ך/ ד אך (d) -gib mir > gimir ‘give me’: With other consonants this assimi גי ב מיי* ’,speaking lation takes place when they have the same articulation - the assimilation then becomes total and, since no consonant can be long in Y, the voiced consonant disappears. aglet א גלעט טין ’,ous-snaadn > ouinaadn ‘to cut out אויס שנײדן/אױסשױידן (e) ’,zol laaxtn > zolaaxtn ‘may shine זאל/זאל לייכטן ’,tjjn > a gletjjn ‘to stroke fjn neipl > fjneipl ‘from the fog’: The same applies, when two פון נעפל/נעפל, identical consonants meet.

zouer זויער ’,taa(i)er ‘dear טייער ’,zaier ‘their זייער ’,oier ‘ear אויער/אויער 5 :’fiier ‘four פיר/פיר ’,huuer ‘hair האר ,(treier ‘tear’ (from eye טרער/טרער ’,sour‘ When a long vowel or a diphthong is followed by /r/, an /e/ develops between them so that a diphthong or triphthong is formed. The glide is reflected in the spelling after /ai, oi, ou/, but, generally, not after vowels or /ei/.

’,haiex ‘height היין* ’,koiex ‘force, strength כוח ’,hoiex ‘high הויך/הויך (a) 6 דיך/דץ״ ’,rjjex ‘demon רוח/רוח ’,ijjex ‘shoe שוך/שוך ’,raiex ‘smell ריה/ריח -Mysicex ‘Messiah.’ Similarly, an /e/ develops between a dipth משיח ’,diiex ‘thigh thong or long vowel, and following /x/. However, the presence of this glide is mostly not reflected in the spelling. dorex ‘through’: The same holds דורך/דורך ’,hilexn ‘to sound הילכן (b) good for the glide which develops between either /1/ or /r/ and following /x/. But the glide may disappear when the /x/ is followed by more than one syllable - dorx דודך דעם/דורך דעם - hilxndik - or when the word is unstressed הילכנדיק deim ‘through that.’

siik-l-dik שלקלדיק/שיקלדיק ’,finger-l1 (finger) ring פימערל ’,tep-l ‘ little pot ט ע פ ל 7 peier-l-dik ‘pearl-like’: /1/ in word-final position פערלדיק/פערלדיק ’,cross-eyed‘ after a consonant (including /r/), or in a word between two consonants, is syllabic.

גארן ’,hjjs-n-dik ‘while coughing הוסנדיק/הוםנדיק ’,druut-n ‘wires ד ר א טן (a) 8 fuur-n-dik ‘while travelling’: /n/ in word-final position פארנדיק ’,guur-n ‘storey after a consonant (including /r/), or in a word between two consonants, is syllabic.8 האבגדיק/האבנדיק’,xap-m,‘snatchכאפן’,h)ob-m \we,they)have) האבן/האבן (b) /xap-m-dik ‘ while snatching’: After labials, /11 כאפנדילן ’,1h)ub-m-dik ‘while having) becomes /m/.

8 Hence Yiddish speakers usually write my name as ‘Birenbaum,’ and many bearers of this name have this form in their birth certificates, also in its Yiddish translation: Barenboim. 213 Script and Sounds

:’brex-y ‘breakברעכן/mek-rj ‘erase מעקן breg-y ‘shores, banks,5 ברעגן/ברעגן (c) After velars, /n/ becomes velarised. ijygy ‘young’ (inflected): Before /g/, /n/ is velarized but the /g/ is never יונגע 9 .(ijyger (not ijyer) ‘young’ (inflected ױנגער :swallowed up

READING EXERCISE 10 שטארבט/שטארבט, גראב טלף/טיף, דערוו^גט/דערוועגט, זאגט צו/צו, בלינדס/בליוד ס, צו/צו, זאגט דערוו^גט/דערוועגט, טלף/טיף, גראב ש טארבט/ שטאר בט, Mints zukt cjj derveikt grup tiif starpt ‘פרואווט/פרוווט, א פרואוו טרן/פרװו טון, ליב פ ע רל/ ליב פ ע רל, אץ אויג/אויג קוקן, אויג/אויג אץ פ ע רל, פ ע רל/ ליב ליב טון, טרן/פרװו פרואוו א ‘פרואווט/פרוווט, in oikjk-y liipeier-l a prijjf tjjn prjjft א ר עד טץ/טץ פרואװ/פרװו פץ, מוז סאפין/סאפען, לאז שײנץ/לאז שי״ינען, שײנץ/לאז לאז סאפין/סאפען, מוז פץ, פרואװ/פרװו טץ/טץ ר עד א losaanyn, lossaanyn mjsapyn prjjfjn a retjjn /גלייב,3גליי וואב/וועב, זאג, קריג, רייד, ר עד, אויס זאגן/אויסזאגן, גיסט/גיסט זי, פרייט זי, גיסט/גיסט זאגן/אויסזאגן, אויס ר עד, רייד, קריג, זאג, וואב/וועב, /גלייב,3גליי fraicex giisci ousug-y ret rait krik zuk veip glaip זיך, וואלט/וואלט דיך, ד ע ת אך כ אפ ט, אדום מעםטן/ארוממעסטן, שטיף/ שטיף־פאטער, מעםטן/ארוממעסטן, אדום כ אפ ט, ד ע ת אך דיך, וואלט/וואלט זיך, stiifuuter arjmest-n dernuuxapt voltex טויער/טויער, קאפויער/קאפויער, שלייער, טרויער, מויער, ריער,5&רלער/ ק ל ע ר/ ריער,5&רלער/ מויער, טרויער, שלייער, קאפויער/קאפויער, טויער/טויער, kleier friier mouer trouer slaier kapoier toier קלער, גאר, רלר/פריר,5 רויך/רויך, בלײך, בוך/בוך, טןכל/ טיכל, מילך, ביל ע כ ע ר, מילך, טןכל/ טיכל, בוך/בוך, בלײך, רויך/רויך, רלר/פריר,5 גאר, קל ער, bilexer miiex tiiexl bjjex blaiex roiex friier guuer שטערן/שטערן, וו^ תדי ק/ווע רנדי ק, ירן,5§ירן/ פארן, ל אמע, טרינק, טרענק, וואגן, טרענק, טרינק, ל אמע, פארן, ירן,5§ירן/ וו^ תדי ק/ווע רנדי ק, שטערן/ שטערן, vug-y treyk triyk laygy fuuer-n fiier-n veier-n-dik steier-n פלאגן, האקן, פליקן, שטיוול/שטיוול, הענטל, גארטל, בינטל/בינטל, ד ריידל, ל ע פ ל, ד ריידל, בינטל/בינטל, גארטל, הענטל, שטיוול/שטיוול, פליקן, האקן, פלאגן, lef-l draid-l bint-l gart-l hent-l stiiv-l flik-y huk-y plug-y מ ע ס ע רל meser-l

The Vowels in the Semitic Element 11 (a) In the Indo-European element of Yiddish, both the consonants and vowels are expressed (as they are in the orthographies of the languages employing the Latin and Greek scripts and their descendants) by means of letters, whereas, in that function (י and ו) the Semitic element of Yiddish, there are only two characters as vowel letters;9 see in the above table Nos. 2 (word-finally), 19 (same), 23, 25, 27. 29, 30, 31, 34, 41, 44, 45, 47.10

9 They maintain their consonantal values, too: cf. English y in yes and by. .or 8 do not (in Semitic) belong to this category א Words starting with 10 214 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

- are very frequently - though not systematically י Already in the Bible, 1 and used as matres lectionis. And they are then really nothing else but vowel letters. There is an increased, but not systematic, use of this orthographic device in the talmudical and ‘rabbinic’ literatures. Here we may come upon the scriptio plena form of any word where this spelling is possible, even if in the Bible that word occurs in scriptio defectiva only. טבע/טבע ’,iam ‘sea,’ 01 nes ‘miracle ים ’,psuu(e)ry ‘compromise פשרה (b) teivy ‘nature’: All other vowels are expressed by little signs that are placed under the preceding consonant letter. However, as in Semitic, they are usually omitted. In this grammar, in the traditionalist system, they are provided for the stressed syllable, in certain cases also for the syllable before the stress, although here the vowel is somewhat weakened. When the syllable before the stress has /y/ or /e/, : is provided.11 All syllables after the stress have /y/ or /e/, which, however, is not indicated in our spelling. When the final syllable ends in /1/ or /n/, these take over the syllabic function and the /y/ disappears. The discrepancy between phonemes and graphemes in the Semitic element of Yiddish is thus much greater than in its Indo-European element, or in the orthographies of the languages using ‘Western’ alphabets. Of course, this discrepancy presents, in general, no difficulties for the reader who knows the language.

THE VOWEL SIGNS

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

nexumy נחמה/נחמה .׳T u kumyc Like u in Eng. p u t (79) ‘solace.’ muusi משל/משל :T uu kumyc Like u in G gut (80) ‘example.’12

(81) T 0 kumyc Like 0 in (London) Eng. hot: xoxmy ‘wisdom.’ nisooiyn ניםױן/נסױן :T 00 kumyc Like 0 in Eng. horn (82) ‘temptation.’12

11 In most cases this agrees with the Semitic spelling. There, however, the sign indicates the absence of a vowel. The generally accepted system according to which certain shewas are pronounced is, of course, in complete contradiction to the Tiberian vocalization - for it is hardly likely that one and the same sign was provided for two different things (a and zero). (An analogous case is that of qames.) 12 See footnote 2: My suggestions were: ' and 215 Script and Sounds

No. Sign Transcription Name Pronunciation

(83) - a pdsex Resembles u in London Eng. cut, NA 0 ’.krax *big city פלך/פרך :in lo t צהנים/ :d pdsex Resembles a in Eng. fa th er ־ (84) koikdnym ‘Ahronides.’1a כתנים (85) r i Uigl A sound between the a of London Eng. שר6שר/א6א :mat and the e of met ifle r ,perhaps.’ (86) T it siig l Resembles ay in London Eng. day: ’.biigyd ‘garment ןנ ד/ ט ד /Dשתה :t y iMvyl Resembles e in Eng. behalf (87) ’.myijny ,strange, unusual ןושתה hu u ח כ ר&/ :e ia h y j Like the e in London Eng. miller 1 (88) ’.mtxaker ‘author ץלופר h u u

READING EXERCISE

*3 , ן5וד/ג2 ׳וד }גיא/נביא, ה^גה/ה&גה, גיטחוץ/בםחי[, חכם/חכם, מלאכים/מלאכים חכם/חכם, גיטחוץ/בםחי[, ה^גה/ה&גה, }גיא/נביא, ׳וד mihtxym xuxym bituxn kisugy may kuvyd ^ ק/ ש ק, ןזכמים/חכמיס, מילחמות/מלתמדת, מסיד/תמיד, ק,6ק/ם1ל9 /חלקים,0ןז^קי ק,6ק/ם1ל9 מסיד/תמיד, מילחמות/מלתמדת, ןזכמים/חכמיס, ^ ק/ ש ק, xilukym sufyk tumyd milxumys xixumym fuxn ןקן/זקן, קה,0קה/ה&96ה חץאיס/חסאים, צװאה/גוזאה, ןדדל/גדול, ןםל/בםל, ןזןךטה/ ןםל/בםל, ןדדל/גדול, צװאה/גוזאה, חץאיס/חסאים, קה,0קה/ה&96ה ןקן/זקן, xdruuty buut-l gmtd-l cvuuy xdtuuym hifsuky zuk-tj חרטה, ןטוד/פטור, ^לות/גלות, חלום/חלום, יןהל/קהל, למנה/»למנה,8 בדחנים/בדחנים, למנה/»למנה,8 יןהל/קהל, חלום/חלום, ^לות/גלות, ןטוד/פטור, חרטה, badx'uunym abn'uuny kuul xuulym guulys puuter ,0ני8ן ד ם/ אסור, חסיד/חסיד, פרנסה/פרנסה, טעות/טעות, משוגעים/משונעים, טעות/טעות, פרנסה/פרנסה, חסיד/חסיד, אסור, ,0ני8ן ד ם/ myijguuym tuuyi pdmuusy xuusyd miser puunym ^עה/שעה, ^ענית/תענית, דויק/רצון, ױןרדן/זכרוץ, ןזךריס/חדרים, קרוב/קריב,ז קשה/ז3 קרוב/קריב,ז ןזךריס/חדרים, ױןרדן/זכרוץ, דויק/רצון, ^ענית/תענית, ^עה/שעה, hikuuiy kvwryv xiduurym zJkuum ruuc-n tuunys luu בקשה׳ סןשים/חדשים, ץשר/כשד, ^שוס/פשוט, ;תדם/יתדם, »ןרבן/קרבן, אידה/אורח, »ןרבן/קרבן, ;תדם/יתדם, ^שוס/פשוט, ץשר/כשד, סןשים/חדשים, בקשה׳ «ir«r korb-m tuusym puuiyt kuuier xidmtiym אפיקורס/אפיקורדם, איתידת/אותיזת, דכו^נות/זכרתות, חידש/חודש, ודווז,0דות/י10ן חידש/חודש, דכו^נות/זכרתות, איתידת/אותיזת, אפיקורס/אפיקורדם, iysoidys xoidyi zexromys oisiys apik’oirys 216 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

מדגיא/מתױא, מ1 רא/םוח^ משה/משה, עולם/עולם, קינה/קתה, קר1בה/קרו5 ה, איזז/אות, ה, /mumt ׳0J iron)/ itoiwy Afot// motrj אפיקח־סים/אפיקררסימ, ביררים/בוררים, דיר/דור, ;ס^ד/יםרד, לרשים/יורשיס, ra t e t e /ra/ לרשים/יורשיס, ;ס^ד/יםרד, דיר/דור, ביררים/בוררים, אפיקח־סים/אפיקררסימ, ijw i

WRITING EXERCISE

14 Copy the Yiddish lines and the transcription on pp. 209-11, 213, 215, and 216 on separate sheets. Later, reconstruct, from your transcription, the Yiddish text. Finally, check this from the original.

INDEX OP THE TRANSCRIPTION SIGNS

1$ The preceding list is arranged on a strictly alphabetic basis. A phonemic index follows here. 217 Script and Sounds

a 8,83. g 14. ooi 34• a 9, 20, 66, h 18. ou 35• 84. i 41. P 68. aa 10, II, 21, i 41• r 74• 47» 48, i 43• s 60, 76, 78. •s 75 44• 43י ii .67 ,49 aa(i) 11, 47,48. j 23• t 39, 77• •jj 27• u 6, 79 46• 45־ ai ai 46. k 50, 73• u 24• b 12. 1 53• uu 7, 80. c 71, 72. li 54• uu 28, <5 40. m 55, 56• V 13, 22, 32. d 15• n 57, 58• X ' 38, 51, 52. dz 16. ni 59• y 25, 42, 64. ii 17• 0 4, 29, 81. z 36• e 63, 88. oi 31, 33■ z 37• e 62, 85. 01 33• zero 1, 2, 3, 19•

ei 00 0 00 to 26. 61.

65, 86. Ol f 69, 70.

The Soviet Orthography

16 In the Soviet orthography the historical spelling in the Semitic element was abolished and replaced by that of the Indo-European element:

Soviet Spelling Representing Soviet Spelling Representing פױם/פנים פאנעם אמת/אמת עמעם כלל/כלל קלאל מורא/מורא מױרע עװלה/עװלה אװלע אװדאי/אװדאי א װאדע שיכל/שבל סײכל לבנה/לבנה לע װאנע T J תיכף/תכף טײקעף מסור/מסור מאםער T אות/אות אס חוץ כיץ

Even the graphemes were affected. After some time the linguists realized that their system still contained a traditional feature - one that was not compatible with their Western model: the Hebrew alphabet contains special forms for five of its letters when they occur in word-final position. And so, they were abolished. However, after some time they were re-instated but not everybody agreed. The position now is that there are some publications with final letters and some without: 218 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Without finals With finals Representing * ד HP ג*כ נעבעךעעבעך נעבעך געבעכ ןךלך/מלך סײלעך מײלעכ בייםובױם בױם בדמ דרדם/דרום ד$דעם ד$רעם זלז זלז ײנ קלין קליז קלמ ןזץ׳חן כײז כײג שסיף שסיף שסיט בוף »יף װס יױיץ וױיץ װײ*

It might be worth mentioning that the retention of the Hebrew alphabet by the Jewish Bolshevists was not really in keeping with their radical ideas. Perhaps they thought it would be hopeless to impose a sudden switch of alphabets on a people of millions - most of whom were still traditionally religious. Or did something of their former socialist nationalism survive and prevent them abandoning the Hebrew letters ? Although they witnessed the state-enforced abolition of the Arabic alphabet in the Islamic languages of the Soviet Union, neither the Jewish linguists, the leaders of the Jewish section of the Party nor the Soviet authorities seem ever to have attempted to do the same to Yiddish.

The Phonology of the Northern Dialect

17 The phonology of the northern dialect - in so far as it differs from that given in our main table (pp. 201-209 and 214-15) - is shown in the following alphabetic list, according to our transcription. (Eng. means London English.) i (Nos. 9, 20, 66, 84) Resembles the u in Eng. cut, the 0 in North American Eng. lot. aa (Nos. 10, 11, 21, 47, 48, 67) Resembles < in Eng. rime. aai (Nos. 11, 47,48) Resembles 1 in Eng. rime. ai (Nos. 45, 46) Resembles ai in Eng. mam. (Nos. 65, 86) A sound between a in Eng. mat and e in Eng. jet. ii (Nos• 43» 44) Like 1 in Eng. thin. j (No. 23) Like u in Eng. put. ii (No. 27) Like 11 in Eng. put. 0 (No. 29b) Like u in Eng. put. 219 Script and Sounds

(0oi (Nos. 31, 33) Resembles ai in Eng. main. 00 (N06. 5, 30, 82) Like 0 in Eng. hot. 001 (No. 34) Like oy in Eng. boy. ou (No. 35) Like oy in Eng. boy. u (Nos. 6, 79) Like 0 in Eng. hot. uu (Nos. 7, 80) Like 0 in Eng. hot.

Stress

’,gyir'ibn *written רשריבץ/געשריבן ’,b ’aabn ‘write שרלבן/שדלק(a) 18 קרלטעככצער ’,fork'aabndik ‘while writing down דשרלבגדיק86רשרלבגדיק/ »6 נעבעכדיק/נעבעפדיק ’,Cuubit ‘a certain dish טשאלנט ’,kr'aatexcer ‘herbs r'atyvyndik ‘while rescuing’: In יראטיװינדיק/ראטעװענדיק,n'ibexdik ‘pityful the Indo-European element of Yiddish the stress is on the stem syllable. -p'ouerym ‘peasants’: This holds good also when the Indo-Euro סױערים (b) pean word is combined with a Semitic suffix. x'asmynyn ‘sign’: Verbs חתמידן/חתמענען ’,x'a m y ‘to sign חתמע/חתמע (c) derived from Semitic roots have the base form pa'ly which, accordingly, throughout the conjugation retains the stress and thus plays the role of a stem. naaonal’izm מציאנןןליזם/גאציאנאליזם ’,horiz'ont ‘horizon האריןאנס/האריזאגם 19 dent'ist ‘dentist’: In the international words of דענטיסט ’,cultural ethnicism‘ Classical or pseudo-Classical origin the suffix bears the stress. זיןרון/ ’,xal'omys ‘dreams חלומות/חלומות ’,x'uulym ‘dream חלום/חלום (a) 20 -zexr’omys ‘remem דכרתות/זכרינות ’,zik'uum ‘memory, remembrance ]זכרי gyd'oilym ‘great גדילים/גדולים ’,g'uudl ,great man ןדול/גדול ’,branees, memoirs myijg'uuym ‘madmen’: While משוגעים/משוגעים ’,myi'jgy ‘mad משוגע/משוגע ’,men in the Yiddish nouns of Indo-European origin the same syllable, the stem, takes the stress in the singular and plural, the stress changes its place in the Semitic element of Yiddish. Here - with few exceptions - a word is a disyllabic realization of a tri-literal root, and so neither of the two syllables can be called a stem. The stress here has nothing to do with the meaning or the form of the word, as it has in the Indo-European clement - the stress principle in the words of Semitic origin is rhythmical: the stress falls on the penultimate. myijg'ds ‘madness’: A משוגעת/משמעת ’,x'asyny ‘wedding חתתה/חתתה (b) limited number of nouns have the stress on the pre-penultimate, others on the ultimate. i'uusym מזום/יתום :i'uusom - Yiddish context ים1ײ :c) Semitic context) װזומים/יתומיס :iys'oimym - Yiddish context ןתוקדם :orphan’; Semitic context‘ iys'oimym ‘orphans’: The phonology of the Yiddish words of Semitic origin 220 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

coincides, in the main, with that of Hebrew and Aramaic in Ashkenazic pronunciation,13 apart from the weakening in Yiddish of the vowel in unstressed syllables.

The Phoneme Inventory of Yiddish

21 The signs here are those used for the transcription system employed in this book, accompanied in brackets by the I.P.A. symbols.

THE VOWELS

THE DIPHTHONGS

a [ej], oi [oj], ooi [0:j], ou [ou], ai [aj], aai [a:j].

LENGTH OPPOSITION

22 Vowel quality is phonemic in Yiddish, as shown in the following examples. ’ltib[ltip] ‘dear ליב ’Up ‘lip ליפ I ’riib[riip] ‘beet רלב ’rip ‘rib ריפ ’itjjb [itjjp] ‘house שטוב ’itjp ‘push שסדפ itiij\-mamy) ,step מע(8שםלף)~מ ’lark, frolic‘ /״/ שםיף 2 ’(mother־) ’gyriimt *praised גירלפטעערימט ’grimt ‘rages גדימט 3 *brim (mex) ‘boast ברים)מיך( ’brjm ‘mutter ברום ’biin ‘bee מbin ‘am’ 3 בין 4 ’diinym ‘(Jewish) laws דמים ’dinym14 ‘thin דידםודינעם a 3 (dmst ‘thinnest’ a dims( ‘(female דינסט servant’

13 Where they disagree, tbe Yiddish form is given here, of course. 14 Accusative/dative. 221 Script and Sounds

*zjjn ‘son זיו ’zjn ‘sun זיז [hjjn tjjt [kjjntjjt הון סמז [hjnt tjjt [hjntjjt התם טוס ה תם ‘dog does’ ‘chickcn does’ *miid\mut] ‘tired מיד ’mit ‘with מיס *rjt ‘rod’ DTI rjjt ‘rests רוט ’bliit ‘blossoms כללם ’ bljt ‘ blood בלוט ’riiz [riis\ ‘giant ילז ’ris ‘tear ריס ’giistj ‘you pour גלסטו ’gistj ‘you give ױםטו ’g(e)rtisn ‘to greet ן0ג)י/ע(וץ ’gyrim ‘torn דדיסן/ געריק cjm ziistn ‘to the גום זיסטן ;jm zistn14 ‘unavailing אומזיסטן free (of charge)’ sweetest’ (masc.) ’nits ‘sneeze נלם ’njs ‘nut טס ’cjj ‘to(wards); too צו ’c j1 to צו ’iaa (mex) ‘fight shy )מיך(של ’!ia! ‘quiet שא ’naa ‘new נל ’na! ‘here you are נא ’knaap ‘pinch קױיפ knap ‘scarce; barely קנ»פ sufficient’ ’klaab [klaap] ‘gather קללב ’klap ‘ knock קלאס ’grdm ‘rhyme גרןןם ’gram ‘gramme נראם ’maan ‘my מלן ’man ‘man מ ת ’paan ‘anguish ®לן ;pan ‘(Polish) lord פאן M r.’ ’faan ‘ fine לןfan ‘pan’ 6 ’haant ‘today הלנט ’hant ‘hand האנס ’zaat ‘side זלט ’zat *sated ס8ז ’(iaat ‘piece (of wood שלס ’iat *harms שאס ,fariaat ‘shameless ארשלטfariat ‘harms’ 6 רשאט86 lewd’ ’taatn ‘to point טלםן ’tatn15 ‘father טאטן ’vaaty ‘far װלסע ’vaty ‘cotton wool וואטע ’baatl ‘pouch, purse בלטל ’bail ‘ to idle בסל ’!kaatc16 ‘chew קלטץ ’kac ‘cat ק»ז ’baas ‘bite בלם ’bas ‘bass באס ’vaaser17 ‘white װלםער ’vaser ‘water וואסער ’naas ‘news נלם ’nas ‘wet נאס

15 Accusanvt/ditivc. 16 Plural. 17 Inflected form. 222 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

’K aaz ‘ice׳ az ‘when, if, that’ r 14 ’kaalexdik ‘round קײלעכדיק ’kalexdik ‘chalky קאלעכדיק 15 ’laaxt ‘shines ללכם ’laxt ‘laughs 0ל«כ 16 ’hart ‘waits ה»רט ’hart ‘hard הארס 17 ’draa ‘three דרל ’drai ‘turn דדײ 18 ’!zaa ‘be זל ’zai ‘to sow די ’naa ‘new נל ’nai ‘sew ױי ’fraa ‘free פריי frai (mext zex) ‘to be פריי ’glad )מיך/דך(

Many of today’s vowel-diphthong oppositions go back to a length opposition: שוטי* - ’iomrym ‘guardians מרים1סי ;’biit (< bft) ‘ask, beg בעם - ’bit ‘bed בעם ioimer ( < somer) ‘guardian.’

THE CONSONANTS

23 There is no dialectal differentiation as far as the consonants are concerned, -di/ are replaced by the cones ,צ>, with one exception: there is a region where js, t ponding alveolars. In certain regions there is no /h/.

Labio- Potato- Bilabial dental Aheoltr aheoltr Velar Glottal

Plosives voiceless P t k voiced b d g Fricatives voiceless f s i X voiced V z i Affricate* voiceless c t m voiced dz d i Nasals 01[״ voiced m n oi voiced 1 Ii R r

THE INVENTORY OF CLUSTERS

24 Initial clusters tm. sm. zm. sm. xm. tf. tv. SV. XV. 223 Script and Sounds pn. tn. dn. sn. zn. sn. Im. gn. xn. pt. st. St. let. sd. pL b l fl. vl. tl. dL si zl. si. Id. gl. xl; cl. ps. c. ks. xs. ps. 6. xs. pr. br. mr. fr. tr. dr. sr. zr. $r. kr. gr. xr; spr. skr. Final clusters pst. pt. pts. st. sts. mst, mt, mts. [sst]. st. sts. fst. ft, fts. ct, cts. nk. nst. nt. nts/nc. nd. [ist]. (X. dts. ts. tst. ks. kst. kt. lets, Ist. It. Its. lc/lts (16). xs. xst. xt. xts. rst. ri. rst. rt. rts/rc. b, g, d, v, z, becoming unvoiced before voiceless consonants, are above included in p, k, t, f, s. Morphology

Noon

INFLECTION

tahnids ‘pupil’s’: This /*/ is one of the two תלמידם ’,maidls ‘girl’s מײדלם 25 inflectional endings that indicate a syntactical relation - it shows the relation between two nouns, i.e., that one of them is in the possessive. It is employed for living creatures, and only exceptionally for inanimate objects, never for abstract nouns. pB fin der xoxmy ‘of דער $כמה ’fin di itainer ‘of the stones * ץ די שסײנער 26 the wisdom’: For inanimate objects and abstracts a prepositional phrase with p6 fin ‘of, from* is used. Er git zaan xaver dm maitmdl ‘He gives ער גיס זללן חבר דאס נמשלנדל (a) 27 his friend the little machine’: Neither the direct nor the indirect object has an inflectional ending, apart from the categories given in paras. 28-31. Zi p t ir ihster toxter a iamy ד דם איר עלסםטער טאכטער 8 שייגע b) W19) matuuny ‘She gives her eldest daughter a beautiful present’: Here the objects have adjectival attributes and these are inflected to show the syntactical relation between the nouns and the verbs. Since adjectival attributes are, of course, exceedingly common, the Yiddish-speaker’s consciousness of grammatical cases is kept alive, even though the nouns themselves are uninflected.

DECLENSIONS

-Er dercatit ys zaan zaidn *He tells it to his grand ער דערגײלט עס זלן זי׳ידן 28 father*: Here the noun has an inflectional ending to indicate the indirect object. There are only ten such nouns but as they designate very important human reb- 225 Morphology tionships they are a constant reminder of the function of the cases and prevent a Er p t Dvoryn עד רע לטרהן g גרמי further decline of the system. p*T#3J"De7 pB a briiv fjn Stambarpi ‘He gives Deborah a letter from Shtainbarg’: In addition to those ten nouns, there are two whole categories of nouns, both of which are also concerned with human relationships.

A ’zaidy ‘grandfather זײדע .a) Nom) 29 *zaid דיזץ .Accus zatdn ד׳ידן .Dat zaidns ד׳ידנם .P06s

There are two endings for the three inflections; those for the accusative and dative are identical and the /1/ of the possessive is added to the /»/. דידע ’,hare ‘heart הארץ ’,buby ‘grandmother באבע :b) The ten nouns are) &ע&laat people,’ 8 ללט ’,lid ‘Jew ילד ’,taty ‘father טאטע ’,zaidy ‘grandfather riby ך 3י ’,mini ‘human being מענטש ’,mjjmy ‘aunt מממנ ’,mamy *mother ‘teacher; chassidic master.’ Note that some words with final y drop it before the endings. There are some slight variations of detail, as may be seen from the table. post. dat. ate. nom. M זײדע זײדן זײדן זײדנם zaidy סאטע ט«טן 0 8 « 0 tatns tatn tatn taty ךבי רבי רג ץ רבינם T T ribns rib* ribn riby These three words are regular (apart from the 106s of the final vowel).

(b) לד ידי ל ד לדגם r r r r IU*s IUIU IU י■ *ltd* IU מענטש מענטש מענטש טעגטענס םעגטשן מענטשן 1ninins mini mini mini minitt minim 226 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

In these two words the ending of the acc./dat. seems to be disappearing.

(c) הארץ הארץ הארצן הארצנם הארצן הארץ ה ארץ harms harcn hare hare

This word is not inflected in the accusative.

(d) באבע באבע באבין/באבען באבעס/באביס באבע bubys bubyn buby buby buby מאמע מאמע מאמץ/מאמען מאמיס/מאמעס מאמע mamys mamyn mamy mamy mamy מומע מומע מומין/מומען מומיס/מומעס מומע mjjmys mjjmyn mjjmy mjjmy mjjmy

In these three words the accusative, sometimes also the dative, remains uninflected, and the possessive is without the jnj.

30 (a) ב ת כן בדוכן ברוכם ב רי ר T Buuerexs Buuerexn Buuerexn Buuerex י Baruch‘ טריינע טרי״ינץ/טרײנען טריינץ/טרײנען טרײנים/טרײנעס Traanys Traanyn Traanyn Traany (female name)

Personal names have the accusative/dative ending n and the possessive ending 5.

(b) פינחס פינחסן פינחסן פינחסנם Pinxysns Pinxysn Pinxysn Pinxys שװארץ שווארצן שװארצן שווארצנס Svarcns Svarcn Svarcn Svarc 227 Morphology

הערש הערשן הערשן הערשנס הערשן הערשן הער ש Hersns Hersn Hersn Hers ראבינאװיטש ראבינאװיטשן ראבינאוױטשן ראבינאװיטשנס ראבינאוױטשן ראבינאװיטשן ראבינאװיט ש Rabinovicns Rabinovicn Rabinovicn Rabinovic

’,Pinxys ‘Phineas פינהס :In names with a final sibilant the possessive ending is ns ’.Rabinovic ‘ Rabinovitch ראבינאװיטש ’,Svarc ‘ Schwartz שװארץ ’,Hers ‘Hersh הערש

3! שטארקער שטארקן שטארקן שטארקנם שטארקן שטארקן שטא רקער starkns starkn starkn starker

The same inflection is used for substantivized adjectives.

GENDER

dus guulys דאס גלות ’,di /2/‘the ship די שיף ’,der oivn ‘the stove דער אויװן 32 ‘the Exile’: There are three genders - masculine, feminine, neuter. There is no obvious reason for apportioning one or other of the genders to inanimate objects and abstract nouns. The genders they have are purely traditional.

dus Ungl דאס יימל ’,di coug ‘the bitch די צויג ’,der hjnt ‘the dog דער הוגט 33 dus vaab ‘the wife’: In the case of living creatures the first דאס װײב ’,the boy‘ two genders correspond to the biological categories male and female. But there are many cases where the neuter is used for males and females. der ארביטארער/ארבעטארער ’,der sraaber ‘the (male) writer דער שרײבער 34 (der sekrytar ‘the (male דער סעקריטאר/סעקרעטאר ’,arbyturner ‘the (male) worker der paxdn ‘the דער פחדן ’,der dentist ‘the (male) dentist דעד דענטיסט ’,secretary der njdnik ‘the (male) bore’: Although in general there דער נודניק ’,male) coward) are no morphological markers to indicate gender or sex, there are a number of ,ar, 'V2'%--uurer- -אד, a k- -אק,er, J- -n, pM- -n ik- ־ער suffixes that do that, such as ן- ,ac'ky —אטשקע ,tuurn —טארן ,nicy —ניצע ,ky —קע ,ty —טע for males,1 and די שרײבערקע ’,di xaverty ‘the (female) friend די חברטע :nty for females- - נטע ,מ נטע די ’,di njdnicy ‘the (female) bore די נודניצע ’,di sraaberky ‘the (female) writer di partacky ‘the רי פארטאטשקע ’,di xavertuurn ‘the (female) friend חברטארן די ’,di sraabern ‘the (female) writer די שרייבערן/שרייבערין ’,female) bungler) ’.di hdrnty ‘the mistress הארנטע

er, this applies only when the ending indicates a nomen agentis. Otherwise- - ער As regards 1 di pjter די פוטעו־ ,.the word can be feminine (and even designate a female) or neuter, e.g ’.dus leider ‘the leather דאם לעדער ’,di mjter ‘the mother די מוטער ’,the butter‘ 228 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

di די שינוי ’,di brai(e)ry ‘the choice די ברירה ’,di moiry ‘the fear די מורא 35 :’(di laty ‘the patch (of cloth די לאטע ’,disiny ‘the hate די שינאה ’,iiny ‘the change As a general rule, words ending in y are feminine. There are, however, also mascu- ’,der zaidy ‘the grandfather דער זיידע ’,der taty ‘the father דער טאטע :line nouns der xoily ‘the דער חולה ’,der reby ‘the teacher; the chassidic master דער רבי דער dus klainvarg ‘the דאס קלײנװארג ’.der soiny ‘the enemy דער שונא ’,patient דאdus ciierjng ‘the ornament, jewellery,’ 0 0דא צירװג ’,small fry = children דאס ’,dus hispaalys ‘the state of being impressed, the strong emotion התפעלות dus badekns ‘the veiling דאס באדעקנס ’,dus aalynis ‘the hurry אייליניש/איילעניש ’,dus laizexc ‘the money resulting from selling, proceeds דאס לייזעכץ ’,of the bride dus giiexkait דאם גיכקײט ’,dus snaaderaa(i) ‘the tailor’s trade דאס שניידערײ דא ס dus briidersaft ‘brotherhood’: Words with the דאס ברידערשאפט ’,the speed‘ ,(eraa(i- -ערי.י, e x c- -עכץ ,s- ־ם ,//«- ־ניש ,ys- ־ות ,jng- ־ונג, v a rg- ־װארג suffixes .soft are neuter- - ט5שא ,kait- -לןייט

36 Naturally, there are regional differences in the gender of certain words and these occur, to some extent, in the written language too. In the northern dialect the neuter no longer exists; however, the writers who originate from that region employ the neuter in their works, since literary Yiddish is based on the southern dialect.

PLURAL

Class 1: Ending s, y s

(a) Ending s mjjmys מומיס/מומעם - mjjmy מומע ’,xjpys ‘wedding canopy חופות - xjpy חופה 37 זײגערס - zaiger זײגער ;’bubys ‘grandmother באביס/באבעס - buby באבע ’,aunt‘ -aidyms ‘son-in איידימס/איידעמס - aidym איידים/אײדעם ’,zaigers ‘clock, watch .Stekns ‘stick’: The plura has the ending s שטעקנס - stekn שטעקן ’,law

(b) Ending ys

(a) ’,sljpys ‘pole, post םלופים/םלופעס - sljp םלופ ’,raiexys ‘smell ריחות - raiex ריח 38 aidymys ‘son-in-law’: The plural has אײדימים/אײדעמעס - aidym אײדים/אײדעם the ending ys.

(bi) stekynys ‘stick’: In words ending in syllabic שטעקיניס/שטעקענעם - Steky שטעקן 39 is inserted before it. Its effect is to render the /n/ unsyllabic in the plural /ץ/, n (i.e., the /n/ reverts to its original non-syllabic state). 229 Morphology

(b2) oicrys ‘treasure*: In certain cases the e of the original אוצרות - oieer איצר 40 final syllable disappears.

fl>3) sfaikys ‘doubt’: In certain cases the vowel of קות6ס$יקות/ס - sufyk 41 the former stress syllable disappears altogether so that the word starts with a duster.

0>4) םשװעקים/םשװעקעס - cook טשװאק/םשיואק ’,rio sod - nrrio soidys ‘secret* 42 evikys ‘nail’ (metal): The plural is formed by a change in the vowel, plus the ending ys.

0>5) ’,xalohnys ‘dream מות1חל -xuulym חלום ’,Ijsomys ‘language למינות - luisn לשין 43 ;xizboinys-. The plural ending is ys תשבחות - *xiibn ‘account, reckoning ןזשבון the stress is transferred from the first to the second syllable so that a full vowel or diphthong replaces its /y/, while the former stressed vowel is weakened, changed or eliminated, except in a closed syllable.

Class II: Ending n, yn « .kvabi ‘spring = source’: The plural ending is syllabic n קוזאלז - kval קיזמל 44

Class III: Ending ym

<») xdduulym חןשים - xoidyi ח^דש ’,xisanym ‘bridegroom חתנים - xuusn חיק 46 book‘ עמידים umyd - amjjdym עמוד ’,wise man‘ חכמים - xuxym חכם ’,month‘ - giber דבור ’,myvtmym ‘an expert מ 5מים - maivn י5ץ/מ5ץ page, column,’ 5 gydotlymגדולים -xazakym ‘pig,’ 'rrqguudl חזירים - xazer ןזדר ,gyboirym דבורים dariuunym ‘preacher*: The stress is transferred ךר^נים - darin דרשן ’,great man‘ from the first to the second syllable so that the (original) full vowel or diphthong 230 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar replaces its /y/ or the sylkbicity of its /1/ or /n/, while the stressed vowel or diphthong of the first syllable is weakened or changed, except in a closed syllable.

(b) -xsiidym *adherent of the Khassidic movement, id חסידים - xuusyd חסיד 47 trjjcym ,refutation of an objection’: The תרוצים - tiryc תרוץ/תיריץ ’,herent former penultimate can even lose its vowel.

<־>) cduudym ,side’ (= one צדדים - pruutym ,detail’; T* cad פךםים - prat פךם 48 of two groups): Monosyllables belong to this class, too.

(di) ;’sofrym ,scribe ם^םרים - soifer פדorxym ,guest,’ 10 אורחים ~ oirex דח1א 49 moilym ,ruler’ (person): There is no change in the position נלשלים -moiil מושל of the stress, but the plural has a vowel instead of a diphthong; if there was a /yl or /c/ in the final syllable of the singular, it disappears; if a syllabic I, it becomes unsyllabic and so the beginning of the final syllable.

(d2) ’melamdym ,teacher מלמדים -mtlamyd מלמד ’,ioitym ,fool טים1ש - ioity שוטה 50 :’ijtvym ,business partner ים6שית -ijty f שותף ,(of a Jewish elementary school) There is no change in the position of the stress and in the vowel of the stressed syllable; the /y/ of the final syllable of the singular disappears.

(d3) ®׳יערים - pouer ®יער ’,buxerym ,a youth; unmarried male תתודים - buxer חור3 51 pouerym ,peasant’: There is no change at all, apart from the ending.

Class iv — tug םאג ’,kep ,head קעפ - berg *hill, mountain,’ BKp kop בערג - barg בארג 52 - mouz מױז ’,faigl' bird ײגלfo ig l-6 ייגלniiz1 nose,’ 6 נ?ז - nuuz גאז ’,teig * day טעג ziin ‘son’: The vowel or ױן - nis ,nut,’ pt zjjn גיס - njs גום ’,maaz ,mouse מלז diphthong of the stressed syllable undergoes a change (which had its origin in umlaut) according to this pattern:

a > € oi > ai u > ei j > i o > i ou > aa uu > 6i jj > ii

In the case of /j/ and /i/ the change exists only in the spelling (in the northern dialect, it is, of course, a real change: [u] > [1]). 231 Morphology

Class v

(a) .er- -ער fartexer ‘apron’: Tbe plural ending is ארמעכערfarttx - 6 עך0אר 8 53 ’,klicer ‘wooden block קלעצער - kloc קלאץ ’,miner ‘man מענער - man מאן 54 - nugl אגלhaazer ‘house,’ 1 הלער - houz הדיז ’,baimer ‘tree בײמער - boim ביים ®נימער - puunym פױם ’,hOner ,cock הענער - kuun האן,(nHgl ‘nail’ (of body נעגל -ער fjjs - 0?Bfiis ‘foot’: The plural is formed by the endingי pimymer ‘face,’ 0 8 -er plus change of vowel.

Class v1 - der ziher דער זעלנער ״,di arbl ‘sleeve די ארבל - der arbl דעו־ ארבל 55 :’di ftierd ‘hone די נוערד - dus fiierd דאס ערדdi ztbur ‘soldier,’ 6 די ועלנער די Singular and plural are identical in form.

Class VII .ex and occurs only in the diminutive and minudve- ־עך The plural enging is 56

NOUN FORMATION

I der vint דעד װינם ’,di Herd ‘the earth די ערד ’,der km l ‘the sky דער הימל 57 der iam ‘the sea’: Many nouns are basic, i.e., not derived דע ר !the wind,’ 0‘ from other nouns or word classes.

11: De-verbal formations

(») der cjjhig ‘the extra’: There are a number דע ר גו־לאג ’,di gub ‘the gift די גאב 58 of such old de-verbal nouns, formed by ablaut.

(b) דעד באטרעף ’,der kljng ‘the ringing דער קלוגג ’,m derbrin ‘the fervour• ברען 59 ,der farlang ,the demand’: This group דע ר ארלאנגder batrif ,the amount,’ 8 using the base form of a verb - and occasionally that of its participle - is very productive.

ill: Nommalization ״,der hoixer ,the tall one דער הייכער ״,dus iraabn ‘the writing דאם שי לק 60 -der nixtn ,the yesterday’: Words from other classes - infinitives, adjec דער געכטן ד ער tives, adverbs - can be employed as nouns when provided with the article. 232 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

iv: Composition and construct (a) Compounds of nouns דער זײזער־מאכער ’,dus kuul-ititbl ‘the community house 0דא יןהל־שטלבל 61 der dam-somy ‘the mortal דע ר }*der zaiger-maxer ‘the watch-maker,’ ICftra dcr דער קעשיגע/קעשעגע־ןגב ’,di osiyn-caat ‘autumn time די אםיען־ודיט ’,enemy kesyny-ganyv ‘the pickpocket’: The governing noun is placed first and has the main stress. (b) Compounds of different word classes ’,der cjzamyn-fuuer ‘the congress, convention דער צתאמין/צתאמען -&אר צתאמין/צתאמען דער dus fiier-houz דאס פלר-הױז ’,klain-gilt ‘small change דאס קלײךנעלט/קליינגעלט ד אס iber-kHrynii' upheaval ’: The first דאס איבער־קערמיש/איבדקערעױש ’,entrance hall‘ part is the governing one and has the main stress. (c) The construct -kol ha כל המעלעכקײםן ’,der sxar-limyd ‘the tuition fee דער &כר-ליםדד דער mhglexkaitn ‘all possibilities’: The governing noun is placed second and takes the main stress. This category is normal in the Semitic clement but is extremely rare as a combination of a Semitic and a non-Semitic word.

v: Affixes 62 Only a small number of the following affixes are not productive. This is men- doned in such cases.

63 (a) Prefixes jm אומ(1) דאס אומױדענדדש/אונעערעסעױש ’,der jmkuvyd ‘the dishonour דער אומץבוד דער dus jmgyrhtynii ‘the bad harvest’: The prefix takes the stress. Its meaning is privadve.

(2) n r x g y dus gyvom ‘the דאם דזדין/געזדיין ’,dus gyzmd ‘the family דאס גידנד/געזמד ד אס דאם ,(di gybiitn ‘blood’ (i.e., psychological state די גיגנלינזן/געבליטן ’,weeping dus gyrangl ‘the struggle’: The original collective meaning of דדאנגל/געראנגל the prefix is often still discernible.

(b) Suffixes ai אטש(3) -der ijngai *the lout, churl.’ The suffix takes the stress. It has a pejor דעד יתגאםמ דעד adve meaning. 233 Morphology aly «לע (4) See para. 72

der litvak ‘the דער ליטװאק ’,der cvjiai ‘the (male) hypocrite דע ר צבועיאק ר דע Lithuanian Jew’: The suffix mostly takes the stress. It indicates the character or geographic origin of a man. dr אי"(6) der misionar ‘the דער מיסיאנאר ’,der renddr ‘the leaseholder דער יענדאר דע ר missionary’: This masc. suffix takes the stress. It identifies a man through his occupation. or אי (7) der dictator ‘the דער דיקטאסאר *,der ridaktor ‘the editor דער דעדאקטאר ד ער der fant azi'or ‘the fantast*: The suffix sometimes takes דער ױאר8אגטdictator,’ 6 the stress. It signifies occupation or function (of a male). wtm א ח (8) די נײסארן/ *,di kimpytuum ‘the lying-in woman רי קימפיסארן/קיפפעםארין רי xavertuurn ‘the די J ז 5רטארן/חגרטאdi naituum ‘the sempstress,’ p נייסארץ (female) friend’: The uu takes secondary stress. The double suffix denotes a (feminine) nomen agentis. (The t in the latter example might be due to the form (.xaverty and/or the t in the first two examples ןןברטע uurer ארעד (9) .The uu takes a secondary stress׳ :der arbytuurer דער ארביסארער/ארבעםארער ד ער The suffix denotes a (masculine) nomen agentis. varg װןןרג(10) dm ijngvarg ‘the דאס יתטדארג ’,dus rouxvarg ‘the fur goods דאס רױכװארג דא ס youngsters, the youth’: The suffix is employed to create collective nouns. (11)V \ jng dus fiierjng ‘the conduct, custom’: The suffix denotes action or דאס מ*ינג6 דא ס activity of the verb to whose base form it is appended, or it signifies the result of such an action or activity. (12) m y s dus iakrys ‘the high price level; the scarcity*: This suffix indicates יא® !קרײ1 abstract nouns. It is not productive. ty טע(13) :’di bal-bututy ‘the mistress of the house, housewife די !על־ביתטע/בעל-הביתםע די The suffix transforms masculine nouns into fem inine ones. 234 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

'VBrVfyvtr See No. (38).

r1 # P izaeiy See No. (42). (14) DT izm -der darvmizm ‘Darwin דעד וםדדאדװי ’,der socialism, ‘socialism דער סאציאלקם דע ר kapitalizm דעד קאפיטאליזם ’,der fanatizm *fanaticism דער פאנאטיום ’,ism der דעד ויײטשעוײזם ’,der anglicizm ‘Anglicism דע ד אנגליציזם ’,capitalism‘ daatmerim ‘Germanism’: The suffix takes the stress. It signifies (a) a system of facts, ideas, opinions or theories, (b) attachment or adherence to one, (c) a physical or mental state or condition, (d) a characteristic influence of one language on another. ynH תיו/עדו(15) Dvoiryni& ‘darling Deborah*: When a word דבירהדו ’,zjjnyniu ‘darling son זממיו ends in /y/ this is fused with the /y/ of the suffix.

(16) XTXafWynU dus דאס באשעפיגיש/באשעפעניש ;’dus iugynU ‘the dash, rush דאס vnm ipfvm ir :’dus gyrhtynii ‘the harvest דאס דדעםידש/גערעםעױש ’,baUfynii ‘the creature Signifies a condition of continuous action or the result of an action or process. dus mexaaiynii *the pleasure, delight’: When a word ends in דאם מחײהױש/מחיועיש דאם -dus citemii ‘the tremb דאם ציסעתיש .y/ this coalesces with the /y/ of the suffix/ ידש6/באדער0דא .uii דש ling’: When the word ends in unstressed er the suffix is dus badirfynii ‘ the need ’: Occasionally the vowel of the stem undergoes עדש6באדעד mutation. yny מע (17) .(di Iidyny *the (Jewish) woman’: The old full form of No. (25 די ע/ילדענע1ית־י די ist יםס (18) דעד ליננדױסט ’,der tHyfonist ‘the (male) telephonist דעד טעליפאניסט/םעלעפאדסט דעד דעד דארודדטט ’,der socialist ‘the socialist דעד סאציאליסט ’,der iingvist ‘the linguist der darvmist ‘the Darwinist’: The suffix takes the stress. It denotes a male belonging to a certain category - an adherent of a certain idea or ideology, or somebody having a particular characteristic, or following a certain occupation etc. inky ינקע (19) mammky *mother darling’: When the word ends in /y/ this coalesces מאמיגקע with the /i/. 235 Morphology iy ימ (20) dus Italiy: Used in abstract nouns 0דא איטאליע ’,di teoriy ‘the theory די טעאדיע די and geographical names but mostly in words derived from Latin past participles (see No. (42)). The syllable preceding the suffix takes the stress. icy יצע (21) .di kalUcy *the heifer’: Denotes female sex of an animal די קאלביצע די ik יק (22) dikrit'ik ‘the criticism’: The די קריטיק ’,di gram'atik ‘the grammar די גראמאםיק די suffix sometimes takes the stress. Mostly used for fields of learning and research.

/ )ל 23( See paras. 64, 65, 67, 68, 71. kx לעך(24) See paras. 70, 71.

(25) T » (0 di inaademj די שנײדעוץ/שױידערי׳ן ’,di kexnjkexin ‘the (female) cook די קעק/קעכין די {naaderm ‘ the tailoress, dressmaker ’: The suffix denotes a female, it mostly derives feminine from masculine nouns.

(n (2 ן(26) דעד אלמן ’,der gazlyn ‘the robber דעד מלן ’,der paxdn ‘the coward דעד ?חזץ דע ד der baaln ‘the (male) person who wants/is דעד ?עלן ’,der almyn ‘the widower keen to have/get/do something’: The suffix signifies a (male) person with a certain characteristic or engaged in a particular activity. After syllabic /1/ or /n/ the suffix is /yn/. When the final /1/ of a word is non-syllabic, the suffix is syllabic. It is not productive.

(27) IYBt uunys dus baluunys ‘the 0דא בעלנות ’,dus paxduunys ‘the cowardice דאם ?חןװת דאם wanting/the keenness to have/get/do something’: The uu takes the stress. This suffix forms abstract nouns from many of the words with suffix No. (26), but not almuunys ‘widowerhood’ (nor אלמנות from all; there is, e.g., no such word as ‘widowhood’). The suffix is not productive. nty טע1 (28) di hdmty ‘the mistress’ (i.e., the female/feminine of ‘master’). The די הארנסע די /n/ is syllabic. The suffix is a combination of Nos. (25) and (13). It is not productive. 236 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar n u y י ג ע (29) di njdnicy ‘the (female) bore*: The suffix signifies a (female) person די נח־ניצע די having some special individual or social characteristic. nik דק(30) der njdnik ‘the (male) bore*: The suffix signifies a (male) person דע ר נודניק ר דע having some special individual or social characteristic. a* דש See No. (16).

di xoilanis ‘the sick woman’: This feminine suffix is a rare counterpart די חולדת די to No. (26). The syllable before it takes the stress. ג 0 (32) ’,dus badikns ‘the ceremonial veiling of the bride before the wedding דאס מח־עקגס דאס dus gybruutns ‘the roast meat’: The suffix denotes an 0$ד דבראמם/געבראמם 0$ד action or the result of an action. yver עוז ער עוז See No. (38). txl עכל(33) See paras. 66, 69.

(34) P » « » See paras. 66, 69.

(35) n v **J di Laizerexy ‘Eliezer’s wife’: The suffix signifies that a certain די לי׳יזעדעכע די woman is the wife of the man to whose name the suffix is appended. ext ע p (36) ,dus Jurexc ‘the conduct דאס װ*עכץdus fiUxc ‘the filling, stuffing,’ 8 דאס ילעכץ8 דאס behaviour’: The suffix denotes the result of an activity or the activity itself. ely עלע See para. 72. trVBymi See No. (16).

ז5 *(37) -der buxerec ‘strong young guy.’ The suffix takes the stress. It signi דעד בחורעץ דעד fies strength. 237 Morphology er ער (38) der beker ‘the דעד בעקער :’der davyner ‘the praying one דער דאװיגער/דאװענער ד ער der sarver ‘the דער סארװער ’,der iraaber ‘the writer, author דער שרײבער ’,baker der rouxvarger דער רויכװארגער ’,der teper ‘the potter דעד טעפער ;’waiter der דער בענטשער ’,(der cener ‘the tenner (banknote/bill דער צענער ;’the furrier‘ לאנדאנער ;’bencer ‘booklet containing “ grace after meals” and other benedictions קראלןיװעד/קראקעװער ’,Vilner ‘of/from Vilna װילנער ’,Londoner ‘Londoner Amerikaner ‘American’: The suffix denotes a אמעריקאנער ’,Krukyver ‘Cracovian nomen agentis - an occupation, a maker of things or one dealing with them - and geographical location or origin. When the word ends in /y/ this coalesces with the /y/ of the suffix. er ע י (39) :’der milioner ‘the millionaire דער מיליאנער ’,der pioner ‘pioneer דער פיאנער דער The suffix takes the stress. It is a masculine nomen agentis or indicates a (male) person’s state.

(eraa(i עריי(40) dus דאס שוסטערײ ’,dus smjjseraa(i) ‘the talking, the chatter דאם שמועסערײ דא ם sjjsteraa(i) ‘the bootmaker’s trade’: The final syllable takes the stress. The suffix signifies a continuous activity, often by a number of people, or an occupation. em ערן(41) di tjkernjtjkerin ‘female attendant at a mikvy’: Combination די טוקעדן/טוקערץ די of Nos. (38) and (25). ciy ציע (42) di rydakciy ‘the רי וײדאקציע/רעדאקציצ ’,di stanciy ‘the station די סטאנציע די di די קאלאױזאציע ’,di emigraciy ‘emigration די צמיגראציע ’,editors, editorship di opoziciy ‘opposition’: The syllable די אפאזיציע ’,kolonizaciy ‘colonization before the suffix takes the stress. It has mostly an abstract meaning and is not productive. Gender: feminine. See No. (20).

(43)P cn di rebycnjrebycin ‘rabbi’s wife’: This - clearly double - suffix רי ךביצן/רביצין רי occurs only in this word. kait קײט(44) dus דאס קײט/צעטראעקײט1טראג1צ ’,dus sainkdt ‘the beauty דאס שײנקײט ד אס cjtrugnkaitjcytrugnkait ‘absent-mindedness’: The suffix forms abstract nouns. Its gender is neuter. 238 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

קע*7(45> di modistky ‘the milliner’: The suffix forms feminines from the די מאדיסטקע די די גאלדמאנקע ./suffixes Nos. (3), (6), (7), (18), (38); in No. (5) ak is changed to 0 di Goldmanky ‘Mrs. Goldman’: The suffix also signifies that a certain woman is the wife of the man to whose name it is appended. laft ט68ש (46) dus kljgtafi ד$ס ט6קלתשא *,dus xaveriaft ‘friendship, comradeship 0$ד תגרשא&ט 0$ד ‘cleverness*: The suffix creates abstract nouns. Gender: neuter.

י® &(47) .fiteriii ‘dear uncle’: The suffix expresses endearment or friendliness פעטערשי ת׳ע*(48) di tadaikys, cydaikys ‘truly religious (Jewish) woman; saintly די גדיקת, גדיקת גדיקת, די (Jewish) woman’: This feminine suffix is not productive. •4 (c) Prefix + suffix (gy ... eraa(i ד/ג ע ... ערל (49) dus gyitjperaa(i) ‘the pushing* (referring to a number דאס ךשםופערל/געשטופערל דאס of people): The affixes denote an activity executed at the same time by a number of people. The final syllable takes the main stress. Gender: neuter. c/ts . ״ ׳ ^ ד /מ - T(50) dus gykifi דאם גישריפץ/נעשרישץ *,dus gykexc ‘cooked dish דאם ד ק ע ^ג ע ק ע כץ דא ם DJO dus gymoizexc דמויזעבץ/נעמױזעכץ ’,the writing (i.e., letters); the document‘ ‘the marsh’: This double affix indicates something collective - various ingredients in the dish, a number of letters in the document, assembly of land of a certain type.

DIMINUTIVE

דער דיגער *,dus vmtl ‘the breeze דאס װינסל - *der vmt ‘the wind דער וױגט 64 the watch’: The most frequent form of the‘ דאס דיגערל - ’der zaiger ‘the clock diminutive is derived by suffixing a syllabic /1/. It is used with monosyllables .er- -ער ending in a consonant other than /1/, and in disyllabics ending in *,dus zbndl ‘the grain of sand דאם זעמדל - *der zamd ‘the sand דער זןזמד 65 *di ituut ‘the town די שטאט ,dus rtkl דאם רעקל - *der rok ‘the jacket דער ראק דער די נום ;dus rtivl דאם ךבל - *der rum ‘the rabbi דער ךdus itiitl, 5 דאם שטעטל - ,dusfiisl דאם ל0לder fjjs ‘the foot*- 6 דעד dus nisi, 01C דאס דםל - ’di njs ‘the nut - *dus houz ‘the house דןןס הױז,dus haifl 0$ד ל6הײ - *der hoi/1 the yard דער הייף דער .dus haazl: Where appropriate, mutation accompanies the suffix 0$ד הלזל 0$ד 239 Morphology

דdus tixterl, 0$ דאס טעכטערל - ’di toxter ‘the daughter די םאכטער (b) der guuertn ‘the דע ר גארטן,dus ptinyml דאס §ױמל - ’dus puunym ‘the face #נים dus giiertndl: There are disyllabic דאס מרטנדל dus giiertl or דאםגערסל - ’garden words, where the suffix is accompanied by mutation, but this is rare. dus kol ‘the דdus miilexl, V\p 0$ דאס מלל)ע(כל - ’di miil ‘the mill די מלל 66 dus kilexl: When the final consonant of the noun is דאם יןל)ע(כל/קולכל - ’voice ,e)x - is inserted between it and the syllabic I suffix)- כ(ע־) - unsyllabic /, the suffix thus separating the two Ts. exn instead- -( ע( ק dus kilexn: The suffix דאם קלעקד ,dus miilexn דאס מיל עק דאס .exl is rare- -(ע(כל of der volkn ‘the דעד װאלקז ,dus phtdl דאם פעגדל - ’di pin ‘the pen די פען 67 דאס נמתדל - ’der nign ‘the mne דעד ניגון,dus volkndl דאם װאלקנדל - ’cloud dus nigndl: When the final consonant of the noun is an /n/ (unsyllabic or syllabic), a /d/ develops before the /1/. dus itiki: Often, however, the דאם שטעקל - ’der itikn ‘the stick דעד שסעקן 68 n is dropped and the word treated as a monosyllable. Plural ד$ס מלל)ע(כל ,di vmtlex די װיגמלעך - ’dus vintl ‘breeze 0דא וױמזל (a) 69 miilexlex: The plural suffix of the מלל)ע(כלעך/מילכלעך - ’dus miilexl ‘little mill .lex- -לער diminutive is di miilexer: The diminutive די מללעכער - ’dus mUUx ‘little mill ד$ס מללעק (b) .exer- ־עכער exn has the plural- - ע ק in di nigjjnym די מ תים ,dus nigndl חז ם ניגתדל - ’der nign ,the tune דעי־ מיז 70 di nigjjnymlex: Yiddish words of Semitic origin do די ױגמימלעך - ’the tunes‘ not form the plural of the diminutive from its singular but from the plural form - ’dt kinder ‘the children די קינדעד - ’dus kind ‘the child 0$ד קלנד .of the noun di kinderlex: By analogy, a few non-Semitic nouns also have this די קינדערלעך די plural formation. der inai ‘the snow’: When a word ends in a דע ר שניי ״,di kjj ‘the cow די קי 71 vowel (or diphthong), no diminutive can be formed because a vowel (or diphthong) kind ‘child’ has no קיגד cannot be followed by a syllabic consonant. The word diminutive.

MINUTIVE

72 The minudve denotes an increased or intensified degree of diminutiveness. In certain cases (see below), however, it functions simply as a diminutive. 240 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

dus brihaly, brihely דאס ברלדומלע, בריזזעלע - ’der briiv ‘the letter דער נרמז דער dus חזם זעמדאלע, זעמדעלע - ’der zami 'the sand דעד ו א מי ’,the little letter‘ - ’der itikn ‘the stick דעו* שטעקן ’.zJmdaly, xJmdely ‘the tiny grain of sand dus itikaly, itikely ‘the little stick’: The minutive is דאס שטעק*לע, קעלעסעש שטעק*לע, דאס aJy, -tly; the phonological details are, when- - לע, עלעformed by the suffix 8 applicable, the same as for the diminutive. (b) מ ר עלע נאראלע, ,(’nybtmaly, nytumely! ‘darling!’ (lit: ‘little soul גשמחלע 73 aly, tly לע, עלעndrely!, ndralyl ,my dear little chump!’: The suffix 8 expresses various shades of endearment.

(c) - ’dus haazl ‘the little house דאם הללזל - ’dus houz ‘the house 0$ד הױז 74 dus haazaly, haazely ‘very little house’: The suffix indicates דןןס הלזאלע, הלזעלע הלזאלע, דןןס a higher degree of diminution than the diminutive suffix. (d) dus kniialy, kmiely ‘the little דןןס קניאלע, קגלעלע - ’dus bui ‘the knee ד$ס קבל 75 inaialy, dus inaiely ‘the דאם שנײאלע, שדיעלע - ’ der inot ‘the snow דעד מיי ’,knee du דאס לע,8םשק8ק קןןטשקעלע - ’di kafky ‘the duck די קאםשקע - ’snow-flake דאס פימאלע, - ’der foigl ‘the bird דער * מל ’,kaikaly, kaSkely ‘the little duck faigaly, dus faigely ‘the birdie’: The minudve suffix is used instead *׳יגעלע of the diminutive suffix when the latter would be phonologically impossible. A vowel, diphthong or syllabic / cannot be followed by syllabic I, the sign of the diminutive, •knH-l, •huu4 , kaiky-l, faig-l are not possible, and the non-syllabic I of *kniil, *btaily *kaikyl would not convey a diminutive sense. Hence the diminutive suffix is replaced by the minutive suffix, i.e., the minutive form is made to function in a diminutive sense. Thus, when a word ends in syllabic 4 it is treated as if it were a diminutive. dus mOJxaly, miilxtly דאס מלל מל ע, מללכעלע - *di miil ,the mill די מלל 76 ‘the little mill*: The glide in the diminutive between / and x disappears in the minutive. 77 When a word has more than one syllable and ends in a consonant, no minutive can be formed. Plural די ו תטאלעך. - ’dus vmtaly, vmttly ‘the gentle breeze דאס ודנטאלע, װמטעלע 78 vmtaltx, di vmtelex: The final vowel of the singular suffix is merged ודגםעלעך with the vowel of the plural suffix. This is not visible in the spelling but the difference is dear phonetically: fly - jlexj. 241 Morphology

Adjective

INFLECTION

There are two declensions.

First declension :״m gjt ‘good 79 Singular

Neuter Feminine Masculine with with definite indefinite article article with either article

.Nom גוטער גוס9 גוס נוטע .Acc גוטן גוסע גום גוסע .Dat גוטן גוטער גום גוסן .Poss גוטן גוםער גום גוטן

Masculine Feminine Neuter with with indefinite definite with either article article article

Nom. gjter gjty gj‘ gjty Acc. gjtn gjty gjt gjty Dat. gjtn gjter g}t gjtn Poss. gjtn gjttr gjt gjtn

From this paradigm it will be seen that there are four markers to indicate sixteen grammatical relationships: the endings er, n,y, and zero ending.

Plural -gjty: The phiral marker is V- -y for all forms, whether the word is pre נוסע 80 ceded by the definite article or by none at all. 242 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Second or substantival declension 81

Neuter Feminine Masculine with with definite indefinite article article with either article

.Nom נוטעד נוטע נוטס נוטס .Acc נוסן נוטע נוטס גוסס .Dat בוטן נוטער נוטן גרטן .Poss גוסגס נוטערס גוטנס גוטגס

Masculine Feminine Neuter with with indefinite definite with either article article article

Nom. gjter gjty gjts gj* Acc. gjtn gjty gjts gjts Dat. gjtn gjter gjts gjt* Poss. gjtns gjters gjts gjtns

There are six markers for indicating sixteen grammatical relationships: -er, hi, •ns, -y, ~ers, -s. The plural marker is /-y/ for all forms. iamym < *lainyn: When a word ends in שײנים/שימעם - ’sain ‘beautiful שיין 82 naa(i]ym: The same נלעם - ’n/, the case ending /n/ becomes / y m / . naa(i) ‘new/ .נל applies to the word vokyly: Syllabic /1/ becomes /yl/ when the װאלװילע - ’vohl ‘cheap װאלװל 83 word is inflected. mitn Tuumer toilyv ‘with the resident of Tuume = Polish מיםן טארגער תוש2 84 er are not- -ער Tamow (western Galicia)’: Geographical adjectives ending in inflected. mitn horbaty maidl ‘with the hunchback girl’: Certain מיםן הארבאסע מײדל 85 PK מחייadjectives are not inflected. Most of these are used only predicadvely: 5 iz mexjjyv ‘is obliged.’ 243 Morphology

COMPARISON :’ braitst * broadest ברײטסט - ’braittr ‘ broader ברײטער - ’ brait ‘ broad ברײט (a) 86 .st- -טer, the superlative in 0- ־ער The comparative ends in vist: When a word ends in /s/, the דםט - ziiser ױםער - ’ziis ‘sweet זים (b) /s/ of the superlative is fused with it. ihst: Some adjectives, besides having עלטםט - elter עלטער - ’alt ‘old אלט (a) 87 the suffix (/er, st/), undergo mutation of their stem vowel. grist גרעסט greser גרעםער *grois ‘big נרױס (b) hexst העכסמ hixtr העכער ’hoi(e)x ‘high י|־1ה Unct שעטנט/שענסט siner שעמנו־ ’am ‘beautiful} שיץ :klenct קלעטנט/קלענטט kUner קלענער ’klam ‘little ק ל ת In some of them the mutation is irregular (based on an earlier stage of the language). rנענטםט מןנטער נאעגט, נ$נט (c) nuuynt, nuunt ‘near’ nhnter nimtst נאעגטטט, נאגטסט נאעגטער, נאנטער נאעגטער, nuujmter, nuunter nuuyntst, nuuntst חשובסט, ן1שו5םט חשובער. ןושז5ער חשוב T xuuiyv ‘important’ xeisjrver, xuuiyver xeiiyvst, xuuiyvst In some cases both the mutated and unmutated forms occur. ;best ‘best בעםס - ’beser ‘better בעםער - ’gjt ‘goodװס 88 ;’ergst, argst ‘worst ערגסט, ארגסט ’,erger, arger ‘worse ערגער, ארגער ערגער, ;’mmct ‘least מי ע ט, מיגסט מי ע ט, :’bilexer ‘more entitled to בילעכע^לכער In a few cases one or two of the degrees are missing or formed from different words.

Inflection :’i k / ‘ill, sick שלאף 89

Neuter Feminine Masculine with with definite indefinite article article with either article

.Nom ערער8שלא ערע6שלא ער6שלא ערע6שלא .Acc ערן6שלא ערע6שלא שלאפער עדע6שלא .Dat ערן6שלא ערער6שלא ער6שלא עק8שלא .Poss עדן6#של שלאפערער ער6שלא עח6שלא 244 Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Masculine Feminine Neuter with with indefinite definite with either article article article

Nom. slaferer slafery slafer slafery Acc. slafern slafery slafer slafery Dat. slafern slaferer slafer slafern Poss. slafern slaferer slafer slafern

There are four markers for indicating sixteen grammatical relations: -er, -n, -y and zero ending. :’der epl, vus iz zouerer ‘the more sour apple דער עפל, ודא ס איז זויערער איז ס ודא עפל, דע ר ,er, the comparative is not used attributively —ער When an adjective ends in in order to avoid the inflection (der *zouererer epl). Such an adjective is only used דער :predicatively. That difficulty does not arise, of course, in the superlative ’.der zouerster epl ‘the sourest apple זויערסטער ע פל זויערס טער

FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES

A True adjectives

:’prost ‘ordinary פראסט ’,puusyt ‘simple, plain פשוט ’,laaxt ‘light; easy לייכט 90 Basic adjectives - i.e., not derived from other adjectives or other word classes - are nearly always mono- or disyllabic.

B Compounds

tjnkl-grm ‘dark-grey’: Composition of two true adjectives is טונקל־גרא 91 very rare.

-klain קלײן־שטעטלדיק ,’brait-bainerdik ‘broad-shouldered ברײט־בײנערדיק 92 :’... old-fashioned, old time‘ אלט־פרענקי ש ’,steitldik ‘small town ‘provincial + brait ברייט + בײנערדילן - Here we do not have a compound of two adjectives bainerdik - but a compound consisting of an attributive adjective plus its noun, .dik- -ליק the unit taking the adjectival suffix

c Participles

,baglaibt ‘trustworthy’: Many participles can function as adjectives באגלײבט 93 attributively and/or predicatively. 245 Morphology

gygUxnt ‘being like, resembling': Participles sometimes מליכנט/מנגליכמז glaax גללן* become independent of their source - the participle of the verb .gyglaaxt. Both words are used only predicativelyױגללכט/געגלײכס compare’ is'

D Affixes

Prefixes

94 jmgygim ‘notאומגינעםן/אומגעגעק ’,jmglikUx ‘unhappyאומנליקלעך:~Jmאיפג-(!) having eaten’: This prefix is used with adjectives and participles, it has a privative meaning. It takes the stress. baredyvdtk ‘talkative’: This prefix is not רעזײװדיק/ב«רשדעוחײק8ב :~ba מ ־ (2) productive and conveys no special meaning. :’gyhnak ‘tastyגישפאק/געשסאק ’,gytraa(i) ‘faithful ױטרל/געטדל :-JSil-'igy (3) This prefix is not productive and conveys no meaning. Sometimes its vowel ’.easy‘ גריגג:has disappeared and the g is not recognized as the former prefix

Suffixes

95 .horbaty ‘ hunchbacked ’: The suffix takes the word stress הארבאסע :aty—אטע (1) It designates a physical, mental or spiritual characteristic. national ‘concerning an ethnic group’ (not country or נאציאנאל :mai- - אנא ל (2) .ty- -יע state): The suffix derives adjectives from nouns ending in ’,faa(i)erdtk ‘fiery פײערדיק ’,maaryvdik ‘western מערגדיק :dik- -דיק (3) פלוצימדיק/ ’,kaalexdik ‘round קללעכדיק ’,Uxndik ‘full of holes לעכערדיק pljcymdik ‘sudden’: The suffix is used mainly with nouns but also פלוצעמדיק with adverbs. It signifies having a certain quality or affinity with something, or resemblance to it. It is very productive. voxydik ‘work-a-day’: After monosyllables the form is װאכיזריק/װאכעדיק .ydik- .ידיק/־עךיק trugydik ‘pregnant’: The same form is used with the base סר$רדיק/טראנעדיק of a verb, when it describes a state or condition. ,(tamyvaty ‘simple’ (of persons תממדאטע/תמערואטע :yvaty- -יװאטע/־עװאטע (4) יװאמע8אנ byhatmyvaty ‘stupid’ (lit.: ‘cattlelike’),/6 בהימיװאטע/בהטהודאםע fonfyvaty ‘speaking nasally’: The suffix receives the stress. It פאנפעװאטע is used with a noun or the base form of a verb, and describes a state or condition. חמיװדיק/ ’,bashful, shy ‘ *'^״״^שעמיזזדיק/שעסעזזדיק:yvdik- -יזחײק/-עװדיק (5) xamyvdik ,charming, lovely’: It is used with the base form of a חנעװדיק 246 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

verb, occasionally with a noun, and means ‘having the quality indicated by the verb (or noun).’ tjngufk- ‘young’: The suffix is used with adjectives יונױסשק- :-tfk- ־יסשק־ (6) and conveys a shade of endearment. taa(i)erink- ‘dear, darling’: The suffix is used with גדיערמק־ ■tnk —’*?־ (7) adjectives and expresses endearment. מיל)ע(כיק ’,nixtik ‘yesterday’s נעכםיק ’,iberik ‘superfluous איבעריק :ik- -יק (8) milexik ‘milky ..., dairy The suffix is used with nouns and adverbs. It conveys no special shade of meaning. ,nacionalistii ‘nationalistic’ (in the ethnic sense נאגיאנאליםטיש :istii- -יסטיש (9) not with reference to a country or state): The suffix takes the word stress mai, and- - ל8ל/אג8אנ on its first syllable. It is used with adjectives ending in thus means ‘concerning a certain opinion/idea/ideology/philosophy, or a group/movement/political party, or representing, advocating these things.’ lamduunii למךגיש ’,fraaberti ‘characteristic of authors שרלבעריש יש—:/» (10) Herii אירי׳ש ’,Katoilii ‘Catholic ק 8ס1יליש’,xsiidti*Chassidic חקױדיש ’,learned‘ אײראפעאיש/איירןןפעיש,(Itrlendts ‘ Irish ’ (country אירלענדיש,(Irish ’ (language ‘ נראפאטיש ’,far-caatil *of/from olden times או צײטישturopeiti‘European,’ 6 cvjiakiS *hypocritical’: The !ביעיאקיש/צבועקיש ’,gramatii ‘grammatical suffix is used with nouns and denotes ' belonging to a group or category - occupation, class, religion, language, country, region, period in time’ etc. ,gliklex ‘happy’: The suffix is used with abstract nouns גליקלעך :(lex (a- -לעך (11) kaltlex ‘coldish, cool’: It is also used with adjectives, giving קןןלסלעך (b) /Iidiilex ‘specifically ץדישלעך (them a diminished degree of intensity, (c characteristically Jewish’: When the suffix is used with adjectives ending in -a shade of meaning is added which denotes ‘specifically so, charac ,/«- -יש teristicaUy so.’ -bUxn ,made of tin sheet’: The suffix is used with nouns desig :ב ל ע ק »--ן (12) nating a material. kulturiil ‘cultural’: The suffix takes the stress. It is קולםורעל :til- -על (13) appended to internationally used abstract nouns. Svaicer שודיצער ’,Krukyver ,Cracovian קראקיװער/קראקעװער : er- -ער (14) -Amerikaner ‘Ameri אמעריקאנער ’,Londoner ‘Londoner לאנדאנער ’,Swiss‘ can’: The suffix is used with place names. hikem ‘wooden’: The suffix is used with nouns denoting הילצע ^ :p P - -ern (15) a material. ribyi *pertaining to a ך 3יש ’,vaaberi *women’s, female יױיבערש ש—:/ (16) -יש Chassidic rebbe’: After r or y of an unstressed final syllable, the />/ of -ii (No. 10) is dropped. 247 Morphology

Pronoun

(a) pe r s o n a l p r o n o u n

Third Person Second Person /irrf Person

Neuter Feminine Masculine Singular

.Nom 1) (איך/כ־ (I) H(1) עי/ ר־ ) *(י/ז־ םע/ם־/עם T « W ( י י (2) ער (2 (2) י 09 ‘it’ ‘she’ ‘he’ ‘you (thou)’ ‘1’

.X) Acc) מיד יין־ (I) (1) אים/ז (1) ד 09 (מלו (2 ( ילך 2) (אלם/עם (2 ד ‘it’ ‘her’ ‘him’ ‘you (thee)’ ‘me’

Dat )!( מיי )!( דיי )!(אים/ן )*(״יי איס/ן (מלר2) (זץר2) (2) אלם/עם (אלר2) /?ם0אל ‘it’ ‘her’ ‘him’ ‘you (thee)’ ‘me’

.a) Poss) מלנם orn ךמס אידם דינם (b) מלגער דיךנער זלנער אלרעד דמער (c) מימט ך נם ךינס אידם דינט ‘of its’ ‘of hers’ ‘of his’ *of yours’ ‘of mine’

Plural .Nom )!( מיד/אתדז )!( איר/עז די ... מי ד (מלר2) (2) אלד/עץ (2) (מלר2) ‘they’ ‘you’ ‘we’

.Acc אונח אלך/עגק די ‘than’ ‘you’ ‘us’

.Dat אתדז זדיך/עגק זײ ‘them’ ‘you’ ‘us’ 248 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Third Person Second Person First Person

Feminine MasculineNeuter Singular

.p0Ss אונדזערס אײערס/ זײערס ענקערס אונדזערט אייערט/ זײערט ענקערט אונדזערער אײערער/ זײערער ענקערער ‘of theirs’ ‘of yours’ ‘of ours1

First Person Second Person Third Person

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. (1) ex/x- (1) dj (1) er/r- (1) zi/z- sy/s-/ys (2) iiex/iax/ (2) djj (2) eier (2) zii eix ‘1’ ‘you (thou)’ ‘he’ ‘she’ ‘it’ n (1)z i ys־/Acc. (1) mex (1) dex (1) ym (2) miiex/ (2) diiex/dex (2) eim/ (2) zii mex/meiex 11m ‘me’ ‘you (thee)’ ‘him’ ‘her’ ‘it’ n־/Dat. (1) mir (1) dir (1) ym/-n (1) ir (1) ym (2) miier (2) diier (2) eim / (2) iier (2) eim/ 11m 11m me ‘you (thee)’ ‘him’ ‘her’ ‘to it’

Poss. (a) maanc daanc zaanc/ iiers zaanc/ eims/iims eims/iims (b) maant daant zaant iiert zaant (c) maaner daaner zaaner ii(e)rer zaaner ‘of mine’ ‘of yours’ ‘of his’ ‘of hers’ ‘of its’ 249 Morphology

First Person Second Person Third Person

SinguJar Masculine Feminine Neuter

Plural Nom. (1) mir/jndz. . . (1) ir zai mir (2) miier/jndz... (2) iier mir *you (ye)' ‘they‘ ״we‘

Acc. jndz aax/£nk zai ‘us’ ‘you* ‘them*

Oat. jndz aax/enk zai ‘to us’ ‘to you’ ‘to them*

Poss. (a) jndzers aa(i)ers zaiers (b) jndzert aa(i)en zaiert enkcrer (c) jndzerer aa(i)erer zaierer enkert ‘of ours* ,of yours* *of theirs*

Those forms that have been placed on lines (2) are used in stressed position.

נרמס The possessive is expressed by forms of the possessive pronoun, (a) 8 97 maanc a brjjdem-zjjn ‘a nephew of mine’: The possessive receives the ברודערן־זון ending s (the ending of the possessive of the noun ?) and is followed by the in- etc. maanc glaaxn etc. *the likes of נ מ ס נ ל לק definite article. In the expressions me’ etc., there is no article. etc. fjn maant viign etc. ‘for my sake’ the /t/ functions as פון כדיגט װעגן b) In) possessive ending (although historically it is not). mir kinyn zaaner niit puuter viiem ‘ we מיר קענין/קעגען ױלנער ױשט פטור והנח (c) ver puuter ‘to get rid of’ is usually װער ?טוד cannot get rid of him’: The verb constructed with the preposition r® fjn ‘of,’ but when it refers to a personal moaner etc. can be used instead. If this should be a case מימער pronoun the forms of a fossilized genitive, its place would be in the present paragraph. ער את כךעער d) The same holds true for that form in a construction like) 250 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

er iz moaner 0 brjjdem-zjjn ‘he is a nephew of mine.’ However, the ברודעח־װן 8 speakers would not regard it as a genitive but as a nominative because they see that געזען ד האס גיז?ן/:the pronoun is inflected when its noun is a direct or indirect object xj hot gyzJm maanym a brjjdem-zjjn *she saw a פלניש/מײמנם א ברודערךײן א פלניש/מײמנם zi hot ד האט עם גינעבן/נעגעבן מלד־ם/םלנעם 8 ברודערךזון nephew of mine’ and ys gygfibn maanym a brjjdem-zjjn ‘she gave it to a nephew of mine.* Ir vit zaan dortnl ‘Will you be there?’: When speaking איר װעט דץ דארםן t to a grown-up individual, one uses, as the polite form of address, the second .aa(i)er אלעד ,aax אלך Hry איי :person plural Some of the forms given here, while being frequent or usual in the spoken language, are not often met with in print.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

9« *mex - zex ‘myself םיד-זיד Singular 1st person *dex - zex ‘yourself די ד-זי ד 2nd person *zex ‘himself* ‘herself ‘itself זיד 3rd person *zex ,ourselves זיד Plural 1st person *aax - zex ‘yourselves א ל ך - ד ך 2nd person *zex ‘themselves ח־ 3rd person In the 1st and 2nd person most speakers do not use the real reflexive pronoun .(aax אלך ,dex דיך ,mex מיך) zex) but the personal pronoun ד ך)

POSSESSIVE PRONOUN

Singular o f person

Third person Second First Person person Neuter Feminine Masculine

H r® Singular o f ךץ אלר זלן אלר ך ץ governing ‘its’ ‘her’ ‘his’ ‘your (thy)’ ‘my’ noun 251 Morphology

Third person Second First Person Person Neuter Feminine Masculine

Plural of ע1מל דלגע זלנע זלגע governing my nounי״™* ’(its ‘her’ ‘his’ ‘your (thy

Plural o f person

Singular of אתחער אלער זײער governing ‘their’ ‘your’ ‘our’ noun

Plural of אתחערע אדע רע דיערע governing ‘their’ ‘your’ ‘our’ noun

Singular o f person

First Second Third person person person Masculine Feminine Neuter

Singular of maan daan zaan ir, iier zaan governing ’l ‘your (thy)’ ‘his’ ‘her’ ‘its ״ noun l_my

Plural of maany daany zaany iiery zaany governing noun my ‘your (thy)’ ‘his’ *her’ ‘its’

Plural o f person

Singular of jndzer aa(i)er zaier governing noun ‘our’ ‘your’ ,their’

Plural of jndzcry aa(i)ery zaiery governing noun ‘our’ ‘your’ ‘their’ 2$2 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

The possessive pronoun is generally placed straight before its noun and is then not inflected. In other positions, it is.

First declension

100 ‘my, of mine’

Plural Singular Neuter Feminine Masculine

.Nom מײגער מייגע מײגס מייגע .Acc מלגים/מלגעם מייגע מײגם מייגע .Dat מלגים/מלגעס מלגער מלױם/מלנעם מייגע .Poss מלגים/נדיגעם בדיגער סלדם/םלנעם כדינע

, my, of mine’

Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. moaner maany maone maany Acc. maanym maany maanc maany Dat. maanym moaner maanym maany Poss. maanym moaner maanym maany

;his, of his’ are inflected in the same way* זלן ’,daan ,your, of yours דלן ,her, of hers’

Plural Singular Neuter Feminine Masculine

.Nom זױרער אירע אח־ם אירע .Acc אלין אירע אלרם אירע .Dat אלת אײ־ער אלין זױדע .Poss אלדן אירער אלח אװ־ע zaier ,their’ arc inflected in זי׳יער aa(i)er ‘your,’ and אלער Jndzer,’ אתדזערour, .the same way.the 253 Morphology

‘her, of hers*

Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. ii(e)rer ii{e)rs Acc. ii(e)m u{e)ry ii(e)rs ai&y Dat. iHe)m ii(e)rer ii(e)m *K&j Poss. ii(e)rn ii(e)rer ii(e)m ii(e)ry

This declension is used when the pronoun is separated from the noun by the indefinite article.

Second declension

The second declension is identical with the first, except for the possessive: masc. .zaiems זײעתס .zaierers, neut זײערערס .zaiems, fern זײעתם This declension is used when the pronoun follows the noun.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN

:״Diier ‘this 101

Plural Singular Neuter Feminine Masculine

.Nom י9 י דל י *ם זץ .Acc דץם דל 0דא דל דעם דעם דל .T Dat ד ן י T דעם דעד דץם דל .Poss ד T

Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. diier dii duus dii diiy Acc. diim dii duus dii diiy Acc. dim diier dim dii diiy Poss. dim diier diim dii diiy 254 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

This is the adjectival, attributive declension. The substantival declension differs dams דעמס .deters, neut דערם .dims, fem דעמonly in the possessive: Masc. 0 .diiys is rare דישם .plur Ot 0 diier ‘this’: These two follow the above אט א דער ’,ot diier ‘this אט דער אט pattern. ’,der iiniker ‘that דער יעניקעד ’,Uner ‘that יעגער ’,der doziker ‘this דער דאזיקער ד ער דער ’,der zelbiker ‘the same דער דעלביקער ’,der zilber ‘the same דער דעלבער דע ר der aigyner ‘the same’: These demonstratives are inflected as אײמער/אײגענער adjectives and as nouns. azelexer ‘such a ’: &U5 azi (stress on the אזעל)ע(כער ’,azoiner ,such a אזייגער final syllable), azdn (before a word beginning with a vowel) ‘such a,’ F9 8 .miiny: These two demonstratives are not inflected מיני :a miin ‘such a,’ Plural

ARTICLE 102 The definite article is the main sign indicating the gender of the noun. It is inflected in the singular. There are only four different markers to serve twelve .di) also serves for all the cases and genders of the plural די) cases. One of them fjnym ‘from/of the’: When the dative of תעם6תים/ mym ‘in the,’ 6 אינים/אימנם the definite article follows a preposition ending in n, the article mostly undergoes בלם .a varying degree of reduction. The d is dropped, as in the above examples cjm ‘to the’: After a vowel or diphthong only the final m of צום ’,baam ,at the ’,btzn ‘till the בחץ ’,on the‘ ( ן6איי - \afrt [afm ן6א ) - \ofn[ofm אthe article remains:|6 micadn ,on the part of,’ nuuxn ‘after the,’ p86 מצדן ’,mitn ‘with the מיטן fam ‘before the’: After consonants, other than n, the dy of the article is dropped, and the final m is replaced by syllabic n. a which is uninflected. Before a vowel it becomes א The indefinite article is 103 an. It has no plural form - the absence of a definite article before a plural noun אץ implies that an indefinite article is to be understood here. a lomp - niit kain lomp ‘a lamp - no lamp’: The א לאמפ - נישט קיץ לאמפ קיץ נישט - לאמפ א .niit kain ױשט קײן negation of the indefinite article is

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN

’?vuus, vus ? ,what והאס? ’,? viier ,who װער? 104 ’?viier? ,who װעד? .Nom ’?veimyn? ,whom װעמין/װעמען? .Acc ?veimyn? ,to whom װעמין/װעמען? .Dat ’?veimyns? ‘whose װעממם/װעמענם? .Poss ?viimys װעמים/װעמעם? 255 Morphology

:’?sar a? ‘what kind of סארא? - ?vuser a װאסער א? - ?vus far a װאס פאר S? All three forms are used with singular or plural nouns. vuser ‘what kind of?’: Both forms are used וואסער? - ? VUS fa r װאס פאר? with the plural of the noun. .velexer? ‘which?’: It is inflected like the possessive pronoun װעל)ע(כער?

RELATIVE PRONOUN

vuus װאם der menc., vus ‘the person who’: The interrogative דער מענטש, װאם 105 דצר בעק ער װאם .vus. It is not inflected װאס functions also as the relative marker דער ’,der beker, vus er itait dortn ‘the baker who is standing there ער שטײט דארטן שטײט ע ר der beker, vus ir zeit ym dortn ‘the baker whom בעקער, װאם איר זעט אים דארטן אים זעט איר װאם ב עקער, der beker vus dj darfst ym דער בעקער, וואס דו סט5דאר אים צאלן ’,you see there der דער בעקער, װאם זללן זון איז אין אמעריקע ’,cuuln ‘the baker whom you must pay beker, vus zaan zjjn iz in Ameriky ‘ the baker, whose son is in America ’: Where necessary or desirable the syntactical relation is indicated by a personal pronoun.1

INDEFINITE PRONOUN

a א יעדצ ,(.a ieider (masc א יעדער ,(.ieidy (fem יעדע ,(.ieider (masc יעדער 106 -ietvidy (fem.): These three pro יעטװידע ,(.ietvider (masc יעטװידער ,(.ieidy (fem nouns - meaning ‘each, every’ - are used with nouns in the singular and are -ander ‘other’ is in אנדער .inflected as the possessive pronoun in both declensions ,(.itlexer (masc איטלעכער .fleeted in the same way but used with singular and plural װעל)ע(כער ם־איז ’,itiexs (neut.) ‘each, every איטלעכם ,(.itiexy (fem איטלעכע װעל)ע(כס עס איז ,(.vel(e)xy s iz (fem וועל)ע(כע ס־איז ,vel(e)xer (masc.) 5 iz vel(e)xs ys iz (neut.) ‘whoever’: These two are used with the singular and are ainer ‘somebody’ but it אײנער inflected like the possessive pronouns. So too is די איינע - די אנדערע ainy - andery and איינע - אגדערע has a plural in the opposition ’ieider ainer ‘each one, every one יעדער אײנער ’.di ainy - di andery ‘some - others .ieider, but then only as a noun יעדער is used as a more intense form instead of ieider er ‘each one, every one’: This and the preceding pronoun seem to יעדערער עמיצער/עמעצער־ Umyc א־מיץ/אימעץ - eimyc עמיץ/עמעץ .occur only as masculines iimycer ‘somebody’ is used as a noun and follows the אימיצער/אימעצער - eimycer second possessive declension, but without indication of gender. abii veier ‘whoever, anybody’: The pronominal part is inflected like אבל װער אבל אבל װאס ;’abii vuus ‘whatever, anything אבי װאם ;veier װער the interrogative ’.abii vuser a ‘whatever kind of אבל װאסער א ,abii vus far a § אר א א ר עפיס/עפעס פללט :epys ‘something.’ A special idiomatic usage עפיס/עפעס

.velxer as a relative pronoun is a Germanism װעלכער The use of 1 256 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

pys fiilt er zex niit gjt ‘He is not feeling well, somehow.’ This is£ ער דך דשס נוס דשס דך ער a quasi-subject, a vague syntactical device for anticipating the real subject of the sentence which follows. ״.guw-niit ,nothing גאר־נישט/גארױשס *.myn (after the verb) ,one = you = they = 1 מין/מען,(my (before the verb מע mam ,more.* The preceding six מיץ ;’miier ,more מער - *tail ,some people טייל pronouns are uninflected. al ,all, everything’: When used substantially the pronoun has the following אל forms:

Singular Plural aly אלע ale אלץ .Nom aly אלע ale אלץ .Acc alymyn אלימץ/אלעמען aly אלע alym אלים/אלעם .Dat alymyn אלימץ/אלעמען alymyns אלימינם/אלעמענם — — .Poss

alymyns are used for human beings אלימינס/אלעמעגס alymyn and אלימין/אלעמען aiding ,all, everything’ are very אלדינג - aldmgs ג1אלדי alcding - 0 ®לצז־ינג .only -aly, functions adjectivally and sub אל ע,ale. The plural אלץ often used instead of aldy אליי, א ליה aldus ,all the’; plural אלדאס - aldys אלדים/אלדעס .stantivally al - is used when the pronoun is followed אל - all the’: The uninflected form, by the definite article; the two are joined together, which results in a weakened vowel of the article.

Numerals

CARDINAL 107 ain אײז ainc אײנס1 cvai גוד׳י (draa(i דרל fiier פלר finyf מיף/פמף8 1 In counting. 257 Morphology ziks זע קם 6 zibn דנן 7 8 03« axt naan יין 9 c£n, c&n, c£n צען 10 lyfעליף/עלף 6 11 cvflyf צותנליף/צװעלף 2! draacn דרײצן 13 ftrcn פערצן 14 fjfcn פי ם צן 15 z£xcn זעכצן 16 zibycn ױביגן/ױבןמז 17 axcn אכצן 18 naancn יינצן 19 cvoncik-cvancik צוואטױק/צוואטױק, צװאטױק 20 z£ks-jn-cvoncik זעקם־און־צוזאטױק/צװאנציק, יקאנצצװ 26 draasik דרײסיק 30 ftrcik פעח ױק 40 fjfcik פיפציק 50 zifaccik זעכציק 60 zibycik זיביציק/זיבעציק 70 axcik »ציק3 80 naancik ױינציק 90 hjndcrt התדערט 100 cvai hjndert צװי׳י התדערס 200 touznt םױמם 1.000 cvai touznt צוױ׳י טױזנס 2.000 c6n touznt צען םױזנט ־י 10.000 cvoncik touznt צװאטױק סדיזנס 20.000 hjndert touznt התדערט סױזנט . 100,000 miliuun מיליאן 1,000,000 hjndcrt-(jn-)fiicr המדעדט־)אוז־(םיר 104 ziks-hjndert-axt-jn-draasik זשקם־התדערס־אכס־און־דרלםיק 638 axcn-hjndert-cvai-jn-fjfcik אכצן־המדערס־צװײ־און־ופשציק 1852 or -ain-)touznt-axt-hjndert-cvai-jn) ( אײן־( טױמט־אכט־התדערט־צװײ־ אײן־( fjfcik און־פזפציק -cvai-touznt-naan-hjndert-zeks-jn צװײ־טויינט־נײן ־הונױערט-זעקס־ 2986 axcik און־אכציק .miliasn (plural) indicates a vast indefinite number מיליאק 258 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Composite numbers from thirteen onwards are constructed by addition, the higher preceding the lower, except that the digits precede the tens.

Er ער זעס איץ צויג;*Am latb *** ‘One lion is visible אײז בלײ טז? דך (a) 108 Ergit am feierd ער גיט איץ ערד6 א שטיקל צוקער;’ ziit ain coug *He sees one bitch ain, when functioning אײן :’a ftikl cjktr ‘He gives one horse a piece of sugar adjectivally, is not inflected according to gender and case. :’ fjn der ainer naituum ‘ of the only seamstress ון דער אײנערl6׳־’'b) p$0"Vp$0) am has the definite article, acquiring the meaning *the only,’ it is אײץ But when inflected. has a איץ in ainy cuurys ‘in great trouble’: In this idiom אץ אימע צרות (c) plural form. am, functioning as a noun, is inflected according to the second adjectival איץ(d) .amc, is used in counting אײגס ,declension. The neuter in ainym ‘together’: The dat. masc./neut. is employed in אץ אײנים/איתעם (e) this expression. ziksn ‘six o’clock’: The dat. masc./neut. appears with cardinals זעקסץ (f) when telling the hour of the day. a cener - ceener - cemer א ער1צענער־צע ’,an ainer ‘a digit, digits אן איינער (g) a touznter א טױזנסער ’,a hjnderier ‘a hundred, hundreds א התדערטער ’,a ten, tens‘ ‘a thousand, thousands.’

ORDINAL

109 eierit ערשס 1st cvait צװײט 2nd ander אנדער drit דריט 3rd fb d - fert ערד6 - םערט 4th fift ט6יh 6‘5 zekst זעקסט 6th zibyt דביט/דבעט 7th axt אכט 8th naant ױינס 9th 10th cent - ctbit - cemt 11th DI elyft - elft cvilyft - eveIft װעלפט-צ 12th draacyt - draacnt דרײציט/דרלצעט - דרײצנט 13th fercyt -fercnt פערציס/פערצעט -&ערצנט 14th 259 Morphology fifty* -fift”t צעט6י6ציט/6י6 - צגט6י15th 6 zJxcyt - zixcnt זעכציט/זעכצעמ - זעכצנט 16th zibycyt - zibycnt דביציט/דבעצעט - דבעצנט 17th axcyt - axcnt א3צ*ט/אכצ9 ט - אכצנט 18th naancyt - naancnt ױיגציט/ױיגצעמ - נייצנט 19th cvoncikst-cvancikst צװאגציקסט/צװאנציקםט, 20th צװאגציקםס draasikst דרללםיקםט 30th cvai-jn-draasikst צװי׳י־און־דרייםיקסט 32nd hjndertst התדעטםט ooth 1 hjndert-naant הונדערס־ױמט 109th cva t-hjndert-flfcikst ציקםט6ו6צװײ־התדערט־ 250th touzntst טױתטםט oooth,1 hjndert-touzntst התדערט־טױזנטסט 100,000th miliuunct מיליאנםט oooth,1,000 The ordinals are adjectives and inflected accordingly.

FRACTIONS

,a halber bjj(e)x א “האלבעי ביך - halb: It is inflected adjectivally האלב (a) 110 -halb can be re האלב a helft bjjex ‘ half of the book’: The adjective א ט6העל בון* am איין דריטל ’,a drill ‘a third א דריטל a helft. 4 א ט6העל placed by the noun ,cvai dritl ‘ two thirds ’: The numerator is a cardinal צודיי דריטל $ ’,drill‘ one third tl1 - the final dental of the ordinal being טל the denominator an ordinal plus merged. ,fertlex: When a denominator is used by itself פערטלעך ,dritlex דריטלעך (b) a drit-xailyk ‘a third’: The א דריט־הילק/חלק ex.2- -עך it has a plural formed by tl. The plural then is טל xailyk ‘part’ may be used instead of חילק/חלק word .dnt-xalukym דריט־חלקיס andert-kalb(n) i.e. ‘second = twice minus a half’; 2$ אנדערט־האלב c) 1$) drit-halbn (i.e., the third minus a half); etc.: Mixed numbers consisting דריט־האלבן of a digit and a half are usually constructed by subtraction, though addition is also דרײ־און־&עו־ציק־און־א־ ^employed; with higher figures this is the rule: 23 draa(i)-jn-ftncik-jn-a-halb. No subtraction forms exist for mixed numbers האלב with other fractions than cj צי cj zibn ‘in sevens’: Distributive numbers arc expressed by צו זיבן (d) with a cardinal.

’.u i i ‘put סײל Originally the word 1 1 As if tbe jl! were the diminutive ending (drit + I). 260 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

זאלבע־דריט/ ’,zalby-mnd ,two (persons) together זאלפע־נאגד/זאלבעאנד (e) zalby (originally זאלבע :.zalby-drtt ,three (persons) together,* etc זןןלבעדריט a pronoun) followed by the stem of an ordinal, denotes a group of persons of that number. .muul מאל naan muul ,nine times’: Multiplication is expressed by ױין מאל (f) .topi ,double’ is an adjectival multiplicative ל6טא m cvaiyn ‘twofold,’ etc.: An adverbial multiplicative is formed אץ גװ׳יען (g) .in ,in’ plus inflected cardinal אץ by erlai, attached to- ־ערלײ cvaterlat ,two kinds of,’ etc.: The suffix צװײערלײ (h) alerlai and אלערלײ a cardinal, denotes ,so and so many kinds of.’ There is also ’.kolerlai, both meaning ,all sorts of כלערלײ קידת/ענית cvaitns or גודיטנס ’,raiiis ,firstly ריאשית/ראשית eieritns or ערשטנס (i) Hits ‘thirdly,* etc.: Ordinal adverbs are formed from the} שלישית or דריטנס ,amis} ordinal stem plus the termination DI- -ns, or they are expressed by the corresponding word of the Hebrew element.

Verb

111 The verbal system consists of the following categories: tense, mood, aspect, voice and the verb infinite, represented by the infinitive and two verbal adjectives, the contemporal and the participle.

TYPES OF VERBS

112 There are two types of verbs: (a) simple verbs, including prefixed ones: derman ,remind’ (first and second דערמאן ’,kaift'double ל6ל/פ6כי ’,laig ,lay לײג conjugation); (b) periphrastic verbs: combinations of auxiliaries with certain veier myvjlbl װער ס3ולבל *,bin moixl ,forgive בץ מוחל :uninflected elements ,get confused’ (third and fourth conjugations).

INFLECTION

113

Plural Singular Person st איך ודיל מיד היילן 1 nd דו היילסט איר - עץ היילם 2 rd ער - ד - סע ה׳׳ילס די היילן 3 261 Morphology

Person Singular Plural

1st ex hail mir haibi 2nd dj hoilct ir - ic hailt 3rd er - z i - sy hailt zai haibi

‘1 heal - I am healing’ Where there is inversion, the /d/ of the pronoun, 2nd pers., is fused with the /t/ of the verb ending: (k)ost dj > (h)ostj *have you’ and the spelling corresponds .האססו:to that The verb is inflected by means of the endings /n (syllabic), st, t/ and zero, /n/ and /t/ each serving for two persons. This holds good for the present tense, the imperative and for the auxiliaries (here some irregular forms). The other tenses, moods and aspects are formed by means of auxiliaries.

FIRST CONJUGATION: WEAK VERBS

,ftii ‘fly’; (B) W W pravy ‘carry out ללnai ‘sew,’ 6 י י ’,coil ‘count גײל(A) 114 .taany ‘argue, claim’: There are two classes of weak verbs טענע/טענה ’,execute The difference lies in the form of the first person singular of the present tense - the base form. In (A) it ends in a consonant or a vowel, except /y/, in (B) it ends »n h i.

Active voice: tense and mood

Present indicative

115 The conjugation is given in 113. This form relates to the time of speaking. It is, however, also employed without reference to time, for general or timeless statements, as well as for the historic present.

לײענין/ - ’laiyn ‘read לייעץ ,itjmyn שטימץ/שטומעו - ’itjm ‘be silent שדזום (a) 116 בענק,derlangyn דערלאגגי־ן/דעו־לאגגען - ’derlang ‘hand to דערלאנג,laiynyn לײעמנן /benkyn: When the base form ends in /m, n, ng בענקץ/בענקען־’bink ‘long for or /nk/, the ending /n/ becomes /yn/. -gy רזעגינץ/געזעגענען זיך - ’gyzeign mex ‘take one’s leave ױועגן/געזעגן כדך (b) ,laikynyn, p 3n rSxn ‘calculate לײקמץ/לײקעמן - ’ziigynyn zex, Y*?'laikn ‘deny rteynyn: When the final n phoneme of the base form is רעכינין/רעכענען - ’think 262 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar realised as [g] it becomes [n] before the ending n and is preceded and followed by IyI■ viklyn: When the base form ends װיקלץ/װיקלען - vikl ‘roll up, wind5 װיקל (c) in syllabic /, this becomes unsyllabic and the ending n after it becomes yn. בויען - ’bou ‘build ביי, ciiyn צלען - ’cii ‘pull צל ,rjjyn רוקי - *d) n rjj ‘rest) kaa{i)yn: When the base קײען - ’ kaa{i) ‘ chew לןיי ,naiyn נײען - ’ m i ‘ sew נײ ,bouyn form ends in a vowel (or diphthong) the syllabic n of the ending becomes yn. - er - zi - sy traxt ‘he ער - זי - סע טראכט - ’ex traxt ‘I think אין טראכט (e) ,ir traxt ‘you think’: When the base form ends in t איר טראכט - ’she - it thinks the termination t is fused with it. In the 2nd pers. sing., dissimilation at distance .traxtst > traxst טראכטםט :may cause the t of the base form to disappear נעץ ,dj hjjst דו הוסט - ’hjjs ‘cough הרם ,dj lost דו לאזט/לאזםט - ’loz ‘let לאז(f) dj kjst: When the base דו קושט - ’kjs ‘kiss קוש ,dj nect דו נעצט/נעצסט - ’nec ‘wet form ends in /z, s, c, s/, these consonants are fused with the fsf of the ending /st/ of the 2nd pers. sing.; however, in the case of /s/, the unassimilated form may .dj kjsst דו קושסט :(be met with (at least in the spelling < dj mainst דו מיינסט ’,dj kvelst > kvelct ‘you are delighted דו קװעלסט (g) mainct ‘you think’: When the base form ends in non-syllabic /1/ or /n/, a /t/ develops in front of the jsj in the 2nd pers. sing.

Verb infinite

hailn ‘to heal/to be healing’: The form of the infinitive is הײלן :Infinitive 117 identical with that of the 1st and 3rd pers. plur. of the present tense.

hailndik ‘while healing’: After the participle and the הײלנזײק :Contemporal 118 infinitive this is the third nominal form within the scheme of the verb. It signifies that the subject of the sentence is involved in an action, state or condition which are contemporaneous with the action etc. of the predicate. It consists of the base yndik- -ינדיק/ענדיק ndik (with syllabic n) or- ־נדיק form of the verb plus the suffix (see para. 116a-d).1 It thus has the form of an adjective but can function as a verb by sraabndik zaan vaab a גדיק3שרײ זיין ווײב א בריװ :(governing an object (or objects briiv ‘while writing a letter to his wife.’*

ndik —נדיק This form is not a present participle because it cannot be inflected. When the 1 -a fuurn א פארנדיקער form occurs in print or writing as an inflected attribute (e.g., pjjm diker vugn ‘a moving carriage’) it is simply a Germanism, adopted by writers during the last er in the living- -ער few decades. A single fossilized relic of a participial construction exists: the erhait was originally the genitive ending of a participle that functioned- - ערהײט adverbial suffix ,.hait ‘state, condition’ (which still exists separately), e.g הײט as an attribute to the noun ’.zicndikerhait < zicndiker hait ‘in the state of sitting זיצנדיקערהײט 263 Morphology

-gyhailt ,healed’: The participle is formed by pre !יהײלט/געהײלט:Participle 119 גישאט/נעשאדם -*Sat ,harm שאט ./gy to the base form and suffixing /t ױ/ מ fixing gyiat: When the stem ends in t, the suffix /t/ is fused with it. The participle is passive in meaning.3

Special cases

120 Preterite present'. Present Participle ,iydarft ט/געד«רשט6ר8גיד ’darf ,requires דארף gydorjn רדארפן/געדארפן gyvolt גיודאלם/געװאלט ’vil3 ,wants to מיל gyzolt גיזאלט/געזןןלט ,zol ,shall זאל should’ niit דשט עט$רט1ױס$רט/ tuttr ,is not ס$ר ױשס ס$ר niit allowed’ gytmert gytoigt גיטייגט/געטױגט ’rto toig ‘is of use דמעגט/געפמנגט nUig ,may, is מעג T &y»*#p allowed’ gymizt גימחם/געמוזט ’mjz ,must מזז The third person singular of these verbs has no ending. To this group may be added:

/ M g ‘ used to’ (+ infinitive) gykHertרקזןרם/געקערט (infinitive -״ ( kiier , belongs; ought to4 קער

121 Breng and Vais: ’bring1 bring ברעמ Present brbigyn פרענױן/בחננגען Infinitive brtngyndik ברענגינדיק/ברעגמנדיק Contemporal gybrSngt דברענגט/געברענגס Participle gybaxt ױברןןכס/געבראכט

:jm ‘un-’ it active אום There are exceptions. The participle of 0V /1 ‘eat’ with the prefix 1 pvsmumfpma* jmgyghn *not having eaten.’ m sy vilt xac 'one feds like װילס דך v il, however, has tbe ending t in tbe expression װיל 3 (doing something), one wants to.’ Tbe main vowel of tbe contemporal differ* from both that ילגדוד ^ vihuUk ‘while wanting to’ (but ימלנדיק :of tbe present and of the participle (* .vilndik niit vilndik ‘ willy-nilly ד#ס וױלנדי׳ן ד#ס 264 A*1 Outline o f Yiddish Grammar

’dervis mex ‘get to know דערװיס מיך ’vais ‘know ודים dervisnzex דערװיסןזיך visn װיסן dervimdik zex זערװיסנדיק זיך visndik װיסנדיק dervjstzex דערװאוסט/ gyvjst גױואוסט/ דערוװסט זיך געװוסט זיך דערו װסט

גינאר/ ’,basain ‘lend beauty to באשײן ’,antvain ‘wean אנטװיין .'Prefixed verbs 122 ,fartjm l ‘ bewilder פארטומל ’,der zug ‘finish saying דערזאג ’,gyndr ‘deceive גענאר cjxap ‘snatch away’ (referring to a number of snatchers): The צוכאפ/צעכאפ cj - which never take the צו/צע ,fa r פאר ,der דעד , g y גי/גע ,ant, S3 ba אנט prefixes stress - modify the meaning of the verbs to which they are attached. However, no general translations for each prefix can be attempted because their original meanings have branched out so widely and have become very diversified. The dictionary has to be consulted for each word beginning with one of the six prefixes. ,derzugt דערזאגט ,gyndrt גינארט/גענארט ,baiaint באשײנט ,antvaint אנטװײנט cjxapt: The participle of prefixed verbs צוכאפט/צעכאפט ,fartjm lt פארטומלט . g y גי/גע does not take the normal prefix

-farliier ‘lose’: In certain cases the sim ארללרbafeil ‘send word,’ 5 על5בא 123 feil (i.e., of פ על plex disappeared from the language long ago - there is no verb .Hier ליל bafeil) and no ב אפ על the same etymology as

cjgain ‘to dissolve’ (intrans.): The syllable צוגײן/צעגײן :Adverb-linked verbs 124 צוגיין/ .cj is a prefix - it is fixed to the verb and does not take the stress צן/צע cjj is an adverb, takes the stress צו cjj gain ‘to go to, approach’: The syllable צוגיץ z i gait זי גייט צו :and has no fixed position - in general its place is after the verb cjj a ‘separable צו cjj ‘she goes to, approaches.’ It is therefore illogical to call prefix’ (two contradictory terms) - it did not grow together with the verb and is not a formative syllable but a normal adverb.1 A certain number of basic adverbs form, with verbs, specific groups. The discussion of such groups belongs not to grammar - except where it is a case of perfectivisation - but to semantics and lexi- ahaim אהיים ’,ador(e)x ‘through אדורך :cography. The adverbs in question are ’,avek ‘away אװעק ’,ahinter ‘ backwards אהינטער ’,ahiin ‘there, thither אהלן ’,home‘ jnter אונטער ’,jm (rare) ‘around אום ’,o f ‘upon אף/ u f אוף/אויף ’,ous ‘out אויס ’,antkaign - antkeign ‘ against אנטקײגן - אנטקעגן ’,uun ‘ on, at אן ’,aan ‘ in איין ’,under ‘ -akaign אקייגן - אקעגן ’,afiier ‘forth, out of אפלר ’,up ‘off אפ ’,anider ‘down אנידער arjm ארום ’,arof1 up אראף -a rjf ארוף - ארויף ’,arous1 out of ארויס ’,akeign ‘ opposite דורך י ,baa, ba ‘at ביי ’,araan ‘into אריץ ’,ariber ‘over, across אריבער ’,around‘

1 The joining of the adverb to the following verb was introduced into their writings by the nineteenth century protagonists of the Enlightenment in imitation of the German spelling. 26s Morphology

,fjnander ‘asunder תאגדערnuux ‘after,’ 8 גאך ’,mit ‘with מיס ’,dor(e)x ‘through cjnoif צתייף ’,cjzamyn ‘together צחאמין/צחאסען ’,apart,’ TB fixer ‘fore,’ « cjj ‘to cjrik ‘ back.’ Many of the above translations are only etymological גוריק ’,together‘ and would rarely be applicable. Here again, the dictionary has to be consulted.

125 Auxiliary verbs'.

‘t o h a v e ’

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st איך האב מיד האגן• *1st ex (h)ob mir (k)obn

2nd דו האסט איד - p האט 2nd dj (k)ost ir - ic (h)ot

3rd ער, ד, עם, ם־ האט די האבץ 3rd er-zi-s (h)ot zai (A)obn

rim jm U (M)ahmrl{k)omir. This form it used by a very large part of the יד8האג :Variant* pur ‘we’ is replaced גייר peech community, although it does not appear in print: the nominative■ ,M r is affixed to the end of the verb יי ד by tbe accusative/dative form raw jndz ‘u$,’ while tbe assimilating the ending n and generally, tbe k u well, to ita m.

The b of the stem disappears in the 2nd pers. and in the singular of the 3rd pers.

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st כ־האב — — 1st x-ob

2nd ד־האסם — — 2nd d-ost

3rd ר־האט —— 3rd r-ot ז־האט ז־האבץ ZrOt z-obn ס־האט s-ot

In colloquial speech the full forms are very often replaced by the abbreviated ones of the above table. Some of the latter also occur in print, particularly the 1st pers. sing, and the 3rd pers. sing. neut. ;’hubndik ‘ while having האטדיק:h)ubn ‘to have’; contemporal} האק:Infinitive 266 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

gyhat ‘had.’ There are two vowels for the non-finite forms and both גיהאט/געהאט differ from that of the finite tense. The tenses, moods and aspects are formed regularly. This verb is not only an auxiliary, but also a full verb with the original meaning ‘to have and hold, possess.’

‘ to b e’ 126

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st איך r3 מיר זענץ/זענעף *1st ex bin mir zenyn

2nd דו ביםט איר - עץ זענט 2nd dj bist ir - ec zent

3rd ע ד - ז י - זײ זענין/זענען 3rd er-zi-s- iz zai zenyn ס־, עם אמ עם ס־,

.jndz zemir. 2nd sing אדנחזעמיר (mir zaanyn, (b מין- זלױן/יכגען (Variants: 1st plur. (a* .zaanyn וײנין/זיעען .zaat. 3rd plur זץט .binst. 2nd plur בינסט

;’zaa(i)yndik ‘while being זייענדיק :zaan ‘to be’; contemporal זלן :Infinitive גיװעזן/געװעזן:([participle: ]WWfpsyPlgyvem (or, disappearing [at least from print gyveizn) ‘been.’ bin and בץ ex bingyvein. The inflection is regular, with איך בץ גיװען/געװען:Past .gyviin גױוען/געװען

‘w i l l , s h a l l ’ 127

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st איך וועל מיר װ עלף *1st ex vel mir vein

2nd דו וועסט איר - עץ װעט 2nd dj vest ir - ec vet

3rd ער־זי־סע, ם, זיי וועלן 3rd er-zi-, sy, s-, zai vein עס וועט ys vet-

.jndzvelmir אונדז װעלמיר :Variant* 267 Morphology

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st כ־על, כ־ל, מיו־-ץ 1st x-elj x-l, mii(e)r-n איכ־ל ex-l

2nd דו־סט איר־ט 2nd djj-st

3rd ער-ט, ך־ט,זײ־לן 3rd er-t, zii-t, s-tt zat-ln ס־עט

These contracted forms are frequent in the colloquial but rare in print. This auxiliary1 verb is irregular and defective: there are no other forms.

, w o u l d * 128

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st איךװאלט מירװאלםף *1st ex volt mir voltn

2nd דוװאלטםם איר - ע ץ װ אלט 2nd dj voltst ir-ec volt

3rd ע ר -זי - ם ע, ס־, דיװאלטן 3rd e r - z i- sy, s, zai voltn עסוואלט ys volt

.mat jndz vtlimr װאלםסת־:Variant*

Regionally, the I disappears in all forms.

This auxiliary is defective; there are no other forms.

v ii ‘to want to, to be willing,’ with which it וך״ל I It is not to be confused with the full verb .vibt װעלן shatcs die form 268 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

*SHOULD, SHALL* 129

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st איך זאל כדר ו אלף *1st ex zol mir zotn

2nd דדזאלסס איר - עץ זאלס 2nd dj zolst ir - ic zolt

3rd ע ר - ז י - ס ע. זייזאלן 3rd er-zi-sy,s~, zai zoln ם-, עסז אל ys zol

.raw jndz zohmr זאלגיר :Variant•

.ex (h)obgyzalt איך האג מאלטThis auxiliary has one other form, the past: 1

*TO b e c o m e ’ 130

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st איךװער מידודערך *1st ex viier mir viiem

2nd דדוװערסט איר - עץ ו מ רט 2nd dj veier st ir-ecveiert

3rd ע ר - ז י - סע, ם״, די 3rd er-zi-sy, s, zai viiert viiem p ^ n Tעסװערט *y

.jndz viienmr אמדימץרברד :Variant•

viiemdik; participle: /pKTTl װערנדיק :Infinitive: p ^ viiem■, contemporal .(ex btng yvoom (second conjugation איך בץ גיװארן/געװארן:gyvoom; past געװןןוץ 269 Morphology

‘ u sed t o ’ (+ Infinitive) 131

Person Singular Plural Plural Singular Person

1st איךפלעג לעגף6מיו־ *1st exfliig mir fltign

דו פלעגםם דו T 2nd איר - עץ לעגט2nd djfleigst ir-e c fleigt 8

3rd ע ר - ד - ס ע , ם־״לןןק6זײ 3rd er-zi-sy , zai fUign עס פלעג עס

.rnw jn d z flhgwar גדד1לן Variant: 6*

This auxiliary is defective; there are no other forms.

Other tenses ex (h]ob gyhailt ‘I healed/I have איך האב גיהײלס/געהײלט :The Past tense 132 healed/I was healing/I have been healing': The past tense is formed by means of .h)ob and the participle of the verb in question) האthe auxiliary 3

e* (h)ob gyhat אץ־ האב גיהאט גיהי׳ילה/נעהאט געהיילם :The pluperfect tense 133 gyhailt ‘I had healed/been healing’: The pluperfect is formed by means of the .h)ob plus the participles of the auxiliary and of the verb in question) האauxiliary 3 This tense is not much used.

ex vil haibi ‘ I shall heal/be healing ’: The future אץ* װעל הײלן:The future tense 134 vel plus the infinitive of the verb װעל tense is formed by means of the auxiliary in question.

ex vel hubn gyhailt ‘I אץ• װעל ה ן3$ גיהי׳ילס/נעהײלס :The future past tense 135 shall have healed/been healing’: The future past tense is formed by means of the future tense of the auxiliary (h)ob plus the participle of the verb in question. This tense is little used.

Other moods

hail'heal,’ identical with הייל:The imperative mood: Second person. Singular 136 hailt ,heal,’ which is identical with the form of the הײלט :the base form. Plural An Outline of Yiddish Grammar ך20

,hailts הײלסם 2nd pers. plur. of the present tense. A very widespread form is which has, however, been neglected in print. er - zi - sy zol hailn ' he, she it ער - ד - סע זאל הייל[:Third person. Singular zai zoln hailn ‘they should זײ זאלן היילן:should heal, let him - her - it heal.’ Plural .zol זאל heal, let them heal’: The 3rd pers. is formed by means of the auxiliary In addition, the optative can be used for the 3rd pers.

137 The optative mood: There are two forms. ’lomex hailn ‘let me heal לאמיך היילן .a) 1st pers. sing) ’loz er hailn ‘let him heal לאז ער הייל[.3rd pers. sing ’lomir hailn ‘let us heal לאמיר היילן.1st pers. plur ’lozn zai hailn ‘let them heal לאזן די היילן.3rd pers. plur loz plus a personal pronoun and the לאז The optative is formed with the auxiliary infinitive of the verb. In the 1st pers., the auxiliary and the pronoun are always contracted; in the singular the accusative of the pronoun is used, in the plural the nominative. zolctj hailn ‘may you זאלםטו הײלן ’,zol ex hailn ‘let me heal זאל איך הייל[ (b) zol precedes the pronoun, which is followed זאל heal’ etc.: The auxiliary verb by the infinitive of the verb in question.

ex meig hailn ‘I am allowed to heal’: The איך מ?ג הייל[:The permissive mood 138 nUig plus the infinitive of the מעג permissive is formed by means of the auxiliary verb.

’.ex tuur niit hailn'I must not heal אין* שאר OTP1 הייל[ :The prohibitive mood 139 tuur ‘must’ plus the negation plus טאר The prohibitive consists of the auxiliary the infinitive of the verb.

140 The obligative mood: The obligative is formed by means of the auxiliary TO ’.ex mjz hailn‘I must heal איך מח היילן.mjz ‘must’ plus the infinitive of the verb

ex kiier איך קער היילן ex darf haibi or איך דארף היילן :The necessitathe mood 141 darf or דארף hailn ‘ I ought to heal.’ The necessitative consists of the auxiliary .kiier plus the infinitive of the verb קער

142 The conditional mood: There are two forms. ex volt gyhailt ‘1 would heal’: The present conditional איך װאלט געהיילט (a) .volt plus the participle of the verb װאלס is formed with the auxiliary ex zol hailn ‘(if) I were to heal/were I to heal’: This type of איך זאל היילן (b) Morphology \ך1

plus the infinitive of the זאל the present conditional is formed with the auxiliary verb.

143 The past conditional mood: There are two forms: volt gyvim gyhailt l \ would have » איך װאלט גיװען יהײלט/געװען געהײלט (a) װאלט healed’: The past conditional may be formed by the use of the auxiliary .zaan and that of the verb in question זלן volt plus the participle of the auxiliary ex zol gyviin hailn ‘(if) I had healed, (if) I would אץ• זאל גיװען/געװען הײלן (b) zol זאל have healed ’: The past conditional is formed by the use of the auxiliary .zaan and the infinitive of the verb in question זל| plus the participle of the auxiliary

Aspects

144 The category of aspect serves to convey, beyond the basic meaning of the verb, the specific way in which an action/process etc. takes place. (Although there are in Yiddish no morphological characteristics constituting this category, there seems to be a tendency to aspectual thinking, resulting in the following groups.)

The perfective aspect 145 antdrimlt viiem ,doze ofP אנםדרמלם driml ‘ doze ’ prn דרימל ’bafal ‘attack 83& 8ל ’fa l' fall פ&ל דערהער הער der hiier ,perceive, become ד ’hiier ‘hear ד aware’ (by hearing) ’farbaat ‘exchange 88ר3לט (.boat ‘change’ (trans ביים ’cjraas ,tear up גורלס/צערײס ’raas ‘tear ר»ס ’ fiier ous ‘ have one’s way לדאױםfiier ‘lead’ 6 יר6 mii o f1 open a book’ (at a מישאף-אוף-אױף ’mii ‘mix מיש certain place) ’ipdr jnter ‘prop up שפאר אתםער ’ipdr ‘press שפאר *kiier iber ‘overturn קער איבעד ’kiier ,turn קער ’tap uun ,touch םאפאן ’tap ‘grope טאפ *laig up ,delay לײגאפ ’laig ‘lay לייג ’xap ,grab, seize’ «D)P xap cjj ,snatch away מ ם

The perfective denotes that the action of the verb is completed. This aspect is formed by linking the verb - which normally denotes a non-completed action - with an adverb, or by prefixing it. An Outline of Yiddish Grammar .ך22

Tbe singulative aspect

ex tjj a la x' I give a laugh*: The singuladve describes a single איך סי א לא ך 146 momentary action. This aspect is formed by means of an invariable element and a verb functioning as an auxiliary verb. The invariable is the base form of the verb in question, turned into a noun by the indefinite article; the auxiliary is the xap ,seize.’ In the case of some כאפ gib ‘give,’ occasionally ױב tjj ‘do’ or נײ verb strong verbs it is not the base form that is used but the stem of the participle. .g& are not always interchangeable ױTjj and 3 סי -ex tjj mex zex a itil baam own ‘I place my איך סו מיך - דך א שסעל בלם אויוין בלם שסעל א דך - מיך סו איך ’,ex tjj ys a itil anider ‘I put it down איך סו 0ע א שסעל אנידעו* ’,self at the stove ex tjj mex a Lug araan in bit ‘ I lie down on the איך סו פיך - דך א לייג אוץךן איד בעם איד אוץךן לייג א דך - פיך סו איך bed’: The verb may be reflexive or adverb-linked, or a combination of both. This construction appears in all tenses and moods, and also combines with the past habitual and causative aspects; it has the forms of the verb infinite, too.

The inchoative aspect

-zai nimyn zex loijn ‘They start running.’ The in די געסץ/נעמעץ דך אישן 147 choative expresses the beginning of an action/activity/event. It is formed by means nimyn zex lit. ‘to take oneself* - used as an auxiliary נעם מיך - דך of the verb verb - plus the infinitive of the verb in question.

The iterative aspect

-aai haltn in am iraabn ‘They keep writing’: The iter די האלםן אץ איין שרלבן 148 ative describes repetition or non-interruption of the verbal action. This aspect in am, followed by the infinitive אץ איץ halt plus האלם is formed by the verb of the verb in question.

The habitual aspect

ex tjj iraabn ‘I write’: The habitual denotes habit, natural איך סו שריךבן 149 activity, occupation etc. more emphatically than the simple verb. This aspect is -tjj ‘do’ - employed here as an auxiliary verb - plus the in סו formed by the verb finitive of the verb in question.1

1 This construction obviously does not correspond to tbe English one with i» . 273 Morphology

The past habitual aspect

ex fleig sraabn ‘ I used to write - be writing’: The past habitual איך פלעג שרייבן 150 describes the action as recurring in the past. This aspect is formed by the auxiliary .fieig ‘used to’ plus the infinitive of the verb in question פלעג verb

The causative aspect

er vet dex maxn zugn a lignt ‘He will make you ער וועט דיך מאכן זאגן א ליגנט 151 tell a lie’: The subject of the sentence causes somebody or something to perform max ‘make’-plus the infinitive מאך an action. The causative consists of the verb of the verb in question. See final remark above in para. 146.

152 Reflexive verbs Present ex laig mex - zex איך לייג מיך - זיך .1st pers. sg dj laigst dex - zex דו לייגסט דיך - זיך .2nd pers. sg er - z i - sy laigt zex ע ר - ז י - ס ע לייגט זיך .3rd pers. sg mir laign zex מיר לייגן זיך .1st pers. pi ir - ec laigt aax - zex איר - עץ לייגט אייך - זיך .2nd pers. pi za i laign zex זיי לייגן זיך .3rd pers. pi zex laign1 זיך 1לייגן Infinitive laigndik zex לייגנדיק זיך Contemporal zex gy laigt1 זיך גילייגט - געלייגט Participle 1 ex (h)ob mex - zex g y laigt איך האב מיך - זיך גילייגט/געלייגט Past ex vel mex - zex laign איך וועל מיך - זיך לייגן Future ex vel mex - zex (h)ubn איך וועל מיך - זיך האבן Future Past gylaigt גילייגט/געלייגט laig dex - zex לייג דיך - זיך Imperative lomex zex laign לאמיך זיך לייגן (Optative (a zol ex mex - zex laign זאל איך מיך - זיך לייגן (Optative (b ex meig mex - zex laign איך מעג מיך - זיך לייגן Permissive ex tuur mex - zex niit laign איך טאך מיך - זיך נישט לייגן Prohibitive ex mjz mex - zex laign איך מוז מיך - זיך לייגן Obligative ex d a rf mex - zex laign איך דארף מיך - זיך לייגן (Necessitative (a ex keier mex - zex laign איך קער מיך - זיך לייגן (Necessitative (b ex volt mex - zex gylaigt איך וואלט מיך - זיך גילייגט/געלייגט Conditional

1 When this form constitutes an elliptical sentence - where there is no finite verb - the word order is, as a rule, reversed. 274 Outline of Yiddish Grammar

ex volt mex - zex gyviin איך װאלט מ ץ־-זיך ניװען Past conditional gylaigt גילײגט/געװען נעלײגס גילײגט/געװען ex laig mex - zex amder איך לי־מ םיך - דך אױדער Perfective ex tjj mex - zex a laig איך 1ט מיך - ױך 8 לײג Singulative ex nim mex - zex laign zex איך נעם מיך - דך ליען דך Inchoative ex halt in ain laign zex איך האלט אץ איין לײגן זיך Iterative ex tjj mex - zex laign איך סו מיך - דך לײגן Habitual ex fliig mex - zex laign איך לעג6 מיך - זיך לימן Past Habitual ex max ym laign zex איך מאך אים לײק דך Causative

153 The reflexive construction occurs in three semantic categories, and is used in all tenses, moods and aspects. It has no passive.

The real reflexive verb

איך בוק מיך - דך,(ex laig mex- zex ‘ I lie down * (‘ I lay myself איד ייגל ° V ~ T 154 ex hjk mex - zex ‘I bow* (‘I bow myself*): The pronoun refers to the agent as being the direct object of the action denoted by the verb.

The psychological reflexive verb

ex frai mex - zex ‘I am glad’: Here too, the pronoun is איך ריי6 מיך - דך 155 in the accusative but this does not represent any action by the agent on himself.

The ethic reflexive verb

ex traxt mir איך סראכס מיי ,(ex lax mir ‘1 laugh’ (‘to myself איך ך8ל מיד 156 ‘I think’ (‘to myself’): The pronoun is in the ethic dative.

157 The passive voice ex viier gyhailt איךװער גיהײלם/געהײלט Present gyhailt viiem גיהײלט/מהײלט װ»ח Infinitive gyhailt viiemdik גיהײלט/געהײלט װעתדיק Contemporal gyhailt gyvoom ױהײלט ױװארן/געדדילט מנװאק Participle ex bin gyhailt gyvoom איך בץ גיהיילט גיזוארן/נעהײלט געװאיז Past ex bin gyhat - gyviin איך גץ גיהאס/מגהאס - רװ?ן/ Pluperfect gyhailt gyvoom געװען גיהײלט ױװאוץ/געהײלם געװאוץ ױװאוץ/געהײלם גיהײלט געװען ex vil gyhailt viiem איך װעל גיהײלט/מהײלט \Future pvr tx vil zaan gyhaih gyvoom איךװעלזלן ױהײלם רװאוץ/געהײלס Future past געזדןזח 275 Morphology

viier gyhaih װער ניהײלט/נעהײלס Imperative lomex gyhaih viiem לאמיך ױהײלט/געהײלט Optative (a) p r n zol ex gyhailt viiem זאל איך גיהיילט/געהיילט Optative (b) pPTi ex miig gyhailt viiem איך מעג רהיילט/געהיילט Permissive p r n ex tuur niit gyhailt viiem איך טן<ר נישס גיודילט/געהי׳לט n־ Prohibitive p p ex mjz gyhaih viiem איך מח גיזזײלס/געהײלט Obligative p r n ex darf gyhailt viiem איך דארף גיהיילט/געהיילט Necessitative (a) p y n איך קער גיהיילט/מגהיילט Necessitative (b) p y n איך װאלט ױהײלמ גיװארך,נעהײלם Conditional p^jron איך װאלט ױדוןן דהײלט Past conditional ױװארן/געװעץ געהײלט!p^ny איך װער אױס גיהיילט/אױםגעהײלט Perfective איך האלט אין איץ גיהיילס/געהײלט Iterative p v n איך לעג6 גיהיילט/געהײלט Past Habitual p f n

There is no singulative, inchoative, habitual, causative and reflexive in the passive voice. It is often avoided in favour of an active construction.

THE SECOND CONJUGATION: STRONG VERBS

a) The ending of) :־The strong verbs differ from the weak in three respects 158 the participle is », not t; (b) the stem vowel has gradation; (c) in a number of strong ,h)ob ‘have* but the substantive verb) האב verbs the auxiliary for the past is not *.bin *to be ביו There are ten classes of strong verbs. Some of those in Classes ill, vi and vil undergo, in addition, changes in the consonants: /d > t!,zero > jg, n, ng/. The verbs in Class x are exceptional in that they have no gradation. Note. Verbs which occur only with a prefix or in combination with an adverb, are listed alphabetically according to the original simplex (which has disappeared Certain verbs are listed in more than . ד under פארדוץםן,.from the language), e.g one class, in accordance with regional variations. In the same way some strong verbs are used weak regionally and this fact is then mentioned in the list. Verbs :bin (where necessary בין which form the past with ,be’ are indicated by the word .iz) in brackets איז איך בץ גיהאם ־־ גיזזען,.However, in the pluperfect either auxiliary is in use, e.g ex bin gyhat - gyviin gyilufn11 had slept, I had been ן/געהאט6$גישל געודען ץ6$געשל געודען ן/געהאט6$גישל asleep.' 276 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar 276

First class: Gradation /»/ - /0/ *59 gyboritn1 דבאדשסן/געבארשטן ’ barh ,brush בארשט brush, fa rdor bn 6 &רדארבן ’ fardarb ,corrupt פארדארב corrupt, gydorfn ן/מנדארפן6דדאר /^‘require’ דארף /^‘require’ ן/מנדארפן6דדאר bm 3(gyvoksn) ײואקסץ/געװןזקסן)בץ( ,grow’ ;*״ס ודאקם ;*״ס ,grow’ ײואקסץ/געװןזקסן)בץ( gyvorgn רװארן/מוו$רק choke’ (trans .(varg, ידארג choke’ (trans, gyvorfn ן6ױװארפן/געװ$ר ’ v a r f‘throw רף8װ throw gyforbn1 ק/מ6ױ רק$6א ר farb ,colour ’3186 bin(gyitorbn) רשטארבן/געשס$רק)בץ( ’ itarb ,die שם»רב die, gyipohn2 גימפאלםן/געשפאלטן ’palt ‘split{ שפאלט

Second class: Gradation jif - /0(00, uu)/ 160 (gybuum2 (bin גיבארך/געבןזק)בץ( —— , born’ gyboritn1 גיבארשטן/נעבארשםן ’bfrit ,brush בערשם gybroxn גיבראק/געבראק ’brix ,break גרעך gydroin ױדראשן/געדראשן ’drii ,thresh דרעש gyholfn ן6ן/געדזאל6רהאל ’help‘ / /׳־״/ העלף gyhongyn גיהאנרן/געהאגגען ’heng ,hang הענג gyhoftn, ous םן,6ױהאפטן/געהןן אױס ’heft ous ,embroider ט6הע אױס gyvok ױודאלן/נעחואק (vil ,boil’ (milk װעל (gyvoom (bin ױװארן/געװאק)3ץ( ’veier ,become יי עיןיז uun gyvuum2 אן יוזאק/אנגעװאח ’veier uun ‘lose װערןיז gyvorgn גיוזארנן/מװארגן (.verg ,choke’ (trans װערג gytrotn2 (ױטדאטן/געטראםן)כץ האב( ’T treit ,treadסרעם (bin, [AJoi) gytronkyn ױטראנקין/מטראנקען (.trink (reflex טרעגק ,drown’ (intrans.) gytrofn ז6ץ/נעטרא6דטרא ’tref'meet; guess סרעף tiiert ,ferments’ gyiuuem2 יערט gylofn גילאשן/מנלאשן ’U( ,extinguish לעש gymoldn גימאלדן/געמאלדן ’mild ,report מעלד

1 Mn«tly weak, a Regional. 277 Morphology gymolkn גימאלקן/געמאלקן ’melk ‘milk מעלק gymostn גימאסטן/געמאסטן ’mest ‘measure מעםט gyfloxtn גיפלאכטן/געפלאכטן ’jlext ‘plait פלעכ ט gykvoln גיקװאלן/געקװאלן ’kvel ‘feel great joy קװעל gyknotn2 גיקנאטן/געקנאטן ’kneit ‘knead קנעט farroxtn3 ארראכטןfarrext ‘put right, 5 פאו־ריכט mend’ (gysvoln (hin גישװאלן/גצשװאלן)בין( _ _ ‘swollen’ gysvuuern2 גישװארן/געשװארן (sveier ‘swear’ (oath שדוער gysoxtn גישחטן - געשאכטן/געשאכטן ’sext ‘slaughter שוזט- שעכט gystoxn גישטאכן/געשטאכן ’stex ‘prick שטעך (gysmolcn (iz גישמאלצן/געשמאלצן ’smelc ‘melt שמעלץ ‘smelt’ ( m ) gysoltn גישאלטן/געשאלטן ’selt ‘curse שעלט gysuuern2 גישארן/געשארן seier ‘cut (by שער scissors), shear up gysproxn אפ גישפדאכן/אפגעשפראכן ’sprex up ‘exorcise שפרעך אפ gysrokn גישראקן/געשראקן ’srek ‘frighten שרעק

Third class: Gradation i, ii - 0 (uu) 161 gygosn גיגאסן/געגאסן (giis ‘pour’ (liquid גלם gygoltn גיגאלטן/געגאלטן ’gilt ‘is valid גילט fardrosn §ארדראםן ’fardriist ‘is vexed, annoyed ארדרלםט5 gynosn גיבאםן/געגאםן ’niis ‘sneeze גלם gynosn גינאסן/גענאסן ’gyniis ‘is of use גינלס/גענים gyfruuern2 גיפרארן/געפרארן ’friier ‘freeze רלר5 gykrogn2 גיקראגן/געקראגן ’krig ‘get קריג (gykroxn (bin גיקראכן/געקראכן)בץ( ’kriiex ‘crawl קי לו gysotn2 גישאטן/געשאטן (sit ‘pour’ (dry things שיט gysoltn גישאלטן/געשאלטן ’silt ‘curse שילט gysosn גישאסן/געשאסן ’siis ‘shoot שלם gyslosn גישלאסן/געשלאסן ’sliis ‘close שללם gyzotn גיזאטן/געזאטן ’ziid ‘boil זלד

3 Also weak. 278 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Fourth class: Gradation H - oi 162 (gyboiem (viier ױבימעץץ/געבױרץ)חעד( ,bom’ gyvoign ױװאױגן/נעװױגן ’ veig ‘ weigh װעג uun gyvoiem $ן ריואױ)ע(יץ/$מעװױרן *viier uun ‘lose װ עי אן gyiotem ני-יױ)ע(רן/געיױרן ’ieiert “ferments יערט bafoiln ױלן6ב« ’bafeil ‘send word בא&על gysvotern רשוואוי)ע(ק/געשמדח (h'eier ,swear’ (oath שװער gyioiem גיעימע(ח/געשױוץ ,(Icier ‘cut’ (scissors שער ‘shear’

Fifth class: Gradation ai - oi

ױבױגן/געבױק 63« baig 4 bend ’ gyboign בײג gykoibn גיהייבן/געהױבן ’haib ‘lift, heave הײב gjzoign גיזייגן/געזומן ’zaig ‘suck, suckle ד ע

Sixth class: Gradation ii - oi 164 M farloiem ארלוי)ע(קfarliter ' lose ’ 6 ארליר6 gyfroiem רױוץ6רױןע(זץ/גע6גי ’ friier ' freeze רלר6 (b) (gyfloign (bin לױק)בץ6לויק/נע6גי ) ’fit, ,fly לל6 gycoign גיצױגן/געצױגן ’ cii ‘ pull צל

Seventh class: Gradation i - j gybjln1 רבולן/געבולץ ’bii ‘bark ביל gybjndn ױבונדן/געבתק ’bind' bind במד gybjnyn גיבונין/געבתען גיבונין/געבתען fargjnyn ען1רנו86רגוגין/88 6’ ארגץfargin ‘not to grudge gydjngyn נידתנץ/געדדמען ’ ding ‘hire דינג hire‘ gydrjngyn ױדרונגין/געדרתגןק draw a conclusion ’drtng‘ דריע gyhjnkyn גיהתקץ/געהתקען ’ hink ‘limp המק limp‘ gyvjnyn גיװאוױן/געװמען ’gyvtn ,win גיװץ/געװץ gyvjncn גיװאתטשן/געװתטשן wish’vine‘ gyvjnkyn גיװאתקץ/געװונקען bcckon ’vtnk* װמק bcckon* tjzjn g yn דזתגץ/געזועען ’ zing ‘sing זמג sing‘ aan gyzjnkyn אלץ גיזתקץ/אליעעזונקען)וזער( אלץ (viier) ‘sunk’ 279 Morphology gytrjnkyn ױטרונקץ/געטרתקען *trmk ‘drink טרינק ous gyljnkyn אױם גילונקץ/אױםמלמקען ’link ous ‘sprain לינק אױס לינק *gyfpy תץ/מפתען6גי ’gyfin ‘find ץ6ץ/גע6ױ uun gycjndn אן ױצתדן/אנמנגתדן ’cmd uun ‘light צמד אן צמד uun gycjnyn אן ױצתץ/אמעצתען אן gJklJ*gyn גיקלתגץ/געקלתגען ’kling ‘ring,’ ‘sound קליט (gyrjnyn (iz ױרתץ/נערמען)את( ’rint ‘runs, flows רמט (gyivjmyn (bin גישוואומין/געשחזמען)בץ( ’Svim ‘swim שווים (farSvjndn (viier זץ)װער(1*רשוזז6רשװאוגדן/86 — ‘disappear’ gyitjnkyn רשטתקץ/געשטתקען ’ittnk ‘stink שסמק gySjndn ױשתדו/געשונדן ’Sind ‘skin שמד דשלתגץ/געשלועען ’Sling ‘swallow שלמג *gyipjnyn ױשפתץ/געשפתען ’Ipin ‘spin שפץ (gyiprjngyn (bin דשפרתנץ/געשפררננען)בץ( ’Spring ‘spring שפרמג

Eighth class: Gradation aa - i 16s gybitn גיביםן/געביםן ’boat ‘change בייס gybisn גיביסן/מגביםן ’baas ‘bite 3יים gygUxn ( M b גמליכן/גענליק)בץ( ’glaax ‘compare נלײך (gyglixnt (bin !מליכמז/געגליכגם)בץ( gyvizn גיחױון/געװיון ’vaaz ‘show וױת gytribn גיטרי3ן/געטריבן ’traab ‘drive טרײ3 gykhbn ױקליבן/געקליבן ’klaab ‘gather קלײכן gyknipn2 דקניפן/געקדפן ’knaap ‘pinch קנלפ gyribn גידיבן/געריק ’raab ‘rub וץיב gyritn ױדיםן/געריסן ’root ‘ride on horseback רײט gyrisn גיריםן/מנריסן ’raas ‘tear ריים *gyivig ױשזזמן/נעשװיגן ’ivaag ‘be silent שוךע gySmisn גישנדםן/נעשםיםן ’imaas ‘smite, thrash שסיךס gyiribn גישריבן/געשריבן ’raab ‘write} שדל3 0>) ױזיבן/געזמן ’zaa(i) ‘strain, sift זלל gykgn גיליגן/געלמן ’laa(i) ‘lend, borrow לײ גישפמן/געשםמן ’Spaa(i) ‘spit יי0ש *gjtng גישריגן/געשריק ’iraa(i) ‘shout שרלי

4 Regionally weak. .f i t * * •ms ‘ftr*ifhttn’ ic weak גללך אױIf tnm itiw , weak. 0 5 280 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

u u g y Utn גיליטן/געליטן (h ad ‘suffer’ (C לניד gym itn2 גימיטן/געמיטן ’maad ‘avoid מייד gym itn גישניטן/געשניטן ’h aa d ‘cut שנײד

Ninth class: Miscellaneous gradations 166 (g y gangyn (bin גיגאנגין/געגאנגען)בין( ’gai ‘walk, go גײ gygdn {bin)2 )בין(גיגאן/געגאן (gystanyn (bin )בין(גישטאנין/געשטאנען ’stai ‘stand שטײ gyklibn גיקליבן/געקליבן ’kloub ‘gather קלויב gygeibn גיגעבן/געגעבן ’gib ‘give גיב (gyleign (bin גילעגן/געלעגן)בין( (Ug ‘lie’ (position ליג gygeibn גיגעבן/געגעבן ’geb ‘give געב (gylofn (bin גילאפן/געלאפן)בץ( ’lo if‘ run לױף gyloxtn1 גילאכטן/געלאכטן (.laaxt ‘shine’ (intrans לײכט gynjmyn גינומץ/גענומען ’nem ‘take געם י gytuun6 גיטאן/געטאן tjj ‘do טו (gyzesn (bin גיזעםן/געזעסן)בץ( ’zic ‘sit זיז

Tenth class: No gradation 167 gybuudn גיבאדן/געבאדן (.bund (reflex באד ‘take a bath’ gybluuzn גיבלאזן/געבלאזן ’bluuz ‘blow בלאז gybruutn גיבראטן/געבראטן ’bruut ‘roast בראט gyluudn גילאדן/געלאדן ’luud ‘sue לאד gymuuln גימאלן/געמאלן ’muul ‘grind מאל gymuuln3 גימאלן/געמאלן ’muul ‘paint מאל (gyfuurn (bin ארן)בץ(5ארן/גע5גי ’fuur ‘ride פאר (gyruutn (iz גיראטן/געראטן)איז( ’geruut ‘succeed גיראט/געראט gyruutn in גיראטן/געראטן אין גיראטן/געראטן ‘resembling’ gygrubn גיגראבן/געגראבן ’grub ‘dig גראב gycvugn גיצװאגן/געצװאגן (cvug ‘wash’ (hair עוואג gysubn גישאבן/געשאבן ’sub ‘scrape שאב gyslugn גישלאגן/געשלאגן ’slug ‘beat, hit שלאג (gyslufn (bin גישלאפן/געשלאפן)בין( ’sluf ‘sleep שלאף

.turn טאן Regional. - Infinitive 6 281 Morphology gystoisn גישטויסן/געשטויסן ’stois ‘push שטויס gykloubn גיקלויבן/געקלויבן ’kloub ‘gather קלויב gybakn גיבאקן/געבאקן ’bah ‘bake באק gyhaltn גיהאלטן/געהאלטן ’halt ‘hold האלט (gyvaksn (bin )בין(גיװאקסן/געװאקסן ’vaks ‘grow װאקס gyvasn גיװאשן/געװאשן ’vas ‘wash װאש gyzalcn גיזאלצן/געזאלצן ’zalc ‘salt זאלץ (gyfaln (bin אלן/געפאלן)בין(5גי ’fall‘/ ®/ אל5 gyspaltn גישפאלטן/געשפאלטן ’spalt ‘split שפאלט gyhaisn גיהײסן/געהײםן ;hats ‘be called הײס command ’ gytjjn גיטון/געטון ’tjj ‘do טו gyrjjfn גערופן/גערופן r j j f ‘calV רוף gygesn גיגעסן/געגעסן ’es ‘eat עס gynemyn2 גינעמץ/גענעמען ’nern ‘take נעם gyfresn גיפרעסן/געפרעסן fres ‘eat’ (of פרעם animals eating) fargesn ארגעסןfarges ‘forget’ 5 עס5 א ת ס (gyfeln (bin עלן)בין(5עלן/גע5גי ’gyfel ‘please גיפעל/געפעל gybeitn גיבעטן/געבעטן ’beit ‘beg, ask בעט (gyveizn (bin גיװעזן/געװעזן)נין( — — (gyvein (bin גיװען/געװען)בין( gyzein גיזען/געזען ’zei ‘see זע .gytreitn (intrans גיטרעטן/געטרעטן ’treit ‘tread טרעט bin, trans. (h)ob) gyneizn veiern גינעזן/גענעזן װערן גינעזן/גענעזן ‘recover’ (from illness) (gyse'in (iz גישען/געשען)איז( ’gyseit ‘happens גישעט/געשעט gygibn2 גיגיבן/געגיבן ’gib ‘give גיבי gykrign גיקריגן/געקריגן ’krig ‘get קריג gyhiitn4 גיהיטן/געהיטן ’hilt ‘guard היט gytjnkyn גיטונקץ/געטונקען ’tjnk ‘dip טונק (gykjmyn (bin )ביןגיקומין/געקומען ) ’kjrn ‘come קום

Alphabetical list of strong verbs1 68! באד IO בארשט 1 ײגב 5 ײגב באק 10 גיבוי)ע(רן/געבוירן 4,2 בײט 8 בײט 4,2 גיבוי)ע(רן/געבוירן 10 ב אק

1 The figures indicate the class. The figures beyond 10 indicate numbered paragraphs in the text. 282 An Outline of Yiddish Gnnunar

בלם 8 גיײץ/געװץ 7 מ$ל)ב׳( !0 !0 יל3 7 חױנסש 7 מ לי 8 ג ץ 126 יײק 7 מעלד 2 2 מעלד ברנד 7 י י » 4 מעלק 2 מעלק בל#ז 10 דוזעזן/געװעזן 126 מעסם 2 מעסם בללב 8 גיװען/געװען 126 B93 10 װער 2 םגל 3 בערשט 2 י י ? י ז י ז 4 נלנים/געױם 3 בראט to גמעזן/נענעון 10 גמעזן/נענעון ברעך 2 מ ל ז 10 נעם 9 נעם זדץ גיזונקץ/אײמעזתקען 7 גיזונקץ/אײמעזתקען זדץ

ד ג 9 ,0! ײ io 09 * 3 די 9 זל 8 זל דמ 5 דמ יל0 3 ®»ל !0 !0 »רגץ8 7 ילץ 26 ! ױנג 7 אד8 10 אד8 גים 3 »»רנ 1 »»רנ גללך n! 0,9 8 ץ6ץ/נע6י1 7 ץ6ץ/נע6י1 זע xo זע געב 9 טלל 6 טלל 0רגע86 10 0רגע86 טי 10 לעכט6 2 לעכט6 גר$ב 10 גר$ב םתק 10 על/געשעל6ױ !0 !0 על/געשעל6ױ םדלןב 8 על6ב* 4 על6ב* 6 «רד«רב 1 « רד«רב סרמק 7 רלר6 6,3 דיע 7 טרעט 10,2 דרמג 7 ®אדדרלםט 3 םרענק 2 גװאג 10 גװאג דרעש 2 טרעף 2 צל 6 7 יערס 4,2 האלם !0 האלם קװעל 2 קװעל הלם 10 ל$ד 0 ! קדס 10 קדס הייב 5 לאז 0 : קלייב 9 ,0 ! 7 לייף 9 קללב 8 קללב העלף 2 1לי 9 הענג 2 קליע 7 קליע לל 8 קגייפ 8 קגייפ העפם 2 לײד 8 קנעם 10,2 קנעם ללכט 9 יחזקם 10 לתקאױם 7 קײ !0,3 קײ װארג 1 »רללר6 6 קילד 3 קילד װארף 1 לעש 2 ומ ש 10 דדאט/מגראם 10 דדאט/מג ראם וױח 8 »אל)א׳( 10 חיף !0 חיף 283 Morphology

רלב 8 שחם 2 שדןד 8 שדןד ױיט 8 שט&רב 1 ניש^ט/געשעט 10 ניש^ט/געשעט רלס 8 שטיים 10 שעכס 2 שעכ ס ארריכמ6 2 שטײ 9 שעלס 2 שעל ס רמט 7 שטינק 7 שער 4,2 שער שטעך 2 שםאלט 10,1 ש םאלט ש$ב 10 שילט 3 שפל 8 ש פל באשאף !0 שױם 3 שפין 7 7 שפין רשװמדן,86רשװאונדן/86 שלןןג 10 שפריע 7 שפריע יי עי 7 שליננ 7 שפרעך $ם 2 $ם שפ רעך שהץינ 8 שלל® 3 שרל 8 ש רל שװים 7 שמײס 8 שרלב 8 ש רלב שודער 4,2 שסעלץ 2 שרעק 2 שרעק

2? 44! 8 £ i io king 2 boat 8 kiit 10 baig 5 Fal 10 AinA 7 bak 10 farb 1 barit 1 bafeil 4 /£(<> * 2,4 bht 10 Ejfin 7 Kjm io birit 2 flix t 2 ^ 8 W 7 flii 6 kling 7 WW 7 friier 3,6 kloub 9, 10 Maoi 8 fuu(e)r 10 knaap 8 bluuz 10 kniit 2, 10 gyboiem 4 Cat 9 trig 3» I® ו Ar/r 2 gM 9 kriiex Arm/ 10 fargii 10 k v il 2 faW 10 9. io 3 Laa(i) 8 C m 6 «*« 3 load 8 anJ uun 7 fargm 7 laaxt 9 rrag 10 glaax 8 lii 2 jra i 10 % 9 fardarb 1 fa r liter 6 ך ding 7 Hath 5 link ous ir// 2 Aa// 10 lo if 9 fardriist 3 hift ous 2 loz 10 hilf 2 luud io 7 £«־*< 284 Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Maad 8 8k 3 traab 8 mild 2 ifiu 3 t r i f 2 milk 2 /ftv 7 tr fit 2,10 mist 2 iluf 10 trin k 2 muul“ 10 Slug 10 trtnJc 7 mitt//6 10 imdu 8 /mA 2 Vaaz 8 fara/ 8 vaks 10 gynitxn (viier) 10 Spaa(i) 8 va rf 1 nbn 9, 10 7 varg 1 mis 3 iprix up 2 vai 10 3 £7«*״ £7«*״ 7 viier 2 fraa(i) 8 viier uun 4, 2 8 8 /r0 gyruut 10 Stois 10 Sub 10 Zaa(i) 8 Svaag 8 zaig 5 BaSaf 10 Svilier 2,4 10 Seier 2, 4 Svim 7 zA' 10 g yiiit 10 farSvjndn (viier) 7 tie 9, 10 Silt 2 z«

Alphabetical list o f strong participles 169 גי/נע ױ/גע ר/גע p $ a 10 *ח3 7 ב ר א ק 2 ב ר א ק מיקז 10 בתץ/בתען 7 ג אל ק 3 באין 2 גיסן 8 מיז 9 בארשםן 2,1 ביםן 8 גאננץ/מזנגען 9 גאננץ/מזנגען ביגן 5 בלאזן !0 גא°ז 3 בױ)ע(דן 4 בעטן 10 »רגתעץ6ארנתץ/6 ילו3 7 בר$טן !0 ױבן 10 ױבן 285 Morphology

ר/ מ ר/גע ני/גע גליק 8 װעזן !26 מ א ל ק 2 ג לי מ ט 8 װען 126 מאלן)א( 10 מאלן)א( P ? 1 10,9,9 מאלןןב( 10 מאלןןב( מגםן 10 2 3 מאלקן מאלקן ן3גרא 10 זאלצן 10 פאםסן 2 רדארבן86 1 מיסן 8 זייק 5 זייק ן6דאר 1 ותגי׳ן/זתגען 7 ותגי׳ן/זתגען נ א ק)ד ם( 3 דוגגין/דונגען 7 זתקץ/זמקען, דראשן 2 גאםן)ױניס/נענים( 3 אלן/אלג 7 אלן/אלג נומין/װמען 9 נומין/װמען דרתױן/דרונגען 7 זיק 8 זי ק נעזן,)װער( 0 ! »רדראסן6 3 דצן io געמץ/נעםען 10 געמץ/נעםען ז?ן io זעםן 9 זעםן האלסן 10 6 »לן 10 ן6האל 2 6 אח 10 האגדן/האנגען 2 ז9ט 9 ארבן6 1 ארבן6 טן,6הא אױם 2 סין 10 יילן6בא 4 יילן6בא יך6הא8ב ק. ז 2 טתקין/טדגקען io הױבן 5 טראטן 2 תץ/פתען6 7 תץ/פתען6 התקין/הוגקען 7 טראנקץ/טראנקק 2 לאכטן6 2 הלםן !0 ן6טרא 2 פלױגן 6 טרונקץ/טרתקען 7 עלן6 10 טריכן 8 טריכן וזאױק 4 חאי6 3 חאי6 טקגםן 10 רױ)ע(רן8 6 רױ)ע(רן8 ׳װאױ)ע(ח אן 4 אן ׳װאױ)ע(ח רעםן6 10 װאתטשן 7 װאתטשן װאונץ/װתען 7 י * ח 2 צ תן 6 צ תן יױ)ע(ק 4 יױ)ע(ק װאתקין/װמקען 7 צ מ ק, צונץ/צונען, צ מ ק, װאלן 2 װאלן גןיז/א 7 גןיז/א װמקסן 10 ל$דן 10 ל$דן װאקםן 1 לאזן 10 קװאלן 2 קװאלן װארגן 2,1 לאכטן 9 קומיץ/קומען 10 קומיץ/קומען װארן 2 ן6לא 9 קלױבן 10 װאיז׳אז 2 לאשן 2 קלתגץ/קלונגען 7 7 קלתגץ/קלונגען װאשן !0 »רלוי)ע(רץ8 6 קליבן 9,8 ייייגז 4 לתקץ/לתקען. קגאטץ 2 װױרן״ $נ 4 אױם 7 קגיפן 8 װמען 7 ליק 8 קיאק 3 תמקען 7 ליסן 8 קיאק 3 ודזן 8 לעק 9 קריגן 10 286 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar n n ד ע ע גי/גע יזיסן 10 שוואוסץ 4 ן6שלא 10 ן6שלא רראכטן»6 2 שוואלן 2 שלונגיץ/שלונגען 7 שלונגיץ/שלונגען תנין/רתען שיואומעץץ 4 שמיסן 8 שמיסן ריאן 10 שװאח 2 שניסן 8 שניסן ריבן 8 שוזויק 4 שען/שען 10 שען/שען ריסן 8 שווימען ך שפאלטן 10 שפאלטן רי ק 8 שוזיגן 8 שפאלסן 1 שפאלסן שוי)ע(ח 8 שפתץ/שפונען 7 שפתץ/שפונען שאבן 10 ?חסן 2 שפיק 8 שפיק שאק 3 ש ט א ק 2 ש פ ר א ק, $ פ 2 ש פ ר א ק, $ פ שאכטן 2 שםאנין/שםאגען 9 שפרתגין/שפרוננען 7 שפרתגין/שפרוננען שאלטן 3,2 שסארבן 1 שראקן 2 שראקן ® א ק 3 שסרק 10 שרומפן, א?ין/א?מ !0 !0 א?ין/א?מ שרומפן, ן6ב»שא io שסתקין/שטונקען 7 שריבן 8 שריבן שןױץ 2 שלאגן 10 שריק 8 שריק

Gybakn 10 7 gangyn 9 beitn 10 fardorbn 1 9.9 bisn 8 iorfn 1 fargisn 10 bitn 8 drjngyn 7 gibn 10 ך bjln 7 fardrosn 3 fargjnyn bjndn 7 droin 2 glexn 10 bjnyn 7 gUxnt 10 8 10 goltn 3 bluuzn 10 gosn 3 4 fabi 10 grubn 10 boign 5 fetn 10 I, 2 fjnyn 7 kaltn 10 broxn 2 floign 6 hiitn 10 bruutn 10 floxtn 2 kjnkyn 7 W n 10 bafoiln 4 hoftn,ous 2 buuem 2 forbn 1 bahoftn 2 fiesn 10 hoibn 5 froum 6 holfn 2 uun 7 fruuem 3 hongyn 2 uim 7 fuuern 10 coign 6 wwni 4 10 gin 9 iuuern 2 287 Morphology

ך kjmyn 10 r#» 8 farivjndn, viier klibn 8,9 rim 8 ivoiem 4 kljngyn 7 ritn 8 ivoln 3 kloubn 10 rjnyn 7 Svuuem 2 kneitn 10 farroxtn 2 knipn 8 ruuin 10 knotn 2 tjjn 10 krign 10 tjnkyn 10 triitn 10 krogn 3 baiafn 10 kroxn 3 &*» 10 tribn 8 trjnkyn 8 kvobt 2 7 //0nt 3 trofn 2 ilufn 10 tronkyn 2 liign 9 ilugn 10 troln 2 lign 8 bnisn 8 turn 9 litn 8 imolcn 2 Ijnkyn, ous 7 hatn 8 vaksn 10 loxtn 9 ioiem 4 vain 10 lofn 9 ioltn 2,3 vizn 8 farloiem 6 iosn 3 vjnkyn 7 loin 2 to 3 vjnyn 7״/ lozn 10 /oxto 2 voiem, uun 4 luudn 10 fya/rtr 10 voign 4 ipign 8 voksn 1 ipjnyn 7 mitn 8 voln 2 ipoltn 1 moldn 2 voom 2 iprjngyn 7 molkn 2 vorfn 1 {prom, up 2 mostn 2 1,2 iribn 8 muuM■** 10 vuum, uun 2 irign 8 muubtb) 10 Srokn 2 itanyn 9 za&w 10 nhzn, viier 10 itjnkyn 7 2/m 10 nimyn 10 itoisn 10 2/m 9 itorbn 1 zicn 10 njmyn 9 nosif** 3 itoxn 2 zign 8 nosfP‘> 3 fubn 10 zjngyn 7 htuem 2 zoign 5 ivign 8 3 rjjjk 10 kjm yn 7 tjnkyn, aan 7 288 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

THE PERIPHRASTIC VERBS: THE THIRD CONJUGATION bm + Invariable ץ3

-ex bin moixl'I forgive’: This conjugation is formed by the com איך ץ3 מיחל 170 bination of an invariable element and the substantive verb as an auxiliary. moixl zaan ם ^ז ל ד ץ Infinitive moixl zaa(i\yndik ב^זזל ױיעגדיק Contemporal moixl gyviin נלחל גיװען/מנווען Participle ex (h)ob moixl gyviin איך האב חל1ם גיזוען/נעװען Past ex (h)ob gyhat moixl gyviin איך האב ניהאט מוחל ױודעץ/געהאט Pluperfect מוחל נעזדען מו חל ex vel moixl zaan איך ודעל מ^חל דץ Future ex vel hubn moixl gyviin איך װעל האבן כ^וזל ױװען/געװען Future past zaa moixl דן חל1מ Imperative lomex moixl zaan לאפדך חל1מ דין (Optative (a zol ex moixl zaan ךין1ז א ל אי ך מ ח ל (Optative (b ex miig moixl zaan איך מעג מוחל דין Permissive ex tuur niit moixl zaan איך טאר רשם חל1מ דץ Prohibitive ex mjz moixl zaan איך מוז מיחל דין Obligative ex darf moixl zaan איך רף8ד מיחל דין Necessitative ex volt moixl gyviin איך חאלס חל1ם דזדען/געװען Conditional ex volt gyviin moixl gyviin איך װאלט ױװען מרחל גיזיען Past Conditional / געוחנן מוחל prim ex fliig mom! zaan ער פלזנג מ^חל דץ Past Habitual

Reflexive ex bin mex - zex matriiex ‘ts איך ץ3 מי ך - דך מטריח Real Reflexive trouble* ex bin mex - zex toiy ‘I am איך בץ מיך - דך עה1ס Psychological Reflexive making a mistake, I am mistaken* zex toiy zaan or ד ך סיעה דין Infinitive toiy zaan zex סועה דין דך דין סועה toiy zaa(i]yndik zex or עה1ס דןענדיק דך Contemporal zex toiy zaa(i)yndik ד ך טועה דיענדיק טועה ד ך zex toiy gyviin ot ד ך עה1ט ױװען/געװען Participle toiy gyviin zex סיעה רזזען/געװען דך רזזען/געװען סיע ה 289 Morphology

ex (h)ob mex - zex toiy gyviin איך האב מיך - דך טועה רװען/געװען Past ex (h)ob mex - zex gyhat toiy איך האב מי ך-זיך ניזזאט/ Pluperfect gyviin גע האט טיעה ױװען/געװען טיעה האט גע ex vil mex - zex toiy zaan איך װעל מיך - זיך טועה דץ Future ex vil - zex mex (h)ubn toiy איך װעל פי ך - דך האבן סיעה Future past gyviin גױתןן/געװען zaa(i) dex - zex toiy די די ך - דך סיעה Imperative lomex zex toiy zaan לאמיך דך טועה דין (Optative (a zol ex mex - zex toiy zaan זאל איך מי ך - דך סיעה דין (Optative (b ex miig mex - zex toiy zaan איך מעג מי ך - דך סיעה דין Permissive ex tuur mex - zex niit toiy zaan איך סאד מ ק ־ - דך דשם טועה דין Prohibitive ex mjz mex - zex toiy zaan איך מוז מיך - דך סיעה דין Obligative ex darf mex - zex toiy zaan 7א דארף מיך - דך סיעה זלן Necessitative volt mex - zex toiy gyvim » איך װאלס מי ך - דך סיעה ןעדגעון/עדוױ Conditional ex volt mex - zex gyviin toiy איך וואלס כדך - דך גידדען/געװען Past conditional gyviin סיעה גיװען/געװען סיעה ex fliig mex - zex toiy zaan איך לעג6 מיך - דך סיעה זיץ Past habitual איך בץ Note: This conjugation must not be confused with constructions like ex bin gliklex *I am happy,’ i.e., substantive verb plus adjective. The גליקלעך invariable element of the third conjugation - historically a Hebrew participle - is not used as an adjective. This is evident in two ways. If it were an adjective, the er (h)ot ער האט מוחל גיװען/געװען,.construction of the past tense would not be, e.g er iz gyviin ער איז גיװען/געװען מיחל moixl gyviin he forgave - has forgiven but ער אח ניװען/ n iz moixl gyvim, on the model of ער את מיזזל גיװען/געװען moixl or gliklex gyvim מ ער אח גליקלעך גיװען/געװען• »er iz gyvim gliklex or 2 געװען גליקלעך געװען ‘he was - has been happy’: The normal auxiliary ‘to have’ is employed, on the -er (h)ot fartaact ‘he translated - has trans ער האס רסײסשסmodel of, e.g., 88 lated,’ and not the auxiliary ‘to be.’ Secondly, the non-verbal element cannot be er iz a moixeler ‘he ער איז א מיזזלער inflected: it would not be possible to say er iz a gliklexer ער איז א גליקלעכער forgives’ (lit. ‘is a forgiver’) on the lines of ‘he is happy,’ which is a frequent construction.

THE PERIPHRASTIC VERBS: THE FOURTH CONJUGATION

Viter + Invariable װער

ex viier myvjlbl איך ווער מבולבל ’,viier niilym *I disappear » איך װער נעלס 171 ‘I become confused’: This conjugation is formed by the combination of an unin- viier ‘become.’ The verbs of the fourth װער fleeted element with the auxiliary conjugation are inflected like the passive voice of the simple verb. 290 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

This conjugation denotes a change of a state or condition (see the above examples). Hence, some of these verbs function as a passive to a verb of the third ’.bin myvalbl ‘confuse בץ מבלבל ,.conjugation, e.g These compound verbs must not be confused with constructions formed from viier gliklex װער גליקלעך ,.viier ‘ become, ’ e.g װער an adjective plus the auxiliary ‘become happy.’ For although the uninflected element of the verbs of the fourth myvjlbl - originates in a Hebrew participle, it מבולבל ,niilym נעלם - conjugation *J a) נעלמעו* מענטש cannot function as an adjective: there is no such form as niiljmer mini ‘a vanished person ’ nor can such an adjective become a noun - there ’.der• niiljmer ‘the vanished one דע ר נעלמער is no such form as

FORMATION OF VERBS

172 Non-primary verbs are derived from words of other word classes by the following means.

I. From nouns A. In unchanged form *lexer ‘make holes לעכער ’,xuulym ‘to dream חלום ’,tup ‘becomes day ס$גט 173 .lox ‘ hole ’: The noun is taken over unchanged לאך lixer, the plural of לעכעד from

B. In changed form (a) By umlaut .kop ‘head’: The noun undergoes umlaut קאפ kip ‘behead,’ from קעפ (b) By suffix .tilyfoniir ‘to telephone’: The suffix T iir takes the stress ױר$6טעליפאג:ר/טעלע ’koloniziir ‘colonize’: The final syllable of the double suffix iziir ‘ise/ize קאלאױדר balbatyvy ‘act as the owner’ from בעל־בתי װע/בעל־הבתע װע .takes the stress balbuus ‘master בעל־בית/בעל־הבית balbatym, the plural of בעל־בתים/בעלי־בידם of the house; owner,’ minus the plural ending (representing as it were the stem). רייכער.The suffix vrvprrvyvy is combined with the unchanged form of the noun er in ער roi(e)x ‘smoke’: Here we have the suffix יך1ר raiser ‘to smoke’ from combination with umlaut.

II. From adjectives A. In unchanged form vdrym ‘to װ^רימ/װאדעם ’,tark mex - zex ‘control oneself} שסארק מיך - דך 174 ’,hixer ‘to increase, raise העכער .warm’: The adjective is used in unchanged form liter mex - ze x 1 grow old’: The comparative form of the adjective על טע ר םיך - דך - םיך על טע ר is used. 291 Morphology

b . In changed form (a) By Umlaut hater לײסער ’,grois ‘great גרױם grais mex - zex‘ pride oneself’ from גדיים מיך - דך - מיך גדיים outer ‘clear, pure’: The adjective undergoes] לױסער clear up, purify,’ from‘ umlaut. (b) By prefix baiaitt'adorn’: The באשײן ’,arbiter ‘embitter] ער0ארבי farziis ‘sweeten,’6 ם א חי ס ,fargrmger ‘lighten ארנרינגערadjective is unchanged but a prefix has been added. 6 farbeser ‘improve’: The comparative form of the adjective ארבעםערmake easy,’ 6 is used. -brjm ‘crooked: wrong’: The adjective under קרום farkrim ‘distort’ from רקרים86 goes umlaut. (c) By suffix rairuk ‘to clean, cleanse’: The adjective is unchanged but a suffix has been רײניק added. raitl mex - zex ‘blush’: The adjective undergoes umlaut and a רײטל מיך - דך - מיך רײ טל suffix is added.

III. From roots זעת taany ‘argue,’ from the Hebrew roots טענע/סענה ’,xanfy ‘flatter ע8חנ 176 .These are in Yiddish realised as CaCC functioning as a stem :»'/ טען hnp and

iv. Onomatopoeic verbs njjky ‘to say njj* (= ‘well?’): The suffix of נוקע ’,havky ‘yelp, yap האװקע 7 7 1 .ky קע onomatopoeic verbs is

iv. From verbs 175 Verbs are derived from other verbs with the aid of prefixes. See Prefixed Verbs (122).

Adverbs W ’,azoi ‘so אזיי ’,Jmisttt ‘on purpose אומייסטן ’,ous ‘out אױס ’,avik ‘away *װעק 178 ’,arjm ‘around ארים ’,oft ‘often ט6א ’,up ‘off אפ ’,anider ‘down אגידער ’,uun ‘on אן .kii ‘here (in this town/village)’ etc הל ’dortn ‘there דארק ’,duu ‘here י א

(*) cjflamt ט/גע8צו לאמם6ל א מ ’,tang ‘long לאנג ’,iam ‘beautiful שיין ׳,gjt ‘well גוט 179 ‘flaming’: Adjectives and participles, in their uninflected form, serve as adverbs. 292 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

(3) - broigyzerhait *being angry בריגוערהייס ’ijngerhait ‘being young יתמרר ײס (a)180 -imjjysndi ?איעסנדיקעו־הײס ’,fartraxterkait ‘in thought ערהײט0רטר«כ cross,’ 88 ,erhait forms adverbs from adjectives ערהײט kcrhait ‘while talking’: The suffix participles and con temporals. matdhaaz ‘when מײדלרױת ’,maxnysvaaz ‘in swarms, in groups מועותוױח (b) she was a girl’: The suffix vaaz forms adverbs from nouns.

(4) Erfuuert a ע ד ארט6 א גאםץ טןןג- א נאנצע װאך - א גאנץ יאד - א היפשן מהלך 181 gancn tug - a gancy vox - a ganc iuuer - a hipin mehalex ‘He travels a - the whole day - week - year - a considerable distance’:The accusative functions as the adverbial case.

Prepositions

,iber ‘over איבער ;’jnter ‘under, below, behind אתסער :Simple prepositions 182 צװישן ’,far ‘for’; p6 fjn ‘from, of ארnuux ‘after’; 6 נא ך ’,mit ‘with מיט ;’above .cUn ‘between’ etc צי®[ - cviin ;’fjn jnter *from under, below, behind ץ אונטערCompound prepositions: 6 183 mit סיט יאח צײ־יק ,.mil . . . cjrik ‘ago,’ e.g מיט . .. צײײק cjrik mit or צוריק מיט צוריק iuuem cjrik ‘years ago.’ Compound prepositions are combinations of prepositions with adverbs. -dermit ‘there דערמיט ’,derbaa ‘next to דערבל ’,deriber ‘therefore דעריבעד 184 -der fjn ‘therefrom’: A com ץ6דער ’,dcmuux ‘after that דערנאך ’with, with that der with a preposition is often used instead of the group דער bination of the prefix iber deim ער3אי דעם - ’dcim (dative) ‘this דעם preposition + the demonstrative ‘therefore.’ Not all prepositions are treated in this way.

Conjunctions

’,oux - oix ‘also, too אייך - אייך ’,jn ‘and אץ :Co-ordinating conjunctions 185 ii-iiא*-א*’,saadn ‘unless סל>ץ ’,lysof1 in the end זסוף ’,demuux ‘after that דערנאך p6 fjn dlst viign ‘in דעסט װעגן ’,ober ‘but אבער ’,nor ‘but נ אי ’,as well ...* bexen בכן ’,deriber ‘therefore דעריפער ,(vuum ‘for’ (because װאיץ ’,spite of it ‘therefore,’ etc. ’,zint ‘since ס1זי ’,oib ‘if יב1א ’,az ‘when; that אז:Subordinating conjunctions 186 .kol-zman * as long as,’ etc כל־זמן ’,xod ‘although כאטש Syntax

The Statement Sentence

Di !jn iaant ‘The sun is shining’: The normal word order is די זק שלנט (a)187 subject - predicate.

THE PREDICATE

:’Di zjn (h)ot gyiaant ‘The sun shone - was shining די זק האם גישלנס/געסדינס (b) When the predicate is a verb, the finite follows immediately on the subject. Di ituut iz grois ,The town is big’: When the predicate די שמאט את גדוים (c) consists of the substantive verb plus a predicative, and the latter is an adjective, then this remains uninflected. di ituut iz a groisy ‘The town is big/a big one’: But the די שטןןם את א גרויסע (d) די שטאט את די.adjective is inflected if it is preceded by the (indefinite) article Di ituut iz di gristy in ganen land ‘The town is the biggest גרעסטע אץ גאטק לאנד גאטק אץ ג רעסטע in the whole country’: When the adjective is a superlative the definite article is used. Er iz ipys nit mit alymym ‘ He isn’t ער את עפיס/עפעם נישט מים אלימק/אלעכמק (e) עם ipys ‘something’ or עפיס/עפעס,’dus' this, that דup to the mark’: The words 0$ ys ‘it,’ when added to the predicate, qualify it in a vague way. Er iz gyvoorn an aptaiker ‘He became a ער את ױװאק/געװאוץ »ן אפטײקער (f) pharmacist’: When the verb form is periphrastic, the predicate normally follows it. :’Vist zaan a bal-meluxy ‘You will be an artisan װעםס זלן א ? על־ מל אכה (g) Occasionally the second person singular of the personal pronoun is omitted. iz duu azomy ‘There are such people’: It sometimes ם־את דא ?ןזױנע h) 5) happens that the predicate does not agree with the subject, the latter being a plural and the predicate a singular. 294 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Zai frHgn ainer baam andem ‘They ask each די פרעגן איינער בלם » i) p j n) other’: On the other hand, the constructio ad sensum is not rare - the predicate is in the plural although the subject is in the singular. Zaanvl jn zaan huger darfk haant זלנװל אוץ ךץ שװאגער דארפן ה ל נ ם וץ (j) fuuem ‘Zaanvel and his brother-in-law have to leave today’ (by train, car etc.): In a compound sentence with several subjects in the singular, the predicate is in the plural. Der hiier mit der higer darfk דער שװער מיט דער שװיגער ן6ד»ר הלמס םארן(k) haant fuuem ‘The father-in-law and the mother-in-law have to leave today’: .(mit מיס) jn is replaced by a preposition אין,Here Ez iz dorm gyblibn jn ער איז דארטן גיגליבן/געבליבן אץ גילאכס/געלאכט (1) gylaxt ‘He remained there and laughed’: In a composite sentence, when one of its predicates forms the past with ‘have’ and the other with ‘be’, the auxiliary of the second predicate is sometimes omitted, notwithstanding the discrepancy.

THE OBJECT

The direct object Er nimt dus beritl ‘He takes the brush’: The direct ער נעמט דאם נער שםל (a)188 object is placed after the predicate. Zi vit vain di hbnder ‘ She will wash the shirts ’: When ד װעט װאשן די• העמדער (b) the verb form is periphrastic, the object normally follows the last part of the verb. Minin viin ym niit faritain ‘People will מענטשן װעלן אים נישם פארשטײן (c) M ot zexgyfrait ‘The people were מ־האט דך רײט6רײט/גע6ױ;’not understand him glad’: But when the object is a pronoun, especially a personal or reflexive one, it follows immediately on the finite part of the verb. :’ Ex haib uun cjfaritain ‘ I am beginning to understand איך היי ב אן צו 86רשטיץ (d) .y ‘to’ is used צי When the object is a verb, the infinitive with Ex haib uun cj faritain dus aisyk • ‘ I איך הייב אן צו פארשסיין ד$ם ?יםק/עםק (e) am beginning to understand the matter’: This infinitive can take an object. מוז ’,loz hiiem ‘let hear לאז גרן/לאז7ה הערן ’,zol gain ‘should go גיין זאל(f) fUig laign ער פלעג לייגן ’,miig zugn ‘may say מעג זאגן ’,mjz ilufn ‘must sleep שלאפן gai spaciiem ‘go for a גײ ’,kin xapn ‘can snatch קען he used to lay,’ p< P* cj is omitted צו haib uun imjjsn ‘ begin to talk ’: However, the היי ב אץ שמועסן ’,walk kin, also קען fliig and פלעג ,miig מעג ,mjz מח ,loz לאז ,zol זאל after the modal verbs -darf‘must, have to’ is con דארף ;haib uun 3הײ אן gai, occasionally after גײ after darf דארף)צי( װארטן - cj but the latter is more frequent צי strued with or without (cj) vartn ‘have to wait.’ :’ My lim t mex derxiiryc ‘ I am being taught manners מע לערנט מיו (8) A verb may govern two direct objects. 29S Syntax

The indirect object -Zi iraabt der iviger ‘She is writing to her mother-in ד שרלבס דער שװימר (a)189 law’: The indirect object also follows the verb. Zi vit iraabn der iviger ‘She will write to her ד װעט שרלבן דעד שװימנד (b) Zi vit ir iraabn ‘ She will write to her ’: When the ד װעס איר שרלבן;’ mother-in-law verb form is periphrastic, the word order is the same as in the case of the direct object Ex gai mir ipaciim ‘ I am taking a walk ’: The ethic dative איך ג״י מיד שפאצײץ (c) is often used.

Direct plus indirect object -Zi git der htjjer dus pikl ‘She gives her daughter דגי ם ד עד yea דןןס ®עקל (a)190 in-law the parcel’: When a sentence contains both kinds of object, the indirect one precedes the direct one. Zi darf ys gUbn der injjer *She has to give it to ד דארף עם ן3גע ד עד שניר (b) Zi darfirgiibn dus pikl ‘ She must ד דארף איר געבץ דאם עקלher daughter-in-law ’;8 give her the parcel’: When one of the objects is a pronoun it takes precedence, following immediately on the finite part of the verb. Er darfys irgHbn ‘He must give it to her’: When both ער דארף עם איר געבן (c) objects are pronouns the word order is not fixed but the sequence, accusative- dative, is preferred; both pronouns follow immediately on the finite part of the verb. Er hah, az dus iraabn ער האלם, *ז דאם ן3שר?י « װסע םעשה אתױשסקײ׳ןקינז (d) a gjty maasy iz niit kain kjnc ‘He thinks that to write a good story is no gTtat feat’: An object can be governed by a noun, i.e., a substantival infinitive.

The prepositional object Mydarfvartn ofdi klezmuurym ‘One has מע דארף װאדםן אף/אויף די פלי־זמרים 191 Er ipit fjnym oilym ‘ He mocks ער שפעם ונעם6ונים/6 ;ן^לם י to wait for the musicians סענדל איז העכער.the people’: The object can also consist of a prepositional phrase Mindl iz hixer fjn Moiiyn ‘Mendel is taller than Moses’: The object of ין6 ,(’fjn *from’ ( = ‘than יןcomparison is a similar case. Occasionally, in place of 6 we come across "*fi far ‘for’ ( — ‘than’).

THE ATTRIBUTE

192 The attribute can take the form of an adjective, pronoun, numeral, noun, adverb or adverbial phrase. It generally precedes the governing noun but an attributive adverb or an adverbial phrase mostly follow the governing noun. 296 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

The adjectival attribute Er vil koifn a grohn suud mit alty ער וויל קרי&ן א גרויסן סאד מיט אלטע ביימער (a)193 baimer ‘He wants to buy a large orchard with old trees’: The adjective is inflected גרויםן) on the pattern of Declension I (p. 241): It agrees with its noun in number .(alty אלטע ,groisn זיין עלטערער ’,zaan eltern brjjders ‘his elder brother’s זײן עלטערן ברודערס (b) an amuuliky אן אמאליקע הברטע ’,zaan elterer hesters ‘his elder sister’s שװעםטערס xaverty ‘a former (female) friend’: It also agrees in case and gender with the few nouns which have case endings and with those nouns whose suffixes indicate male or female. But, apart from that, it is the adjective that shows by its terminations the theoretical case and gender of the noun. גרויס mit grois fraid ‘with great joy’: When the adjective מיט גרויס פרײד (c) grois ‘great’ qualifies an abstract noun not preceded by an article, it stays uninflected.

The pronominal attribute: The possessive pronoun as attribute

(A) Noun unattended by article Ir toxter iz in der haim ‘Her daughter is at איר טאכטער איז אין ד עד היים (a)194 home’: When the noun is in the singular and has no article, the pronoun is not inflected. b y texter zenyn in der haim ‘Her אירע טעכטער זעגץ/זענען אץ דער הײם (b) daughters are at home’: When, however, the noun is in the plural, the pronoun is inflected.

(B) Noun with indefinite article 195(a) ’ii(e)rer z zjjn ‘a son of hers אירער 8 זון .Nom ii(e)rn a zjjn אלרן א זון .Acc ii(e)rn a zjjn אלרן א זון .Dat H(e)rn a zjjns אלרן א זמם .Poss ’ii(e)ry a toxter ‘a daughter of hers אלרע א טאכטער .Nom ii(e)ry a toxter אלרע א טאכטער .Acc ii(e)rer a toxter אירער א טאכטער .Dat ii(e)rer a toxters אלרער א טאכטערס .Poss ’Hers a kind ‘a child of hers אלרס א קינד .Nom Hers a kind אלרס א קינד .Acc Hern a kind אירן א קינד .Dat Hern a kinds א:רן א קינדס .Poss 297 Syntax

When the noun has the indefinite article, the Utter is preceded by the pronoun. DTK ii(e)rs a toxter ,a א סאכטער ’,ii(e)rs a zjjn ‘a son of hers אץ־ס 8 זין (b) ii(e)rs a kind ‘a child of hers’: All the forms in the 0אײ* א קינד ',daughter of hers .ii(e)rs אלד ס preceding table can be replaced by the invariable Zi vitys zugn der buby ii(e)rer ‘She will tell ד װעט עם זאגן דער ע3א3 אירעו־ (c) א טאכטער מללנע ’,a zjjn maaner ‘a son of mine זוץ פדיגער it to her grandmother,’ 8 ’,a kind moans ,a child of mine א קמד מלגa toxter maany ‘a daughter of mine,’ 0 di די טעכטער מללנע ’,der zjjn maaner ‘my son, that sone of mine דער זק מלגער זק דער dus kind moans דאם קיבד כדינם ’ toxter maany ‘ my daughter, that daughter of mine ‘my child, that child of mine’: The possessive pronoun may also be placed after its noun - which may have the indefinite or definite article; it is inflected according to the second declension (see p. 253).

The demonstrative pronoun as attribute wW ‘this״ ot deier אט ד עד מענטש ’,deter mint ‘this (male) person ד ע ד מענסש (a)196 דאם זעלבע שייכות ’,di doziky xivry ‘this society די דאזיקע רה5ח ’,male) person) dus zilby faa(i)xys ‘the same relationship’: The demonstrative pronoun, functioning as an attribute, is nearly always used adjectivally and precedes the noun. ,ot diier ‘this’ are inflected according to para. 101 אט דעד diier and דער (b) der דעד ער3זעל ’,der iiniker ‘that דער יעגיקער ’,der doziker ‘this ד ע ד ד אד קער ד ע ד der ד עד זעלביקער ’,der aigyner ‘the same דער אײױנער/אײגעגער ’,zelber ‘the same יעגער;zelbiker ‘ the same* - all these are inflected like the first adjectival declension אזײנע ;iiner ‘that’ is inflected like the first declension of the possessive pronoun אזױנער ozel(e)xy ‘such’ are plurals (their singulars אזעל)ע(כע azoiny ‘such’ and azel(e)xer are not used adjectivally and are inflected in על)ע(כערazomer and 18 accordance with the first declension of the possessive pronoun. SUJ azd ‘such a ’ .a miin ‘a kind o f are indeclinable א ?ל[ and

The indefinite pronoun os attribute -itlexer mini ‘everybody’: With two exceptions, all in איטלעכער מענטש (a)197 definite pronouns precede their noun. (:iitvider (all יעסוזידער a iiider and א יעדער,aider יעדער ,itlexer איטלעכער (b) ‘every, each’ are inflected in accordance with the first declension of the possessive .aly ‘all’ have no singular ל עitlexy ‘ some, several’ and 8 עטלעכע .pronoun די אלע שדלבער ’dii itlexy mincn ‘these several people עםלעכע מענטשן די(c) dii aly iraaber ‘all these writers’: These two pronouns may be preceded by the .dii דל demonstrative aldi אלדי ;’aldys gjts (singular) ,all the best אלדי ס/אלדעס - אלד אס נוטם (d) al precedes the definitive article it is not inflected and א ל all the,’ plural: When‘ the two are felt to form a single word. 298 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

קיץ niit kain ijm or נישם קיץ שום ,״’. niit kain ‘not a, not any, no נישם קיץ (e) abii vus far אבל װאם MJfi* א kain ijm niit ‘absolutely not a, not any, no שום גישט שום a ‘(just) any’ are indeclinable. (Dortn itait ainer a iid * Over there stands a (Jewish דארטן שסיים אייגער 8 ײד (f) am ‘one’ serves as an indefinite pronoun (first declension איץ man’: The numeral :’Ipys a zlker ‘some soldier עפים/עפעם 8 זעלנער .(of the possessive pronoun When the indefinite article is used with these two pronouns it steps between them and the noun. Gazlyn ainer] ‘You banditi’ In an exclamation of this kind the מלן איינער! (g) pronoun follows the noun. Di pouerym alain zugn dus ‘ The peasants themselves די פויערים מליץ ז$גן דאם (H) say so’; :’ Di vilt gjjfy iz a xuulym ‘ The world itself is a dream די װעלם א6גי איז 8 חלום (i) - gjjfy *my - your - him - her א8גי alain and אליץ The two indefinite pronouns itself, our - your - themselves’ follow their noun. Di pouerym v ik dus alain zugn ‘The peasants די פויערים װעלן דאס ליץ8 זאגן (j) alain may follow אליץ,will say so themselves’: When the verb form is periphrastic later in the sentence, where it will precede the last part of the verb form. Di pouerym gjjfy v ik dus zugn ‘The peasants די פױערים גי&א װעלן ד$ס זאגן (k) .gjjfy, however, cannot change its position א6גי :’themselves will say so

The numeral as attribute naan guums * nine storeys ’: The numeral precedes the noun; after ד ץ נ א תם (a)198 a cardinal, the noun is, as a rule, in the plural. צויײ ’,axt mynjt ‘eight minutes ט3א ממום ’,clln hour ‘ten years מ ן יאר (b) ’,fjfcn im ‘ fifteen hours צן6ו שעהcvai mls-Ils'vwo days’ (i.e., 48 hours),8 מע ת־לע ת ziks tuuler'six dollars;90or 180 זעקםםאלער’,draa(i) fjn t ‘three pounds ד רל DXlC ztkn axt I ‘seven ן1ד אכטל ’,flrcn raanii ‘fourteen guilders פערצן רלגיש ’,kopeks eights’: In the preceding nouns - denoting units of time, measurement, money or the denominator of a fraction - the numerals do not govern the plural. Under ’.tug ‘day סאג certain conditions this also applies to -hjndert התדערט־אוךאיץ הליזער hjndert-jn-am houz or הויז התדערט־אוךאיץ(c) am ‘one,’ may אײן jn-ain-haazer *hundred and one houses’: Hundreds ending in govern either the singular or the plural. a voxn fiier ‘about א a man fjfcik ‘about fifty men,’ *176 pKTl מאן ציק6וd) 8 6) a,denoting approximation, the cardinal א four weeks’: When a noun is preceded by t a zaiger ziks ‘six o’clock’: This word order is also) דיגער עקםis placed after it. 1 ziks a זעקם א ד ע עד :valid for clock time, side by side with the opposite order zaiger. 299 Syntax

א טאפילע/ ’,der ferder tug ‘the fourth day דער פערדער/פערטער טאג (e) טאפל a topyly fraid ‘a double joy1: Ordinals and the multiplicative טאפעלע פרייד טאפעל ע topl are adjectives.

The noun as attribute zaan svesters ziindl ‘his sister’s little son’: When the זי_ין שװעסטערס זינדל (a)199 attribute is a noun preceding its governing noun, the attribute is in the possessive; the governing noun has then no article. This construction is practically always restricted to human beings, although, on accasion, it is used for other living beings, too. zaan svesters a ziindl ‘a little son of his sister’ or ‘one זײן שװעסטערם א זינדל (b) of the little sons of his sister’: The governing noun may have the indefinite article, for the sake of greater accuracy. Iser Braandls ‘Isser the son ’ or ‘ husband of Braandl ’: In this איסר ברײנדלס (c) idiom the normal word order is reversed, the possessive following its governing noun - the first name indicating the son - daughter - husband - wife of the second person named. :’der klimat fjn Kanady ‘the climate of Canada דער קלימאט 5 ון קאנאדע (d) When the attribute follows the governing noun it is linked to it by the preposition ,Er halt ער האלט, אז דאם שרייבן א גוטע מעשה איז נישט קיץ קונץ ’.f j n ‘from, of פון az dus sraabn a gjty maasy iz nist kain kjnc ‘ He thinks that to write a good story is no great feat’: When the governing word is an infinitive it is not linked with a possessive but functions as a verb.

The adverb and adverbial phrase as attribute [Di kinder dortn spiiln zex ‘The children [who are די קינדער דארטן שפילן זיך 200 Di kinder in guuertn spiiln zex די קינדער אץ גארטן שפילן זיך ’,over there are playing ‘The children [who are] in the garden are playing’: The adverbial attribute - in the form of an adverb or prepositional phrase - follows the governing noun.

Co-ordination o f attributes -dym altn dr. Hermans ziin ‘old Dr. Hersh דים/דעם אלטן ד״ר הערשמאנס זלן 201 א װײט, ’,ieider kjk zaaner ‘every look of his יעדער קוק זיינער ’,man’s sons a vaat, fargesn vinkl ‘a far-off, forgotten corner.’ Nearly all kinds פארגעםן װינקל פארגעםן of attributes can be combined in a co-ordinated relationship.

APPOSITION

ain zaat puunyrn ‘one איץ זי_יט פנים ’,a gleizl tai ‘a glass of tea א גלעזל טיי (a)202 side of the face’: The syntactic connection between the two nouns is not expressed by a marker. 300 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

a maiy mhUn פיאה/מאה פעגטשן jm ta tjc kistlex ‘a dozen boxes’,8 קעסטלעך (b) (a mmiyn Riidymer ,ten (male Jewish ממק/מנץ רעדימער hundred people,’ 8‘ an aidy Iidn ,a community אץ עידה/עדה יײץ ’,inhabitants (or natives) of Radymno צ ע ד לי ע a puuer doktotrym ,several doctors’, - 8 אר דאקסיירים» of Jews,’ 8 a iok ater' five א שאק/שאק אײעי־ ’,a cindlmg - cindltk iuuem ‘ a decade געגדליק י אק געגדליק dozen eggs’: The apposidonal partners of these collective nouns in the singular are in the plural. a ituut menin *the people of the town* is formed on the above שסאס מענטשן 8 pattern.

JUXTAPOSITION

ד ט6טרע אלזיקן a lid a lamdn ,a learned (Jewish) man,’ 8 א ילד א לסדץ 203 דעד ’,Zi trift Aazikn a farkliiertn ,she met Aazik deep in thought ש8רקל?ר0ץ dokter Stinger ד׳׳ר עטיעער ״,der fiter Biniumyn ,uncle Benjamin פעסער בקמץ פ עסער דער בעקער פלודיש ’,di ituut Viin ,the City of(!) Vienna די שסאם תץ ’,Dr. Ettinger, der biker Faavii: Here too, the nouns are in juxtaposition without a formal link. However, the syntactical connection is quite different. Where it is a case of apposition it is of possessive/genitival nature, while here the attribution is, as it were, one of identity. The difference is clear when the constructions are replaced by certain - unidiomadc - devices. When it is a case of apposition there would ain zaal fjnympuunym אי׳יץ דיט ונעם6ונים/6 פנים :have to be a prepositional phrase א ילד, װאone side of the face,’ but here we would have to use a relative clause: 0, a ltd, vus iz a lamdn a ,(Jewish) man who is a scholar’ (in traditional את א למדן א את Jewish literature).

QUALIFIERS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Dus iz niit gynjjg-gynjg kais ‘ This is not hot דאז איז ױשט גימג - רנמ/גענוג הײס 204 enough’: A qualifier of an adjective or adverb precedes the governing word. ױיעד 8 הויכעד בוים ’,guuer a iam bild ,a most beautiful picture נאד 8 שיין בילד שיין 8 נאד zaier a hoiexer boim ,a very tall tree’: When the governing adjective is the attribute guu{e)r ‘very, most* and נאד of a noun with the indefinite article, the qualifiers .zaier ‘very’ precede the article זי׳יער

WORD ORDER

ד שיתלבט א מד א ברליו ’,Er iluft iom ‘He is already asleep ער שלאפם שיץ (a)205 z i vit bald ד מעט באלד שלאפן ’ ,Zi iraabt atind a briiv ‘ She is now writing a letter Etl (h)ot taikyf farmaxt עטל האט תיכף פארמאכט די טלי ’,ilufn' She will soon sleep 301 Syntax

di tii(e)r ‘Ettel immediately shut the door’: A simple adverb follows on the verb - the finite part of it when the verb has a periphrastic form - and precedes the object. ex velym haant sraabn a briiv ‘ I shall write איך װעל אים הײנט שרי״יבן 8 ברלװ (b) him a letter today’: When the object is a personal or reflexive pronoun, it precedes the adverb. ’!Morgn d a rf z i fuuem ! ‘Tomorrow she must go מארגן דארף זי 5ארן! (c) Zi darffuuem morgn! ‘She must go tomorrow!’: To express זי דארף פארן מארגן! emphasis the adverb may, of course, be placed at the beginning or end of the sentence. :’ Zi iz farblibn in der haim 1 She stayed at home זי איז פארבליבן אץ דער היים (d) When the adverbial phrase is a prepositional one, it generally follows the complete periphrastic form of the predicate. Z i tikt - vet sikn di kinder in שיקט - וועט שיקן די קינדער אץ גארטן אר:ין זי(e) guuertn araan ‘She is sending - will send the children into the garden’: When there is an object in the sentence it precedes the prepositional phrase.

GOVERNMENT OF PREPOSITIONS

in der kreicmy אין דער קרעטשמע ’,inym iam, ‘in - into the sea איגים/אינעם לם (a)206 ‘in - into the inn’: Prepositions govern the dative. fjn di kinders viign ‘for the sake - on behalf of the פון די קינדערס וועגן (b) - pS together govern the possessive ... װעגן children’: The pre- and postposition the only exception to the above rule. לע 3 ן טאפ ’,p§ fjn top ‘from the pot טאפ ’,in top ‘in - into the pot אץ טאפ (c) liibn לעבן ’,in ‘in,’ p 5 fjn ‘from אץ leibn top ‘next to the pot’: The prepositions ’fjnym ‘from the פונים/פונעם ’,inym ‘in the אינים/אינעם next to’ can stand for‘ uibn dym ‘next to ל??בן דים/דעם ,(f j n dym פון דים/דעם ,m dym אץ דים/דעם >) the’: The definite masculine/neuter article is very often omitted after the final n of these prepositions. ’,p§ fjn ituut ‘from the town שטאט ’,in stuut ‘in - into the town אין שטאט (d) ’,in sjjjl ‘in - into the synagogue אין שיל ;’Uibn stuut ‘next to the town לעבן שטאט לעבן :’Uibn sjjl ‘next to the synagogue לעבן שול ’,sjjl ‘from the synagogue » פון שיל/7 Here the article is omitted on analogy with the above usage although the nouns are p§ fjn der stuut דער שטאט) der ד עד feminine, so that the article would have to be etc.) and this could not lead to the assimilation with the /n/ of the preposition. fjn haisn פון הייסן אויװן ’,in haisn oivn ‘in - into the hot stove אין הייסן e) pvw) leibn altn haazl ‘next to the little old לעבן אלטן הייזל ’,oivn ‘from the hot stove house’: The article may also be omitted when the noun is qualified by an adjective. אץ דער אלטער שיל:The feminine article, however, cannot be omitted in such a case 302 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

in der groiser אץ דע ר ער0גר\י שטאט ’,m der alter ijjl ‘in - into the old synagogue ituut ‘in - into the big town’.

NEGATION

Er vit niit rein עד װעט ױשט רעדן ’,Zi kjmt mit ‘ She is not coming ד קומט ױשט 207 ער ײיל .He will not speak’: The negation follows immediately on the finite verb‘ -Er vil ys niit derzugn ‘ He does not want to finish saying it *: How עם גישט דערזאגן גישט עם ever, a personal or reflexive pronoun steps between the finite and the negation. Er vilguu(e)r~nHt visn ‘He does not want to וױל גאר־נישט/גארנישט ודיםן ער(b) know anything’ or ‘He does not want to know at all’: The negation is generally -guu(e]r-niit ‘nothing.’ Occasion גאר־נישט omitted if the object consists of the word Er vil guuer-niit ער וױל גאר־יגישם ױשט ודסן:ally, however, the negation is added niit visn. ער ’,Kain mini vaist ys niit ‘Nobody knows it קיץ מענטש ודיםט עס דשט (c) Er vaist nist kain zax ‘He does not know anything’: In a װײםט נישט קיץ ואך קיץ נישט װײםט negative sentence the indefinite article before the subject or object is replaced by :kain. However, the negation may also follow on the object קיץ the pronoun .Er vaist kain zax niit ער װייםט קיץ זאך נישט זאך קיץ װייםט ער

The Word Order Predicate - Subject

In guu(e)rtn iz duu a hipier oilym ‘In the אץ גארסץ את דא א היפשער ל1עa) 0)208 garden there are quite a lot of people’: When a sentence starts with an adverb or adverbial phrase, the usual word order is reversed, the subject following the predicate. Rak ir vilt niit ךק איר וױלט ױשט :rak ‘only’ is an exception רק b) The adverb) ‘You insist on refusing’ - in spite of the adverb at the beginning, the sentence mamyi ‘actually, really’ can be used in ממש has the first word order. The adverb -mamyi zi zingt ‘(She was not speaking), she was sing ממש ד ד עט :the same way .Zi zingt mamyi ד דננט ממש :ing!’ However, it can also be iber a iuuer vet Btndyt zaan איבער א יאר װעט בעגדיט/בענדעט דץ אץ קראקע (c) in Kruky ‘In a year’s time Bendet will be in Cracow’: When the predicate is a periphrastic form, the subject follows on the finite. Dortn vet ym Bendyt trifn ‘There װעט אים בענדיט/בענדעט ן6טרע דארטן(d) Dortn vet Bendyt דארטן װעט בענדיט/בענדעט אים ן6טרע Bendit will meet him’ or ym trefn: An object that consists of a personal or reflexive pronoun precedes or follows the subject. :’Dortn vit er ym trifn ‘There he will meet him דארסץ װעט ער אים ץ6טרע (e) But if the subject is also a personal or reflexive pronoun, then the subject comes first. 303 Syntax

Acinddarfnys digest soin אצינד דארפן עם די געסט שוין אהײם פארן/אהײמפארן (f) ahaim fuuem ‘Now the guests have to go home’: The subject can be anticipated .dus ‘that’ after the finite דאם y s ‘it’ or עם by placing an expletive Ys cjgain zex di volkns ‘The clouds are melting עם צוגײן/צעגײן זיך די װאלקנם (g) away’: Even if the anticipated subject is placed at the beginning of the sentence, the second word order is retained. Dus/Epys xuulymt zexym a sainy דאס-עפיס/עפעס חלומט זיך אימ א שײנע מעשה (h) maasy 1 He (happens to be) dreaming a beautiful story ’: Instead of OV - SO sy -y s , epys ‘something’ which seems to עפים/עפעם dus is sometimes employed, also דאם imply a stronger degree of vagueness. :’ Louter iz gyvein der himl ‘ Clear was the sky לויטער איז גיװען/געװען דער הימל (i) The predicate can be stressed by placing the predicative adjective at the head of the sentence. (Zugn vet zi ir nist zugn ‘ (As far as telling is concerned זאגן וועט זי איר נישט זאגן (j) she will not tell her’: Strong emphasis is achieved by placing the infinitive of the verb, which follows as predicate, at the head of the sentence. Gancy taaxn vaser giist der himl ‘Whole גאנצע טייכן װאסער ױסט דער הימל (k) rivers of water were pouring from the sky’: The object can be emphasized by placing it at the head of the sentence. Nam! zugt er ‘No! he said’: This object at the beginning of a ניין! זאגט ער (1) sentence is a piece of direct speech.

Co-ordination o f Sentences

Er vaist dus nist, nor er vil niit ער װײסט דאס נישט, נאר ער וויל נישט מודה דין(a)209 moidy zaan ‘He does not know that but he does not want to admit it’: An independent sentence which is joined to another one by means of a co-ordinating conjunction, generally keeps its word order. Er iz krank; er ken aax deriber איז קראנק! ער קען אי״יך דעריבער נישט שרללבן ער(b) nist sraabn ‘He is ill, he cannot, therefore, write to you’: However, some of the conjunctions must be placed after the verb - i.e., the finite - in order to keep the first word order. Er iz krank; deriber ken er איז קראנק: דעריבער קען ער אליך נישט שרײבן ער(c) Er iz krank; ken ער איז קראגק; קען ער אייך דעריבער נישט שרללבן aax nist sraabn, or er aax deriber nist sraabn ‘He is ill; so he cannot write to you’: Some conjunctions require the second word order, particularly the conclusive ones, ‘therefore, for .maxmys deim מחמת דעם ,derfar דער 5אר ,deriber דעריבער - ’that reason :Er iz krank; ken er aax nist sraabn ער את קראנק: קען ער אייך נישט שרײבן (d) The conjunction may be omitted, but the second word order will still have con- elusive force. 304 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Far st ait niit zaan iveier di maasy ‘His פארשטייט נישט זיין שווער רי מעשה (e) father-in-law did not understand the matter ’: The same construction appears even when there is clearly no causal connection. Ex darf dus hubn, vet mex איך דארף דאס האבן! וועט מיך קאסטן א 5ו5ציקער (f) kostn a fjfciker ‘1 must have that, it will cost me fifty5: When a sentence follows closely on a preceding one, without being linked by a conjunction, the subject .sy - ys o f the second one is sometimes omitted סע - עס - סע M ir vein fuuem kain Variyjn מיר װעלן פארן קײן װארשע און רעדן מיט מעיהן (g) redn mit Moiiyn ‘ We shall go to Warsaw and speak to Moses ’: In the second of two sentences which have the same subject, this is usually omitted. When appropriate, the same applies to the predicate. Er (h)ot gynjmyn dus ער האט גינומין/גענומען דאס פעסל און אוועק אץ שטאט (h) fesljn avek in ituut ‘He took the barrel and went to town’: The finite auxiliary of the predicate is sometimes omitted in the second sentence although it would have .iz avek איז אװעק - to differ from that in the first sentence Ys veiert ir eng in itjjb jn vil arous עם ווערט איר ענג אץ שטוב און וויל ארויס (i) ‘ She feels constricted (lit. it becomes tight for her) in the house and wants to get out’: When the real but not formal subject of one of two sentences is identical with that of the other, the latter is sometimes omitted.

The Interrogative Sentence

װעסטו - װעםט זיין אין שטאט ז ?D j vest zaan in stuut דו װעסט זלץ אץ שטאט?(a)210 Vestj - Vest zaan in itu u t? ‘Will you be in town ?’ Either the first or second word order is used together with the interrogative intonation. V jj iz er ? Interrogative sentences which are introduced by an װאד/וױ איז ער ? (b) interrogative are built on the second word order. Veier iz der mexaber ? ‘ Who is the author ? ’ But when the װער איז דער מחבר ? (c) subject of the interrogative sentence is a pronoun, then the first word order is used. Djj veier bist? ‘You - who are YOU?’: Special emphasis is דו ווער ביסט? (d) effected by placing the subject before the interrogative. Ci vaist er den niit, vus duu tjjt יצ ווייסט ער 1דע ׳נישט סװא יא טוט ־ טוט זיך? (e) - tjt zex? ‘Doesn’t he know (i.e., surely he knows) what is happening here?’: Occasionally a direct interrogative sentence is introduced by the indirect interroga- .(ci צי cii (often צל tive particle

Command and Optative Sentences

Avruum zol mir iikn dipen ‘Abraham should send אברהם זאל מיר שיקן די פען (a)211 me the pen’: In a command referring to a third person, the first word order is generally used. 305 Syntax

זאל מיד Q7nS g שיקן די :b) But the second word order is frequently used too) Zol mir Avruum iikn di pen. Lomexym zein ‘I want to see him’: In an optative sentence לאמעך אים ז?ן (c) the second word order is always followed, as the sentence starts with a verb. Mii(e)r zol zaan far daany bamdlex! (To מלר זאל זיךן »ר6 דלנע בײנדלעך d) 1) a child:) ‘On ME may [evil] be [visited instead of] on you (lit. your little bones)!: When an object or adverbial phrase are to be strongly emphasized, they may precede the predicate.

Subordination of Sentences

CONJUNCTIONAL CLAUSES

צרוייטנם שרלב איך דיר ז8 בל אתדז האט דך ן/געטרא&ן6גיטרא אץ אומגליק (a)212 Cvaitns Waab ex dir, az baa - ban - bar jndz (h)ot zex מים א גליק אץ אײױם/אימעס אץ גליק א מים gytrofn an jmglik mil a glik in ainym ‘ Secondly I am writing to tell you that a mis- fortune and a piece of good luck have come to us at one and the same time’; די מאמע האט איר דערצײלט מעשהלעך בת קרײנדל איז ן6»גטשלא גװואוץ/מװואוץ ן6»גטשלא איז קרײנדל בת מעשהלעך דערצײלט איר האט מאמע די Di mamy (h)ol ir dercailt maasalex, biz Kraindl is antilufn gyvoom *The mother told her fairy tales until Kraindl fell asleep.’ When the conjunctional clause follows on the principal sentence, then either the first or the second word order is used in both parts. Oib er vet אויב ער וועט דיר דשט תעלן זאגן, ד&ר&ססו אים נישס רעגן6 קיץ סך (b) dir niit viin zugn, darfstjym niit friign kain sax ‘ If he should not want to tell you, you need not ask him many questions’: When the conjunctional clause, in the first word order, precedes the principal sentence, the second word order is used in the latter. A z ex volt ym אז אץ־ וואלט אים גיטראפן, װאלט איך עס אים גתאנט/געזאנט (c) אז איך;’gytrofn, volt exysymgyzugt *If I were to meet him I would tell it to him A z ex zol זאל אים דרחןן/געװען ץ,6סרע װאלט איך עם אים גיודען גתאגם/געװען געזאגם גתאגם/געװען גיודען אים עם איך װאלט ץ,6סרע דרחןן/געװען אים זאל ym gyviin trifn, volt exysym gyviin gyzugt ‘ If I had met him, I would have told zol זאל volt ‘would, should’ or װאלט it to him’: In conditional sentences either ‘should’ is employed in the protasis, while in the apodosis - where the second .volt is employed װאלט word order is used - only ex volt ys im װעלט עס אים גתאגס, אויב אץ־ װאלט אים ן/געטראםץ6גיסרא איך(d) gyzugt, oib ex volt ym gytrofn lI would tell it to him if I were to meet him’: The same holds good when the apodosis - now with the first word order - precedes the protasis. 306 An Outline of Yiddish Grammar

Zi zol ד זאל ו ד ק, תאם עס טוט דך בל איר שודעסטער, װאלט ד דך דערקיױקט (c) visn, vusys tjjt zex baa ir Svister, volt zi zex dirkvikt 4 If she knew what is happening at her sister’s she would be delighted’: When the conditional clause precedes the -zol ‘should’ - the con זאל principal sentence - expecially when the auxiliary is junction is often absent. z i (h)ot moiry, er ד האט מורא, ער זאל נישט אראם שפריגנץ/אראפשפרמגען(f) zol niit arup iprmgyn ‘She is afraid he might jump down’: The conjunction is generally omitted in final clauses when the verb of the principal sentence expresses ד מיינט, איך ץ3 משתע דװארן/געװארן.apprehension; the verb has to take the negation Zi maint, ex bin myfjgy gyvoom ‘ She thinks I have gone crazy ’: In other cases, too, .az ‘that’) is sometimes omitted אז the conjunction (here

THE RELATIVE CLAUSE

,Der ltd, vus zict baam til דע ר ילד, תאם דצם בלם מיש, איז פללנס א שוואגער (a)213 iz maanc a fvuger ‘The (Jewish) man who is sitting at the table, is a brother-in-law of mine’: A clause - of either the first or second word order - which refers to a .(’vus ‘what’ (i.e., ‘that תאnoun, is linked to it by the neuter relative pronoun 0 If the noun is in the nominative there is no need to indicate what case it is in. Zi ziit dus pikl, vus er trugt ‘She sees the ד זעט דאס פעקל, תאם ער טראגט (b) parcel that he is carrying’: The same holds good for the accusative of a neuter noun. Der ltd, vuser zict baam דער ילד, תאם ער זיצט בלם מיש, אח סלנם א שתאגער (c) Zi ziit dus pikl, vus er ד זעם דאם פעקל, תאם ער טראנס עם;tii, iz maanc a fvuger trugt ys: However, a personal pronoun often indicates the case of the construction - whether nominative or accusative. b man, vus ei iraabt ym איר מאן, תאם ד שרלבט אים הלנם, אח איצט אץ לאדזש (d) haant, iz ict in Lodi ,Her husband to whom she is writing today is now in Lodz’; Dus kind, vus zaan דאס קינד, תאם זלן מאמע תארס אץ דער היים, אח נלן יאר אלט יאר נלן אח היים, דער אץ תארס מאמע זלן תאם קינד, דאס mamy vart in der haim, iz naan iuuer alt ‘The child whose mother is waiting at home is nine years of age’: The dative or possessive are always indicated by a personal or possessive pronoun, respectively. der fvuger, viimyn ex vil dus דע ר שודאגער, תעמץ/תעמען איך תעל דאם שיקן (e) די שטאט, תאו/תו ער תאוינט/תתט:’akn ‘the brother-in-law to whom Til send this di ftuut, vjj er vohtt ‘the town where he lives’: Sometimes interrogatives serve as relative pronouns.

INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE

Zai friign ym ci er kin mex ‘They asked him די פרעגן אים, צי ער קען מיך (a)214 whether he knew me’: The direct interrogative sentence introduced by an interrog 307 Syntax

ער װײםט .ative, has a parallel indirect one; it mostly follows the first word order Er vaist niit vOmyn zai zjjexn ‘He does not know whom דשס, װעפץ/װעמען ד׳■ זוכן ד׳■ װעפץ/װעמען דשס, they are looking for’: The direct interrogative sentence without an introductory interrogative, has its counterpart in the indirect interrogative clause, but the latter follows the first word order. Er vaist niit, viier ys vit blaabn ‘He does װײםם דשם, װער עס װעט בללבז ער(b) not know who will stay behind*: When the introductory pronoun is in the nominative, the pronoun ys is inserted before the predicate. Mir darfn visn, vi grois ys iz סיר ד « רק ו ר ק, װי גרוים עם איו אלער שטאט (c) aa(i)er ituut ‘We have to know how big your town is*: When the predicate con- .ys ע tains an adjective, then this precedes the 0 Viier ys vit blaabn, vaist er niit' He does not עם װעט בללבץ, וױיסט ער ישט1 װער(d) know who will be staying behind’: Tlie indirect interrogative clause may precede the principal sentence for emphasis. :’!VUys laaxtn di itiiem! ‘How the stars do shine וױ עם ל ל כק די שטעוץ (e) וױ The exclamatory sentence is an indirect interrogative sentence, introduced by ’.how‘ מס

PA R T F IV E

BIBLIOGRAPHY Contents

NUMBERS PACKS Prefatory Note III 3־"Abbreviations 8<3 319-321 ־•Yiddish as a Jewish Language 45 1 2 Introduction to the Language 46- 74b 321-322 3 Grammar 75- " 2 322-324 4 The Linguistic Inheritance of Yiddish and " 3-139 325-326 its Development 5 Phonology 140-189 326-329 6 Spelling 190-211 329-330 7 Transcription 212-223 *330-33 33־»Dialects and Regional Matters 224-2913 335 8 9 Vocabulary, Etymology, Semantics 292-3824 335-340 340-34* 383־Onomastics 418 10 342-343 4נ9־503ג Texts in Transcription 11 A From Earlier Periods 419-450 343-344 a 345-347 ־B From Modem Times 451503 12 Texts in Hebrew Characters 504- 534* 347-349 13 About Texts 535-593 349-353 14 Various Linguistic and Philological Matters 594-660 353-356 15 Miscellaneous 661-8783 357-364 16 Influence of Yiddish on Other Languages 879-912 364-366 17 Folklore 913-939 3 6 6 -3 6 7 18 Literature 940-1033 367-372 19 Bibliographical Writings 1034-1062 372-374 Supplement to the Bibliography 375-379 Index to the Bibliography 380-388 PREFATORY NOTE

In each section the entries are arranged in order of publication. All the dates are then combined in Index b . The aim of the chronological arrangement is to provide a bibliographical picture of the way Yiddish studies developed, and thus to facilitate research in their history.

ABBREVIATIONS

An asterisk indicates that the publication is not a periodical.

AAWB Abhandlungen der Koniglichen AMYL An Anthology of Modern Yid- Akademie der Wissenschaften dish Literature (Ed. J. Left- zu Berlin. Phil. hist. Abhand- wich)• lungen Ant Anthropos ACCS American Contributions to the Antph Anthropophyteia Fourth International Congress Ar l’Arche of Slavicists* AS American Speech Ada Almanach Adam (Bucharest)* ASNS Archiv fur das Studium der A t. Algymamy tnciklopidiy* neueren Sprachen AfdA Anzeiger fur deutsches Alter- ASPh Archiv fur Slawische Philologie turn (in zda) ASW Die alte Synage zu Worms* AIGK Akten des Intemationalen Ger- Auf Der Aufstieg manisten-Kongresses AUT Acta Universitatis Turkuensis AIO Der Ainhaitlexer Iidiier Ous- AWJD Allgemeine Wochenzeitung dcr laig• Juden in Deutschland AJHQ American Jewish Historical Quarterly AJP American Journal of Philology B Biblica AJRI AJR Information (Association BDL Blatter fur den Deutschlehrer of Jewish Refugees in Great BGVJS Beitrage zur Geschichte und Britain) Volkskunde dcr Juden in der AL Anthropological Linguistics Schweiz ALG Archiv fur Literaturgeschichte B l Bats laankyv ALH Acta Linguistica Academiae BiOr Bibliotheca Orientals Scientiamm Hungaricae BiV Di Biixer-vih 312 Bibliography

BJVK Bayerisches Jahrbuch fur EDKK Ehime Daigaku Kyokyobu kiyo Volkskunde [Memoirs of the Faculty of BM Be! Miqra General Education, Ehime BNC Bulletin de nos Communcaut& University B$ Beer Sheva EG £tudes Gcrmaniques BSLP Bulletin de la Societc Lingui- EI Ha-Enziklopedia ha-Ivrit* stique de Paris EJB Encyclopaedia Judaica B V Dr. Bitmboims Voxn-blat (Berlin)* EJJ Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jem- salem)• C Caat-bift EJLT Essays on Jewish life and CAIU Cahiers de l'Alliance Israelite thought ... in honour of Salo Universelle W. Baron* CHAL Cambridge History of Ameri- Em Emuna can Literature* ENGK Die Entwicldung neuer germa- CMF Casopis pro Moderni Filologii nischer Kultursprachen* Com Commentary (H. Kloss) EPH Essays ... Presented to J.H. DA Dissertation Abstracts Hertz* DAI Dissertation Abstracts Inter- Eu Euphorion national Daph Daphnis FAJ Fragen des alteren Jiddisch (in DDM Die deutschen Mundarten TB) DFU Deutsche Forschungen in Un- FB Festschrift zum 70. Geburtstag gam A. Berliners* DLMV Die deutsche Literatur des FF Forschungen und Fortschritte Mittelalters-Verfasserlexikon* FI Folklore International (Fest- DLSMA Deutsche Literatur des spate- schrift W.D. Hand)* ren Mittelalters - Hamburger FI Der Flaker !Colloquium* FLB Festschrift fur Leo Baeck DLZ Deutsche Literaturzeitung F0Y The Field of Yiddish DM Deutsche Mundarten Fr Die Freistatt DNK Deutsche Namenkunde Fra Der Fraand (Warsaw) (A. Bach)* FRJ For Roman Jakobson* DPhA Deutsche Philologie im F$ Filologiiy Srifln Aufriss* FSB Festschrift rum 75 jahrigen DuKr Duitse Kroniek Bestehen des judisch- DVJLG Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift theologischen Seminars fur Literaturwissenschaft und Fraenckelscher Stiftung, Geistesgeschichte Breslau* 313 Abbreviations

G Germanistik IBA Iuur-Bjjx fjn Amuptail GA In gang fjn arbyt: lidii jn IBNB Iubileium-Bjjx ... Nuusn Biirn- mizrex-airopeiisy itudiys* boim* GBIF Geirin Baders Iidiser folks- IBS Intelligenz-Blatt, Beilage zum kalender Serapeum GBr Der Grosse Brockhaus* ID Iidiiy Dialogn* GDi Germanische Dialektologie* IDF Iidiiy Dialektologiiy Forsjngyn; GDL Geschichte der Deutschen Li- Materialn far a visnsaftlexer teratur* gramatik jn fa r an etimologiin Ges Geser verter-bjjx fjn der Iidiier GGA Gottingische Gelehrte Anzei- iprax* gen IF Indogermanische Forschungen GIF Giornale Italiano di Filologia IFA lidii Far Aly GfJ Germania Judaica IFAISA Indogermanische Forschun- GJE Germania Judaica (Ed. Elbogen gen, Anzeiger fur indogerma- et al.)* nische Sprach und Altertums- GK Di Goldyny Kait kunde GL Germanistische Linguistik IFB Israelitisches Familienblatt GLL German Life and Letters (Hamburg) Glo Globus IGe Indogermanica* GQ German Quarterly IGFD In Gang Fjn Doirys; Eseiyn GRM Germanisch-Romanische Mo- veign Tnax,folklor jn literatuur, natsschrift by Iaankyv I. Maitlis [Jacob J. Maitlis/Meitlis]* IGK Internationaler Germanisten- HB Hebraische Bibliographie kongress, Akten HBVK Hessische Blatter fur Volks- IHGL An Informal History of the kunde German Language, by W.B. Heb Hebraica Lockwood* HRJ To Honour Roman Jakobson u f Itdiiy Filologiy HS Historiiy Sriftn fjn Iidiin Visn- IiFr Iidn in Frankraax* saftlexn Institut IJAL International Journal of Ameri- HWJ H.A. Wolfson Jubilee Volume* can Linguistics IJB Indogermanisches Jahrbuch IL Der Israelit, Lemberg/Lwow IA A Iuur Arbyt in der Aspirantuur ILo lid ii London baam Iidisn Visniaftlexn IM Iazyk i Myslenie Institut* INSSSR Iazyki Narodov SSSR* IAIB Ijjdy A. Iufy-Bjjx* IS Iidiiy Sprax IB Iivuu-Bleter IV Di Iidiiy Veit 314 Bibliography

IWS Israelitisches Wochenblatt fiir JR Jiidische Rundschau die Schweiz JRM Jiidische Rundschau Makkabi lys lysjjrn JSG Jubelschrift zum 70. Geburts- tag des Prof. Dr. H. Graetz* JAb Jiidische Abende JT Jndzer Tug (Vilna) JABC Das jiidische ABC* JVB Jiidisches Volksblatt (Briinn/ JAF Journal of American Folklore Brno) JAs Journal Asiatique JVLF Jahrbuch fiir Volksliedfor- JBA Jewish Book Annual schung JBL Jewish Bookland JWB Jiidisches Wochenblatt JC Jndzer Caat (Kishinev) (Zurich) JCB Jiidisches Centralblatt JZ Jiidische Zeitung (Vienna) JCh Jewish Chronicle Jd Der Jude KAY Kobez al Yad Jdc Judaica KCB K[artell]-C[onvent]-Blatter Jdm Judaism KLL Kindlers Literatur-Lexikon* Je Jeschurun KS Kiryat Sefer JEGP Journal of English and Ger- KTJ Kurtrierisches Jahrbuch manic Philology JEJW Jahrhundertende- L Lesonenu Jahrhundertwende LB Leuvense Bijdragen JES Journal of European Studies LBDM Lautbibliothek der deutschen JFLF Jahrbuch fiir frankische Lan- Mundarten desforschung LBDMS Lautbibliothek der deutschen JGIE Jahrbuch fiir die Geschichte Mundarten in der Schweiz der Israeliten in Elsass-Loth- LBIYB Leo Baeck Institute, Year Book ringen LCB Litterarisches Centralblatt JGSLEL Jahrbuch fiir Geschichte, LGRP Literaturblatt fur germanische Sprache und Literatur Elsass- und romanische Philologie Lothringens Lin Linguistics JJGL Jahrbiicher fiir jiidische Ge- Ling Lingua schichte und Literatur Lit Literattiur (New York) JJS Journal of Jewish Studies LK Literatur und Kritik JJSo Journal of Jewish Sociology LM Literarisy Monatsriftn JL Jiidisches Lexikon* LPo Lingua Posnaniensis JLNO Jahrbuch fiir die Landeskunde L V Leibn jn Visnsaft von Niederosterreich LW Die Literaturen der Welt in JPPP The Jewish People: Past and ihrer miindlichen und schrift- Present* lichen Uberlieferung (Ed. W. JQR Jewish Quarterly Review v. Einsiedeln)* 315 Abbreviations

LWJB Literaturwissenschaftliches Mu Mus^on Jahrbuch Mus Museum I.7H Literarisches Zentralblatt fiir Deutschland NBAS Nathan Bimbaum: Ausge- wahlte Schriften zur jiidischen MAG Mitteilungen der anthropolo- Frage* gischen Gesellschaft, Vienna NEMBN Notices et Extraits des Manu- MAj Mitteilungen des Arbcitskrei- scrits de la Bibliotheque Na- ses fiir Jiddisch tionale de Paris MAL Modern Austrian Literature NGHG Nachrichten der Giessener MAWEPC> Mitteilungen der Akademie Hochschulgesellschaft zur wissenschaftlichen Erfor- NHLW Neues Handbuch der schung und zur Pflcge des Literaturwissenschaft * Deutsch turns NJMH Neue jiidische Monatshefte MCA Melanges offerts 3 M. Charles NL Dus naaiy liibn Andler* NPh Neophilologus MOV Monatshefte fur deutschen NPhM Neuphilologische Mitteilungen Unterricht NPK Noiex Prilickis Ksuvym ME Die Mundarten im Elsass* MEL Mein Elsassland* OcOr Occident and Orient ... Gaster MFM Melanges de linguistique et de Anniversary Volume* philologie Fernand Mosse in OK Ostkunde memoriam• OL Ostland MGJN Maandblad voor de Geschie- OLZ Orientalistische Litcraturzei- denis der Joden in Nederland tung MGJV Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft Ono Onoma fur jiidische Volkskunde Orb Orbis MGWJ Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte OW Ost und West und Wisscnschaft des Juden- turns P Der Pbtkys, Iuur-bjjx far der MKJ Mordecai M. Kaplan Jubilee gy Sixty fjn der Iidiier liter a tuur Volume* jn Sprax, far folklor, kritik jn ML Modeme Literatur (Vienna) bibliografiy MLJ Modern Language Journal PAAJR Proceedings of the American MLR Modem Language Review Academy for Jewish Research MM Miscellanea Medievalia* PAPhS Proceedings of the American Mom Der Moment (Warsaw) Philosophical Society Mor Der Morgen PBB Beitriige zur Geschichte der MSL M&noires de la Soci6te de deutschen Sprache und Litera- Linguistique de Paris tur 316 Bibliography

PFIL Pinkys fa r der Forsjng fjn der RGG Religion in Geschichte und Iidiier Liter atuur jn Presy Gegenwart* PFLL Publications de la Faculte des RL Revue de Linguistique lettres et sciences humaines RPh Romance Philology de PUniversite de Clermont- RSL Readings in the Sociology of Ferrand Language* Pho Phonetica RSO Rivista degli studi orientali PhSCL Philologische Studien und RTI Rasi - torato ve-isiuto (Ed. Quellen S. Federbush)* P i Pinkys, A fertl-iuuriker zurnal far Iidiser literatuur-gyiixty, iprax-forijng, folklor jn biblio- SBBL Studies in Bibliography and grafiy Booklore PJB Preussische Jahrbiicher Sea Scandinavistik PP Philologica Pragensia Sch Der Schlern PrC Problems of Communism SDLS Studien zur deutschen Literatur und Sprache des Mittelalters QEBG Quellen und Erorterungen zur SDMH Siiddeutsche Monatshefte bayerischen Geschichte, N.F. SDTTD Schweizer Dialekte in Text und 18: Raphael Straus, Urkunden Ton ... Deutsche Schweiz* und Aktenstiicke zur Ge- SEER Slavonic and East European schichte der Juden in Regens- Review burg 1453-1738* Sel Selbstwehr Sem Semasia RBPhH[ Revue belgique de philosophie Ser Serapeum et histoire SH Sovietis Haimland RCHL Revue critique d’histoire et de S h a Shakespeare Quarterly literature SI Semitskie Iazyki RDLG Reallexikon der deutschen Li- Sif Ha-sifrut teraturgeschichte SJA Soviet Jewish Affairs REJ Revue des Etudes juives SJLL Studies in Jewish Languages, RENLO Revue de l’Ecole Nationale des Literature and Society, for langues orientales Max Weinreich Res Resumot SK Studies in honour of J. Alex- RFF Festschrift zum 75 jahrigen ander Kerns* Bestehen der Realschule mit SM Studi medievali Lyzeum der Israelitischen SNB Smjjl-Niger-Bjjx Religionsgesellschaft SODV Siidostdeutsche (Frankfurt/M)* Vierteljahrsblatter 317 Abbreviations

SOF Siidostdeutsche Forschungen, Wo Word Siidostforschungen WCJS World Congress of Jewish so m Studia Onomastica Monacen- Studies, Papers ses WK Weltkampf sr Studia Rosenthaliana WPY Working Papers in Yiddish and ss Semitic Studies in memory of East European Jewish Studies Immanuel Low* WW Wirkendes Wort SSS Sprachspiegel, Schweizer Zeit- WWT The Way We Think, A Collec- schrift fiir die deutsche Mut- tion of Essays from the Yiddish tersprache (Ed. J. Leftwich)* ST Studi tedeschi StD Studia Delitzschiana YAJSS Yivo Annual of Jewish Social SUL Storia universale della lettera- Science tura* YBCC Year Book of the Central Con- ference of American Rabbis T Teuthonista Yd Yiddish tb Trierer Beitrage YWMLS Year’s Work for Modern Lan- TLB Theologisches Literaturblatt guage Study t l z Theologische Literaturzeitung t p s Transactions of the Philologi- cal Society Zap Zapiski (of the Odessa Institute for Education) ui Der ungarische Israelit ZBIF Noiex Priluckis Zaml-biixer far Uni L’Univers Israelite Iidisn folklor, filologiy jn kul- uj Unij ournal, Zeitschrift der Uni- tuur-gysixty versitat Trier ZDA Zeitschrift fiir deutsches Alter- UJE Universal Jewish Encyclopae- turn und deutsche Literatur dia* ZDL Zeitschrift fur Dialektologie und Linguistik V Dus Vort ZDLB Zeitschrift fiir Dialektologie v id Verhandlungen des und Linguistik, Beiheft internationalen ZDM Zeitschrift fur deutsche Mun- Dialektologenkongresses darten VLU Vestnik Leningradskavo univer- ZDMG Zeitschrift der Deutschen siteta Morgenlandischen VSRGI Voprosy sintaksisa romano-ger- Gesellschaft manskix iazykov ZDPh Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philo- VVPK Veroffentlichungen des Vereins logie fiir pfalzische Kirchenge- ZDS Zeitschrift fur deutsche Spra- schichte 318 Bibliography

ZDSJ Zeitschrift fiir Demographie ZNFB Zeitschrift fiir Mundartfor- und Statistik der Juden schung, Beiheft ZDWF Zeitschrift fiir deutsche Wort- ZOF Zeitschrift fiir Ostforschung forschung ZPhAS Zeitschrift fiir Phonetik ZGJD Zeitschrift fiir Geschichte der und allgemeine Juden in Deutschland Sprachwissenschaft ZHB Zeitschrift fiir hebraische Bib- ZRGG Zeitschrift fiir Religions- und liographie Geistesgeschichte ZHDM Zeitschrift fiir hochdeutsche ZS Zeitschrift fiir Slawistik Mundarten ZVK Zeitschrift fiir Volkskunde ZMF Zeitschrift fiir Mundartfor- ZVSF Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende schung Sprachforschung Bibliography

1 YIDDISH AS A JEWISH LANGUAGE

1 moritz GrOnwald. Vber den jiidisch-deutschen Jargon, vulgo Kauderwahch genamt. (ui 1876) Reprints: Budapest, 1876; Prague, 1888. Reviews see Nos. 667,668 2 alyksander hark A vi [alexander harkavy]. Ha-yet mispat luu&i li-sfas iyhjjdis? Tijjvy brjjry ly-sotny sfas iyhjjdis ha-mdjbeirys [Ha-yes mispat lason li-sfat yehudit? tsuva brura le-sotne sfat yehudit ha-mduberet.] (Ner ha-maaruvi [Ner ha-maaravi], vol. 1, and separate print.) 1896 3 nathan birnbaum. Hebrdisch und Judtsch (ow 2: 457-64) 1902. Reprint: (NBAS 1: 301-7) 1910 4 - Die Sprachat des jiidischen Volkes (JAb 1:1: 1-10) 1904. Enlarged reprint: (nbas 1: 308-24) 1910 5 - Fiir die jiidische Sprache; Einige Protestworte gegen Ruben Brainin (JZg 1: No. 20) 1907. Reprint: (nbas 2: 34-40) 1910 6 NUUSN biirnboim [nathan birnbaum]. Di konferbu far der Iidiier iprax, efynjngs-riidy (bv 1:1: 3-7) 1908 Der 'Zargon' (gbif 15: 139-43) *909 - ך 8 nathan birnbaum. Erdffnungsrcde auf der jiidischen Sprachkonferenz in Czerno- witz. The author’s translation of No. 6. (nbas 2: 41-45) 1910 9 - Der 'Jargon.’ The author’s translation of No. 7 (nbas 2: 46-51) 1910 10 - Zum Sprachenstreit; Eine Entgegnung an Achad Haam (NBAS 2: 52-74) 1910 11 heinrich [,oewe. Die Sprachen d a Juden. Cologne, 1911. Reviews see Nos. 677, 678, 680 12 nuusn biirnboim [nathan birnbaum]. Der iixys fjn lidii. Berlin, 1913. See No. 13 13 NATHAN birnbaum. Sprachadel; Zur jiidischen Sprachenfrage. The author’s ז translation of No. 12. (Fr 1: 83-88, 137-45) !9 3 320 Bibliography

14 HUGO bergmann. Unsere Stellung zum Jiidischen. (Sel?) 1914. Reprinted in the author’s Jaume und Jerusalem (27-32) Berlin, 1929 15 Mathias mieses. Die Entstehungsursache der jiidischen Dialekte. Vienna, 1915. Reviews see Nos. 16, 17 16 JACOBUS J.A. VAN GINNEKEN. Review of No. 15 (1JB 4: 31) 1916 17 FRITZ MORDECHAl KAliFMANN. Review of Der Pinkes (Jd 1: 750-58) 1916/1917. Reprinted in his Gesammelte Sckriften (201-17). Berlin, 1923 18 jizchak epstein. Die jiidischen Dialekte. Review of No. 15 (Jd 2: 720-25) 1917/1918 19 I. ENGEL. Jiidisch-Deulsch oder Hebraisch ? (Je 5: 332-36) 1918 20 NUXYM $TIF [(nahum) shtif]. Iidn jn lidii. Kiev, 1919. Reprint: Warsaw, 1920 21 b£n-C1Iyn rub$TA1N [BENZION rubstein], Di antitaijng jn antvikljng fjn der Iidiier iprax. Warsaw, 1922 22 NUXYM St if [(nahum) shtif]. An jmzister iber-irek. (Review of No. 19) (BiV 1922: 487-503; NL 1923, No. 7: 48-57) 23 &.OIMY U. BIIRNBOIM [SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM], lidii jn Hdiikait (IBNB : !47-57) Warsaw, 1925 - See No. 154, 1929 24 salom o[solom on a.] bik n b k vm . Jiddische Sprache (rcg 2nd ed. 3 ■ >72-75) 1929 25 - Jiddische Rechtschreibung und Judentum (Auf. 1: 113 f.) 1930 26 £loimy u. biirnboim [solomon a. birnbaum], Iidilkait jn luubt. Warsaw, 1930. 27 - Gjly fjn luubt. Lodz, 1931 28 - Iidii-njmer (bi No. 71/72; vol. 8) 1931 29 6. £rdb£rg (Ed.). Far lidii; A zaml-bjjx. New York, 1931 30 liDl&R visnSaftlexer INSTITVT. Di eirsty Iidiiy iprax-konferenc ... 1908. Vilna, »93» 31 LEO &ICER [leo spitzer]. Der of-kjm fjn di lidii-Romaniiy ipraxn (ib 14: 193- 210) 1939 32 maks vaanraax [max weinreich]. lidii (A t vol. Iidn, 11: 23-90) Paris, 1940; New York, 1940 33 Smjjl niger [samuel charney]. Di cvai-ipraxikait fjn jndzer lit era tuur. Detroit, 1941 34 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM. Jewish Languages (e ph : 51-67) 1944 35 Iisruul efroikin [israel jefroykin]. Jm-kjm jn of-kjm fjn Iidiiy guulyn-ipraxn jn dialektn. Paris, 1951 36 1. Smjjl toubys [j . samuel taubes]. lidii - niit Hebreiii. New York, 1952 37 MAX weinreich. Yidishkayt and Yiddish: on the impact o f religion on language in Ashkenazic Jewry (m k j: 281-314; rsl: 382-413) 1953, 1968 38 nuusn ziiskind [nathan sOsskind]: Batraxtjngyn viign der gyiixty fjn lidii (1$ 13: 97-108) 1953 321 Bibliography

39 SOLOMON A. b ir n b a u m . Old Yiddish or Middle High German? (j j s 12: 19-31) 1961 40 MAX w e in r e i c h . The reality o f Jewishness versus the ghetto myth; The soeio- linguistic roots o f Yiddish ( h r j 3: 2199-211) 1967 41 s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . Judaism and Yiddish (w w t 2: 513-18) 1969. (Transla- tion, by Ir e n e b ir n b a u m , of No. 23,1925.) ( a n y l : 122-8) 1974. Transl. Jo s e p h l e f t w ic h

41a d a v id r o m e . The strange fate o f Yiddish. Montreal, 1969 42 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM. Jewish Languages ( e jj i o : 66-69) 1971 43 MAURICE SAMUEL. In praise o f Yiddish. New York, 1971 44 e m a n u e l s. g o l d s m it h . Architects of Yiddishism at the beginning o f the twentieth century; A study in Jewish cultural history. Dissertation, Brandeis University, 1972. (d a i 33A: 3538) 1973. Rutherford etc. 1976 44a m o r d e k a i [ m o r d e c a i] a m i t a i. Ha-teomut ha-du-lelonit lei sifrut Yisrael ba- zman he-hadas; Be-vet midral qatan 0 ba-luq lifne ha-am; Ma-sehu al Bialik ba-Yidis; M i mefahedme-targonistim ?(In the author’s Hadgadya ve-gado) 1974 45 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r On b e r g . Sprachen und schrieben die Ziircher Juden jiddisch zu Ende des 14. Jahrhunderts ? ( f a j : 2 f.) 1977

2 INTRODUCTION TO THE LANGUAGE

46 RICHARD LOEWE. Die jiidisch-deutsche Sprache (0W 4: 655-64) 1904 47 ja c o b u s j .a . v a n g in n e k e n . De Jodtntaal. In the author’s Handboek der Nederlandsche taal (2-102) Nijmegen, 1914. Dcel 11, De sociologische structuur 48 HEINRICH l o e w e . Die jiidisch-deutsche Sprache der Ostjuden; Ein Abriss; Im Auftrage des 1Komitees fiir den Osten.' Berlin, Oktober 1915. Als Handschrift gedruckt 49 - Die judischdeutsche Sprache der'Ostjuden (s d m h 13: 711-19) 1916 50 JOSEPH Wo h l g e m u t h . Die jiidischdeutsche Sprache. (Je 3: 422-41) 1916 51 HEINRICH LOEWE. A us der Sprachgeschichte der Juden (n j m h 3: 219-30) 1919 52 SALOMO [s o l o m o n ] a . b ir n b a u m . Die jiddische Sprache ( g r m i i : 149-55) 1923 53 s ig m u n d f e is t . Die Sprachen der Juden (In the author’s Stammeskunde der Juden, Chapter 13, Leipzig) 1925 54 FELIX PERLES. Jiidisch-Deutsch und Jiidisch-Spanisch (Mor 1: 370-82) 1925 55 Sl o im y u . b iir n b o i m [s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. Di historiy fjn lidii (FI 1: 38-41, 69-73) !9*6 56 SALOMO [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Jiddische Sprache ( j l 3: 269-78) 1929 57 HEINRICH m e y e r - b e n f e y . Die jiddische Sprache ( p j b 222: 139-44) >93° 58 SALOMO [SOLOMON] A. BIRNBAUM. Jiddisch (GBr 15th ed. 6: 643) I93I 322 Bibliography

59 - Jiddisch (ejb 9: 112-27) 1932 60 je c h ie l fisc h e r . Das Jiddische und sein Verkaltnis zu den deutschen Mundarten, unter besonderer Berikksichtigung der ostgalizischen Mundart. Erster Teil, Erste Hiilfte: Allgemehter Teil (of the Dissertation, Heidelberg, 1934) Leipzig, 1936 - 2nd ed., + Lautlehre; see No. 61 61 je c h ie l Bin - n u n . Jiddisch und die deutschen Mundarten; unter besonderer Berikksichtigung des ostgalizischen Jiddisch. Tubingen, 1972. Reviews see Nos. 849, 852, 854, 856, 857, 858, 863, 864 62 - Studienausgabe des Allgemeinen Teils. Tubingen, 1973 63 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM. Yiddish (UJE 10: 598-601) I9431 64 fr a n z j. bera n ek . Jiddisch (DPhA; 1551-90) 1952; 2nd ‘iiberarbeitete’ ed., 1955-1957; ‘unveranderter Nachdruck,’ 1966-1967 65 HEINZ KL0SS. Jiddisch ( e n g k : 40-50) Munich, 1952 66 salcia l a n d m a n n . Jiddisch; Das Abenteuer einer Sprache. Freiburg/Br., 1962; Munich, 1964. Review see No. 789 67 h a n s P. a lth a u s. Die jiddische Sprache; Eine Einfuhrung (g j n .f . vol. 4: 1-23; N.F. [23], vol. 7: 1-24) 1965, 1968 68 w il l ia m b . l o c k w o o d . Yiddish ( ih g l : 235-64) 1965 69 E. fa l' k ov iC. Evreiskii iazyk (INSSSR 1) 1966 70 fran z j. bera n ek. Die jiddische Sprache (o k 1968?) 71 u r iel vaanraax [w e in r e ic h ). Yidit, Yidis, A (EI 19: 783-94) 1968 72 URIEL w e in r e ic h . Yiddish language ( ejj 16: 789-98) 1972 73 o t t o F. best. Mameloschen; Eine Sprache und ihre Literatur. Frankfurt/M., 1973. Reviews see Nos. 850, 857, 868 74 SOLOMON a. b ir n b a u m . Die jiddische Sprache. Ein kurzer Cberblick und Texte aus acht Jahrhunderten. Hamburg, 1974. Reviews sec Nos. 862, 865 74a claus j. h u t ter e r . Jiddisch (in the author’s Die germanischen Sprachen; Ihre Geschlichte in Grundziigen: 347-61) Budapest, 1975 74b kazuo ueda. Idishugo-gairyaku [‘ The outline of Yiddish'J ( y ik No. 7) 1975

3 GRAMMAR

75 LEO w ie n e r . On theJudaeo-German spokenby the RussianJews(kj? 14:41-67) 1893 76 Al fr e d la n d a u . Das Deminutivum der galizisch-jiidischen Mundart; Ein Capitel aus der jiidisch-deutscken Grammatik (d m i : 46-58) 1896. - Sec No. 114, 1902

t Unauthorized translation of No. 56. J.A. Joffe was obviously responsible for some peculiar phonetical statements and very odd renderings of some Yiddish phonemes. In addition, tbe translation - also by Joffe? - is very poor and inaccurate; the additions and abridgments, as well as other changes, are in fact, out of line with the author's views and intentions. 323 Bibliography

78 H. bo u rg eo is. Petite grammaire jude'o-allemande d Vusage des personnes que desirent s'initier a la langue des juifs de Russie, Galicie et Roumanie (r l 1912- 1913). In book form: Paris, 1913 79 m ordxy v£n g e r [m ordecai v ein g er]. Iidiier sintaksis. Warsaw, 1913 80 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] b ir n b a u m . Praktische Grammatik der jiddiscken Sprache fiir den Selbstunterrickt; Mit Lesestiicken und einem Worterbuch (Die Kunst dcr Polyglottie, 128. Teil) (Preface: 1915) Vienna, 1918-2nd cd.: Grammatik der jiddischen Sprache; Mit einem Worterbuch und Lesestiicken. Hamburg, 1966. Reviews see Nos. 690, 702, 794, 796 81 zalm yn RA1Z1N [zalman r eisen ]. Gramatik fjn der Iidiier iprax. 1st part. Vilna, 1920. Review see No. 703 82 ijjd l m a r k . Sul-gramatik. Kaunas/Kovno, 1921. 2nd ed., 1923 83 Ma tt h ia s m ieses. Die jiddische Sprache; Eine historische Grammatik des Idioms der integralen Juden Ost- und Mitteleuropas. Berlin, 1924. Reviews see Nos. 706,707 84 za l m y n r a iz in [za lm a n r e isen ]. Gramatiier miin in lidii (IiF: 11-22, 180-92, 303-22) 1924 85 i£vg£n i kagarov. Di grjnd-stixiy fjn lidisn sintaksis (F$ 1: 425-28) 1926 86 za l m y n r a iz in [za lm a n r e ise n ], Di deklinaciy fjn dym iim-iicym in lidii (F$ 1: 387-412) 1926 87 iaankyv v iler [jaco b w il l e r ]. Der gramatiier miin fjn di hoipt-vbter in mizrex- galiciin lidii (F$ 1: 249-64) 1926 88 aazik ZARiaci. Praktiiy Iidiiy gramatik far Hirers jn studenten. Moscow, 1926 89 ievgeni kagarov. Cj dym gybroux fjn di baig-faln in lidii (F$ 2: 187-98) 1928 90 za l m y n r a iz in [za lm a n r e isen ]. A bisl material cj der vortbildjng in lidii (F$ 2: 453-66) 1928 91 iev g en i kagarov. Ainiky axt-ghbjngyn ofn gybiit fjn Itdiin sintaksis (F$ 3: 467-72) 1929 92 za l m y n r a iz in [za lm a n r eisen ]. A bisl viign der bildjngfjn baa-vort; A kapitl Iidiiy gramatik (F$ 3: 589-98) 1929 93 a a z ik ZARiaci [ISAAC ZARETZKij. Gramatiiy behiftjngyn (F$ 3: 185-210) 1929 94 n o ie x PR iL uaci [n o a h pr y l u c k i/ p r il u t z k i], Der brjjder maaner - - (IF A 1: 274-80) 1938 95 za l m y n r a iz in [za lm a n r e ise n ]. Normy, ioky-mm-haklol, gramatiiy dubUtn (IFA 1: 171-82) 1938 96 ijjd l [ y u d el] m a r k . A puur guur vixtiky sfaikys fjn jndzer klal-iprax (IFA 1: 233-44, 265-72; 2: 80-86, 97-100) 1938, 1939 97 t. FALKOVid lidii. Moscow, 1940 98 ijjdl [yudel] mark. Der gramatiier miin fjn zax-virter (1S 3: 97-136) 1943 99 maks vaanberg [max weinberg], Der gramatiier miin loutn Besaraber njsex 1944 55־57) 4: $•/( 4: 55־57) 1944 324 Bibliography

100 NORDKHE SCHAECHTER. Aktionen im Jiddischen; Em sprachmissenschaftlicher Beitrag zur vergleichenden Bedeutungslehre des Verbums. Dissertation, Vienna University, 1951 101 MORDXY &XTER [mordecai schaechter], Di tjj-itaigers in der Iidiier iprax (1S 12: 11-17) 1952 102 MAX WEINREICH. Chrysander's Yiddish grammar o f 17s0■ Reproduced from the original with introductory remarks (in English and Yiddish). New York, !958 103 franz j. beranek. Die Verklemerungsformen im Jiddischen (maj 2: 5-9) i960 - See No. 130, 1961 104 Siegfried colditz. Aus der sowietrussischen Jiddistik (maj 2: 116) 1963 <ל9נ

4 T H E LINGUISTIC INHERITANCE OF YIDDISH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

113 LEO WIENER. On the Hebrew element in Slavo-Judaeo-German (Heb 10:175-87) 1894 114 JACOB g er zo n . Die jiidisch-deutsche Sprache; Eine grammatisch-lexikalische Untersuchung ihres deutschen Grundbestandes. Frankfurt/M., 1902. Reviews see Nos. 670-74 - See No. 296, 1910 - See No. 297, 1911 - See No. 302, 1915 115 SALOMO [so l o m o n A.] b ir n b a u m . Das hebrdische und aramdische Element in der jiddischen Sprache (Dissertation, Wurzburg University, 1921) Leipzig, 1922. Reviews see Nos. 691-94, 697, 698, 700 - See No. 324, 1925-1926 116 K. lu ba rsk i. Okraiinizmyn in der Iidiser iprax (Zap 1: 130-61) 1927 117 ijjd y A. iu f y [ju d a h A. jo ffe ]. Der slaviier elyment in lidii (Pin: 235-56, 296- 312) 1928 118 a . la n d y [alfred landau ]. D i slaviiy elymentn jn haipuuys in lid ii (F$ 2: 199-214) 1928 - See No. 923, 1928 119 1. STAINB01M [j. s te in b a u m ], Der hebreiiier elyment in lidii. A prjjv fjn a verter- skaly (IB 5: 304-28): 1933 120 n o ie x p r il u c k i [n o a h pr y l u c k i/ p r il u t z k i]. Cjm vikjjex veign di Hebreiizmyn (IFA 1: 65-75) 1938 121 m aks vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Veign Engliiy elymentn in jndzer kultuur- iprax (IS 1: 33-46) 1941 122 h a im b l a n c . The Yiddish language - A survey o f its Slavic elements, b .a . thesis, Harvard University, 1948 - See No. 347, 1953 123 y u d el m a r k . A study o f the frequency of Hebraisms in Yiddish (F0Y 1 : 2 8 -4 7 ) 1954 124 u r ie l w e in r e ic h . Yiddish blends with a Slavic element (Wo n : 603-10) 1955 125 MAX w e in r e ic h . The Jewish languages o f Romance stock and their relation to earliest Yiddish (RPh 9: 403-28) 1956 126 - Yiddish-Knaanic-Slavic; The basic relationships (f r j : 622-32) 1956 127 ijjd l [yud el] m a r k . lidii-Hebreiiiy jn Hebreiiii-Iidiiy naai-iafjngyn (IB 4 1 : -124- 57) 1957/1958 128 iaankyv [jacob] l . l e v in . Virter-biixlfjn Hebreiii-Iidiiy verter mit der rixtiker ous-iprax jn der gyheiriker derkle'irjng fjn ieidn vort. New York, 1958 326 Bibliography

129 XAAIYM Sloimy [chaim solomon] kazdan. Vfign fariiidjny grupys Hebreiizmyn (1$ 20: 33-44) i960 130 M.x. FRIDBERG. Sloinopodiinemoe predloienie v yidil-taic xvi-xvill w . (VSRGI: 79-88) 1961 - See No. 360, 1964 131 PAUL wexler. Slavic influence in the grammatical functions o f three Yiddish verbal prefixes (Lin 7: 83-93) *9^4 -־ moshe altbauer. Zum Riickgang der Slavismen im literarise hen Jiddisch (vid 2 132 ZMFB N.F. 3: 14-18) 1965 133 ilse z. sand. The vocabulary o f the Mayscbukh. M.A. thesis, Columbia Uni- versity, 1965 134 mordecai kosover. Arabic elements in Palestinian Yiddish; The old Ashkenazic community ht Palestine, its history and its language. Dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1947. Jerusalem, 1966 135 M.x. fridberg. EvoVucia sredneverxnemeckix soiuzov daz 1 als vyidisi vozikno- vennie soiuza vos (VLU No. 20: 147-56) 1968 136 J. BIHARI. Zur Erforschung des slamschen Bestsndteils des Jiddischen (alh 19: •969 '57־99) •969 137 nexemia alloni [nehemiah allony]. Hamel meot millim ivriyot billon ha- dtbbur (bm 144: 85-106) 1971 138 PAUL WEXLER. A mirror image comparison o f languages in contact: Verbal prefixes in Slavicised Yiddish and Germanicised Sorbian (Lin No. 82: 89-123) 1972 138a c h . l e m c h e n a s . Lietwi\t Kalbos / taka Lietuvos Zydy Tarmei. Vilna, 1973. [‘ The influence of the Lithuanian language on the Yiddish/Jewish dialect in Lithuania.’] 138b iaankyv [jacob] robinson. Review of No. 136a. (IB 44: 310-11) 1973 139 R. LOTZSCH. Slamsche Elementf in der grammatischen Struktur des Jiddischen (zs 19: 446-59) 1974

5 PHONOLOGY

140 moritz GUDEMANN. Geschichte des Erzieh ungswesens und der Cultur der Juden in Frankreich und Deutschland (l: 278 f.) Vienna, 1880; Amsterdam, 1966. 140a Yiddish translation by nuxym £tif [nahum shtif]. Iidiiy kultuur-gysixty in mitlalter; Iidn in Daailand dus XIV jn XViuur-hjndert, pp. 180-92. Berlin, 1922 141 - Uber die Aussprache der deutschen Buchstaben; Bernerkungen emiger Rabbmen des /5. Jahrhunderts (zds 1: 104-9) 1887 [f/jW[N0. 142a׳b£ier buurexov [ber borochow]. Uun-merkjngyn cjm fuurikn

142a m . &MEJUNSK1 [tchemerinski], Di iidiiy fonitik (P: 48-71) 1913. See No. 142 143 PAULINE M. f l e is s . Das Buch Sime hath Hanefesch von Houle Kirchhain aus dem Rcmuntersuchung als Beitrag zur Kenntniss der jiidisch-deutschen ; ך2ך Jahre 1 Mundarten. Dissertation, Berne University, 1913. Berne, 1913 144 MORDXY v£nger [mordecai yI inger]. Hibriiiiy klangyn in der Iidiier iprax (P: 79-84) 1913 145 EDWARD sapir. Notes on Judaeo-German phonology (jqr n .s. 6: 231-66) 1915. Reprint in the author’s Selected writings in language, culture and personality (252-72). Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1949 146 noiex priluoci [(noah) pryluoci/prilutzki]. Der Iidiier konsonantizm (IDF 1 = NPK vi) Warsaw, 1917 147 ISAAK spielrein. Zur Aussprache und Transkription des Jiidischen (Jd 2 : 285-88) 1917/1918 148 Review of No. 146. (JR May 17) 1918 149 noiex priluoci [(noah) prylucki/ prilutzki]. Dialiktologiiy paraleh jn bamerkjngyn: £tiudn veign lidiin vokalizm (IDF III = NPK viii = zbif ii) Warsaw, 1920 150 - Cjm Ildiin vokalizm (1DF IV = NPK x) Warsaw, 1920 151 salomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Vbersicht uber den jiddischen Vokalismus (zdm 18: 122-30) 1923 152 NOIEX priluoci [(noah) pryluoci/ prilutzki]. Mamy-luuin; Iidiiy iprax- visniaftlexy fuur-arbytn (IDF v = NPK x) 1924 152a iaankyv viler [jacob willer]. Fonitik fjn Mizrex-GalicUn lidii (UF: 23-33, ז9ג ־I4I450 153 TEODOR GUTMAN. Di konsonantn-asimilaciy in zac (F$ 2: 107-10) 1928 154 $LOIMY U. BIIRNBOIM [SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM]. Luubt, ous-laig jn asimilaciy (lyi 1: 19-26) 1929 155 bruno korman. Die Reimtechnik der Esther-Paraphrase Cod. Hamburg 144; Beitrag zur Erschliessung des altjiddischen Lautsystems. Dissertation, Hamburg University. Kolomea, 1930. Review see No. 715 156 &OIMY BIIRNBOIM [SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM]. Kumyc = 0 (IB 1: 147-49) 1931 157 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] birnbaum. Das diteste datierte Schriftstikk in jiddischer Sprache (pbb 56: 11-22) 1932 158 - Die Umschrift des Jiddischen (t 9: 90-105) 1933 159 Sloimy biirnboim [solomon A. birnbaumJ. Di historiy fjn di alty u-klangyn in lidii (IB 6: 25-60; and separately) Vilna, 1934 160 noiex prilOoci [(noah) pryluoci/prilutzki]. Dialiktologiiy fuur-arbytn. Vilna, 1937 161 Sloimy u . biirnboim [solomon a. birnbaum]. Di havuury fjn Alt-Ildii (IB 18: 88) 1941 328 Bibliography

162 - Interdialektii (IS 4: 104-9) 1944 163 l iv ia kovacs. Zum Problem der Sekunddrdiphthonge in der jiddischen Sprache (ss 1: 268-71) 1947 164 ijjd l [y ud el] m a r k . Veign a kluulisn arous-red (IS 11: 1-25) 1951 165 jr iiy l VAANRAAX [u r ie l w e in r e ic h ]. Cj der fragy veign a normiirter ous-sprax (IS 11: 26-30) 1951 - See No. 210, 1953 166 s l o im y u. b iir n b o im [s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. A problem; Der ‘princip fjn vaaterkaif (In th e a u th o r’s Fjn daacmerizm biz der hail in der midber Iyhjjdy (IS 13: 109-13 = I A IB: 199-206) 1953, 1958 167 ro m a n ia k o bso n [jak o bso n ], Der Iidiser klangyn-bastand in farglaax mitn Slavisn arjm (IS 13: 70-83) 1953 168 FLORENCE GUGGENHE1M-GRUNBERG. Ein deutscher Urfehdebrief in hebrdischer Schrift aus Zurich vom Jahre 1385 (z m f 2 2 : 207-14) 1955 169 URIEL w e in r e ic h . Notes on the Yiddish rise-fall intonation (f r j : 6 3 3 -4 3 ) 1956 170 fran z j. b eranek. Germ p-, pp im Jiddischen (m a j i : 85-87) 1957 171 Flo r en c e GUGGENHE1M-GRUNBERG. Zur Umschrift deutscher Mundarten des 14-11S■ Jahrhunderts mit hebrdischer Schrift (z m f 24: 229-46) 1957 172 maks vaanraax [max weinreich]. Bnai-Hes jn Bnai-Xes in Askynyz: Di problem - jn vus z i lozt jn dz heiern (IB 4 1 : 101-23) I 957/I 958 173 fran z j . bera n ek . Zur Entwicklung des jiddischen Vokalismus (m a j i : 9 9 -1 0 2 , 116-18, 148-51) 1958, 1959 174 HANS NEUMANN. Sprache und Reim in den judendeutschen Gedichten des Cam- bridger Codex t .s. i o . k . 22 (IGe: 145-65) i960 175 FRANZ j. bera n ek . Nichtzwiegelautetes mhd. i, iu, u im Jiddischen (m a j 2 : 4 0 -4 2 ) 1961 176 - Sukke, Sukkes (m a j 2: 66-71) 1962 177 siegmund a. w olf. Studien zum Vokalismus des dltesten Jiddischen (P h o 8: 3 I_ 54) 1962 178 fran z j . bera n ek. Gefen, gdfen, gofen (m a j 2: 113-15) 1963 179 josef w eissberg . The vowel system o f m s Cambridge t .s . io. k . 22 compared with Middle High German (jjs 14: 37-51) 1963 180 franz j. bera n ek . Zur Geschichte des jiddischen Vokalismus (z m f 32:269-74) 1965 181 pav el t r o st . Yiddish in Bohemia and Moravia - The vowel question (F 0 Y 2 : 87-91) 1965 182 jo sef w e issb er g . Das Konsonantensystem des ‘Dukus Horanf und der ubrigen Texte des Cambridger Manuskripts T.s. 10. K. 22, verglichen mit dem Mittelhoch- deutschen (z m f 32: 1-40) 1965 183 Wa lter r o l l . Zum Konsonantensystem der Cambridger Handschrift (z m f 33: 144-46) 1966 329 Bibliography

184 JOSEF w eissb er g . Johann Christof W'agenseils ‘Bericht Wie das Jvidhch-Teiitsche zu lesen’ (zds 25: 154-68) 1969 - See No. 61: Lautlehre, 1972 185 JOAN g . bra tk ow sk y . Sharpness in Yiddish - A fifth riddle in bilingual dialectology. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1974. (dai 35: 2248 f.) 1974 186 M. g er n o t h e id e . Graphematisch-phonematische Untersuchmgen zum A lt- jiddischen; Der Vokalismus. Berne-Frankfurt/M., 1974 = European Univer- sity Papers, Series 1, vol. 106. Review see No. 870 187 jo a n G. bra tk ow sk y . Palatalization in Yiddish (w p y 7: 1-23) 1975 188 jam es L. h a in e s . Proto-Yiddish and the history o f Yiddish phonology - The front rounded vowel phonemes (w p y 9) 1975 189 M. g er n o t h e id e . Die h-Graphen im alteren Jiddisch (f a j: 4-15) 1977

6 SPELLING

190 beier buurexov [ber b o r o c h o w ]. Veign der ortografiy fjn fuurikn artikl (p: 18-22) 1913 191 s l o im y b iir n b o im [so l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. D i klangyn jn dus ous laign fjn lidii (UF: 176-80) 1924 192 - D i iysoidys fjn Iidisn ous-laig (AIO : 18-19) 1930 193 - Alyf-baiz fjn ortodoksisn ous-laig (AIO : 86-87) 1930 194 TEODOR GUTMAN. D i interpunkciy in Daac, Englis, Poilis jn Francaizis (AIO: 118-21) 1930 195 a lyksander harkavi [alexander harkavy], Etlexy bamerkungyn veign ouslaig (AIO: 85) 1930 196 z e il ik KALMANOVid [z e l ik kalmanowicz], Ci iz miiglex a fonetiser ous-laig fa r der Iidiser literariser sprax? (AIO: 3-17) 1930 197 iaankyv l e v in [jacob l e w in ]. Ortografisy noticn (AIO : 66-71) 1930 198 ijjd l [y u d el] m a r k . Veign a sistem up-stel-caixns (AIO : 88-117) 1930 199 B. SLOSBERG [b . SCHLOSSBerg]. Der Iidiser ous-laig in Ratn-farband (AIO: 72-84) 1930 200 m aks vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Proiekt fjn an ainhaitlexn Iidisn ous-laig (AIO: 20-65) 1930•1

1 See p. 112, footnote. When I read this (in 1930) it escaped me that the words ‘our name’ seem to imply that cvai vuvn is the traditional term. However, there are no traditional names for the digraphs: double vuv, vuv + ijjd, double ijjd, zaaiyn + siin and tes + s'iin. I therefore used these designations in my Grammatik (1918 [1915]). Max Weinreich either assumed that I knew the traditional name to be cvai vuvn or he just adopted my designation. 33<> Bibliography

201 &LOIMY BIIRNBOIM [s o u i m o n A. b ir n b a u m ]. £tlexy kluulym fin ous-laig. (In: e l ia iz e r £ in d l e r [ e l iEsex Sc h in d l e r ]. Di Iidiiy nyivmy: 105-9) Lodz, 1931 202 - Cvai vuvn ke-xolha-gooiym (Bl 8: No. 14/15 (No. 71/72): 32-33) 1931 203 iio i& R v is n Sa f t l e x e r i n s t it u t . Ous-laig-takuunys fin lidii. Vilna, 1935. Takuunysfin lidiin ous-laig. Vilna, 1937; New York, 1941, etc. 204 &XHMY BIIRNBOIM [SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM], Vokal-oisiys (IB 18: 87-88) 1941 205 - InterdiaUktii (1$ 4: 104-9) 1944 206 - Kuuzmark (1$ 8: 12) 1948 207 i j j d l [y u d e l ] m a r k . £tlexy hyuurys (1$ 9: 21-22) 1949 208 maks vaanraax [max weinreich]. Vus iz der miier mitn lidiin ous-laig? Pruutym-fragys jn principn (1$ 9: 1-21) 1949 209 x a a iy m g in in g e r [c h a im g in n in g e r ]. Cj der aksiomatik fin lidiin ous-laig (IS 11: 30-38) 1951 210 Sl o i m y b iir n b o i m [SOLOMON A. b ir n b a u m ]. Fonologiy jn ous-laig; Der uunhaib fjn lidiin ous-laig; Der ous-laig fjn lidii. (In the author’s Fjn daacmerizm biz der hail in der midber lyhjjdy [/.$ 13: 113-20 = IAIB: 199-206]) 1953, 1958 210a ijjdl [yudel] m a r k . In fartaidikungfin dym itjmyn alyf (I$ 19: 1-21) 1959 211 MORDXY &XTER [MORDKHE (MORDECAl) SCHAECHTER]. Kitrs fjn Iidiier ortografiy. With a preface by J.A. Fishman. New York, 2nd ed., 1972 - See No. 291a, 1977

7 TRANSCRIPTION

212 ij jd y a . iu f y [j u d a h a . jo f f e ], Di klangyn fjn lidii jn der Iidiier alyf-baiz (NL 1:5: 29-32,701-07) 1909 213 d r . x. (i.e., la za r/ l u d w ig z a m y n h o f [z a m e n h o f ]). Veign a Iidiier gramatik jn ryforym in der Iidiier iprax (LV 1: 53-54; 7: 89-96; 9: 97-103) 1909, 1910 213a - Sraabn oder iraabyn ? (Lit July: 102-11) 1910 214 s a l o m o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Tabelle (Fr 1: 58-59) 1913 215 A. d o b sc h u t z. Der orthographische Hokuspokus; Wie die ,Freistatt' jiddische Gedichte transkribiert ( j r 18: No. 35) 1913 215a s a l o m o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . ‘Der orthographische Hokuspokus’ (Fr 1: 412-14) 1913 - See No. 80, pp. n-31, 1918 - See No. 115, 1922 216 Sl o i m y u . b iir n b o i m [s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. Transkripciys fin Yiddish. First part (F$ 3: 485-96) 1929 - See No. 431, 1932 33! Bibliography

See No. 432, 1932 See No. 158, 1933 217 Si.oimy u. biirnboim [solomon A. birnbaum]. An infer mikoiex maany transkripciys (1S 7: 29-36) 1947 218 $JJKL FIRMAN [shikl/joshua fishman]. Veign dym proiikt vii cj transkribiim of £nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn titlyn fjn biixer (1S 7: 42-44) 1947 219 MAIER HURVIC [meyer hurwitz]. Viign dym proiikt vii cj transkribiim of £nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn titlyn fjn biixer (I$ 7: 41-42) 1947 220 ijjdl [yudel] mark. Veign dym proiikt vii cj transkribiim o f £nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn titlyn fjn biixer (I$ 7: 44-46) 1947 221 AVRUUM a. ROBAK [ABRAHAM A. roback]. Viign dym proiikt vii cj transkribiim of £nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn titlyn fjn biixer (1$ 7: 36-40) 1947 222 $loimy u . biirnboim [solomon a. birnbaum]. Transkribiim fjn lidii (1$ 8 : 13-14) 1948 223 ijjdl [yudel] mark. A puur korcy hyuurys cj $. Biirnboims noticn (1S 8: 15-16) 1948

8 DIALECTS AND REGIONAL MATTERS

See Section 5 (Phonology), passim. 224 C. TH. WEISS. Das Elsasser Judendeutsch (JGSLEL 12: 121-82) 1896 225 C.w. FABER. Zur Judensprache im Elsass (jgslel 13: 173-83) 1897 226 heinrich lewy. Zum Elsasser Judendeutsch (jgslel 14: 78-82) 1898 See No. 535b, 1901 See No. 114, 1902 227 Smjjl aazn^tat [samuel eisenstat], Di geografiiy grimycn fjn jndzer iprax jn iiry ousipraxn (LM May, 1908) 228 EDUARD HALTER. Die Mundart der Juden (Judendeutsch) (m e: 115-21) Stras- bourg, 1908 See No. 425, 1911 See No. 143, 1913 229 honel m . meiss. Traditions populates alsaciennes; A travers le dialecte judio- alsacien. Nice, 1923 230 RACHEL MIESES. [Phonetics o f Yiddish o f Central Galicia (Przemyil)]. Disserta- tion. c. 1924 231 PAUL livY. Le parler des Juifs en Alsace et en Lorraine (Uni 80: 256 if.) 5.6.1925-17.7.1925 232 teodor Gutman. A prjjv fjn a fonitik fjn Lodzer lidii (F$ 1: 377-88) 1926 233 z£1lik KALMANOVid [zelik kalmanowicz]. Der Iidiier dialekt in Kurland (F$ 1: 161-88) 1926 332 Bibliography

234 cvi £piir n . Di Iidiiy iprax in Jngem (F$ 1: 195-200) 1926 235 MORDXY vtNGER [moroechai vtlNGE*]. Viign Iidiiy dialiktn (C 1: 181-208) 1926 236 R. st a lek . Materiaht cjm Burgnlinder lidii (F$ 2: 265-80) 1928 237 PAUL l£ v y . Histoire linguistique d'Alsace et de Lorraine. Passim, see index, under Judio-allemand, p. 545. Paris, 1929 238 laizer viiiNKiN [l. wilenkin]. Iidiier iprax-atlys fjn Sovit-Farband, ofn grjnt fjn di dialiktologiiy materiaht, vus zaanyn cjnoif gyzamlt gyvoom dorx der iprax-komisiy fjn lidiin Sikter fjn der Vaas-Rjsiier Visniafi-akadimiy jnter M. vtNGERS [m . w einger] uun-furjng. Minsk, 1931. Reviews see Nos. 713, 716, 726, 738 239 MORDXY [m o r d ec a i] KOSOVEX. Viign lidii fjn altn Aikyniizibt iiiyv in Eiryc- Iisruul (IB 4: 43-50) 1932 239a £l01my biirnboim [solomon a. birnbaum]. Jngem oder Lity ? (IB 5: 329-31) 1933 240 franz j. beranek. lidii in Cexoslovakaa (IB 9 : 63^75) 1936 - See Nos. 60/61 240a IJJDY A. IUFY [JUDAH A. JOFFE], lidii m Amiriky (IB 10: 127-45) !936 241 M01£y ^tarkm an. Cj der gyiixty fjn lidii in Amiriky (IBA) 1939 242 fr a n z j. b er a n ek . Die jiddische Mundart Nordostungams. Bninn/Bmo, 1941. Reviews see Nos. 748, 752 243 levinski. Francaiziiy virter inym Pariizer lidii (HFr 2: 193-204) 1942 244 JUDAH A. joffe. The development o f Yiddish in the United States (UJE 10: 601-2) 1943 245 franz j . beranek. Sprachgeographie des Jiddischen in der Slovakei (ZPhAS 3: 25-46) 1949 246 Florence guggenhei m- grOnberg . Die Sprache der Schtmzer Juden von Endingen und Lengnau (iws) 1950. Reprint: bgvjs i , 1954 247 ROBERT m . Copeland and NATHAN SUSSKINCH. The language of Hertz's Esther; A study in Judeo-German dialectology. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1951. Alabama, 1976 248 Ur ie l w e in r e ic h . Sabesdiker losn m Yiddish: A problem o f linguistic affinity (Wo 8: 360-77) 1952 249 ioxvyd iufyn [jean jofen], Iidiiy dialiktn-aan-tailjng lout fonitiiy jn liksiiy principn (IS 13: 157-60) 1953 250 MAKS VAANRAAX [MAX WEINREICH]. Ruuiy-prukym viign maaryvdikn lidii (1S »3: 35- 69) »953 251 H. beem. Yiddish in Holland; Linguistic and socio-lmguistic notes (F0Y 1: 122- 33) »954 - See No. 638, 1954 333 Bibliography

252 JEAN B. JOFEN. The dialectological makeup o f East European Yiddish: Phono- logical and lexieological criteria. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1953 (da 14: 140) 1954 253 judah A. joffe. Dating the origin o f Yiddish dialects (F0Y 1: 102-21) 1954 254 franz j. beranek. Zur westjiddischen Wortgeographie (maj i : 37-40) 1956 255 - Das Pinsker Jiddisch und seine Stellung im gesamtjiddischen Sprachraum. Berlin, 1958. Reviews see Nos. 769, 771, 775, 777, 778, 786 256 Florence guggenheim- grCnberg. Zur Phonologie des Surbtaler Jiddischen (Pho 2: 86-108) 1958 257 franz j. beranek. K.W. Fridrichs mundarthe he Einteilung des Jiddischen (maj 1: 143-48) 1959 258 ALBERT PFR1MMER. Un Hot judio-alsacien dans le Haut-Rhin (MFM: 362-78) Paris, 1959 259 franz j. beranek. Die frankische Landschaft des Jiddischen (jflf 21: 267-303) 1961 260 FLORENCE guggenhei m-grunberg. Gatlinger Jiddisch (lbdms 22) Gottingen, 1961. Review see No. 787 261 JOHN w. KNOTT. Spoken Yiddish; A study o f the Lithuanian and the Polish dialect of Yiddish in Toronto, m.a. Thesis, University of Toronto, 1963 262 franz j. beranek. Die mundertliche Gliederung des Westjiddischen (maj 2: 148-52) 1964 263 Florence guggenheim-grOnberg. Uherreste westjiddischer Dialekte in der Schweiz, im Elsass und in Suddeutschland (sjll: 72-81) 1964 264 marvin 1. herzog. Channels o f systematic extinction in Yiddish dialects (sjll: 93-107)1964 265 JEAN JOFEN. A linguistic atlas o f Eastern European Yiddish. New York, 1964 266 Uriel weinreich. Western traits in Transcarpathian Yiddish (SJLL: 245-64) 1964 267 A rthur zivy. Elsasser Jiidisch-Deutsch (iw b 64: Nos. 1, 6, 9, 11, 14, 25, 31) 1964 268 franz j . beranek. Westjiddischer Sprachatlas. Marburg/Lahn, 1965. Reviews see Nos. 795, 800, 804, 807, 810, 813 269 joshua fishman. Yiddish in America; Socio-lmguistic description and analysis. Bloomington, 1965 270 PAUL L. GARVIN. The dialect geography o f Hungarian Yiddish (F0Y 2: 92-115) 1965 271 marvin I. HERZOG. The Yiddish language in northern Poland; Its geography and history. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1964. Bloomington, 1965. (da 28: 2228) 1967. Reviews see Nos. 815, 817, 829, 851 272 claus j. hutterer. The phonology o f Budapest Yiddish (F0Y 2: 116-46) 1965 334 Bibliography

273 MAX WEINREICH. On the dynamics o f Yiddish dialect formation (F0Y 2: 73-86) 1965 274 FLORENCE GUGGENHEIM-GRUNBERG. Surbtaler Jiddisch, Endingen und Lengnau; Mit Anhang jiddischer Sprachproben aus Elsass und Baden. Two L.P. records of the Phonogramm-Archiv of Zurich University and text book, Yiddish, German translation, and commentary. Frauenfeld, 1966. Review see No. 809. See also No. 380 - See No. 134, 1966 275 LEOPOLD s c h n it z l e r . Prager Judendeutsch; Em Beitrag zur Erforschung des alteren Prager Judendeutsch in lautlicher und insbesondere in lexikalischer Bezie- hung. Dissertation, Prague University, 1922. Grafelfung bei Miinchen, 1966. Review see No. 286 276 Alexander d er c za n sk i. Introduction d une etude du Yiddish en France (RENLO 4: 125-50) 1967 277 CLAUS J. h u t t e r e r . Geschichte des Vokalismus der westjiddischen Mundart von Ofen und Pest (a l h 17: 345-82) 1967 278 Ar n o l d m a n d e l . Langues et dialectes juifs de France; 2. Le yiddish (Ar 123: 42- 45. 73) «967 279 fr a n z j . bera n ek . Zum westjiddischen Sprachatlas (z m f 35: 146-48) 1968 280 FLORENCE g u g g e n h e im -g r u n b e r g . Erwiderung (to No. 279) (z m f 35: 148-49) 1968 281 h a l in a k o z l o w sk i. Zur Forschungsgeschichte der jiddischen Dialekte (LPo 12/13: 135- 46) 1968 282 m a r v in 1. h e r z o g . Yiddish in the Ukraine: Isoglosses and historical inferences (F0Y 3: 58-81) 1969 283 CLAUS J. HUTTERER. Theoretical and practical problems o f Western Yiddish dialectology (F0Y 3: 1-15) 1969 284 STEVEN l o w e n s t e in . Results o f atlas investigations among Jews from Germany (FoY 3: 16-35) 1969 - See No. 368, c. 1969 - See No. 369, 1969 285 u r ie l w e in r e ic h . The geographic makeup o f Belorussian Yiddish (FoY 3: 82-101) 1969 286 h e r th a w o l f- bera n ek. Bemerkungen zum Prager Judendeutsch (ZOF 18:90-92) 1969. Review of No. 275 - See No. 106, 1969 287 r ic h a r d zu ck erm a n . Alsace - An outpost o f Western Yiddish (FoY 3: 36-57) 1969 288 MORDXY &XTEK [m o r d k h e ( m ord eca i) schaechter]. Dus luubI fjn ‘Sovitii Hamland' (1S 29: 10-42; 30: 32-65) 1969/1970, 1971 335 Bibliography

289 moi$y Sapiiro. Di iprax fjn ‘Sovetil Haimland' jn dus haant-caatiky liter ariiy lidii (sh No. 7: 120-33) 1971 290 FLORENCE GUGGENHEIM-GRUNBERG. Jiddisch auf alemamischem Sprachgebiet, 56 Karten zur Sprach- und Sachgeographie. Zurich, 1973. Reviews see Nos. 847, 857, 869 - See No. 534a, 1973 - See No. 374a, 1974 - See No. 909, 1974 - See No. 375a, 1974 - See No. 375b, 1974 - See No. 380, 1976 291 maier L. volf [meyer wolfI. Di iprax fjn dym Saifer Svuxy Bal-Sem-Tov ( /^ 35: 3- 48) 1976 ' * JJ” ^ ^ 291a solomon A. birnbaum. Soviet Yiddish (sja) 1978

9 VOCABULARY, ETYMOLOGY, SEMANTICS

292 WILHELM CH. J. CALLENBERG. Jiidisch-tcutsches Worterbiichlem. Halle, 1736. See No. 653 - See No. 609, 1784 - See No. 612, 1860-1862 293 adalbert sta rcev sk i. Karmanni stoiazycni slovar'. St Petersburg, 1887. See No. 328 - See No. 224, 1896 - See No. 225, 1897 - See No. 456: 147-55: Glossar, 1900 - See No. 535b: 47-68: Glossar, 1901 294 o t h m a r m e is in g e r . Die hebriiischen Fremdworter der Rappenauer Mundart; Nachtrag (z h d m 2: 73-75) 1901. See No. 884 - See No. 114: 83-129: Wortschatz, 1902 - See No. 462: 1-84: Glossar, 1908 295 cvi n is n g o l o m b . Milim bilioini; Hebreiii-lidiiys verter-bjjx fjn Hebreiiiy verter, ousdriky jn Toiry-verter, vilxy veiern banjet in lidiingyiprex jn in iir literatuur... Vilna, 1910 296 ED. NASCh £r . Das Buck des jiidischen Jargons, nebst einem Anhang Die Gauner- oder die Kochemersprache, mit Quellennachu>eis und Erkldrungen. Vienna, 1910 - See No. 425: 116-33: Glossar, 1911 297 x aaiym c .d . spiv a k jn iy h o iy S (Sl o im y b lu m g a r te n / bloomgarden ). lidii verter-bjjx; enthalt aly Hebreiiiy jn Xaldiiiiy verter, ousdrjkn jn aign-niimyn, 336 Bibliography

vilxe viiem gybrouxt in der Iidiier iprax, mit zaier ous-iprax jn akcint... New York, 1911 298 Alfred LANDAU. Zur russisch-judischen 'Klesmer'sprache (mag) 1913 299 ERNEST H. l£vy. Judio-allemand Schnerie (msl 18: 317 f.) 1913 300 SAMUEL weissenberg. Die 'Klesmer'sprache (mag) 1913 301 PAUL abelson (ed.). £nglii-Iidiiys enciklopidiiys verter-bjjx. New York, 1915 302 jonas L. voorzanger en jonas E. POLAK JZ. Het Joodsch in Nederland; Aan het Hebreeuwsch en andere talen ontleende moor den en zegsmjzen, verzameld en toegelicht. Amsterdam, "1915. Review see No. 689 303 HERMANN L. strack. Jiidisches Worterbuch: Mit besonderer Beriuktichtigung der gegenmartig in Polen ublichen Ausdriicke. Leipzig, 1916. Reviews see Nos. 304- 3»3 304 paul fiebig. Review of No. 303 (lcb 67: 1251) 1916 305 h . laible. Review of No. 303 (tlb 37: 482-85) 1916 306 josef Wohlgemuth. Review of No. 303 (Je 3: 714) 1916 307 ISAAK SPIELREIN. Review of No. 303 (Jd 1: 633-36) 1916/1917 308 paul fiebig. Review of No. 303 (t l z: 157) 1917 309 [benno?] jacob. Review of No. 303 (kcb 7: 839) 1917 310 samuel krauss. Review of No. 303 (dlz 38: 144-46) 1917 - See No. 147, 1917/1918 311 heinrich loewe. Review of No. 303 (njm h 2: 169 f.) 1917/1918 - See No. 800, pp. 102-75: Worterbuch (not glossary to the Lesestiuke or Grammatik), 1918 312 A. bloch. Elsassisch-judische Redensarten und Sprichworter (jgiel) 1918 313 FELIX perles. Review of No. 303 (0LZ 21: 196-204) 1918 314 - Zur Erforschung des Jiidisck-Deutschen (PBB 43: 296-309; 44: 182-84) 1918. 1920 315 EMMANUEL w eill. Le Yidisch Alsacien-Lorram; Recueil des mots, locutions et dictons particuliers aux Israilites d'Alsace et de Lorraine (r£j 70: 180-94; 71: 66-88; 72: 65-88) 1920, 1921 316 nathan porges. Remarques sur le yidisch Alsacien-Lorrain (to No. j / j ) (r£j 72: 201 f.) 1921 317 EMMANUEL WEILL. Quelques remarques sur les remarques pricidentes (to No. J16) (r£j 72: 201-2) 1921 318 CH. lauer. Le mot 'Mane' en judio-allemand (r£j 74: 104-5) 1922 319 nathan porges. Le mot ‘Kippe' en judio-allemand (r£j 74: 103-4) 1922 320 noiex prilucki [(noah) prylucki/ prilutzki]. Dusgyvet; dialogn viign iprax jn kultHur. Warsaw, 1923 321 ZINA AND PAULA horowitz. English-Yiddish and Yiddish-English dictionary. Warsaw, ca. 1923. Review see No. 707 337 Bibliography

321a po u l a h o r o v ic [pa u la h o r o w it z ]. Liliput verter-bjjx, Iidis-Englis. Leipzig, c. 1925 321b z in a h o r o w it z . Liliput dictionary, English-Yiddish. Leipzig, c. 1925 322 G. e p s t a in [e p s t e in ] - slo m o r iv l in . Millon-Ivri-Angli-Yidis. Jerusalem, 1924 323 n o ie x p r il u c k i [n o a h p r y l u c k i/ p r il u t z k i], Spet-luusn (BF: 33-45, 123-40, 338-82) 1924 324 SIMON d e b re . Quelques expressions hebraiques [/humoristiques !hebraiques- humoristiques\ dans le judeo-alsacien (Uni 81) 1925-1926 325 n u x y m s t if [n a h u m s h t if ], Ven-den; bind-verter in der Iidiser sprax dus xv, xvi iuur-hjndert (FS 1: 95-128) 1926 326 a lyksander harkavi [alexander harkavy], Iidis-Englis-Hebrenser verter- bjjx. Cvaity,farbesertyjn fargreserty ouflage. New York, 1928 327 - Ouscugn fjnym ‘Iidisn folks-ve'rter-bjjx’ (IB 1: 289-300) 1931 328 za l m y n r a iz in [za lm a n ra isen /r eisen ], Itdis in A. Starcevskis hjndert- spraxikn verter-bjjx (IB 2: 284-86) 1931 329 k . benyovsky und j. g r u n sfe ld . Glossary in their Pressburger Ghettobilder. Bratislava/Pressburg, 1932 330 s l o im y u. b iir n b o im [so l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m ]. Bdis verter-biixl fjn ous-laig, gramatisn miin, baigjngjn vort-klas; M it di naitiksty kluulym fjn ous-laig. Lodz, 1932 331 A. b en - jjr y [a . b en u ry ], Hebreiis-Bdis verter-bjjx. Warsaw, 1933 332 simon debre. Uhumeur judeo-alsacien; Expressions humoristiques judeo- alsaciennes. Paris, 1933 333 L. m oses. Die Juden in Niederdsterreich: 56-59, 119-53, passim. Vienna, 1935 334 z e il ik KALMANOVid [ze l ig kalmanowicz], Der soirys fjn Daac'meris (IFA 1: 209-16) 1938 335 n o ie x p r il u c k i [(n o a h ) p r y l u c k i/ p r il u t z k i]. Internaciomlizmyn (IFA 1: 129-40)1938 336 - Metodologysy bamerkjngyn cjm problem Daac'meris (IFA 1: 201-9) 193& 337 s l o im y u. b iir n b o im [so l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ]. A bintl termiinyn fjn der Ijft- milxumy (IS 1: 149-51, 177-79) 1941 338 m ordxy [m ord eca i] kosover. Milxumy-terminologiy injndzery caatjngyn (IS 1: 24-30) 1941 339 ijjd l [y ud el] m a r k . Lomir of hiitn di asiirys fjnym talmid-xuxyms sprax! (IS 1: 65-77) 1941 340 iosyf opatosu [joseph opatoshu (0PAT0WSK1)]. Xjmys-verter (IS 1 : 30-32) - 1941 341 sl o im y n o b l [s h l o m o n o b l e]. Xjmys-taac; An ous-forstjng veign der tradiciy fjn taacn Xjmys in di xaduurym. New York, 1943 - See No. 633, 1945 338 Bibliography

342 m ax w e in r e ic h . Lanlukh, a Jewish hobgoblin (yajss 2-3: 243-51) 1947-1948 343 NUXYM STuG cOV [NAHUM STUTCHKOFF], (Ed. MAKS VAANRAAX [MAX WEINREICH]). Der oicer fjn der Iidiier iprax. New York, 1950 344 xaaiy.m g in in g e r [c h a im g in n in g e r ]. A naais m der Iidiier Uksikogrofiy; Veign dym Oicer fjn der Iidiier iprax. Review of No. 343 (IB 35: 175-92) 1951 344a MAKS vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Cj X . Ginmgers artikl viign Oicer fjn der Iidiier iprax (IB 35: 192-98) 1951 344b eu g en l . r a p p . Schum (w p k 4) 1952. Review see No. 762 345 l e o s p it z e s . Confusion Shmooshun (je g p 51: 226-33) 1952 346 IJJDL [y u d e l ] m a r k . Vus iz a vort in der Iidiier iprax (I$ 13: 132-43) 1953 347 Vocabulatre hebreu dans le parler judeo-alsacien (BNC No. 17: 10-11, No. 19: 11-12) 1953 348 Britannica World Language Dictionary for French, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, Yiddish. 1627-1895: English to other languages; 1896-1944: Yiddish to English; compiled by d a v id g rau ba rt and EZRA pe r k a l [In: Funk and Wagnall's new practical standard dictionary o f the English language.] New York, 1954 349 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r On b e r g . The horse dealers' language o f the Swiss Jews in Endhtgen and Lengnau (FoY 1: 48-62) 1954 350 dov sa d a n . Alter Terakh; The byways o f linguistic fusion (FoY 1: 134-42) 1954 - See No. 894, 1955 351 m £n d l [m e n d e l ] m a r k . Cenyreny-verter (I$ 16: 117-23) 1956 352 il se z. sa n d . The vocabulary of the Mayse-Bukh; A sample glossary to a Middle Yiddish text. m .a . thesis, Columbia University, 1956 - See No. 934, 1958 - See No. 116, 1958 353 JUDAH A. jo f f e . The etymology o f 1davenen' and ‘katoves’ (paajr 28: 77-92) !959 354 s h l o m o n o b l e . Yiddish Lexicography (jb a : 17-22) 1961/1962 355 Groiser verter-bjjx fjn der Iidiier iprax. New York (ed. Y. m ark , j .a . jo f f e ) vol. 1: 1961,11: 1966, in: 1971. Reviews see Nos. 374, 375 356 SIGMUND A. WOLF. Jiddisches Worterbuch; Wortschatz des deutschen Grund- bestandes der jiddischen (jiidisch-deutschen) Sprache. Mannheim, 1962 357 claus j. h u t t e r e r . Etymologische Bemerkungen (m a j 2: 97-iot) 1963 358 w e r n e r w e in b e r g . A plagiarism o f an eighteenth century Judeo-German dictionary (SBBL 6: 103-10) 1963 359 Ha n s p. a lth a u s. Zur Etymologie von schummeln, beschummeht (ZMF 30: 66-69) 1963-1964 360 Sl o im y n o b l [s h l o m o n o b l e ]. Hibriiixmyn in dym Itdii fjn Mitl-Aikynyz in ijtn iuur-hjndert (SJLL: 411-501) 1964 339 Bibliography

361 r y fu u l iDLMAN [r a ph a e l ed e l m a n n ]. Ordliste (In the author’s Iidiiy xristo- matiy [Jiddisch Krestomati]: 7-20) Copenhagen, 1966. Review see No. 822 - See No. 121. Vocabulary. 137-350; Ladino words in Palestinian Yiddish: 351-357; Specific Hebrew loan words in Palestinian Yiddish: 358-63; Charac- teristic Yiddish words and expressions: 364-77, 1966 361a h a r i Faan man [h a r r y f in e m a n ]. Fiil-faxer lidii-Esperanto vtrter-bjjx jn £speranto-Iidil verter-bjjx. Montreal, 1966 - See No. 504: Vocabulary, 1966 362 H. b e e m . Sche'eriet; Resten van ten taal; Woordenboekje van het Nederlandse Jidisch. Assen, 1967 363 m ax w e in r e ic h . Holekrash - A Jewish rite o f passage; A preliminary statement1 (po: 243-53) 1967 364 h a n s p . a lth a u s. Probleme und Ergebnisse der jiddischen Lexikographie ( z m f 35: 320-32) 1968 365 pe t e r m . BERGMAN. The concise dictionary o f 26 languages in simultaneous translation. New York, 1968 366 FRED KOGOS. A dictionary o f Yiddish slang and idioms. New York, 1968 367 URIEL WEINREICH. Modem English-Yiddish, Yiddish-English dictionary. New York, 1968*. Reviews see Nos. 373a, 373b 368 a lbert A. n e h e r . Lexique alsacienne. Strasbourg, c. 1969 369 ROSALINE B. sc h w a r t z . The geography o f two food terms; A study in Yiddish lexical variation (FoY 3: 240-66) 1969 370 w e r n e r WEINBERG. Die Reste des Judischdeutschen. (StD 12) Stuttgart, 1969. Reviews see Nos. 831, 833-36; 841, 844. - 2nd ‘erw. Aufl.’, 1973 371 JOSEF weissberg. Die Homonyme im Jiddischen ( 1GK 4: 513-26) 1970 372 LILLIAN M. FEINSILVER. The taste o f Yiddish. New York, 1971 373 su sa n n e t h ie m e . Rosinkess mit Mandlen, Glossar und Forschungsbericht zu einer jiddischen Schwanksammlung. Dissertation, Bale, 1970. Reihen, 1971 374 david L. gold. Entire vocabulary of Yiddish (jbl) 1972. Review of No. 355 374a h . b e e m . Judaeo-Nederlands. See No. 909: 67-83. 1974 374b I. fjjr m a n [fu h r m a n ]. Termmologiy fjn biker-fax (1S 33: 32-37) 1974 374c MORRIS l a m b . A great dictionary for a great language (Jdm No. 91; 23: 376-83) 1974. Review of No. 355

1 The /11 of Holekrtsh is not doubled, which shows the /0/ to be long, that being also indicated by the variant with a diphthong: Haultkrtsk. Both speak against connecting Hole with Frau Holle (Hulda). 2 A very large number of words have clearly not been culled from the written or spoken language but art neologisms, most of them obviously created by the compiler on the basis of the English dictionary. 340 Bibliography

375 Sl o im y l£ iv n$t a in [stev en l o w e n s t e in ], Di iyakys-haplaity fjn lidii in Frankn (I$ 33: 37-45; 34: 37-43) 1974, 1975 375a XAAlYM &SKIN [ h y m a n s h e s k in ]. Nox verier fjn gyretn lidii in Crodny (I$ 33: 45- 47) 1974 376 mordxy ££xter [mordkhe (mordecai) schaechter]. Folkis jn puuiyi-folkii (IS 33:52-55)1974 376a v olf ta m bur [ta m b u r ]. Veign Maramuuryier Iidiiy verter (1$ 33: 45-47) 1974 377 JOSEPH a . WEINGARTEN. A dictionary o f Yiddish idioms, including proverbs and selected words; Completely in transliteration. Pt. 1. Brooklyn, 1974 377a Termmologiiy ankety (1£ 33: n-31) 1974 378 vera lo c k w o o d baviskar. Go! and hoyl: The geographical dispersion and semantic specialization in Yiddish o f variants o f a common Slavic lexical item (w p y 7: 24-37) 1975 378a l il l ia n M. f e in sil v e r . Yiddish ganyf: its family and friends (a s : 147-51) »975 379 d uv y d - l . g o l d [dav id l . g o l d ]. Mikoiex a kolikciy verter fjn Poihht dialekt; Di evidenc fjn Lagyver lidii (1S 34: 49-52) 1975 379a AZRIIL KAC [IRVING KATZ]. Hyuurys jn hoisufys fjn a Marmeroier kjk-vinkl (I$ 34: 43- 47; 35: 71- 75) !975» »976 379b BEATRICE Silv erm a n WEINREICH. Kinship terminology in a modem fusion language. New York, 1975 380 Fl o r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g rOn b e r g . Worterbuch zu Surbtaler Jiddisch. Zurich, 1976. Review see No. 874 381 MORDXY &XTER [m o r d k h e ( m o rd eca i) sc h a ec h ter ]. Food: A Yiddish terminology. New York, 1976 382 w u l f - o . DREESSEN. Zur altjiddischen Synonymik (PAJ: 63-67) 1977 382a ZELDA KAHAN NEWMAN. On the intensifier particles den and dokh (w p y 23) 1977

10 ONOMASTICS

383 l e o po l d z u n z . Die Namen der Juden. Leipzig, 1837; Hildeshcim, 1971 383a m o r it z steinschneider . Index geographicus (in his Catalogus Itbrorum hebraeorum in Bibliotheca Bodleiana, lxxxx- l l and pages 3097-3103, passim) Berlin, 1852-1860 384 MORITZ g rO n w a ld . Ein Beitrag zur Bezeichnung der Ortsnamen in Bohmen und Mahren bei den jiidischen Schriftstellem (jcb 7: 37-42) 1888 385 sie g m u n d salfeld . Das Martyrologiun des Numberger Memorbuches. Berlin, 1898 34! Bibliography

386 LOWS lamm. Das Memorbuch von Buttenmiesen (mgwj n .f . 9: 540-49) 1901 387 JUUUS ARON1US. Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden im frdnkischen und deutschen Reiche bis zum Jahre 1273. 1902; Hildesheim, 1970 388 LEOPOLD lowenstein. Abbreviaturen (fb : 255-64) 1903 389 JUUUS MltDfJL. Jiidische Namen aus Schwaben (in his: Die Juden in Memmmgen) Memmingen, 1909 390 I. k rac au er. Die Namen der Frankfurten Juden bis zum Jahre 1400 (mgwj 55 [n .f. 19]: 447-63, 600-13) 1911 391 Germania Judaica, I. (ed. J. elbogen, a. freimann, h. tikocynski) Frankfurt/ M. 1917,1934.1 1963 mechan. reprint; 11. (ed. zvi avn eri [i.e., hans lichten- ste in ]) Tubingen, 1968 392 A. SCHIFF. Die Namen der Frankfurter Juden. Freiburg/Br., 1917. 392a salomo [solomon a.] birnbaum. Emige geographische Namen; Die hdufigsten Jiidischen Rufnamen (See No. 80: 180-81 and 179-80) 1918 393 I. x ta g lix t [j . CHTAGL1CHT]. Di geografiiy niimyn fjn Cexoslovakaai jn fjn ixamysdikn Burgnland (F$ 1: 337-46) 1926 394 erwin M. dreifuss. Die Familiennamen der Juden; unter besonderer Beriicksich- tigung der Verhdltnisse in Baden zu Anfang des /9. Jahrhunderts; Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Emanzipation. Frankfurt/M., 1927 395 S. silberstein. Die Familiennamen der Juden; unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der gesetziichen Festlegung in Mecklenburg (fsb 2: 303-66) 1929 396 Smjjl vaasnb£rg [samuel weissenberg]. Di Iidiiy familiy-ne'imyn in Ukraimy (F$ 3: 313-66) 1929 397 Sm jjl vinter [samuel w inter]. A bisl Poilii-Itdiiy geografiy (F$ 3: 585-88) 1929 398 yisra'el haalpern [hailperin, hailprin, halpern]. Sbnot geografiyim sel Polin bi-mikorot hahriyim (L 4: 233-40) 1932 399 Soil xaaiys. Niimyn fjn GaliciSy irter in Iidiiy mykoirym jn inym folks-luuin (187:229-42,286)1934 400 gerhard KESSLER. Die Familiennamen der Juden in Deutschland. Leipzig, >935 400a JECHIEL FISCHER. Zur Erkldrung einiger jiidischer Namen (flb: 151-60) 1938 - See No. 927, pp. 351-52, and map, 1938 401 noiex prilucki [noah prylucki/ prilutzki. Neimyn fjn Under, itiit, gam (IFA I: 47- 54) >93» 402 ADOLF bach. Die Namen der Juden in Deutschland. (In the author’s Deutsche Namenkunde: 551-56) Berlin, 1943; Heidelberg, 1952-1954 403 LAlB zamyt [leib samet]. Niimyn jn cjj-niimyn fjn itiit jn itiit lex in Lity (IS 4: 96-1040) 1944 - See No 206, 1948 342 Bibliography

404 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k .Jiddische Qrtsmmen (ZPhAS 5: 88-100) 1951 405 mordxy Dexter [mordkhe/mordecai schaechter], Veign nicn Iidisy geo- grafisy neimyn (IS 17: 1-9) 1957 406 m o r d x y v. bernstain [mordecai w. bernstein], Geograjisy ruuiy-taivys (IS 20: 56-59) i960 407 PAUL levy. Les noms des Israelites en France; Histoire et dictionnaire. Paris, i960 408 franz j. beranek. Jiddische Ortsnamen (so m 2: 131 ff.) 1961 409 mordxy v. bernstain [mordecai w. bernstein], N o x ruuiy-taivys (IS 21: 57-59) 1961 410 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Die jiddischen Qrtsbenennungen in Niederdsterreich ( j l n o 36: 870 ff.) 1964 - See No. 1055, 1964-1965 411 Florence guggenheim-grunberg. Place names in Swiss Yiddish; Examples of the assimilatory power o f a Western Yiddish dialect (FoY 2: 147-57) 1965 412 Edward stankiewicz. Yiddish place names in Poland (FoY 2: 158-81) 1965 413 KLAUS CUNO. Das Aufkommen der jiidischen Familiennamen im deutschen Sprach- gebiet. M.A. thesis, Bonn University, 1969 414 meir fraenkel. Jiidisch-deutsche Ortsbezeichnungen ( a w jd 1969: 24: 20) 415 edward stankiewicz. The derivational pattern of Yiddish personal (given) names (FoY 3: 266-83) 1969 416 klaus cuno. Namen Kolner Juden ( r h p n . f . 4: 278-91) 1974 417 w illiam stern. On the fascination o f Jewish surnames ( l b iy b 19: 219-35) 1974 418 klaus cuno. Aschkenasische Familiennamen des 12.-1$. Jahrhunderts (Jdc) 1977

11 TEXTS IN TRANSCRIPTION

Texts in a satisfactory transcription are exceedingly rare. In the publications listed in Section A, the transcribers hardly ever understand the difference between rendering an original according to the letters or the phonemes, the difference between transliteration and transcription, or, if they understand it, they are not accurate in their system and mix the two. Some even simply use the normalized spelling of Middle High German. In the publications listed in Section b , good transcriptions are also extremely rare. As a rule they are quite unsystematic, more or less Germanized, or even simply German. It is a mistake to try and ‘make things easier’ for the layman or even for the student of German/Germanic philology. To do so only blurs and obscures the facts and problems, or blinds him to their existence. 343 Bibliography

A I FROM EARLIER PERIODS

419 paulus /tMlLlUS. Die zu>ey ersten Btuher der KLnigf wekhe Samuelis genandt mer den j ... aus dem Hebraischen Buchstoben mit Fleifi in unser Hochteutsch gebracht. Ingolstadt, 1562 420 johann ch. wagenseil. Belehrung der Judisch-Teutschen Red- und Sckreibart... Kdnigsberg, 1699; Frankfurt/M., 1715; ibid. 1737. See No. 184 421 JOHANN j. SCHUDT. Jiidische Merckwiirdigkeiten ... Ill: 1-82, 202-327; IV: 81-192. Frankfurt/M., 1710-1718; Berlin, 1922 422 max grCnbaum. Jiidisch-deutsche Chrestomathie. Leipzig, 1882; Hildesheim, 1969 423 FELIX rosenberg. Ober eine Sammlung deutscher Volks- und Gesellsckaftslieder in hebraischen Lettem (zgjd 2: 232-96; 3: 14-28) 1888, 1889 424 moritz GUDEMANN. Quellenschriften zur Geschichte des Unterrichts und der Erziehung bet den deutschen Juden von den dltesten Zeiten bis auf Mendelssohn. I: 72-79. Berlin, 1891; facsimile ed., Amsterdam, 1968 425 Alfred landau. Jiidische Privatbriefe aus dem Jahre 161 g; Nach den Origmalen des k.u.k. Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchivs ... Vienna, 1911 426 LEO landau. Arthurian legends; The Hebrew-German rhymed version o f the Teutonia 21). Leipzig, 1912. Review see No. 948 ־ ) legend of King Arthur 427 - Hebrew-German (Judeo-German) paraphrase o f the book o f Esther o f the fifteenth century (jegp 18: 497-555) 1919 428 willy STAERK und albert leitzmann. Die jiidisch-deutschen Bibeliibersetzungen, von den Anfangen bis zum Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts; Nach Handsckriften und alten Drucken dargestellt. Frankfurt/M., 1924. Reviews sec Nos. 695,696, 699, 701 429 LEO landau. Der jiddische Midrasck Wajoscha (mgwj 72, N.S. 36: 601-21) 1928 430 MEIER SCHULER. Beitrage zur Ketmtnis der alten jiidischdeutschen Profanliteratur (r ff: 79-132) Frankfurt/M., 1928. Review see No. 714 431 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] birnbaum. Umschrift dts altesten datierten jiddischen Schriftstiicks (t 8: 197-207) 1932 432 - Die jiddische Psalmeniibersetzung (in HANS VOLLMER et al.: Die Psalmen- verdeutsckung von den ersten Anfangen bis Luther ... Mit einem Sonderabschnitt 'Die jiddische Psalmeniibersetzung’ von salomo birnbaum: 4-5, 8-9, 19, Tabelle 11-iiia) Potsdam, 1932 433 L. fuks. The oldest known literary document o f Yiddish literature (c. 1382) Leiden, 1957. Reviews see Nos. 763, 767, 768, 770, 772, 774, 776, 779-784 434 SALOMO [solomon A.] BIRNBAUM. Ubersetzungen der hebraischen Texte und Umschriften der altjiddischen Texte (qebg: 455-62) i960 344 Bibliography

435 FRANZ j. b e ra n e k . Das Rat itI des Regensburger Briickenmarmschens (b jv k 1961: 61- 68). - See Nos. 984, 985, 1961 436 pa v el TROST. Zwet Stikke des Cambridger Codex T.-s. 10. K. 22 (PP 4: 17-24) 196( 437 JAMES w. m a k ch an d and Fr e d e r ic c. tu b a c h . Der keusche Joseph; Em mittel- deutsches Gedicht aus dem 13-14. Jahrhundert; Beitrag zur Erforsekung der hebraisch-deutschen Literatur (ZdPh 81: 30-52) 1962 - See No. 356: 35-87: Leseproben aus der jiddischen Literatur 438 ELI KATZ. Six Germano-Judaic poems from the Cairo Genizah. Dissertation, Los Angeles, 1963 439 WILLIAM B. LOCKWOOD. Die Textgestaltung des jiingeren Hildebrandliedes in jiidisch-deutscher Sprache ( pbb 85: 433-47) 1963 440 PETER F. GANZ, FREDERICK NORMAN, WERNER SCHWARZ. DtlkuS Horant; Mit einem [palaographischen] Exkurs von s.A. birnbaum . Tubingen, 1964. Reviews see Nos. 577, 578, 797-99, 808, 821 441 so l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . Specimens of Yiddish from eight centuries (FoY 2: 1-23) 1965. Enlarged edition, see No. 74, pp. 64-86, 87-89 442 h . niedermeyer . Das alljtJdtschc Midrasch Wajoscha (Jdc 21: 33-55) 1965 443 Walter r o l l et al. Das Horantlied; Versueh einer kritischen Herstellung der Eingangsstrophen (1-26). Hamburg, 1965. Mimeograph 444 h e ik k i j. hakkarainen . Studien zum Cambridger Codex T.-s. 10. K. 22; I. Text (aut Ser. b , tom. 104) Turku, 1967 - 11. Graphemik und Phonemik (ibid., tom. 174) 1971 - ill. Lexikon (i.e., verse concordance) 1973. Reviews see Nos. 716, 721, 723, 801, 823, 825, 843-845, 853, 857 445 PERCY m a t en k o and sam u el Sl o a n . The Aqedath Jifhaq; A sixteenth century epic; With introduction and notes (in: PERCY MATENKO: Two studies tn Jewish culture; 1). Leiden, 1968 446 h a n s P. a lth a u s. Die Cambridger Ldwenfabel von 1382; Untersuchung und Edition eines defektiven Textes. Berlin, 1971. Reviews see Nos. 838, 853 447 w u l f- o . d reessen . Akedass Jizhak; Ein altjiddisches Geduht uber die Opferung Isaaks; Mit Emleitung und Kommentar kritisch herausgegeben. Dissertation Hamburg, 1970. Hamburg, 1971. Reviews see Nos. 839, 842 448 s ie g m u n d a. w o l f . Ritter Widuwilt (sg w t 1) Bochum, 1974 449 WALTER r o l l . Zu den ersten drei Texten der Cambridger Handschrift von 1382/ 1383 (ZDA 104: 54-68) 1975 450 ERIKA TIMM. Berta und Simra; Erne jiddische Erzahlung des 16. Jahrhunderts (l w jb n .f . 14: 1-94) 1975- ‘Text und literarhistorischer Kommentar.’ - See No. 591, 1977 - See No. 592, 1977 See No. 593, 1977 ־ 345 Bibliography

B I FROM MODERN TIMES

451 MAUSCHE WORSCHT (pseudonym). Das Lied vum Lockschen; Parodie u f Schiller sem Lied vun de Clock; In jiddisch-deitschem Dialekt und mit Erkldrungen fiir Nichtjidden. Hamburg, 1853 452 a braham M. TENDLAU. Sprichworter und Redensarten jiidischer Vorzeit, auf- gezeichnet aus dem Munde des Volkes und noch Wort und Shm erldutert. Berlin, i860. Gekiirzte (122 proverbs out of more than one thousand) Neuausgabe, Berlin, 1934 453 GUSTAF H. DALMAN. Judischdeutsche Volkslieder aus Galizien und Russland. Leipzig, 1888; 2nd ed., 1891 454 Am [later: Der] Urquell, 1892-1897, contains a number of Yiddish folklore texts by various transcribers 455 Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fur jiidische Volkskundej Mitteilungen zur jiidischen Volks kunde, 1897-1922; Jahrbucher fiir jiidische Volkskunde, 1923-1925; ed. max g r u n w a l d . Contain much folklore material in transcription 456 LEO WIENER and MORRIS ROSENFELD. Songs from the ghetto; With prose translation, glossary and introduction. Boston, 1898; New and enlarged edition, 1900 457 THEODOR GARTNER. Texte in Buko miner Judendeutsch (z h d m 2: 277-81) 1901 458 w o l f eh r en k r a n z . M aktl Noam, Jiidische Volkslieder viin WOLF zbary£er eh r en k r a n z, Braila, 1902. Transcription by the editor, jaco b sotec 459 jaco b so t e c . (Feuilletons) (Cronica Israelita, 1902 if.; Curierul Israelit, 1906(?), 1908 ff.). Bucarest 460 n a t h a n b ir n b a u m . Transcription of Yiddish poetry by various authors (jvb Nos. 12, March 26, July) 1905 461 SALAMON d e m b it z e r . (a) Lebensklangen, Kassel, 1907; (b) Verloirene Welten, Berlin, 1910; (c) Vun maine Tag, Frankfurt/M., 1911; (d) Wolken, Antwerp, 1912; (e) Schwarze Blatter, Berlin, 1913 462 ig n a z b e r n s t e in . Jiidische Sprichworter und Redensarten; Gesammelt und erklart; Unter Mitwirkung von B.W. Segel; Zweite vermehrte und verbesserte Auflage mit gegeniiberstehender Transkription, Index und Glossar. Warsaw, 1908. Separate part, printed as manuscript: Erotica und Rustka. Reviews see Nos. 464-68 463 - Reprint, Mit enter Emfiihrung und Bibliographie von h a n s pe t e r alth a us. Hildesheim, 1969 464 Review of No. 462 (jl b 5) 1908 465 Review of No. 462 ( lc b 59: 503) 1908 466 SAMUEL KRAUSS. Review of No. 462 (Antph 4: 377) 1908 467 n a t h a n p o r g e s. Review of No. 462 (z h b 12: 101-3) 1908 346 Bibliography

468 SAMUEL WEISSENBERG. Review of No. 462 (Glo 93: 242) 1908 469 m e ir w e issb e r g . Wolwel Zbaraier, der fakrende Singer des gali&isch-jiidiscken Humanism us ( m jv k No. 31-32) Leipzig, 1909 470 MEXL KAPLAN jn B&IERL BOTWIN1K. Unzer Shrift; Zhumal far literatur un kunst. New York, 1911 471 z. k is l h o f [k issel g o ff] et al. Liider-zamt-bjjx far der Iidiier iul jn familiy. 4th ed. Berlin, 1912 472 Sie g f r ie d m e h r in g . Reb Schmuel und Reb Awrohom auf Wathe; Erirmertatgcn aus denjahren 1813 und 1814. Introduced by sig m a r m e h r in g (o w 12: 339- 46) 1912 474 sa l o m o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Jiddische Dichtung (Fr 1: 56-62, 123-26, 188-92, 250-54, 327-30, 395-98, 464-69, 535-38. 593-97. 726 f.) 1913 475 HONEL MEISS. Choses d'Alsace; Contes d'avant guerre, 1913. Nice, 1920 - See No. 302, 1915 476 He r m a n n l . STRACK. Judischdeutsche Texte; Lesebuch zur Emfiihrung in Denken, Leben und Sprache der osteuropdischen Juden. Leipzig, 1917. Reviews see Nos. 477-480, 482, 483 477 p a u l f ie b ig . Review of No. 476 (l c b : 268) 1917 478 - Review of No. 476 (t l z : 157) 1917 479 h . l a ib l e . Review of No. 476 (t l b 38: 198) 1917 480 ISAAK s p ie l r e in . Zur Aussprache und Transkription des Jiidischen. Review of No. 476 (Jd 2: 285-88) 1917/1918 481 a . b l o c h . Elsassisch-jiidische Redensarten und Sprichworter (jg ie ) 1918 482 HEINRICH LOEWE. Review of No. 476 ( n /MH 2: 196-204) 1917/1918 483 FELIX PERLES. Review of No. 476 ( o l z 21) 1918 484 f r it z m o r d ec h a i k a u f m a n n . Die schdnsten Ueder der Ostjuden. Berlin, 1920. Reprint, 1935 485 IMMANUEL o lSvan g er. Rosmkcss mit Mandlen; Aus der Volksliteratur der Ostjuden; Schwanke, Erzdhlungen, Sprichworter, Ritsel. Basel, 1920 486 Zweite vollig veranderte und vermehrte Auflage, 1931. Reprint: Zurich, 1964. See No. 373 487 SALOMO [SOLOMON a .] b ir n b a u m . Transcription in Jiidische Volkslieder, [music] bearbeitet von a r n o n a d e l . Berlin, 1921; Heft 2, 2nd ed., 1923 488 b erty friedlander - b l o c h . Ein Donnerstagmorgen vor der Metzg; In der Rasterstube. 1928 489 R icu bla u . Frehliche moment1n. Sofia, 1931 490 CHAIM GINNINGER, NOTE HELFER, HERSCH SEGAL, ITZIK SCHWARZ. Naje jidiie dichtung; Klejne antologie, Czemowitz, 1934. Review see No. 72 491 im m a n u e l o lSv an g er. Rejte Pomcranzen. Berlin, 1935. Reprint: Rojte Pome- rantsen. New York, 1965 347 Bibliography

492 Dos Fraje Wort; Organ fun di bafrajte jidn in Feldafing, 1945 493 ° j f der Fraj; Arojsgegebn in center fun di bafrajte jidn in Sztutgart, 1946 494 Admonter Hajnt; Cvejwochenszrift funem VNRR,\-Lager Admont, 1946 495 m . s t e in b e r g . D i Jidn in H o f Hof, 1947 496 IMMANUEL o l s v a n g e r . VChajim. Jewish wit and humor. New York, 1949 497 b e r t y frieslander - b l o c h . Vier Woche lang vor Purem, 1950. ,s Lenile und ,s Mathildile. Gailingen, 1952 498 h . b e e m . Jerosche; Jiddische spreekwoorden en zegswijzen uit het Nederlandse taalgebied; Verzameld, ingelijd en toegelicht. Assen, 1959. 2. gemjzigde en aangevulde druk. Title here: Jerosche (.Erfenis) etc. 1970 499 c h a n a h m il n e r . Het jiddische hart zingt; Muziek en tekst, met inleiding, ver- taling en toelichting. The Hague, i960 500 je h u d a l . f r a n k . Loschen hakodesch; Jiidisch-deutsche Ausdrucke, Sprichworter und Redensarten der Nassauischen Landsjuden. Tel-Aviv, 1961. Cholon, 1962. Mimeograph 501 e l s b e t h ja n d a und m a x M. SPRECHER. Lieder aus dem Ghetto; 5 0 Lieder, jiddisch und deutsch, mit Noten; M it einem Vorwort von f r it z n o t z o l d . Munich, c. 1962. Reprint: Jiddische Lieder; M it deutscher Ubersetzung und Noten; M it einem Vorwort von f r it z n o t z o l d . Hamburg, 1970 502 Je langer ein Blinder lebt, desto mehr sieht er; Jiddische Sprichworter. Frank- furt/M., 1965 - See No. 274, 1966 503 Ar t h u r z iv y . Jiidisch-deutsche Sprichworter und Redensarten; Gesammelt und glossiert. Title on cover: Elsasser Jiddisch. Bale, 1966 - See No. 74, pp. 85, 86, 89-104, 1974 - See No. 377, 1974 504 k a z u o u e d a . Senso-no-ato (ed b No. 4: 67-74) 1976. Transcription of k a l m y n SYGAL,s Nuux der milxumy [GK No. 82: 48-53. 1973]

12 T E X T S IN HEBREW CHARACTERS

505 g l ik l h a m y l . Die Memoiren der Gliickelvon Hameln; Hrsg. d a v id k a u f m a n n . Frankfurt/M., 1896 - See No. 425, 1911 505a n o ie x p r il ij c k i [(n o a h ) p r y l u c k i/ p r il u t z k i], Iidisy folks-liider. Warsaw, 1: 1911; 11: 1913 506 ij jd y l . k a h a n [j .l . c a h a n ], Iidisy folks-liider, mit melodiiyn. New York, 1912; 2nd ed., 1957 348 Bibliography

507 noiex pr il Ock i [(noah) prylucki/pr ilu tzk i]. (Vol. 1: jn Sm jjl lI im a n [samuel leh m an n]). Zaml-biixcT far lidiin folklor, fiiologiy jn kultuur-gyiixte. 1: 1912; 11: 1917; in: 1920 508 L. B-N. Folks-liider (P: 377-98) 1913 509 xaaiy faan jn d .a- n . Folks-liider (P: 397-410) 1913 - Sec No. 146, 1917 - See No. 770, 1923 510 xaakl [chaim] l!5n sk i. Iserlins lidii (UF: 288-302) 1924 511 - lidii ba r. laankyv Vailn (F$ 1 : 285-88) 1926 512 v. St £rk [w il l y staerk]. Ous di alt-Iidiiy oicrys fjn der Minxyner myljjxiier btblwteik (F$ 1: 55-68) 1926 513 nuxym £ t!F [nahum s h t if], Eliy ha-Lahys Hid

- See No. 557a, 1961 - See No. 987a, 1962 527 h a n a s m e r u q [c h o n e s h m e r u k ], Ha-sippurim alr. Adam baai sem ve-gilgulehem be-nusheot ‘Sivhe ha-Best’ (Ta 28: 86-105) 1963 528 e l x u u n y n h e l yn / v ee r t h a a i m e r [w e r t h e im e r ], Mygilys Vine. Photomechani- cal reprint of the ed. Amsterdam, 1648. Jerusalem, 1963 529 SLOIMY u. b iir n b o i m [s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m ]. Zeks hjndert iuur Tilym of Iidis (s j l l : 524-500) 1964 530 x u u n y s m e r u k [c h o n e s h m e r u k ]. Di Moisy-rabainy-basraabjng; An jmbavjsty dramy fjn 18tn iuur-hjndert ( g k No. 50: 3-27) 1964

531 b e ie r v a a n r ib [Be r n a r d s. w e in r y b / w a jn r y b ]. A pekl briiv in Bdis fjn 1588 (HS 2: 43-67) 1964 - See No. 505, 1965 - See No. 361: 3-64, 1966 532 h a n a s m e r u q [c h o n e s h m e r u k ]. Ha-sir alha-srefa bi-Venetsiya le-Eliyahu Bahur (k a y n .s . 6 : i : 345-68) 1966 533 s n e ' u r z a l m a n sazar [sh a z a r / r u b a s h o v ], Ma'ase r. Iosef dela Reina bi-msoret ha-Sabbata'it; Besraibung fun Sabsy Cvii (in his Ore dorot: 239-319; 84-95) 1971 534 n e h e m y a a l o n i [n e h e m ia a l l o n y ], Mekorot hadasim li- Smjjl-bjjx'' ve-li- ‘Meluxym-bjjx' (B S 1: 90-123 and facss. of 44 m s pages) 1973 534a 1. k a r a . Bdisy handls-koryspondenc fjn M oldyvy fjn 1829-1842 (IB 44:78-106) 1973 - See No. 1028, 1977 - See No. 591, 1977

13 ABOUT TEXTS

See also sections 11, 12 and 14. 535 d a v id k a u f m a n n . Buxtorfs Aruchhandschrift wiederaufgefunden (m g w j 34: 185-92, 225-33) 1885 535a jo s e f p e r l e s . Die Berner Handschrift des kleinen Aruch (jSG: 1-38) 1887 535b Alfred la n d a u . Die Sprache der Memoiren Gliickels von Hameln (m gjv Heft 7 : 20- 68) 1901 536 f e l ix f a l k . Die Bucher Samuelis in deutschen Nibelungenstrophen des XV. Jahr- hunderts (m jv k , Heft 25: 95-116; Heft 28: 129-50) 1908 536a - Melanges bibliographiques sur les livres de Samuel en strophes de Nibelungen. Leipzig, 1909 537 m a r c e l SCHWOB. Le manuscrit hebreu no. 1408 de la Bibliotheque Nationale de Paris (n e m e n 39: 409-38) 1909 350 Bibliography

538 b e ie r b u u r e x o v [b e r b o r o c h o w ]. A gerjjs fjn fa r draai hjndert iuur. Review of No. 425 (P: 351-56) 1913 - See No. 143, 1913 - See No. 510, 1924 539 m a k s e r ik [pen name of z a l m y n m e r k in ], Veign ‘Maasy Briiy vy Zimry ’ (FS 1: 153-62) 1926 - See No. 511, 1926 540 LEO l a n d y [l a n d a u ]. A nist-bakanter Iidis-Daacer njsex fjn der Artus-lygendy (FS 1: 129-40) 1926 541 n u x y m £t i f [n a h u m s h t if ]. A gysribyny Iidisy biblioteik in a Iidis houz in Veneciy in mitn dym zexcntn iuur-hyndert (Codex Bodleiana, Neubauer No. 1217) (C 1: 141-50; 2: 525-44) 1926, 1928 - See No. 517, 1929 - See No. 518, 1929 - See No. 155, 1930 - See No. 157, 1932 542 iic x y k 31PER [ignacy schipper], A Iidiser liiby-roman fjn mitl-elter; Cjj-staaiern cj der gysixty veign dym of-kjm fjn ‘'Maasy Briiy vy Zimry’’ (IB 13: 232-45) 1938 543 ir v in g l i n d . Widuwilt, son of Gawain. Dissertation, New York University, 1942 544 l . f u k s . The oldest literary works in Yiddish in a manuscript o f the Cambridge University Library (j js 4: 176-81) 1953 545 - On the oldest dated work in Yiddish literature (FoY 1: 267-74) 1954 546 c h a im g in n in g e r . A note on the Yiddish Horant (FoY 1: 275-77) 1954 547 Fr e d e r ic k n o r m a n . Remarks on the Yiddish Kudrun (jjs 5: 85-86) 1954 - See No. 167, 1955 548 f r a n z j. b e r a n e k . Neues zur jiddischen Gudrunhandschrift (m a j r : 49-52) 1956 549 e r ic h j. t h i e l . Zur Cambridger jiddischen Gudrunhandschrift (m a j i: 34-46) 1956 - See No. 433, 1957 550 p e t e r f . g a n z . Dukus Horant. An early Yiddish poem from the Cairo Genizah (jjs 9: 47-62) 1958 551 il s e z . s a n d . An extract from an unpublished manuscript o f the Mayse Bukh o f 1544(?). New York, 1958 552 je a n f o u r q u e t . Ernest-H. Levy et le Dukus Horant (e g 14: 50-56) 1959 553 s a l o m o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Das Datum des Codex Zimt-Sand (m a j 2: 9 f.) i9 6 0 554 HANS f r o m m . Die Erzahlkunst des Rothers-Epikers (Eu 4: 347 ff., passim) i960 555 m a x w e in r e ic h . Old Yiddish poetry in linguistic literary research (Wo 16: 100-18) i960 35! Bibliography

556 FELIX FALK. Das Schmuelbuck des Mosche Esrim Wearba; Em biblisches Epos aus dem /5. Jahrhundert; Emlettung und textkritiscker Apparat. Assen, 1961 557 James w. m a r c h a n d . Einiges zur sogenamten 'jiddischen Kudrun' (NPh 45: 55-63) 1961 557a ERNST ROTH. Das Wormser Mochsor (a s w : 222) 1961 558 HERMANN MENHARDT. Zur Hcrkunft des 'Dukus Horant' (MAJ 2: 33-36) 1961 - See No. 436, 1961 559 h e l l m u t ro se n fel d . Die Kudrun - Nordseedichtung oder Donaudichtung (ZDPh 81: 314) 1962 560 HELMUT A.w. d e bo o r . Die deutsche Literatur im spaten Mittelalter. 1. Teil, 1250-1350, Munich, 1962; 4th ed. ( = GDL, vol. 3) 1973 561 pa v el tr o st . Noch etnmal zur Josefsiegende des Cambridger Kodex ( p p 5: 3-5) !962 562 j. carles. Le pobne de Kudrun (p f l l 2nd series, facs. 16: 231-41) 1963 563 PETER F. GANZ, FREDERICK NORMAN, WERNER SCHWARZ. Zu dem Cambridger Joseph (ZDPh 82: 86-90) 1963 564 dov SAD AN. Der iltster grdm in lidii ( g k N o. 47) 1963 565 - Ketovet risona be-yidis qeduma be-mahazor Vermayze (K S 38: 575-76) 1963 565a ROSWITHA WISNIEWSKI. Kudrun: 14-15, 49, 58. Stuttgart, 1963 - See No. 160, 1963 566 HELLMUT ROSENFELD. Der Dukus Horant und die Kudrun von 1233 (MAJ 2: 129-34) 1964 567 c o l e t t e S1RAT. Le monuscrit hebreu no. 1408 de la Bibliothique Nationale de Paris (r£j 123: 335-58) 1964 568 B. sy m o n s (ed.). Kudrun, 4th ed., revised: B. boesch ( x v ii- x v iii) Tubingen, 1964 569 pa v el TROST. Glosse zu den Erzvateriegenden des Cambridger Codex (m a j 2: 152-53) 1964 - See No. 531, 1964 570 n u u sn z iis k in d [n a t h a n sussk in d ]. Smjjl-bjjx-problemyn (SJLL: 399-77) 1964 571 K. ba rtsch (ed.). Kudrun, 5th ed., revised: K. sta acx m an n (lxxiv- l x x v ii) Wiesbaden, 1965 572 lajb Fines. Das altjiddiscke Epos Meloitm-buh; 1. Einleitung und Faksimile der editio princeps, Augsburg 1543. II. Hebrdische und aramaische Quellen, text- kritischer Apparat und Glossar. Assen, 1965. Reviews see Nos. 805, 806 573 DOV SAD AN. The Midrashic background o f the ‘Paradise’ - Its implication for the evaluation o f the Cambridge Yiddish codex (1382) (FoY 2: 253-62) 1965 574 il se z. sa n d . A linguistic comparison o f five versions of the Mayse-Bukh; 16th- 18th centuries (FoY 2: 24-28) 1965 - See No. 182, 1965 352 Bibliography

575 SIEGFRIED COLDITZ. Das hebrdisch-mittelhochdeutsche Fragment vom ‘Dukus Horant' (f f 40: 302-6) 1966 576 m ic h a e l c u r sc h m a n n . ,Dukus Horant' (in the author's Spieknamseptk; Wege und Ergebnisse der Forschung von 1907-1965 (d v jl 40: 474-78) 1966. Separate ed., with subtitle: Mit Erganzungen und Nachtrdgen his 1967. Stuttgart, 1968 577 STEPHAN J. KAPLOWITT. Review of No. 440 (JEGP 65: 537-42) 1966 578 URSULA RAUH. Review of No. 440 (Eu 60: 154) 19661 579 w a lt er r6 l l . Das alteste datierte jiidisch-deutsche Sprachdenkmal; Ein Vers- paar im Wormser Machsor von 1272/1273 (z m f 33: 127-37) »9^6 - See No. 183, 1966 580 WERNER SCHWARZ. Prinzipielle Erwagungen zur Untersuchung der Cambridger Handschrift t .-s . 10. K. 22 (z m f 33: 138-43) 1966 - See No. 996, 1966 581 J. be r n fe l d . Der Alt-lidiier ipos 'Myluxym-bjjx' (ID 267-286) 1968 582 jer r y c h . s m it h . Elia Levita's Bovo-Buch; A Yiddish Romance of the early / 6th century. Dissertation, Cornell University, 1968 (da 29A: 4021) 1969 583 klaus c u n o . Die jiddischen Zeugenaussagen der Responsen als Quelle der Geschichte des Jiddischen. Paper for a course about the history of Yiddish. Columbia University, 1972 584 Ma n fr ed ca l ie b e . Dukus Horant; Studien zu seiner literarischen Tradition. Dissertation, Kiel University, 1970 (PhSQ^o) 1973 585 HAVA t u r n ia n s k y . Aleksander ben Yitshaq. Dissertation, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1973 586 klaus c u n o . Megiles Vintz; A 17th century megile from Frankfurt. Summary (m l s 4: 41) 1974 587 w u l f - o . dreessen. Die altjiddische Bearbeitung des Barlaam-Stoffes (ZDPh 93, Sonderheft: 218-33) 1974 588 m a r t in h ir sc h b e r g . Gliickel von Hameht. 1974. Annotated ed. 589 WULF-O. d reessen . Die altjiddischen Estherdichtungen; Uberlegungen zur Rekonstruktion der Geschichte der alteren jiddischen Literatur. Mimeograph ( ig k ) 1975 (Daph 6: 27-39) »977

1 It is a pity that the author di9cusses the problem of dating the script of the codex even though Hebrew palaeography does not belong to her field of study. The author of the Exhrs in No. 440 dates the script of the codex by comparing it with that of three MSS written in typiea! Ashkenazic cursive, the choice of which for comparison was based on many years of previous work on hundreds of specimens of tbe Ashkenazic type and cursive style, from pbotognphs in his palaeographical collection as well as from the study of original MSS. In that author’s The Htircw Scripts, Plates Volume (1954-1957), Not. 350-60, she might have found some additional examples. If she will look up the Text Volume (1971), she can now find in Appendix c Tm* Cketktag Experiments which may assist her in her judgment. 353 Bibliography

- See No. 1021, 1975 - See No. 449, 1975 - See No. 450, 1975 590 th eresia f r id e r ic h s . Zu ‘Fieri Blankeflere'' (f a j: 35-41) 1977 591 erika t im m . Jiddische Sprachmaterialien aus dem Jahre 1290; Die Glossen des Berner kleinen Aruch (f a j : 16-34) 1977 592 WALTER r o l l . Zum ‘Sefer ha-Gan’ Jizhaks ben Elieser (f a j: 3 5 -4 1 ) 1977 593 He r m a n n j. m u l l e r . Zur Edition des altjiddischen ‘Donielbuchs’ (f a j : 57-62) 1977

14 VARIOUS LINGUISTIC AND PHILOLOGICAL MATTERS

594 jo a n n e s boeschenstein . Elementale Introductorium in hebreas litteras teutonice et hebraice legendas. Augsburg, 1514 594a pa u lu s FAG1US. De variis liter arum figuris seu notulis (in his: Compendiaria isagoge in linguam hebraeam). Constance, 1543 595 pa u l h e l ic z . Elemental!oder lesebuchlein/Doraus meniglich mit gutem Grund underwisen wird, wie man deutsch ... mit hebraischen oder Judischen buchstaben ... lesen und vorsten sol. Hundsfeld, 1543 595a Mic h a e l ADAM. Institutio brevis legendi Judaeo-Germanice. Zurich, 1546 596 elias SCHADE. Mysterium ... Bericht von der Juden teutsch-hebreischer schrifft deren sich die Juden gebrauchen. Strasbourg, 1592 597 JOHANNES bu x to rf. Lectionis hebraeo-germanicae usus et exercitatio (in his: Thesaurus grammaticus linguae sanctae). Basel, 1609 - See No. 420, 1669 597a august p fe iff e r . De lectione Ebraeo-germanica (in his: Critica sacra; Manu- ductio facilis ad lectionem talmudico-rabbinicam). Dresden, 1680 598 m . Ch r is t ia n m o l l e r . Bericht wie das Judisch-Teutsche zu lesen. Frankfurt/O., 1700 599 jo a c h im f . s c h m id t . Ratio legendi hebraeo-germanice (in his: Manuductio grammaticalis ad linguam Ebraicam). Frankfurt/O., 1708 600 jo h a n n m . k o c h . Brevis manuductio ad lectionem scriptorum judaeorum germani- corum. Frankfurt/M., 1709 601 CASPER CALV0R. Anleitung wie das Judisch-Teutsche zu lesen (in his: Gloria Christi). Leipzig, 1710 602 jo h a n n j. s c h u d t . Jiidische Merckwiirdigkeiten; vol. 11: 283-89, in: 1-82, iv: 81-192. Frankfurt/M., 1710-1718 354 Bibliography

603 PHJL1P N. LEBRECHT. Anweisung das Judischdeutsche richtig zu erlernen (in his: Eckstein des wahren christlichen Glaubens). Lcipzig-Dresden, 1719 604 eberhard c.F. OPPENHE1MER. Hodegus Ebraeo-Rabbinicus; Kurtze und deutliche Anwetsung wie ... die ... Bucher und Briefe, Contracte, Handschriften, Wechsel- zettel... des heutigen Judenteutsch zu lesen und zu verstehen. Leipzig, 1731 605 w il h e l m CH. j. c a lle n b e r g . Kurtze Anlettung zur jiidischteutschen Sprache. Halle, 1733 6 0 6 [j.P . l Gt k e ] philoglottus . Kurtze und grundliche Anwetsung zur Teutsch- jiidischen Sprache. Frcybcrg, 1733 607 wilhelm ch. j . chrysander. Jiidisch-tcutsche Grammatik. Leipzig, 1750 608 GOTTFRIED SELIG. Kurze und griindiiche Anleitung zu einer leichten Erlemung der jiidischdeutschen Sprache. Leipzig, 1767 609 R.w. f r id r ic h . Unterricht in der Judensprache und Schrift. Prenzlau, 1784 610 [GOTTFRIED s e l ig ] l ecto r p u b l ic u s . Lchrbuch zur griindlichcn Erlemung der jiidisch-deutschen Sprache ... mit einem vollstandigen jiidisch-deutschen Worter- buch. Leipzig, 1792 611 LEOPOLD z u n z . (Pp. 438-42 in his Die gottesdierutlichen Vortrage der Juden.) Berlin, 1832; 2nd ed., pp. 452 ff., Frankfurt/M., 1892 612 FRIEDRICH CH. B. Avt-LALLEMANT. (Vols. Ill and IV of his Das deutsche Gaunerthum in seiner socialpolitischen, literarischen und linguistischen Aus- bildung.) Leipzig, 1860-1862. Reviews see Nos. 664-66 613 JOSEF PERLES. Beitrage zur Geschichte der hebraischen und aramaischen Studien (passim). Munich, 1884 614 PH1L1PP m a n s c h . Der jiidisch-polnische Jargon (1L 2 1 : Nos. 1 8 -2 3 ; 22'• Nos. 1-4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 18; 23: No. 1, 3-8) 1888, 1889, 1890 615 LAZAR 5A1NEANU [s c h e in ], Studiu dialectologic asupra graiului evreo-german. Bucarest, 1889 - See No. 424, vol. Ill, pp. 280-97: judischdeutsche Schriftsprache. 1891 616 L. SAJNEAN. Essai sur le judeo-allemand et specialement sur le dialecte parle en Valach1e(MSL 12:90-138,187-96) 1903. Enlarged translation of No. 615 by the author. Review see No. 673 617 sa l o m o [so l o m o n A.] b ir n b a u m . Die jiddische Orthographic [und Umschrift des Jiddischen] (Fr 1: 588-91) 1913 618 b £ie r BUUREX0v[BER bo roch o v J. Di ofgabn fjn der Iidiierfilologiy (P: 1-18) 1913 619 n o ie x p r il u c k i [(n o a h ) p r y l u c k i/ p r il u t z k i]. Iidiiy dialektologiiy forijngyn, 1-vi. Warsaw, 1917-1937 620 FELIX pe r l e s. Zur Erforschung des Jiidisch-Deutschen (pb b 43: 296-309; 44: 182-84) 1918, 1920 6 a 1 m ak s vaanraax [ max w e in r e ic h ]. Staplyn; Fiir itiudn cj der Iidiier iprax- visniaft jn literatuur-gyiixty. Berlin, 1923 3SS Bibliography

622 ERNEST-H. l£v y . Langue des hommes et langue des femmes en judio-allemand (MCA: 197-215) 1924 623 n o ie x p r il u c k i [(n o a h ) p r y l u c k i/ p r il u t z k i]. Mamy-luuin, Iidiiy iprax- visniaftlexy fuur-arbytn. Warsaw, 1924 624 Iicxyk Sip e r [ ig n a c y s c h ip p e r ], Der uunhaib fjn 'luuin Aikynyz' In der balaaxtjng fjn onomatiiy kvibn (11F: 101-12, 272-87) 1924 625 NOIEX PRILUCKI [(NOAH) PRYLUCKI/PRILUTZKI] jn $MJJL 1 1 1 MAN [SAMUEL L eh m an ] (editors). Arxiiv far Iidiier iprax-visniaft, literatuirforijngjn etnologiy. Warsaw, 1926-1933 626 nechama leibowitz. Die Obersetzungstecknik der jiidisch-deutschen Bibeliiber- setzungen des xv. und XVI. Jahrhunderts, dargestellt an den Psalmen (pbb 55: 3»7- 563) >93» 627 m aks vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Ildii-filologiiy arbytn in Daai (IB 4: 262-71) »932 628 iaankyv Sacki [jaco b s h a tz k y ], Di licty iprocjngyn fjn der Iidiier iprax jn literatuur in Holand (IB 10: 232-65) 1936 629 max w e in r e ic h . Form versus psychic function in Yiddish; A study in the 'spirit o f language' (OcOr: 532-38) 1936 630 - Le yiddish comme objet de la linguistique genhale. Vilna, 1937 631 m aks vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Daac'merti toig nit (IFA 1: 97-106) 1938 632 s o l o m o n a. b ir n b a u m . The age of the Yiddish language (t p s : 31-43) 1939 633 - Yiddish phrase book. London, 1945 634 s h l o m o n o b l e . Sacred and secular in the language o f the Yiddish Bible translation (yajss i : 274-82) 1946 635 x aa iy m g in in g e r [c h a im g in n in g e r ]. A bjjx cj lemyn di Iidiiy iprax. Review of No. 637 (IB 33: 204-n) 1949 636 y u d e l m a r k . The language ofY.L. Peretz (yajss 4: 64-85) 1949 637 u r ie l w e in r e ic h . College Yiddish; An introduction to the Yiddish language and to Jewish life and culture. New York, 1949; 5th ed., 1971. Reviews see Nos. 635, 746 638 so l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . Two problems o f Yiddish linguistics (FoY 1:63-72) 1954 639 CHAIM GINNINGER. Sainean's accomplishments in Yiddish linguistics (FoY 1: >47-78) 1954 640 BENJAMIN HRUSHOVSKl. On free rhythms in modem Yiddish poetry (FoY 1: 219-66) 1954 641 URIEL WEINREICH. Stress and word structure in Yiddish (FoY 1: 1-27) 1954 642 XAAIYM [CHAIM] S. KAZDAN. Ritym in Iidiier prozy (1$ 15: 33-47) 1955 643 M. HEZQUN1• Hal pa'at raft al hitpathutah ielyidis ( r t i ) 1958 644 m aks vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Bnai-hes jn bnai-xes in Aikynyz; Di problem jn vus zi lozt jndz hiiem (s n b : 101-23) >95^ 356 Bibliography

645 URIEL WEINREICH and Bea tr ic e w e in r e ic h . Say it in Yiddish. New York, 1958 646 MAX w e in r e ic h . History of the Yiddish language; The problems and their implications (p a p s 103: 563-70) 1959 647 URIEL WEINREICH. On the cultural history of the Yiddish rime (e j l t : 423-42) 1959 648 JAMES w. m a r c h a n d . Three basic problems in the investigation of early Yiddish (Orb 9: 34-41) i960 649 eugene green. Yiddish and English in Detroit; A survey and analysis o f recip- rocal influences in bilingual pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Dissertation, University o f Michigan, 1962 (da 23: 629) 1962 650 URIEL w e in r e ic h . Multilingual dialectology and the new Yiddish atlas (a l 4:1: 6-22) 1962 - See No. 261, 1963 651 MOSCHE ALTBAUER. The Yiddish rimes of Kh. N. Bialik; A manifestation of the trend toward standard Yiddish (FoY 2: 182-84) 1965 - See No. 69, 1965 652 DANIEL LEIBL. On Ashkenazic stress (FoY 2: 63-72) 1965 653 HANS P. a lth a us. Johann Heinrich Callenberg; Wilhelm Christian Just Ckry- sander-Schriften zur jiddischen Sprache; Faksimiledruck nach den Ausgaben von 1733,1736 und 1750; Herausgegeben und mit einem Nachwort verse hen; Quellen zur Geschichte der jiddischen Sprache. Marburg/Lahn, 1966 654 Sl o m o a. [so l o m o n A.] b ir n b a u m . Le-sa'alat gilah sel sfatyidis (GeS 12:80-84) 1966. Translation of No. 655 655 Sl o im y u . b iir n b o im [s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m ], Vi alt iz lidii? (ID: 245-50) 1968 656 george jo c h n o w it z . Bilingualism and dialect mixture among Lubavitcher hasidic children (as 43: 182-200) 1968 657 m o r d k h e [m o rd eca i] sc h a ec h te r. The ‘hidden standard'; A study of competing influences in standardization (FoY 3: 284-304) 1969 657b y isra el h . b il e ^ k i [ israel h . b il e t z k i] Bialik ve Ytdts. Tel-Aviv, 1970 - See No. 372, 1971 658 h a n s p. a lth a u s. Examples of a contrastive dialectology of Western Yiddish and German dialects (wejs: 5:4: 1-16) 1973 659 d££1MS A. MATISOF [JAMES a. MATISOFf J. Sifrut ha-bittuy be-yidis; Lason psikho- ostensivit be-dibbur he-amami (Translation from English) (Sif No. 18/19: 181-223) 1974. English summary: Psycho-ostensrve expressions in Yiddish (Ibid., xi-xii) h . ROSKYS. Iidiiy baab-ipraxn in igtn i.h. (1$ 33: 1-11) 1974 ־659a d uvyd 659b JOSEF WEISSBERG. Alteres Deutsch als Basis fiir die jidduche Synonymik (s d l s : 370-88) 1974 660 Walter r Ol l . Die Pluralbildung im Jiddischen und im Deutschen (1GK: iv) 1975 357 Bibliography

15 MISCELLANEOUS

661 WILHELM c h . j. CHRYSANDER. Unterricht vorn Nutzen des Jiidisch-Teutschen. Wolfenbiittel, 1750 662 a n t o n r£e . Die Sprathverhaltnisse der deutschen Juden. Hamburg, 1844 h b 6: 119 f.) 1863) ע MORITZ STONSCHNEIDER. Der Vokalbuchstabe 663 664 jo se f M. w a g n e r . Review of No. 612 ( l c b : No. 3) 1863 665 - Review of No. 612 ( asns xviii, vol. 33: 197-246) 1863. 666 m o r it z steinschneider . Review of No. 612 (h b 7:128-30; 8:13-17,113-116) 1864, 1865 667 n e h e m ia brOl l . Review of No. 1 (j j g l : 3) 1877 668 m oses gaster. Review of No. 1 (m g w j) 1879 669 o t h m a r m e is in g e r . Review of No. 114 (z h d m 3: 378) 1902 670 j. sc h a tz. Review of No. 114 (asns 109: 389) 1902 671 fr a n k e l. Review of No. 114 (l g r p : 88) 1903 672 m ax h . je l l in e k . Review of No. 114 (AfdA 47: 268-70) 1904 673 Al fr e d la n d a u . Review of Nos. 114 and 616 (ZDPh 36: 262-69) 1904 674 r ic h a r d l o e w e . Review of No. 114 ( ifaisa 16: 43-50) 1904 675 d avis TRIETSCH. Von dm Sprachenverhdltnissen der Juden (zdsj 2) 1905 676 LEON f r id m a n n . Le Fran fa is, tel que Von parle (Yiddish text book of French conversation) Paris, 1908 677 E. sar TORI US. Review of No. 11 (l h w 49: 953) 1911 678 HERMANN L. STRACK. Review of No. 11 (t l b 32: 553) 1911 679 j. w e jg l . Iwriteitsch, Judendeutsch (in the author’s: Das Judentum: 302-11) Berlin, 1911 680 s( a m u el] w [ eissen berg ]. Review of No. 11 ( m g jv n .s . 8:39) 1912 681 Review of No. 11 (zdsj 9: 64) 1912 682 BilER BUUREXOV [b e r BOROCHOv]. Gramatiiy frjmkait (V 2: 147-53) 1913 - See No. 215, 1913 See No. 216, 1913 ־ 684 f . p iq u e t . Review of No. 426 (r c h l n .s . h l 76:472) 1913 685 b£n - c iiy n r u bSt a in [b en - z io n r u b st ein ], Di amuuliky iprax fjn Iidn in di Rjsiiy geigntn (P: 21-35) 1913 686 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] BIRNBAUM. Review of Der Pinkys (Fr 2: 58-60) 1914 687 n u x y m St if [n a h u m s h t if ] ■= bal- d im iy n . Review of Der Pinkys (IV 3: 247-61. 395-410) 1914 688 davis TRIETSCH. Juden und Deutsche; Eine Sprach und Interessengemeinschaft. Vienna, 1915 689 JACOBUS j .a . van g in n e k e n . Review of No. 302 ( ijb 4 [1916]: 31) 1917 690 FELIX per le s. Review of No. 80 (o l z 23: 163 f.) 1920 358 Bibliography

691 s. g a n s. Review of No. 115 ( if b 24: No. 50) 1922 692 M.L. ba m berger . Review of No. 115 (l z b : 416) 1923 693 HUGO DUENSING. Review of No. 115 ( t l z : No. 7) 1923 694 Sig m u n d f e is t . Review of No. 115 ( z d m 18: 141) 1923 695 sa l o m o [so l o m o n a.] b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 428 ( g r m 1 2 :3 1 8 f.) 1924 696 s. g a n s. Review of No. 428 ( m g w j 68: 176) 1924 697 a . k o l l e r . Review of No. 115 ( je g p 33: 156-59) 1924 698 jo n a s e. po l a k jz. Review of No. 115 (Mus 31: 149-51) 1924 699 nathan porges. Review of No. 428 (j 9: 249-55) *9*4 700 w il l y sta erk . Review of No. 115 (o l z 27: 655) 1924 701 p . k r Cg e r . Review of No. 428 ( t i : 75) 1924/1925 702 - Review of No. 80 (t i : 236) 1925 703 a braham A. ro back . Review of No. 81 (je g p 23: 132-35) 1925 703a m ord eca i so l tes. The Yiddish press— an Americanizing agency. New York, 192S 704 Sloim y u . biirnboim [solomon a . birnbaum]. Dialikt jn literatuur-luuin (F$ 1: 89-92) 1926 705 sa l o m o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 302 ( t 2: 70) 1926 706 sa m u el krauss. Review of No. 83 ( l w : 883) 1926 707 m a r t in pl e ssn e r . Review of Nos. 83 and 321 (o l z 30: 385-88) 1927 708 heinz kloss. *Nebensprachen'; Eine sprachpolitische Broschiire, Studie uber die Beziehungen eng verwandter Sprachgemeinschaften. Wien-Laipzig, 1929. Chapter Nebensprachen-Proben reprinted (m aw ep d 1930: 34-40) includes the Yiddish translation, in transcription, by S.A. BIRNBAUM, of a specimen text (PP• 57 f ) 709 n u x y m St i f [n a h u m s h t if ]. Poul HeiUcys '£ttmbttal oder Iffzbixlen.' Hunds- feld, 1543 (F$ 3: 515-24) 1929 710 Bernard S. w e in r y b . Neue jiddische Literatur. Review of IiF, F$, Pi (m g w j 78 [N.F. 37]: 267-81) 1930 711 sa l o m o [s o l o m o n a.] b ir n b a u m . Die Stellung der jiddischen Sprache; Zu einem Programmentaurf fiir die 'Jiddische Abteilung des Nahsprachen-Instituts’ ( m a w e pd 1930: 355-64) 712 HEINZ KLOSS. Deutsche undjidden (m a w e p d : 1-13) 1930 713 m ak s vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Review of No. 238 (IB 4: 168-79) 19 3 2 714 - Review of No. 430 (IB 4 : 264 f.) 1932 715 - Review of No. 155 (IB 4 : 266 f.) 1932 716 sa l o m o [so l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 238 (t 9: 179-81) 1933 717 iaankyv Sacki [jaco b s h a t z k i]. Review of The Memoirs ofGliickel o f Hameln; Translated mth introduction and notes by m a r v in l o w e n t h a l (IB 6 : 138-44) 1933 359 Bibliography

717a J.R. b r in m a n . A klamy antologiy mit Lataaniser {rift {Mom June 8) 1934. Review of No. 490 718 a .m . p o d o l sk i (pen name of A.M. m a ia n sk i). Review of No. 490 (JC May 2) «934 719 za l m y n r a iz in . Review of No. 490 (Fra) 1934 720 B. £losb£rg [szlo sserg ]. A {ainy zax (jt July 21) 1934. Review of No. 490 721 m aks vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ], lidii mit Lataaniiy oisiys. Review of No. 490 (IB 7:268-71) 1934 722 NUIISN ZIISKIND [NATHAN sOssk in d ], Review of No. 970 (IB 6: 157-65) 1934 723 l . m oses. Die Juden in Niederosterreich (56-59, 119-53, passim) Vienna, 1935 724 ia an k yv Sa cki [jaco b sh a tz k y ], Veign di niimyn far Iidii(IB 8: 148-54) 1935 724a i [aankyv] l[£ & in s k i], Di mjter-iprax baa Iidn in Poibt lout der folks-cailjng fjn 1931 (IB 9: 140-43) 1936 725 x aaiym g in in g e r [CHAIM g in n in g e r ]. Vi azoi darf ous gysadert viiem Alfred Landys itimologiier vbter-bjjx? (IB 12: 369-409) 1937 726 v ik t o r iiRMUNSKiY. Review of No. 238 (IM 9: 135-45) 1937 727 Sl o im y u . b iir n b o im [s o l o m o n a. b ir n b a u m ]. Sjtvysdik iraab-luuh jn ijtvysdiky havuury (IFA 1: 245 f.) 1938 728 Ar n c a it l in [aaron z e it l in ], Prisy-lidii (IFA 1: 8-12) 1938 729 XAAIYM GININGER [CHAIM g in n in g e r ]. Di koryspondinc A. Landy-L. Saineanu (IB 13: 275-300) 1938 730 n o ie x p r il Oc k i [(n o a h ) p r y l u c k i/ p r il u t z k i]. targoniziirjng fjn lidii (IFA 2: 938 « 3)«־ 731 zozy £aIkovski [zosa sza jk o w sk i] (Sa ik o [isa ia h ] f r id m a n / fryd m an ). Der kamf kiign Iidiier glaax-barlxtikjng in Frankraax, x v iii- xix i.h. (IB 11: 46-77) «939 732 Review of No. 242 (o l 22: 276) 1941 733 h e in r ic h s c h m id t . Review of No. 242 (d fu 6 : 387) 1941 734 a. gOtze. Review of No. 242 (l g r p 63: 181) 1942 735 Review of No. 242 (zvsf 67: 236) 1942 736 o. p a u l . Review of No. 242 (w k : 234) 1942 737 h . w e in e l t . Review of No. 242 (s o f 7: 315, 721) 1942 738 v ik t o r iiRMUNSKi. Review of No. 238 = Translation of part of No. 726 (IB 19: 243-49) 1942 739 ia an k yv l£ £ 6 n s k i [jaco b leszczinski/ lestchinsky ], Di ipraxn baa Iidn m jmufhingikn Poibt (IB 22: 147-62) 1943 740 s o l o m o n a. b ir n b a u m . The cultural structure o f East Ashkenazic Jewry (seer 25: 73-92) «946 741 ISRAEL ZINBERG. A defense o f Yiddish in Old Yiddish literature (YAJSS 1: 283-93) 1946 360 Bibliography

742 fr a n z J. bera n ek . Die Erforschung der jiddischen Sprache (ZDPh 70: 163-74) 1947/11948 74 3 c h a im s. k a zd a n . The Yiddish secular school movement between the two World Wars (j p p p 2: 131-50) 1948 744 G. EIS. Fruhneuhochdeutsche Bibeliibersetzungen; Texte von 1400-1600 (74 f.) Frankfurt/M., 1949 745 ro bert A. fo w k e s. Review of No. 637 (Wo 6: 93-95) 1950 746 a lla n F. h u b b e l l . A Yiddish grammar ( as 25: 209 f.) 1950. Review of No. 637 747 WILHELM RUDOLPH. Moses Mendelssohn in semen jiddischen Briefen ( h bvk 41: 78-90) 1950 748 HEINZ KLOSS. Review of No. 242 ( z m f 20: 124 f.) 1951 749 SHLOMO n o b l e . Rabbi Jehiel Mikhel Epstein, educator and advocate of Yiddish in the seventeenth century (YAJSS 6: 302-19) 1951 750 a lb er t d auzat. L'Europe linguistique: 13, 77, 188, 197, 201 f., 207, 217, 222. Paris, 1953 751 URIEL WEINREICH. The Russification of Soviet minority languages (PrC 2:6: 46- 57) !953 752 d ie t r ic h g er h a r d t. Review of No. 242 (IF 61: 139) 1954 753 CHAIM g in n in g e r . Sainean's accomplishments in Yiddish linguistics (FoY 1: 147-78) 1954 754 Fl o r e n c e GUGGENHEIM-CRUNBERG. Die Sprache der Ziircher Juden im 14. Jakr- hundert; Deutsch oder Jiddisch ? (m s No. 21a) 1954 755 HERBERT H. PAPER. An early case of Standard German in Hebrew characters (FoY 1: 143-46) 1954 756 s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . The development of the Ashkenazic cursive script (in his: The Hebrew Scripts, vol. 2: Nos. 349-65; vol. 1: 303-9) 1954-1957, 1971 757 sa m u e l NIGER. Yiddish culture (JPPP 4: 264-307) 1955 758 Ur ie l w e in r e ic h . One man's psycho-linguistics. Review of abraham a . roback : Destiny and motivation in language (as 50: 123-25) 1955 759 SIEGMUND a . w o l f . Jiddistik und Stadtkemforschung ( m a j i : 5-9) 1955 760 fr a n z j. ber a n ek . Review of FoY 1 (ZPhAS 9: 288) 1956 761 - Das Jiddische in Ost-Mitteleuropa als Aufgabt der deutschen Sprachwissen- schaft (z o f 5: 233-41) 1956 762 - Review of No. 344 (z m f 25: 191) 1957 763 pe t e r F. g a n z . Review of No. 433 (jjs 8: 246-49) 1957 764 Flo r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r On b e r g . Review of FoY 1 (z m f 25: 248-51) 1957 765 h arry m a o r . Die Stellung des Jiddischen in Israel (m a j i : 66-68) 1957 766 io sy f t e n y n b o im [jo s e p h t e n e n b a u m ]. Di Iidiiy Iprax o f der tugordynjng fjn der ivulym-konferenc in Pariiz, 1919 (IB 41: 217-29) 1957/1958 361 Bibliography

767 J. CARLES. Un fragment judio-allemand du cycle du *Kudrun.' Review of No. 433 (e g 13: 348-5O «958 768 Leo n ard fo r stex . Ducus Horant. Review of No. 433 (g l l i i : 276-85) 1958 769 pe t e r f . g a n z . Review of No. 255 (jjs 9: 102 f.) 1958 770 k arl habersaat. Review of No. 433 (b 39: 536 f.) 1958 771 He r m a n n ja n sse n s. Review of No. 255 (RBPhH 36: 1096 f.) 1958 772 Fr ed er ic k n o r m a n . Review of No. 433 (JCh 21.2.1958) 773 g o t t f r ie d s c h r a m m . Review of No. 433 (gga 212: 211—21) 1958 774 w e r n e r sc h w a r z. Emige Bemerkungen zur jiddischen Gudrun. Review of No. 433 (NPh 42: 327-32) 1958 775 sie g m u n d a. w o l f . Review of No. 255 (Pho 2: 124 f.) 1958 776 s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 433 (BiOr 16: 50-52) 1959 777 k arl habersaat. Review of No. 255 (ZDPh 78: 330 f.) 1959 778 l u ig i l u n . Review of No. 255 (g if 12: 189-92) 1959 779 h .w .j . k ro es. Review of No. 433 (DuKr 1959: 89-93) 780 jam es w. m a r c h a n d . Review of No. 433 (Wo 15: 383-94) 1959 781 ingeborg schrobler. Z u L. Fuks' Ausgabe der dllesten bisher bekannten Denkmdler jiddischer Literatur (z d a 89: 135-62) 1959 782 pa v el t r o s t . Review of No. 433 (c m f 2: 112) 1959 783 H. b £im [b eem ]. Cjj-it aaier cj der forijngfjn iltstn lidiin manuskript; Hyuurys cj: Di iltsty haant bakenty virk fjn der Iidiier literatuur (1S 20: 9-16) i960 784 SIEGFRIED c o l d it z . Das hebrdisch-mittelhochdeutsche Fragment von ‘Dukus Horant' (f f 14; Oct., i960) 785 r u d o l f n e u m a n n . Review of No. 255 (zo f 9: 134 f.) i960 786 fr a n z J. BERANEK. Deutsche und jiddische Philologie (n g h g 30: 127-39) 1961 787 erika b a uer. Review of No. 260 (g 3: 341, No. 1103) 1962 788 LUCY d a w id o w ic z . Yiddish; Past, Present and Future (Com 33: 375-85) 1962. Reprint in the author’s The Jewish Presence: 133-53, New York, 1977 789 a braham A. r o b a c k . Review of No. 66 (JJSo 5: 259 f.) 1963 790 ZOSA SZAJKOWSKI [sza jk o ( isa ia h ) FRYDMAN]. The struggle for Yiddish during World War 1; The altitude o f German Jewry (l b iy b 9: 131-58) 1964 - See No. 441, 1965 792 s o l o m o n p o l l . The role o f Yiddish in American ultra-orthodox and Hassidic communities (yajss 13: 125-52) 1965 793 h a n s p . a lth a u s. Die jiddische Missionsgrammatik im 18. Jahrhundert. Marburg/Lahn, 1966 794 - Review of No. 80 (GJ N.S. 18, vol. 5: 25) 1966 795 Flo r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r Cn b e r g . Review of No. 268 (z m f 33: 353-57) 1966 796 Wa lter r 6 l l . Review of No. 80 ( g 7: 522 f.) 1966 797 - Review of No. 440 (sm 3rd series, vol. 7, 1: 269-75) 1966 363 Bibliography

798 HELLMUT ROSENFELD. Review of No. 440 (DLZ 87: 126-29) 1966 799 in g e b o r g sc h r Cb le r . Review of No. 440 (g 7: 72-74) 1966 800 so l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 268 (BiOr 24: 361-63) 1967 801 m a n fr ed c a l ic b e . Review of No. 444 (ww 20: 139-41) 1967 802 alexandre derczansky. Introduction & une itude duyiddish en France (r e n l o 4: 125-50) 1967 803 k u r t r e in . Review of No. 268 (g 8: 31 f., No. 122) 1967 804 - Review of No. 268 (g j n .s . 21: vol. 6) 1967 805 Walter r6 l l . Review of No. 572 (d l z 88: 220-23) 1967 806 in g e b o r g sc h r&b l e r . Review of No. 572 (g 8: 578 f., No. 2462) 1967 807 Review of No. 268 (l b 56: 94 f.) 1967 808 h u g o s t o p p . Review of No. 440 (ZDPh 86: 457-63) 1967 809 b e r t h o l d w y l e r . Review of No. 274 (iws No. 40) 1967 810 Review of No. 268 (sodv Series 4, vol. 16) 1967 811 HANS P. ALTHAUS. In Memoriam Franz J. Beranek (Ono 1966/1967,12:280-83) 1967/1968 812 io sy f fr£n k l [jo se f fr a e n k el], Di Iidiiy prisy in di tfijcyt (ID 131-40) 1968 813 m e ir fr a e n k el. Review of No. 268 (ww 18: 63) 1968 814 Sm jjl g o l d Sm it [SAMUEL g o l d s m it h ]. Cvai-ipraxikait baa Iidn (ID 428-34) 1968 815 pav le ivid Review of No. 271 (Lin 20: 85-92) 1968 816 1SAAX k is c h . Notifies betreffende de ghetto-uitspraak van het Nederlands ( s r 2: 245-52) 1968 817 h a l in a k o z l o w s k i. Review of No. 271 (LPo 12/13: 199-203) 1968 818 S. l £ ivnb£r g [levenberg]. lidii in Ratn-Farband (ID 179-83) 1968 819 iaankyv i. m aatlis [jacob j. m aitlis/m eitus]. Di viadafi in lidii far di Ucty fjfcik iuur (ID: 76-85) 1968 820 Review of No. 268 (m l ) Dec. 1968 821 Ar n o l d PAuacER. Review of No. 440 (g l l n .s . 21: 274 f.) 1968 822 Walter R& X. Review of No. 361 (G 9: 35, No. 123) 1968 823 - Review of No. 444, vols. 1-11 (g 9: 274 f., No. 1134) 1968 824 h a n s p . a lth a us. Ansdtze und Moglichkeiten einer koMrastrven Sprachgco- graphic: Jiddisch - Deutsch (zd l 36: 174-89) 1969 825 s o l o m o n a . b ir n b a u m . Review of No. 444, vol. I (jjs 20: 101-3) 1969 826 y u d el m ark . Tht Yiddish Language; Its cultural impact ( a jh q 59: 201-9) 1969 827 ju d a h r o n c h , r o b er t l . c o o per and jo sh u a a . f is h m a n . Word naming and usage scores for a sample o f Yiddish-English bilinguals (m l j 53: 232-35) 1969 828 h a n s p . a lth a us. Sprache der Nachbam; Entdeckung und Rezeption tines konlaktsprachlichen Phdnomens (g l 1/6: 717-40) 1969/1970 363 Bibliography

829 dav id c o h e n . Review of No. 271 (b sl p 64: No. 2: 60-62) 1969/1970 830 MILTON d o r o s h k in . Yiddish in America; Social and cultural foundations. Rutherford, 1970 831 ro b er t D. k in g . Review of No. 370 (je g p 69: 510-13) 1970 832 b r ia n Mu r d o c h . Review of No. 444, vol. 1 (m l r 65: 441-44) 1970 833 Walter r &l l . Review of No. 370 (g i i : 256 f., No. 1481) 1970 834 manfred caliebe. Review of No. 370 (ww 21: 137-39) 1971 835 pav el t r o s t . Review of No. 370 (zd l 38: 244) 1971 836 w. b el tz. Review of No. 370 (o l z 6 7 : 58 f.) 1972 837 SOLOMON A. BIRNBAUM. Institutum Ascettezicum (lbiyb 17: 243-49) 1972 838 MANFRED CALIEBE. Review of N0. 446 (G 13:103 f.: 491) I9 7 2 839 - Review of No. 447 (G 13:111: 518) 1972 840 MICHAEL CLYNE. Review of No. 906 (G 13:261: 1311) 1972 841 JURGEN EICHHOFF. Review of No. 370 (MDU 6 4 : 58) 1972 842 k u r t h r u b y . Review of No. 447 (Jdc 2 8 : 44 f.) 1972 843 kaj b . l in d g r e n . Review of No. 4 44, vol. 11 (NPhM 73: 724-26) 1972 844 f . m ad er. Review of No. 4 44, vol. 1 (NPhM 73: 721-23) 1972 844a Fr isc o m elz er. Review of No. 370 (Mu: 344) 1972 845 Wa lter r6 l l . Review of No. 444, vols. 1-11 (g 13:101 f.: 482) 1972 846 m ord x y & x ter [m o r d k h e (m or d ec a i) scha ech ter]. Kurs fjn Iidiier ortografiy. New York, 2nd ed., 1972 847 Review of No. 290 (jr m 32 :'No. 52) 1973 847a GYULA d£csy. Die Imguistische Struktur Euro pas; Vergangenheit, Gegenwart, Zukunft (142, 144-47, passim) Wiesbaden, 1973 848 sandra PARKER. Inquiry into the Yiddish secular schools in the United States; A curricular perspective. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1973 (dai 34A: 3241) 1973 849 jack t h ie sse n . Yiddish in Canada; The death of a language. Leer, 1973 849a Report on No. 61 ( y w m l s 35: 505) 1973/74 850 h a n s p . a lth a u s. Die Kunst der Paraphrase: Otto F. Best uber das Jiddische (z d l 41: 318-37) 1974. Review of No. 73 851 J. b ih a r i und s. r a k . Review of No. 271 ( a lh 24: 410-17) 1974 852 m a n fr ed c a l ie b e . Review of No. 61 (G 15: 283 f.) 1974 853 - Review of No. 4 44, vols. n - i u and 446 (ww 24: 286-89) 1974 854 - Review of No. 61 (ww 24: 426-28) 1974 855 jo sh u a A. and dav id e. f is h m a n . Yiddish in Israel; A case study of efforts to revise a monocentric language policy (Lin 120: 125-46) 1974 856 Flo r en c e g u g g e n h e im -g r On b e r g . Review of No. 61 (iws April 5) 1974 857 W alter RdLL. Review of No. 444, vol. in (g 15:35: 2272) 1974 858 h a n s 1. b a c h . Review of No. 61 (ajri June) 1975 364 Bibliography

860 JOSHUA A. FISHMAN. Language maintenance and language shift in the United States ( yajss 16: 12-26) 1975 861 Ma r in o f r e s c h i. Nuovt studi jiddisch (s t 18: 101-13) 1975 862 FLORENCE GUGGENHEIM-GRUNBERG. Review of No. 74 (iws No. 28: 49) 1975 863 k u r t h r u b y . Review of No. 61 (Jdc 31: 87 f.) 1975 864 He l m u t p r o t z e . Review of No. 61 (d l z 96: 466-70) 1975 865 Wa lter r o l l . Review of No. 74 (g 16:804: 5376) 1975 866 ed w a rd stankiewicz . Max Weinreich's History of the Yiddish Language and its contribution to Yiddish linguistics (Yd 1:4: 26-39) *975 867 m ax w e in r e ic h . Bird's-eye view of the history of the Yiddish language. English translation by RICHARD ZUCKERMAN (Yd 1: 40-64) 1975 868 jo sef w e issb er g . Review of No. 73 (ZDPh 94: 151 f.) 1975 869 SIGMUND A. WOLF. Review of No. 290 (z d l 42: 87-90) 1975 870 m a n fr ed c a l ie b e . Review of No. 186 (g 17: 92 f.) 1976 871 Siik l fir m a n [JOSHUA A. FISHMAN], Di lerjiulaaiymer ‘vMt-konferenc far ltdiijn Iidiser kultuur' fjn a socio-lingvistiln kjk-vmkl (1$ 35: 16-32) 1976 871a p h y l l is h o d e s. A psycholmguistic study of Yiddish-English bilingual children. Dissertation, Wayne State University, 1976 ( da! 37A: 2694) 1976 872 Herbert m aas. Review of No. 61 (b d l 20: 30 f.) 1976 873 Wa lter r o l l . Jiddisck-Kolloquium in Trier (uj 2:4: 7) 1976 874 r o b er t s c h l a p f e r . Review of No. 380 (iws No. 46) 1976 875 jo se f w e issb er g . Nochmals: *Die Kunst der Paraphrase'; Zu H.P. Althaus' bedenklicher Kritik (zd l 43: 54-62) 1976 876 GUNTER m a r w e d e l . Zu jiddischen Brief en aus der Zeit und Umwelt Clikkels von Hameln ( f a j: 46-56) 1977 877 n o r b e r t h . o t t . Die Bilderlosigkeit jiddischer Handschriften (fa j 42-45) 1977 878 s o l o m o n A. b ir n b a u m . Review of Hebrew and Judaic manuscripts in Amsterdam public collections, (Part) 1 ... compiled by L. fu k s and r .g . fu k s- m a n sfe l d , Leiden, 1973 (BiOr passim) 1978 878a p. f r e im a r k . Sprachverhalten und Assimilation; Zur Situation der Juden in Norddentschland in der ersten Halfte des ig Jahrhunderts (l b iy b 24) 1979

16 INFLUENCE OF YIDDISH ON OTHER LANGUAGES

879 l [o r en z] d[ ie f f e n b a c h ?]. Einwirkungen der Juden auf deutsche Sprache und deutsches Volkslied (d d m 6: 221-25) 1®59 880 - Schdwesdeckel (d d m 6 : 370) 1859 881 G. k a rl f r o m m e . Schdwesdeckel (d d m 6 : 370) 1859 882 l e o w ie n e r . The Judaeo-German element in the German language (a jp 15: 329-47) 1894. 365 Bibliography

883 - Die jiidischen Elemente tm Polnischen (asp 20: 620) 1897 884 o t h m a r m e is in g e r . Die hebraischen Fremdworter der Rappenauer Mundart See No. 294 . ך2ךך- ) z h d m i : 11900) 885 THEODOR GARTNER. Fehier und Eigentiimlichkeiten in der deutschen Verkehrs- und Schriftsprache der Bukowma. (Passim) Vienna, 1901 886 o t h m a r m e is in g e r . LotekhSlisch; Em Beitrag zur Kermtnis der frankischen Hdndlersprache (z h d m 3: 121-27) 1902 887 Fr ie d r ic h WEIK. Fremdworter in der Mundart von Rheinbischofsheim; 11. Hebraische ( zd m 8: 248 f.) 1913 888 MOSES GINSBURGER. Jiidisches in den elsdssischen Mundarten (m e l i : 388-89) 1921 889 R. LARIS. lidii in fLiryc-Iisruuldikn Hibriiii (IB 5: 80-84) 1933 890 SALOMO [SOLOMON A.] b ir n b a u m . Hebraische Etymologien im Deutschen (ZDPh 59: 238-41) 1934 891 IlSRUUL RUBIN [ISRAEL r u b in ], Veign der virk jng fjn lidii ofn gyre'tn Hebri'tii in ttrye-hsruul (IB 25: 303-9) 1945 892 p o n t t i AALTO. Ein jiidisch-deutsches Wort im Fhtnischen? (NPhM 50: 103-7) 1949 893 h a n s g a l in s k y . Jiddisch (in his: Die Sprache des Amerikaners: 55-57, 116, 347-48, 484) Heidelberg, 1952 894 sa l o m o [s o l o m o n a.] b ir n b a u m . Der Mogcl(ZDPh 74: 225-50) 1955 895 h a im BLANC. A note on Israeli Hebrew ‘psycho-phonetics' (Wo 12: 107-11) 1956

896 Sl o im y n o b l [s h l o m o n o b l e ]. lidii in a Hibretiin lyvji (IB 41: 158-75) 19S7/*958 897 Ur ie l w e in r e ic h . Yiddish and colonial German in Eastern Europe; The differ- ential impact of Slavic (a c c s: 1-53) 1958 898 CLAUS J. HUTTERER. Zur Frage der jiddischen Lehnwdrter im Madjarischen (m a j 2: 24-26) i960 899 h a n s P. a lth a u s. Jiidisch-hessischc Sprachbeziehungen (z m f 30: 104-56) 1963 900 - Zur Etymologie von schummcln, beschummeln (z m f 30: 66-69) 1963/1964 901 - Wortgeographische und sprachsoziologtsche Studien zum jiddischen Lehn- wortschatz im Deutschen am Beispiel Kazzew ‘Fleischer * (zds 21: 20-41) 1965 902 h a im b l a n c . Some Yiddish influences in Israeli Hebrew (FoY 2: 185-201) 1965 903 ju d a h A. jo f f e . Mutual borrowing between Yiddish and Slavic languages (h w j i : 423-26) 1965 904 M. z a n d . Hdis iak substrat sovremennavo Ivrita (si Issue 2, pt. 1: 221-45) 1965 905 JAN L. ja n sse n . Jiddisches im Ddnischen ? (Sea: 37-46) 1970 906 jo a n r a y fie l d . The languages of a bilingual community. Dissertation, 1959. The Hague, 1970. Reviews see No. 836a, 840, 841a, 847b 366 Bibliography

907 KARL spangenberg . Baumhauers Stromergesprdche m Rotwelsch (30-32, 40-50). Halle/Saale, 1970 908 WOLFGANG Br u c k n e r . Frankfurter Worterbuch (passim). Frankfurt/M., 1971 ff. 909 H. b ee m . (Jit mokurn en de mediene; Joodse moor den m Nederlandse omgevmg (1-66). Assen, 1974 9 jo CAROLINE KOHN. Der Wiener jiidische Jargon rm Werke von Kart Kraus ( m a l 8 : 240-67 [vi-vil]) 1975 911 An d r e w QSTRIN. An inquiry into the influence o f Yiddish on three eastern European Hebrew sources (w p y 21: 8-10) 1976 912 y ale j. r e isn e r . Shivas Tziyon; Yiddish borrowings from the Hebrew which have returned to the slang o f modern-day Israel (w p y 21: 1-6) 1976

17 FOLKLORE - See No. 452, i860 - See No. 455, 1897-1925 913 sau l g in z b u r g i p io t r / pesa c h MAREK. Yevreyskie narodnie pesni v Rosii. St Petersburg, 1901 914 IICXYK [ISAAC] PIROZNIKOV. Iidiiy iprix-virter. Vilna, 1908 - See Nos. 505-9 915 f r it z m o r d ec h a i k a u f m a n n . Die Auffiikrung jiidischer Volksmusik vor West- juden (Jd 1: 750-58) 1916/1917 916 a r n o n a d e l . Jiidische Volkslieder (Jd 1: 112-21, 182-94, 255-67, 326-39, 465-79, 623-30, 691-700, 759-71, 834-46) 1916/1917 917 f r it z m o r d e c h a i k a u f m a n n . Das jiidische Volkslied. Berlin, 1919 918 Sl o im y b a st o m sk i. Baam kval; Iidiiy iprix-virter, glaax-vertlex... Vilna, 1920 - See No. 484, 1920 - See No. 485/6, 1920 919 M. v a n v ild [w a n w il d ] (ed.). Baa jndz Iidn; Zaml-bjjx far folklor jn filelogiy. Warsaw, 1923 920 I. GOLDBERG. Bamerkjngyn viign poetiin itaiger fjn lidiin folks-liid (C 1:105-16) 1926 921 ijjd y l a ib k a h a n [j .l . c a h a n ]. Iidiiy folks-maasys (Pi: 217-34, 369-76) 1928 922 evil Sp u r n . Di roly fjn niimyn in jndzer mamy-luuin (F$ 2: 175-86) 1928 923 l a ib l to u b y s [l 6 be l ta u bes]. Talmjjdiiy ilymintn inym lidiin iprixvort; M it an anhang: Talmjjdiiy gyfliglty virter in der Iidiier iprax. 2nd revised and enlarged ed. Vienna, 1928 924 lazar vaaner. Nigjjnym cj di folks-liider (Pi: 365-68) 1928 - See No. 519, 1929 - See No. 520,1931 367 Bibliography

925 ijjd y l a ib k a h a n [j .l . ca h a n ]. Cjm of-kjm fjn lidiin tanc-liid (IB 1: 28-29) !93! 925a n e x u m y epSt a in [n . e psz t a jn ], Review of No. 486 (IB 4: 73-76) 1932 926 Smjjl zaanvl pipy [samuel zaanvel pipe]. Iidiiy kinder-ipiiln (IA 1 : 39-47) 1937 - See No. 523, 1937 927 ijjd y la ib k a h a n [j .l . ca h a n ]. Iidiier folklor. Vilna, 1938 928 Sm jjl zaanvl p ip y [sam u el zaanvel p i p e ). Iidiiy kinder-liidlex (1A 2:112-25) 1938 929 h a n a n y . a ya lti (ed.). Yiddish proverbs. Transl. Isid o r e g o l d s t ic k . New York, 1949, 1963 930 ijjd y l a ib kah a n [j .l . ca h a n ]. Studiys veign Iidiier folks-iafjng. New York, 19S2 931 r u t h r u b in . Nineteenth century Yiddish folksongs o f children in Eastern Europe (ja f 65: 227-54) 1952 932 elea no r GORDON m l o t e k . America in East European Yiddish folksong (FoY 1: 179-98) 1954 933 Bea tr ic e Silv er m a n w e in r e ic h . Four Yiddish variants o f the Master Thief tale (FoY 1: 199-213) 1954 934 m ord x y [m o r d e c a i] kosover. Iidiiy maaxuulym ( ia ib : 1-145) 1958 935 ia an k yv 1. m a a t l is [ja c o b j. m a it l is ]. Di ivuxym fjn rib Smjjl jn rib Ijjdy Xuusyd; A cjj-itaaier cj der Iidiier folklor-forijng. London, 1961 936 WILHELM h e is k e . Deutsche Volkslieder in jiddischem Sprachgewand (jv l f 9: 31-44) 1964 937 ELEANOR GORDON MLOTEK. International motifs in the Yiddish ballad (s j l l : 209-28) 1964 938 b iin y silv er m a n - vaanraax [Bea tr ic e silv er m a n w e in r e ic h ]. Formaly pro- blimyn baam for in dus Iidiiy iprixvort (SJLL 394-83) 1964 939 BEATRICE SILVERMAN w e in r e ic h . Genres and types of Yiddish folk tales about the prophet Elijah (FoY 2: 202-31) 1965 - See No. 503, 1966

18 LITERATURE

See also Sections 11, 12 and 17. 940 m o r it z steinschneider . Jiidisch-deutsche Literatur; Nach einem handschrift- lichen Catalog der Oppenheimschen Bibliothek (m Oxford), mit Zusatzen und Berichtigungen (Ser. 9: 313-36, 344-52, 363-68, 375-84; 1848; 10: 9-16, 15-32, 42-48, 74-80, 88-96, 107-12; 1849; IBS: 54 f., 57-59, 68-70; 1849; 368 Bibliography

:נ Ser. 25: 33-46, 49-62, 65-79, 81-95, 97-1(30 ;1866 ;1-12 :27 ;1864 ;4 129-40, 145-59; !896. Reprint: Jerusalem, 1961 941 Fr ie d r ic h H. VON DER HAGEN. Die romantische und Volksliteratur der Juden in jiidisch-deutscher Sprache (a a w b ) 1854 942 He r m a n n l o t z e . Zur jiidisch-deutschen Literatur (a l g 7: 90-101) 1870 - See No. 422, 1882 943 f e l ix r o s e n b e r g . Uber eine Sammlung deutscher Volks- und Gesellschaftslieder in hebraischen Lettern (z g jd 2: 232-93; 3: 14-28) 1888; 1889; separately: Berlin, 1889 944 l e o w ie n e r . A history of Yiddish literature. New York, 1897; 2nd ed., With a new Introduction by e l ia s s c h u l m a n , 1973 945 m a ie r J. p i n e s . Histoire de la litter ature judeo-attemande; Avec une preface de CHARLES a n d l e r . Dissertation, Paris University, 1910. Paris, 1911. See Nos. 946, 949 946 - Di gysixty fjn der Iidiser UteratMr. Translation of No. 945. Warsaw, 1911. Review see No. 952 - See No. 426, 1912 947 s. n ig e r [pen name of s m jj l 6 a r n i/ s a m u e l c h a r n e y ]. Review of No. 946 (IV 1) 1912 948 f . p i q u e t . Review of No. 426 (r c h l n .s . 76: 427) 1913 949 m a ie r j . p i n e s . Die Geschichte der jiidisch-deutschen Literatur; Nach dem franzdsischen Original bearbeitet von GEORG h e c h t . Leipzig, 1913 950 m o 'i'se s c h w a b . Review of No. 426 (JAs Ser. 11:1: 671) 1913 951 n u x y m s t if [n a h u m s h t if ]. Dr. Pinysys ‘Gysixty fjn der Iidiser literatuur'‘ (P: 313-48) 1913. Review of No. 946 952 e l u u z e r / l u u z e r s u l m a n [e l ea z a r s c h u l m a n n ], Sfas Iyhjjdis-Askyneizis vg- safrjjso mikec ha-maiy ha-15 ad kec snos ha-maiy ha-18 \Sfat yehudit-askenazit ve-sifrutah, mi-kez ha-mea ha-15 kez snot ha-mea ha-18]. Riga, 1913 953 r o b e r t p e t s c h . Review of No. 945 (a sn s Jg. 68, vol. 132: 175-81) 1914 954 z a l m y n r a iz in [z a l m a n r e jz e n / r e is e n ], Leksikon fjn der Iidiser literatuur jn presy. Redaktiirt fjn S. Niger. Warsaw, 1914 955 NATHANIEL b u c h w a l d . Yiddish (c h a l 4: 598-609) New York, 1921 956 NUXYM St i f [n a h u m s h t if ]. Duurym-Iidntum jn Iidisy literatuur. Berlin, 1922 957 s .b . f r e e h o f . Devotional literature in the vernacular ( y b c c 33: 375-424) 1923 958 NUXYM s t if [n a h u m s h t if ]. Ditrix fjn Bern; Iidiskait jn veltlexkait in der alter Iidiser literatuur (IiF 1: i - n , 112-22) 1924 959 m a k s e r ik [pen name of z a l m y n m e r k in . Bletlex cj der gysixty fjn der elterer Iidiser literatuur (C 1: 173-78) 1926 960 z a l m y n r a iz in [z a l m a n r e jz e n / r e is e n ], Leksikon fjn der Iidiiser literatuur, presy jn filologiy. Vilna, 1926-1929 369 Bibliography

9 6 1 ia a n k y v Sack! (ja c o b sh a t z k i], *Paris jn Vieny’ (F$ 1: 187-96) 1926 962 m aks e r ik [pen name of z a l m y n m £rk !n ]. Di gyiixty fjn der Iidiier literatuur, fjn di fluty caatn biz der haskuuly-tkjjfy, fercnter - axcnter iuur-hjndert; Mit bilder jn melodiys. Warsaw, 1928 9 6 3 MAKS vaanraax [m ax w e in r e ic h ]. Bilder fjn der Iidiier literatuur-gyiixty. Vilna, 1928 964 sa l o m o [s o l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Literatur, Jiddische ( jl 3: 1155-1175) 1929 9 6 5 I1SRUUL CINBERG [I s r a e l z in b e rg ]. O us der Alt-Iidiier literatuur (F$ 3 :1 7 3 -8 4 ) 1929 966 NUXYM St if [n a h u m s h t if ]. Di iltery Iidiiy literatuur; Literariiy xrestomatiy mit an araan-fiir jn derkleirjngyn cj iiidn iraaber. Kiiyv, 1929 966a za l m y n r a iz in [z a lm a n r e isen ]. Cj der gyiixty fjn der Iidiier haskuuly- literatuur (IB 1: 193-207) 1931 9 6 6 b - Naaiy arbytn cj der gyiixty fjn der haskuuly-literatuur (IB 2: 367-89) 1931 9 6 7 NACHMAN m eisel. Jiddische Literatur (after 1881) (ejb 9: 127-80) 1932 968 ZALMYN RAIZIN [za lm a n r e ise n ]. Cj der gyiixty fjn der Iidiier folks-literatutir (IB 3: 240-59) 1932 968a SAUL CHAJES. Pseudonymen-Lexikon der hebraischen und jiddischen Literatur. Vienna, 1933. Reprint: Hildesheim, 1967 9 6 9 1ISRUUL CINBERG [ISRAEL z in b e rg ]. Alt-Iidiiy literatuur fjn di iltsty caatn biz der haskuuly-tkjjfy (Vol. 6 of the author’s Di gyiixty fjn der literatuur baa Iidn. 2nd ed., Vilna, 1933. Hebrew translation by b. k a ru , S.z. a r i e l and D. kna'ani ; vol. 4 of Toldot sifrut Yisra'el. Tel-Aviv, 1955; 2nd ed., 1958-1971 9 70 jak o b j. m e it l is [ m a it l is ]. Das Ma'assebuch; Seine Entstehung und Quellen- geschichte. Berlin, 1933. Review see No. 722 971 MEYER WAX MAN. Judaeo-German literature (in: A history of Jewish literature, vol. II. From the twelfth century to the middle of the eighteenth century, chapter x ii) New York, 1933 972 iic x y k Si pe r [ ig n a c y s c h ip p e r ]. Problemyn fjn der alt-Iidiier literatuur-gyiixty (IB 7: 36- 46)1934 973 - Kultu&r-gyiixtlexer fon fjn der ihster Iidiier UteratuHr (IB 8: 44-60) 1935 974 abraham A. ROBACK. The story of Yiddish literature. New York, 1940 975 - Psychology through Yiddish literature; Apologia pro vita yiddicia. New York, 1942 976 m a ie r vilNER. Cj der gyiixty fjn der Iidiier literatuur tn igtn iuur-hjndert, Etiudn jn materiaht. New York, 1945 976a LEO Fines. Als der sof is gut, is alles gut... An anonymous Yiddish comedy from the end of the 18th century; Introduction, notes and modernized version. Paris, 1948 370 Bibliography

976b leo fu k s. Van Poerimspelen tot Poermkranten (m g jn i : 6/7, 162-76) 1948 977 n a h u m b . m in k o f f in collaboration with ju d a h a. jo f f e . Old Yiddish literature (j p p p 3: 145-64) «952 977a sam u el n ig e r [pen name of sam u el c h a r n ey ], Yiddish literature in the past 200 years (j p p p 3: 165-219) 1952 978 jo s e p h o pa t q sh u . Fifty years of Yiddish literature in the United States ( y ajss 8: 72-82) 1954 979 ABRAHAM A. R0 BACK. Contemporary Yiddish literature; A brief outline. London, >957 980 fran z j. b eranek. Jiddische Literatur (r d l g , 2nd ed., 1: 766-70) 1958 981 jaco b j. m a it l is . The ma’aseh in the Yiddish ethical literature. London, 1958 982 Ar n o l d PAUCKER. Yiddish versions of the German Volksbuch. Thesis, Notting- ham University, 1959 983 - Yiddish versions of early German prose novels (jjs 10: 151-67) 1959 984 - Das deutsche Volksbuch bei den Juden (ZDPh 80: 302-17) 1961 985 - Das Volksbuch von den Sieben Weisen Meistem in der jiddischen Literatur (zvk 57: 177-94) >961 986 g ia c o m o PRAMPOLINl. Letterature Jiddisch e neo-ebraica (SUL 7: 786-817) Turin, 1961 987 pavel trost. Em angebliches Prager Purimspiel ( m a j 2 : 5 3 -5 7 ) 1961 987a iaankyv i . m a a tl is [jaco b J. m a it l is ]. An jmbakanter Medrys Vaioify (IB 4 2 : 278-82) 1962 988 so l l ip t z in . The flowering of Yiddish literature. New York, 1963 989 franz j . bera n ek . Das Tiroler Maissebuch (Schl 38: 36-41) 1964 990 hasye COOPF.RMAN. Yiddish literature in the United States ( in : OSCAR JANOWSKY [ed.]. The American Jew; A reappraisal: 193-209) Philadelphia, 1964 991 leo fu k s. Die jiddische Literatur (l w : 101-9) Zurich, 1964 992 ja c o b m . m a i t l is . Akedas Jizchok ( k l l i : 320-21) 1965 993 c h o n e sh m e r u k . Der Nister's ‘Under a Fence'; Tribulations of a Soviet Yiddish symbolist (FoY 2: 263-87) 1965 994 ROLF ECKART u n d WALTER r o l l . Dukus Horant (k l l 2 : 1691 f.) 1966 995 w e r n e r sc h w a r z . Die weltliche Volksliteratur der Juden (mm 4; 72-89) 1966 996 He r m a n n h a k el. Jiddisch - Sprache etner zweitausendjahrigen Wanderung ( lk 15: 293-307) 1967 997 WALTER ROLL u n d CHRISTOPH GERHARDT. Zur literarhistorischen Emordnung des sogenannten ‘Dukus Horant’ (dvjl 4 1 : 517-21) 1967 998 xuu n y Sm eruk [c h o n e sh m er u k ]. Di naaiy ediciy fjnym Alt-Iidiin ‘Myiuxym- bjjx' (gk 59: 208-15) 1967 999 d in a a b r a m o w ic z. Yiddish literature in English translation; Books published 1945; 2nd ed., supplementary list. New York, 1968 371 Bibliography

1000 Charles A. madison. Yiddish literature; Its scope and major writers. New York, 1968; reprint: 1971. See No. 1027a 1001 iaankyv 1. m aatlis [jacob j. maitlis/meitlis]. Folks-iafjng jn literatuur (g k : 70-76) 1968 1002 - Sprax- jn literatuur-forijng (ID: 256-66) 1968 1003 Leonard prager. Shakespeare in Yiddish (ShQjg: 149-63) 1968 1003a Sm jjl rozanski [samuel rollansky] (ed.). Antologiy njsex haskuuly. Buenos Aires, 1968 1004 h an a Sm e r u q . Yidit, Yidis(EI 19: 794-810) 1968 1005 jutta janke. Jiddische Literatur (Dei Biicherkarren, No. 1) [East] Berlin, 1969 1006 IAANKYV I. MAATLIS [JACOB J. m aitlis/ m eitlis]. Maasy-bjjx. Buenos Aires, 1969 1007 evelyn T. beck. Kafka and the Yiddish theater; A study o f the impact o f the Jewish theater on the work of Franz Kafka. Dissertation, University of Wis- consin, 1969 (dai 30A: 5439) 1970 1008 ruth r. wisse. The Schlemihl as hero in Yiddish and American fiction. Dis- sertation, McGill University, 1969 (dai 30A: 2983) 1970 1009 chone shmeruk. Yiddish literature (ejj 16: 798-8333) 1971 1010 sol l ip t z in . A history of Yiddish literature. Middle Village, N.Y. 1972 1011 brian Murdoch. A Yiddish writer and the German cultural hegemony before World War 11 (JSS 34: 95-106) 1972 1012 josef weissberg. Zur Stellung der altjiddischen Literatur in der Germanistik (ZDPh 91: 383-406) 1972 1013 d iin y ABRAMOVid [din a abramowicz]. Haskuuly-literatuur (IB 44: 311-18) 1973. Review of No. 1003a 1013a JOHN A. HOWARD. Hebrew-German and early Yiddish literature: survey of problems. Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1972 (DAI 34A: 774 f.) 1973 1013b 1. l ifSic [e. lifsghOtz]. Di Varsouer Iidisy Caatjng (IB 44: 107-37) 1973 jo 14 d a n m ir o n . A traveler disguised; A study in the rise o f modem Yiddish fiction in the nineteenth century. New York, 1973 1015 franco palmieri. La letteratura della terza diaspora; La cultura ebraica dallo Yiddish all'Ameridish. Ravenna, 1973 1016 e u a s schulman. Bialik's Yiddish poetry (Yd 1: 66-74) *973 1017 Helm ut d in se. Die Entwicklung des jiddischen Schriftums im deutschen Sprach- gebiet. Stuttgart, 1974. Reviews see Nos. 1018-1020,1022,1024-253, 1029, 1030,1033 1018 Walter r6 l l . Review of No. 1017 (G 15:594: 3521) 1974 1019 Review of No. 1017 ( jes) 1974 1020 w ulf-o . dreessen. Review of No. 1017 (AfdA 104:162-66) 1975 372 Bibliography

1021 - Zur Rezeption deutscher epitcher Literatur im AU jiddischen: Das Bet spiel 'Wigalois' - 'Artushof ( dlsm a 1973: 116-28) 1975 1022 Flo r e n c e g u g g e n h e im - g r u n b e r g . Review of No. 1017 (iws July 11) 1975 1023 Iaan k y v L MAATUS [JACOB J. MAITLIS/MEITLIS]. Forijngyn jn literatuur (1GFD 191-240) 1975 1024 g On t e r m a r w ed el. Review of No. 1017 (ZDPh 94: 466-68) 1975 1025 WALTER r o l l . Review of No. 1017 (Daph 4: 87-94) 1975 1025a - Review of No. 1017 (G 15:594: 3521) 197S 1026 DAVID G. ro sk ies. The genres o f Yiddish popular literature (w p y 8) 1975 1027 h a n a Sm eru q [c h o n e sh m e r u k ]. Ha-maggacim ben ha-sifrut ha-polanit te-ven si/rut yidis, al-pi sippur Esterke ve-Kaztmtr ka-Cadol melekh Polm (Sif No. 21:60-100) 1975 1027a Charles a. m a d iso n . Jiddische Literatur, Vbersetzt von Otto F. Best (j e j w : 297-310 = n h l w vol. 18) 1976. See No. 1000 1028 Wa lter ROLL. Man hart uvnig sagen von Frieden; Ein jiidisches Lehrgeduht aus dem Mayen des 17. Jahrhunderts (k t j 16: 40-42) 1976 1029 XUUNY Sm eruk [c h o n e sh m er u k ]. Di Alt-Iidiiy literatuur; Iiry uun-haibn jn primary kontaktn; Iber gyzect fjn Hebreiiin ksav-iad by avruum nover£t £ie r n (p f il 3: 1-80) 1976 1030 Review of No. 1017 (SR 10: 247) 1976 1031 m a n fred c a lieb e . Zur Problematik von Gesamtdarstellungen jiddischer Literaturgeschichte in deutscher Sprache; Bedenken, Berichtigungen und Ergdn- zungen zu Helmut Dmse, 1Die Entmcklung des jiddischen Schrifttums im deutschen Sprachgebiet* (ww 27: 51-66) 1977 - See No. 590, 1977 1032 LEO fu k s. Zum Emfluss der niederlandischen Kultur auf die jiddische Literatur des /7. und 18. Jahrhunderts ( f a j: 74-77) 1977 1033 HARRY Z0HN. Review of No. 1017 (g q 50: 97 f.) 1977

19 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL WRITINGS

- See No. 940 1034 Al fr e d la n d a u . Bibliographie des Jiidisch-Deutschen (d m i : 126-32), Register (208-9) >897 1035 - Bibliographie der jiidisch-deutschen SprUchmorter (m g jv : i 15-21) 1901 1036 sa l o m o [so l o m o n a .] b ir n b a u m . Neuere Werke uber Jiddisch (Fr 1: 121 f.) >9>3 1037 BilER buurexov [ ber BOROCHOv], Di bibliotSik fjnym Itdiin filolog; £ierster tail; Fiir-hjndert iuur Itdiiy iprcuc-forijng (P: after col. 442: cols. 1-68) 1913 373 Bibliography

1038 maxs vaanraax [max w einreich]. Bibliografiy fjn Dr. Alfred Landys iriftn i : 4-10) 1926 1039 avruum a. robak [abraham a. robacx]. Ziltyny Iidiiy biixer (F$ 2 : 381-400) 1928 1040 karl habersaat. Zur Datierung der jiidisch-deutschen Hohelied-Paraphrasen; Em biblicgraphisch-kritischer Versuch. Berlin, 1933 1041 D. SAMUEL LOWINGER u n d S. BER WEINRYB. Jiddische Handschriften in Breslau. Budapest, 1936 1042 i Idi& s visn^aftlexer in s t it u t . Ihuu-bibliografiy; A ryiiimy fjn di biixer, zumaln, broiuum, artiklyn, rycenziys jazv, vus der Iidiier Visniaftlexer Institut hot publikiirt in di iuunt 1935-1941. New York, 1943. Vol. 2 : 1942- 1950. Ibid., 1955 1043 Linguistic Bibliography: Yiddish. (1950-1951, under: Germanic languages, C; 1952-1953/1952-1956, under: Mixed languages, I, Jewish languages, 1; 1954-1958/1957-1967, under: Germanic languages, German, b; 1970-1972, under: West Germanic, German1 1044 KARL HABERSAAT. Beitrage zur jiddischen Dialektologie (RSO 26: 23-26; 27: J951. »952 ( ג ־ 7 3 2 1045 - Repertorium der jiddischen Handschriften (rso 29: 53-70; 30: 235-49; 31: 4J-49) 1954, 1955, 1956. Review see No. 1047 1046 URIEL WEINREICH. Literary bibliographies; I. Sholom Akichem (FoY 1: 278- 84) »954 1047 franz j. beranek. Bibliographie des Jiddischen seit 1945 (maj 1: 8 -1 1, and each No. until end of publication) 1955-1964 1048 URIEL and Beatrice w e in r e ic h . Yiddish language and folklore; A selective bibliography for research. The Hague, 1959. Review see No. 1049 1049 karl habersaat. Review of No. 1048 (ZDPh 80: 447) 1961 1050 hana Sm eruq (ed.). Pirsumim yehudiyim bt-vrit ha-moezot, Nos. 349-4005. Jerusalem, 1961 1051 karl habersaat. Materialien zur Geschichte der jiddischen Crammatik (Orb r 1: 352-68) 1962 1052 - Prolegomena zum Repertorium der jiddischen Handschriften (ZDPh 81: 338-48) 1962 1053 - Beitrag zur Chronologie der datierten jiddischen Handschriften, 1307-1619 (maj 2: 117 f.) 1963 1054 - Die dltesten Hohelied-Handschriften von 1304 bis 1590, nebst Chronologie der jiddischen Handschriften. Freiburg/Br., 1964 1055 franz j . beranek. Bibliographie zur jiddischen Ortsnamenkunde (Ono 11: 35-42) 1964-1965 1 Four changc* of classification in two decades. 374 Bibliography

1056 joshua a. fishm an. Yiddish in America (IJA1 31: 73-76) 1965 1057 karl habersaat. Zur Geschichte der jiddischen Grammatik (ZDPh 84:419-35) 1965 1058 - Die jiddischen Handschriften in Italien (ASNS Jg. 116, vol. 201: 48-50) 1965 1059 - Die jiddischen Handschriften in der Schweiz (asns Jg. 117, vol. 202: 114 f.) *965 - See No. 80, second ed., pp. 185-95, 1966 - See No. 134:390-407: Arabic- Yiddish vocabularies; An annotated bibliography, 1966 1059a i £fim a. iySjjr in [y£f !M a. JESHURIn ]. 100 iuur mod/my Iidiiy literatuur; Bibliografiier ejjitaaier. New York, 1965 1060 HANS p . a lth a u s. Ergebnisse der Dialektologie; Bibliographie der A uf sat ze in den deutschen Zeitschriften fiir Mundartforsc hung 1854-1968 (zd lb 7; Register: 13, Jiddisch, pp. 237 f.) 1970 - See No. 1009, 1971 1061 wulf- o . dreessen, Walter ro ll un d erika t im m . Jiddische Druckc vor 1800; Hilfen fiir den Umgang mit einem neuen Quellenverzeichnis (zda 105: 310-17) 1976 1062 hana Sm eruq [chone shmeruk]. Rehma bibliografit se! defuse polin be-yidis adgezerot tah ve-tat (KS 52: 383-417) 1977 1063 Zjjx-cetlyn cjm iumal Iidiiy Sprax 1941-1974 (1S 36: 1-152) 1977

The bibliographies of Hebrew works also list Yiddish books. SUPPLEMENT TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

ACXWS Advances in the Creation and Revision of Writing Systems (ed. J. A. Fishman) BZIH Biuletyn Zydowskiego Instytutu Historycznego EDB Ehime-doitsu-bungaku Ga Gal'td ILi Issues in Linguistics* LS Language Sciences 0$ Ofn Svil Ta Tarbiz YIK Yudaya-isuraeru-kenkyu

13* fritz MORDECHAI KAUFMANN. Der Boykott des Jiddischen; Em Protest (Fr 1: 195) *9*3 14a nathan birnbaum. Vom sterbenden Jiddisch (Fr 1: 665) 1914 14b - Ein Witz der Geschichte der zu denken gibt (Fr 2: 185) 1914 23a idv m. Spiilxain. lidii; A konspikt fjn a kurs in dym 2tn Moskver Myljjxiin Onhirzitit. Moscow, 1926 30a m atisiuuhj miizys [Referat viign der Iidiier iprax] (Sec No. 30: 143-93) 1931 62a maks vaanraax [max weinreich]. lidii (A£ 2nd ed. vol. Jidn B: 23-90) 1940 97a ijjdl [yudel] mark. Di atributitvy frazy (1$ 2: 39-47) 1942 97b - Di hilfs-virbn hubn jn zaan baam iafn difargangyny coat (1S 2: 119-25) 1942 97c - Der atributitver baa-zac (1$ 2: 130) 1942 99a ijjd l [y u d el] m ark . Imittmjng in cuul cviin subiict jn pridikat (1S 9: 22-34) 1949 99b - Viign dym infinitih (I§ 10: 1-13) 1950 99c - Viign dym partikl cjfam infinitih (1$ 10: 35-49) 1950 101a ijjd l [yud el] m a r k . Di itam-konstrukciy ( /5 12: 81-89) 1952 101b jr iiy l vaanraax [u r ie l w e in r e ic h ]. Cjrik cj aspiktn (1S 12: 97-101) 1952 101c ijjd y a. iu fy [ju d a h a. jo ffe ]. Der akuzatih mitn infinitih (1$ 13: 5-12) 1953 loid ijjd l [y ud el] m ark . Kinyn mir zex cjnoif raidn ? An infer Ijjdy A. Iufyn (/$ 13: 12-15) »953 ,u , 58-63־ioie - Miier-cuuifjn zax-virter (1S 14: 33-42, 80-92, 120-26; 15: 5 65-79, ” 0-18; 16: 8-21) 1954-1956 ioif - Die pripoziciy fjn (1$ 16: 33-44) *956 101 g - Di kamys-farbmdjng cviin cvai zax-virter (f$ 16: 65-86) 1956 ioih - Di pripoziciy far (1$ 17: 33-45) 1957 103a - Di pripoziciy of (1$ 20: 71-81) i960 103b - Viign miinym advirbn (1S 22: 1-18) 1962 376 Supplement to the Bibliography

104a IJJDY A. IUFY [JUDAH A. jo ffe ]. Der gthtiliiv in ISdii (I $ 24: 19-23,52-56) 1964 105a L. z a m y t. Di cjj-gub-caatn ( 1$ 26; 19-25) 1966 106a jriiyl vaanraax [uriel weinreich]. Zaan krank - zaan a kranker; Cjm lintaks fjn lidiin adiektirv (1$ 28j i-ii) 1968 106b ijjdl [yudel] mark. Der adiiktiiv {1$ 2iL 65-87) 1968 108a DAVID L. GOLD. Regional variations in the formation o f Yiddish noun plurals. MA essay, Columbia University, 1971 115a y isr a el h . ta v io v . Ha-yesodot ha-hrim be-£argon (in K itve y .h . ta v io v ) Berlin, 1923 119a MOISY ALTBOUER. Di keign-zaatiky Poilii-ISdisy haipuuys ofn {prax-gybiil, Vilna, 1934 121a mo£e altbauer. Meqorah ha-hri sel ha-mila Sitwa (L y j 85-87) 1944 122a L $tainb£rg. Hebriiizmyn in der Iidiier iprax. Wroclaw/Breslau, 1949 122b yehiel bin-nun [jechiel fischer]. Ha-hrit se-be-yidit (L 139-44) 1951 126a nuxym krupin. Hant-bjjx fjn Hebreiizmyn in der Iidiier iprax, Buenos Aires, 1957 130a ijjdl [yudel] mark. Puuiyty verbn cviin Hebreiizmyn (/$ 2u 33-51; 221 86-87) 1961, 1962 134a iosyf & rniak [joseph cherniak], Luuin-koidyi in Iidiiy vertlex (A$ 2 j: 79- 90) 1967 139a y e h u d a m ark . Ha-markiv ha-slavi be-yidii al admat polm (Ga 3: 57-66) 1977 174a maks vaanraax [max weinreich]. Di sistem Iidiiy kadmyn-vokaln (1$ 201 65-71) i960 175a ijjdy a. iufy [judah a. joffe]. Di klangyn e jn t in lidii (1$ 2 1 : 1-8) 1961 184a sm jjl D. vaas [sam weiss], (A j, /« :/ jn faij inym lidiin vokalizm (/£ 30:65-69) 1971 190a mordxy v£nger [(mordecai) weinger]. Maan ous-laigjng. Warsaw, 1913 191a Suulym ba ilin [b e il in ], Cjm ous-laig fjn Hebreiiiy verter in lidii (FS i : 289- 90) 1926 191b maks vaanraax [max weinreich]. Sraab uun graazn! Vilna, 1926 191c av ru u m viviORKY. Der ous-laig fjn lidii. Moscow, 1926 193 (After No. 153:) See No. 25, 1930 203a maks vaanraax [max weinreich]. Der Iidiier ous-laig haant jn amuul (in the author’s Di hiarcy pintelex; 224-40) Vilna, 1939 204a biniumyn g, xaifyc [ben g. kayfetz], Veign problemyn fjn transkripciy (1$ u 125 f.) 1941 205a ijjd l [yudel] MARK. A proiektfar an interdiaUktiin ous-laig (1$ 6 : 118-21) 1946 , 208a ijjdy A. iufy [jUDAH A. joffe]. Lomtr analiziirn nit stam debatiim (1$ 10: 49- 52) 1950 377 Supplement to the Bibliography

210b MAKS v a a n ra a x [m ax WEfNREiOi]. Der ahthaitlexer ous-laig, zaan gyiixty jn vhdy (1$ 1£ 38-64) *959 2 ioc zosa SZAJK0WSK1. Catalogue of the Exhibition The History of Yiddish Orthog- raphy from the Spelling Rules of the Early Sixteenth Century to the Standardized Orthography of 1936. New York, 1966 2 1 1a DAVID L. GOLD. Successes and failures in the standardization and implementation of Yiddish spelling and Romanization (aCXWS: 307-69) 1977 216a ijjd l [yudel] mark. [A proiekt] vii cj transkribiim of £nglii Iidiiy niimyn jn titlyn fjn biixer (/.$ 6; 121-23) 1946 216b avruum a. robak [abraham a. roback], Veign Dr. S. Biimboims transkripciys (1S 6: 113-18) 1946 223a avruum a. robak [abraham a. roback]. A puur verter viign transkripciy jn dialiktn (/$ 9: 52-55) 1949 265 Review see No. 856a 272 Review see No. 857a 272a Sloimy nobl [shlomo nobl]. Diferinciirjngfjn Iidiiy dialiktn in ain pjnkt (1$ 25: 4 6 -5 0 1965 290b duvyd l. krous [david l, kraus] jn duvyd [david] l. gold. A bisl Painter lidii fjn far hjndert iuur (J$ 3 2 : 33-38) 1972 297a A J- B1SKO. Milom muuly vy-hmlym iargoni-ivri [Millon male ve-salem iargoni- hri], Hjjgy bt-ksav [Huga bi-ketav] Y.M. z a lk in d , London, 1913 330a nuxym Stif [naum Stif]. Ortografiier virter-bjjx. Moscow, 1932 332a zalmyn raizin [zalman rejzen/reisen]. Nuxym Stifs licty arbyt (IB 5: 38 2 - 400) 1933 336a s. RUXKIND jn H. Skliar. Hdii-Rjsiier virter-bjjx. Minsk, 1940 344b IJJDL [YUDEL] MARK. Viign neologizmyn (1$ L2J 33-47) 1952 344c - Viign iafn rixtiky neologizmyn (1S ii: 65-83) 1952 346a moiSy St a rk man [m oses STARKMAN]. Gymuury-Iidii (1S i j j 154- 57) 1953 349a Iicxyk rivkind [isaac rivkind]. Rjml ci r.j.m.1. (1S 14: 21-24) >954 352a mordxy [mordecai] kosover. ‘ Amuulyk', ‘Muxy\ ‘Timxy' = Arminer (1$ 1-20) 1958 357a ijjd l [yudel] mark. Viign iiidlexy jn niclexy Daacmerizmyn (IS 23J 65-87) 1963 357b - Kloimerity, sufykdiky jn niclexy Daaimerizmyn (1$ 24J 1-ig) 1964 366a MYNASY JNGER [m . UNGER], Iidiiy virter in luubt-koidyin tikst fjn Sipjjry Maasys (A$ 28; 11-21) 1968 373a maks vaanraax [max w einreich]. Di Iidiiy klal-iprax in der cvaiter hilft cvancikstn iuur-hjndert (/5 joj 2-18) 1971. Review of No. 362 373b duvyd [david] l . gold. Mikoiex a cvaitn arous-kjm fjn Jriiyl Vaanraaxs Modem £nglii-Itdii Iidii-£nglii Virter-bjjx (1S 30J 19-32) 1971 378 Supplement to the Bibliography

401a M. LAZERSON [lase&SON], A bisl Baltii-Iidiiy giografiy (1£ 21 84-88) 1942 412a mordxy & xter [m ordkhe (mordecai) SCHAeotter]. Niimyn fjn baimer jn kiakys; Termmologiier proiikt (/5 2fn 65-80) 1966 416a TOMAZ OP AS. Uwagi 0 wptywie jfxykv polskiego na tworzeme sif nazisk Zydow pokkich (od drugiej potowy XV I do X V II w.) (b z ih i : 47-63) 1974 433 Transliteration and German translation 526a See No. 433. Facsimile and letterprint 538a w il ly staerx. Zur Vberliefermgsgeschkhte des jiidisch-deutschen Samuel- und Konigsbuches (m gw j 63: 20-33) 1919 552a H. b£jm [h . beem]. Cjj-itaaier cj der forijngfjn iltstn ItdiSn manuskript (A$ 2 a ; »-16) i960. To No. 433 565a MAKS VAANRAAX [MAX WEINREICH], A Iidiier zac fjn far zibn hjndert iuur 2£ 87-03; Ml 61 f ) *963. »964 581a m orris L goldwasser. * Azhoras NoshimA linguistic study of a sixteenth century Yiddish work, ma thesis, Columbia University, New York, 1968 616a salomo [solom on a.] birn ba um . Hebr'disches Worterbuch (Fr u 400) 1913. Review 625a imuniiyl ringlblOm [emanuel ringelblum]. Adnotaciys jn bamirkjngyn m luuin-koidyi jn Alt-Iidii fjn istn LL (F$ 1: 333-38) 1926 631 Reprint: [1$ 34: 23- 33) !975 632a maks vaanraax [max w einreich]. Iidiiy filologiy (AE 2nd ed., vol. Iidn B: 101-108) 1940 632b myna$y jngek [m . unger], Iidiiy virter in Svuxy ha-Best (1$ z u 6<;-73) 1961 635a xaaiym L [qiajm s.] kazdan. Bilderiikait ht der Iidiier foli-iprax (A$ q : 34-S 0) >949 637a nuusn ZIISKIND [n athan SUSSKINd J. Batraxtjngyn viign der gyiixty fjn lidii (I$ 13:97-108) !953 640a max weinreich. Prehistory and early history of Yiddish (FoY 2: 73-10!) 1954 640b - Ikerym in der gyiixty fjn lidii (1$ y j 97—110; is: 12- 19) 1954, 1955 643a ijjdl [yudel] mark. ProbUmyn baam normiim di Iidiiy klal-iprax (I$ !41 33-50)1958 645a URIEL VAINRAJX [uriel w einreic h]. Nosah ha-sofrrim ha-rori-yidi (L 221 54- 66) 1958 654a x. liiberman [ch. lieberman]. Viign dym Saifer ha-Magyd jn zaan mexaber (I $ 26: 33-38; 20: 73-76) 1966, 1969/1970 657a NUUSN ZIISKIND [NATHAN SUSSKIND]. Alt-Ildii jn Mitl-Iidii [1$ 2Q: 43-64) 1969/I970 657c mordxy ^ xter [mordkhe (mordecai) schaechter]. Dus luuin fjn S0v6tis H aim land (/£ 2$: 10-42; 30: 32-65) 1969/1970, 1971 379 Supplement to the Bibliography

658a GERROlD M. sadock, Word-final de-voicmg in the development of Yiddish (ILi: 790-97) 1973 659b josef weissberg. Alteres Deutsch als Basis fiir die jiddische Synonymik (sd ls) «974 681a nathan birnbaum. Review of No. 947a (Fr c 399) 1913 788a mordxy $exter [mordkhe (mordecai) schaechter]. Dr. Sloimy Biirnboim - der iprax-narmiirer (1S 2Zl 33-43) 1962 788b - Toponimik jn verter-forymjng baa Dr. Sloimy Biirnboim (1S 22J 74-80) 1962 836a b£n-ijjdy-g£ir$n. A bjjx veign lidii jn P.nglti in a Los-Andiyleser fiier-ituut (0S No. 208: 221L) «972 841a joshua a. fishman. Review of No. 906 (La 48: 969-76) 1972 846a Maks Vaanraax [Max Weinreich]. Gysixty fjn der lidis sprax. Bagrifn, faktn, mytodn. New York, 1973. 846b Max Weinrcich. History of the Yiddish Language. Translated by Shlnmo Noble with the assistance of Joshua A. Fishman. Chicago, 1979 gold. Review of No. 906 (LS No. 2J1 21-28) 1972 ״847b david 1 855a david l . gold. Review of sjll (LS No. 31J 1974 856a salcia la nd m a nn. Review of Nos. 6r, 265 (zrgg 2h1 259-62) 1974 (־857a henry r. stern. Review of No. 372 (as 4s/t1974) 1970 (260-62 :4 877a Mordkhe Schaechter. Four Schools of Thought in Yiddish Language Planning (mgs 3.2: 34-^6) 1977 877b Khone Shmeruk. The Hebrew Acrostic in the Yosef Hatsadik Poem of the Cambridge Yiddish Codex (mgs III, 21 67 8jJ 1977 895a IJJDY £lz£t [yehuda elzet]. ‘Bi-leSon ha-am’, ‘bi-le50n ha-dibbur’, anstuut cj zugn lidii (1S ihi 44-S4) 1956 947a $mjjl niger [samuel charney]. Veign Iidiiy haaber. Warsaw, 1913. Review see No. 681a 969 (After Kna’ani add:) Sifrut Yidii me-reiitah ve'ad litequfat ha-haskala 975b Sm jjl NIGER [SAMUEL CHARNEY]. Dereailers jn romanistn. New York; Vol. I, 1946 981a 3m jjl niger [samuel charney]. Iidiiy iraaber in Soviet-Rjsland. New York, 1958 986a dov sadan. Avne miftan; Masot al sofre yidii. Tel-Aviv, 1961 996 xuuny £m£ruk [chone shmeruk]. Di naaiy ediciy fjnym Alt-Iidiin Myluxym- Bjjx(GK 55; 208-15) 1967 1032a hana Sm eruq [chone shmeruk]. Qawim li-demutah set sifrut yidii be-polin u-ve-lita adgezerot tah ve-tat (Ta 46: 258-314) 1977 1047a Sm jjl niger [samuel charney] and iaankyv Sacki (jacob shatzki) et al. Leksikon fjn der naaier Iidiier literatuur. New York, 1956 ff. INDEX TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

The numbers referring to each author’s writings are arranged chronologically.

Aalto, P. 892 Benyovsky, K. 329 Aaznstat, S. [AizenJtat, S.] 227 Beranek, F.J. 240, 242, 742, 245, 6^ Abelson, P. 301 404, 1047, 548, 760, 761, 169, 762, Abramovil [Abramowjcz], D. 999,1013 «73. 254. 980, 257, «048, 103! !75, ,gHg ,י Adam, M. 595a ?59! 4§s 435, 1A 12!410 ,262 Aemilius, P. 419 180, 268, 1055, 20j 279 Alloni [Allony], M. 132 Bergman, P.M. 365 Altbauer, M. 119a, 121a, 132, 651 Bergmann, fcL 14 Althaus, HiL 899, 359, 900, 67! 13^ Bemfeld, J. 581 651,901,653,793,794,811,364* 463, Bernstain, M.V. [Bernstein, M.W.] 924, 828, 1060, 446, 658, 850 406, 409 Amitai, M. 44a Bernstein, L [Bernstain, y 462 A-n. D. 509 Best, O.F. 22 Ariel, S.Z. 969 Bihari, J. 136, 851 Aronius, J. 387 Biirnboim, N. see Birnbaum, N. Ave-Lallemant, F.Ch.B. 612 Biirnboim, S.U./Birnbaum, S.A. 214, Avneri, Z. 331 215a, 474, 616a, 617, 1036, 686, 80, Ayalti, H X 929 391a, 487, LL51 5h 151, 191, 695, y , ,S4, 216, 964י 56, 241 ,705 ,704 •55 Bach, A. 402 2^26,28, 1g2, !93, 711, 27, 58, 156, ,ג, Bach, ILL 858 201, 202* 5$j 152j 33°, 43*. 43158 Bailin, S. [Beilin, S.] 191a 239>, 7*6, LS9. 890, 524, 727» 526, Bamberger, M.L. 692 632, 161, 204, 337, 6i 162, 205,633, Bartsch, K. 571 740, 217, 206, 222, 172, 210, 638,756, Bastomski, S. 918 894, 776, 434. 553, 39! 44°. 529. 44«. Bauer, E. 787 654, 800, 655, 41, 825, 42j 837, Baviskar, V.L. sec Lockwood Baviskar 291a, 878 Beck, E.T. 1007 Bilecki, Y.H. [l.H. Biletzki]. 657a Beem, H. 251, 498, 552a, 783, 362, Bin-Nun, J. see Fischer, J. 374a,909 Birnbaum, L 41 Beilin, S. see Bailin, S. Birnbaum, N. & 5j <>121 ?! 2! ?°1 I i Beim, H. see Beem, H. i i 14a, 14b, 460, 6S1a Beltz, W. 836 Bisko, A.L. 297a Ben-Ijjdy-Geirsn 836a Blanc, H. 122, 895, 902 B61-Jjri, [Benury], A. 331 Blau, R. 489 381 Index to the Bibliography

Bloch, A. 312, 481 Cemerinski [Tchemerinski], M. 142a Bloomgarden, Y.S. [Blumgarten, I.S.] see Iyhoiys Dalman, G.H. 453 B-n, L. 508 Dauzat, A. 750 Boor, H.A.W. de 560 Dawidowicz, L. 788 Borochov, B., see Buurexov, B. Debri, S. 324, 332 Boesch, B. 568 Decsy, Gy. 847a Boeschenstein, J. 594 Dembitzer, S. 461 Botwinik, B. 470 Derczanski, A. 276, 802 Bourgeois, H. 78 D[ieffenbach], L. 879, 880 Blumyntal [Blumental], N. 350 Dinse, H- 1017 Bratkowsky, J.G. 185, 187 Dobschutz, A. 215 Brin man, J.R. 717a Doroshkin, M. 830 Bruckner, W. 908 Drecssen, W.O. 447, 587, 389, 1020, Brull, N. 667 1021, 1061, 382 Buchwald, N. 955 Dreifuss, E.M. 334 Buurexov [Borochov], B. 190, 538,618, Ducnsing, H. 693 1037 Buxtorf, J. 597 Eckart, R. 994 Edelmann [Aidlman], R. 361 Cahan, J.L. sec Kahan, I.L. Efroikin [Jcfroykin], L 35 Caitlin [Zeitlin], A. 728 Ehrenkranz [Zbaryier], V. 458 Caliebe, M. 801, 834, 838, 839, 584, EichhofT, J. 841 Eis, G. 744 1031 870, 854, «53י 852, «53י 854, 870, 1031 Callenberg, W.Ch.J. 605, 232, 661 Eisenstadt, S. see Aaznstat, S. Calvor, C. 601 Elbogen, j. 301 Carles, J. 767, 562 Elzit, I[Y] 895a Chajes, S. 968a Engel, L ig Charney, S. sec Niger, S. Epstein, J. 18 Chrysander, W.Ch.J. 607, 661 Epstain [Epstein], G. 322 Cinberg [Zinberg], L 965. 969. 74* Epstain [Epsztajn], N. 925a Cjkerman, R. see Zuckerman, R. Erdb^rg, S. 29 Qyne, M. 840 Erik, M. [Merkin, Z.] 539, 959, 962 Cohen, D. 829 Colditz, S. 784, io^j 575 Faan, X. 509 Cooper, R.L. 827 Faanman [Fineman], H. 361a Cooperman, fcL 990 Faber, C.W. 225 Copeland, R.M. 247 Fagius, P. 594a Cuno, K. 413, 583, 416, 586, 418 Falk, F. 536, 536a, 525, 556 £ami, S. see Niger, S. Falkovid, E. 97, 69 38a Index to the Bibliography

Feinsilver, L.M. 372, 378a Garvin, P.L. 270 Feist, S. 694 Gaster, M. 270 Fiebig, P. 304, 477, 478 Gerhardt, Ch. 997 Fineman, tL see Faanman, tL Gerhardt, D. 752 Fischer [Bin-Nun], J. 60, 61, 122b, 62 Gerzon, J. 114 Fishman, D.E. 855 Ginneken, J.J.A. van. 47, 16, 689 Fisman, 1 A. [S] [Fishman, J.A.] 218, Gininger, X. [Ginninger, Ch.] 490, י 210d, 211, 855, 860, 7*5. 729. 635► 20Q!344753 .639 .&54 ,827 ,1056 ,269 871 Ginsburger, M. 888 Fjjerman [Fuhrman], L 374a Ginzburg, S. 913 Fleiss, P.M. 143 Glikl Hamyl 505 Forster, L. 768 Gold, D.L. 373b, 373c, 290b, 847b, Fourquet, J. 552 855a, 3721 2na Fowkes, R.A. 745 Goldberg, L 920 Frank, J.L. 500 Goldsmith, E.S. 44 Frankel 671 Goldsmith, S. see Goldsmit, Fraenkel, J. see Frinkl, L Goldstick, D. 929 Fraenkel, M. 414 Goldsmit, S. [Goldsmith, S.] 814 Freehof, S.B. 957 Goldvaser [Goldwasser], M JL 538a, Frcimann, A. 331 581a, 108a Freimark, P. 878a Golomb, C.N. 295 Frdnkl, L 812 Gordon Mlotek, E. 932, 937 Freschi, M. 861 Gotze, A. 734 Fridberg, M.X. 130, 133 Graubard, D. 348 Friderichs, T. 590 Green, E. 649 Friedlander-Bloch, B. 488, 497 Griinbaum, M. 422 Fridman, L. 676 Griinsfeld, J. 329 Fridman, S. [Frydman, S.] see Baikov- Grunwald, M. 455 ski, Z. Griinwald, M. 1, 384 Fridrich, R.W. 609 Giidemann, M. 140, 141, 424 Fromm, £L 554 Guggenheim-Griinberg, F. 246, 349, 260,263,4, ״ ,^25 .764 ,70 • .7 ^> י Fromme, G.K. 881 754 Frydman, S. see Saikovski, Z. ,274 .795 ,280 ,290 ,856 ,862 ,1022 Fuhrman, L see Fjjerman, L 380 Fuks, L. 976a, 976b, 544,545,432,991, Gutman, T. 232, 153, 154 572, 1032 Haalpem [Halpem], L 338 Galinsky, H! 893 Habersaat, K. 1040, 1043, 1045, 770, Gans, S. 691, 696 777, 1049, 1051, 1052, 1053, 1054, Ganz, P.F. 763, 550, 769, 563, 440 1057, 1058, 1059 Gartner, T. 457, 885 Hagen, F.H. von der 854 383 Index to the Bibliography

Haines, J.L. 188 Janssens, H, 771 Hakel, tL 996 Jefraykin, L see Efroikin, L Hakkarainen, H.J. 444 Jellinek, M.H. 672 Hall, R.M.R. 1126 Jcshurin, Y.A. see Iysjjrin, I.A. - and B. Hall 107a Jnger, M. [Unger, M.] 632b, 366a Halter, E. 228 Jochnowitz, G. 656 Jofen, J.B. 249, 252, 265 ךHarkavi [Harkavy], A. 326, 195, $2 Hccht, G. 949 Joffe, J.A. see Iufy, LA. Heide, M.G. 186, 189 Heiske, W. 936 Kac, A. [Katz, IJ 379a Heifer, N. 490 Kagarov, L 85, 89, 91 Helicz, P. 59s Kahan, LL* [Cahan, J.L.] 506, 515, Herzog, M. 264, 105, 22^ 282 92 I « 520. 925. 927. 930 Hezquni, M. 643 Kahan Newman, Z. 382a Hirschberg, M. 588 Kalmanovid [Kalmanowicz], Z. 233, Hodes, Ph. 871a »96, 334 Horovic [Horowitz], P. 321, 321a Kaplowitt, S.J. 577 Horowitz, Z. 321b Kara, L 534a Howard, J.A. 1013a Karo [Krupnik], B. 969 Hruby, K. 842, 863 Katz, L see Kac, A Hrushovski, B. 640 Katz, E. 438 Hubbell, F. 746 Kaufmann, D. 535 Hurvic [Hurwitz], M. 219 Kaufmann, F.M. 13a, 12, 915, 484 Hutterer, C.J. 898, 357, 272, 277, 283, Kayfetz, B.G. see Xaifyc, B.G. 74a Kazdan, X.S. [Ch.S.] 743, 635a, 642, 129 Iakobson [Jakobson], R. 166 Kessler, G. 400 Iufy, I.A. [Joffe, J.A.] 2t2, 117, 240a, King, R.D. 831 244, 208a, 242j io ic , 253, 353, 355, Kisch, L 816 104a, 903 Kislhof [Kisselgoff], Z. 471 Iufyn, L see Jofen, J.B. Kloss, fcL 708, 712, 748, 65 lvid, P. 815 Kna’ani, D. 969 Iyhoiys [Blumgartn, I ■S./Bloomgarden, Knott, J.W. 261 Y.S.] 292 Koch, J.M. 600 Iysjjrin, I.A. [Jcshurin, Y.A.] 1059a Kogos, F. 366 Kohn, C. 910 Jacob, (B.) 309 Koller, A. 697 Jakobson, R. see Iakobson, R. Korman, B. 1£j Janda, E. 501 Kosover, M. 239, 338, 352a, 934, 134 Janke, J. 1005 Kovacs, L. 163 Janssen, J.L. 905 Kozlowski, H, 281, 817 384 !□dex to the Bibliography

Kracauer, L 390 Lifsic, L [Lifschiitz, E.] Kraus, D.L. see Krous, D.L. Lifschiitz, E. see Lifsic, L Lind, L 543 ו!Krauss, S, 466, 706 ,0 Kroes, H.W.J. 7 7 9 Lindgren, K.B. 843 Krous, D.L. 290b Liptzin, S. 988, 1010 Kruger, P. 701 Lockwood, W.B. 439, 68 Krupin, N. 126a Lockwood Baviskar, V. lit, 378 Krupnik, B. 969 Lotze, fcL 942 Lotzsch, R. 139 Lai Me, tL 305, 479 Loewe, H, n , 45, 49, 51, 311, 482 Lamb, M. 374c Loewe, R. 46! 674 Lamm, L. 386 Lowenstein, L. 388 Landau, A. 76, 1034, 535b, 1035, 673, Lowenstein, S. 284, 375 425, 298, ul8 Lowinger, D.S. 1041 Landau, L. 426, 427, 540, 429 Lubarski i _l6 Landmann, S. 66,856a Lun, L. 778 Landy, A. see Landau, A. Lunski, X. [Lunski, Ch.] 510, 511 Laris, R. 889 Liitke, J.P. 606 Lazerson [Laserson], M. 401a Lauer, Ch. 318 Maas, H. 872 Lebrecht, Ph.N. 603 Madcr, F. 844 Lector Publicus see Selig, G. Madison, Ch.A. 1000, 1027a Lehman, S. see L&man, S. Maianski, A.M. see Podolski, A.M. Leibl, D. 652 Maitlis/Meitlis, J.J. See Maatlis, LL Leibowitz, N. 626 Maatlis, LL [Maitlis, J.J.] 819,935,970, Leitzmann, A. 428 981, 987a, 1006, 1023 L£ivnb£rg [Levenberg], S. 818 Mandel, A. 278 Ltivnstain, S. see Lowenstain, S. Mansch, Ph. 614 Lemchenas, Ch. 136a Maor, H, 765 L£s£inski, L 724a, 739 Marchand, J.W. 780, 648, 557, 437 Levenberg, S. see Liivenberg, S. Marek, P. 913 L£vin, L [Lewin, J.] 197 Mark, L/Y. 213a, 82, iq8, q6, 330, iי c19?! 2°5.2,6*22 <22°י>» Levin, I.L. [J.L.] 128 97*19797 Levinski 243 99a, 207, 636, 99b, 164, 101a, 344b, Levy, E.-H. 299, 622 344c, ioid, 346, 101e, 123! 10‘f» Levy, P. 231, 237, 407 ioig, 127, ioih, 127,210a, 103a, 355J Lewin, J. see Levin, L 103b, 130a, 357a, 357b, 826,139a Lewy, tL 226 Mark, M. 351 Liberman, X. [Liebertnan, Ch.] 654a Marwedel, G. 1024, 876 Lichtenstein, U, 391 Matenko, P. 445 385 Index to the Bibliography

Matisof, Di.A. [Matisoff, J.A.] 659 Palmieri, F. 1015 Mehring, Sie,. 472 Paper, H.H. 755 Mehring, Sig. 472 Parker, S. 848 Meisel, N. 967 Paucker, A. 982, 983, 984, 985, 821 Meisinger, O. 384, 294, 669, 886 Paul, O. 736 Meiss, H.M. 475, 229 Perkal, E. 348 Melzer, F. 844a Perles, F. 313, 483, 620, 314, 690, 54 Menhardt, H 558 Perles, J. 613, 535a Merkin, Z. see Erik, M. Petsch, R. 953 Meyer-Benfrey, fcL 57 Pfeiffer, A. 597a Miedel, F. 389 Pfrimmer, A. 258 Mieses, M. 15, 83, 30a Philoglottus see Liitke, J.P. Mieses, R. 230 Pines, M.J. 945, 946, 949 Milner, Ch. 499 Pipy, E. [Pipe, O.] 523 Minkoff, N.B. 977 Pipy, S. Z. [Pipe, S.Z.] 523, 926, 928 Miron, D. 1014 Piquet, F. 948 Moller, M.Ch. 598 Piroinikov, L 914 Plessner, M. 707 ןן־ן .Moses, L Muller, HJ_. 593 Podolski, A.M. 718 Murdoch, B. 832, 1011 Polak, Jz., J.E. 302, 698 Poll, S. 792 Nadel, A. 916, 487 Porges, N. 467, 316, 319, 699 Nascher, E. 296 Prager, L. 1003 Neher, A.A. 368 Prampolini, G. 986 Neumann, fcL 174 Prilucki [Pryhicki, Prilutzki], N. 505a, Neumann, R. 785 507,146,619,149,150,320, LS?! 323. Niedermeyer, fcL 442 623, 625,160, 94, 120! 335, 336, 401, 730 .«י>, Niger, S. 947, 947a, 33! 975977 757, 1047a, 896, 981a Protze, fcL 864 Nobl, S. [Noble, Sh.] 341^ 634, 749, 354. 360. 272» Raizin [Reisen, Rejzen], Z. 954, 8r, 84, Norman, F. 547, 772, 563, 440 86,960, go! 92, 328, 966a, 966b, 968, Notzold, F. 50 332a, 719, 95 Rak, S. 851 OlSvanger, L 485, 491, 496, 486 Rapp, E.L. 344 Opatosu, L [Opatoshu, J.] 978 Rauh, U. 578 Opaz, T. 416a Rayfield, J. 906 Oppenheimer, E.C.F. 604 R6e, A. 662 Ostrin, A. 911 Rein, K. 803, 804 OttT N.H. 877 Reisen, S. see Raizin, Z. 386 Index 10 the Bibliography

Rcisncr, Y.J. 912 Schiff, A. 332 Ringibljm, I. [Ringelblum, E.] 625a Schipper, L see Siper, L Rivkind, I. 516, 517, 349a Schlapfer, A. 874 Rivlin, S. 322 Schmidt, iL 733 Robak [Roback], A.A. 708, 1039, 974, Schmidt, J.F. 599 975, 216b, 22!, 223*. 979. 789 Schnitzler, L. 275 Robinson, L [J.] 138a, 1026 Schramm, G. 773 Roll, W. 443, 183, 796, 797, 805, 997, Schrdbler, L 781, 799, 806 822, 823, 833, 579, 1061, 845, 857, Schudt, J.J. 421, 602 1018,449,660,865,1025,1025a, 112, Schuler, M. 430 873, 1028, 592 Schulman, E. 944 Rome, D. 41a Schulmann, E. see Sulman, E. Roach, J. 827 Schwab, M. 950 Rosenberg, F. 423 Schwartz, R.B. 369 Rosenfeld, iL 559, 566 Schwarz, L 490 Rosenfeld, M. 456 Schwarz, W. 774, 563, 440, 580, 995 Rosiys [Roskies], D.H. 659a, 1026 Schwob, M. 537 Roth, E. 557a Segal, H. 490 R02anski, £. [Rollansky, S.] 1003a Selig, G. 608, 610 Rubasov [Rubashov], S.Z. see £azar, Shatzky, J. see Sacki, L S.Z. Shazar, Sh.Z. see Sazar, S.Z. Rubin, L 891 Sheskin, H. see Seskin Rubin, R. 931 Shmeruk, Ch. see Smeruk/Smcruq Rubstain [Rubstein], B. 685, 21 Silberstein, S. 325 Rudolph, W. 747 Silverman Weinreich, B. 933, 1048, Ruxkind, S. 336a 938, 939. 379b Sirat, C. 567 Sadan, D. 350, 986a, 564, 565, 573 Sloan, S. 495 Sadock, J.M. 658a Smith, J.Ch. 582 Sain£an/§aineanu [Sain/Schein], L. Soltes, M. 703a 615, 616 Sotec, J. 458,459 Salfeld, S. 385 Spangenberg, K. 907 Samet, L. see Zamyt, L. Spielrein, L see Spiilrain, L ך[, !Samuel, M. 43 Spitzer, L. 45 Sand, LZs 352, 551, 133, 574 Spivak, X.C.D. 222 Sapir, E. 145 Sprecher, M.K. 501 Sartorius, E. 677 Staackmann, K. 571 Schaechter, M. sec &xter, M. Stalek, R. 236 Schade, E. 596 Stankiewicz, E. 412, 415, 866 Schatz, J. 670 Starievski, A. 253 387 Index to the Bibliography

Staerk, W. 538a, 428, 700, 512 Starkman [Starkman], M. 241 Steinbaum, J. see Stainboim, L Stfck, V. see Staerk, W. Steinberg, M. 495 Stif,N. 951,687,20,1403,956,22,958, Steinschneider, M. 940,383a, 663,666 3*5. 5*3. 541, 709» 966, 330a Stern, H.R. 857a Stern, W. 417 Taglicht, I-Ch. see Taglixt, I-X. Stopp, fcL 808 Taglixt, UL 332, 519 Strack, H.L. 678, 303, 476 Tambur, V. [Tambur, W.] 376a Studkov, N. 343 Taubes, J.S. see Toubys, I.S. Stutchkoff, N. see Studkov, N. Taubes, L. see Toubys, L. Siisskind, N. see Ziiskind, N. Taviov, I.H. 115a Symons, B. 568 Tendlau, A.M. 452 Szajkowsky, Z. see Saikovski, Z. Tenenbaum, L see Tenynboim, L Sacki, L [Shatzky, J.] 961, 578, 717, Tdnynboim, L 766 724, 628 Thiel, E.J. 549 Saikovski [Szajkowski], Z. 731, 790, Thieme, S. 322 2 I0C Thiessen, J. 849 $iineanu, L. see Sainean, L. Tikocynski, fcL 331 Sapiiro, M. 289 Timm, E. 450, 1061, 591 Sazar, S.Z. [Shazar/Rubashov, Sh.Z.] Toubys, I.S. [Taubes, J.S.] 36 533 Toubys [Taubes], L. 923 S&kin, X. 375a Trietsch, Davis 675, 688 Sexter [Schaechter], M. ioo, !or, 101a, Trost, P. 782, 436, 987, 561, 569, 181, 405, 788a, 788b, 657,657c, 288,657c, 835 211, 846, 376, 381, 877» Tubach, F.C. 437 Siper, L [Schipper, y 624, 972, 973, Turnianski, IL 585 542 Skliar, fcL 366a Ueda, K. 108, 74b, 504a Slosberg [Szlosberg, Schlossberg], B. Unger, M. see Jnger, M. 199, 720 Smeruk, X. [Smeruq, R , Shmeruk, Ch.] Vaanbcrg [Weinberg], M. gg :050, 527, 530, 993, 532, 998, 996, Vaaner, L. 924 1004, 1009, 1027, 1029, 1032a, 1062, Vaanraax, J. [Weinreich, U.] 165,101b, 877b 248, 751, 641, 758, 1046, 124, 168, Spicer, L. see Spitzer, L. 645, 645a, 647, 650, 266, 211 367. Spiilrain [Spielrein], L 307, 147, 480, 106a, 72 23a Vaanraax [Weinreich], M. 621, 191b, Spiim, C. 234, 922 514, 1038, 963, 200, 627, 713, 715, Stainb£rg, L 122b 721,714,629,630,631,203a, 32,62a, Stainboint, L [Steinbaum, J.] 113 632a, 121, 342, 208, 343, 344a, 32, 388 Index to the Bibliography

250, 640a, 640b, 12jj 126! 171, 102, Weissberg, J. 179, 1012,659b, 868,875 644, 210b, 646, 174a, 555, 565a, 273, Weissberg, M. 469 40. 363. 373a. *46», 846b, 867 Weissenberg, S. [Vaasnberg, S.] 468, Vaanrib, B.S. sec Weinryb, B.S. 680,300,396 Vaas, S.D. (Weiss, S.] 184a Wertheimer, £. see Helyn, £. Vaasnberg, S. see Weissenberg, S. Wexler, P. 131! 138 Vanvild [Wanwild], M. 919 Wiener, L. 75, M3, 882, 883, 456 V&rthamer, £. see Helyn, £. Wiener, M. see Viiner, M. Vinger [Weinger], M. 79, 144, 190a, Wilen kin, L. see Vilenkin, L. 238 Wilier, J. see Viler, I. Veviorky, A, 191c Winter, S. see Vinter, S. Viiner [Wiener], M. 976 Wisniewski, R. 565a Vilenkin [Wilenkin], L. 238 Wisse, R.R. 1008 Viler, L [Wilier, J.] 152a, 87 Wohlgemuth, J. 50, 306 Vinter, S. [Winter, S.] 397 Wolf, M. see Volf, M.L. Volf, M.L. [Wolf, M.] 291 Wolf, S.A. 759, 775. »77. 356, 448, Vollmer, J. 432 869 Voorzanger, J.L. 302 Wolf Beranek, IL 286 Worscht, M. 451 Wagenseil, J.Ch. 420 Wyler, B. 809 Wagner, J.M. 664, 665 Wanwild, M. see Vanvild, M. Xaaiys, S. [Chajes, S.] 968a, 399 Waxman, M. 971 Xaifyc ]Kayfetz], B.G. 2040 Weigl, J. 679 Weik, F. 887 Yehoash see Iyhoiys Weill, E. 315, 317 Weinberg, M. see Vaanb6rg Zalkind, Y.M. 297a Weinberg, W. 358, 370 Zamyt [Samet], L. 403, 105a Weinelt, fcL 737 Zand, M. 904 Weiner, L. see Vaancr, L. Zar&ki, A. 88, 93 Wcingarten, J.A. 377 Zbaiyfer, V. see Ehrenkranz, W. Weinger, M. see Venger, M. Zeitlin, A. see Caitlin, A. Weinreich, B. see Silverman Wcin- Ziiskind [Susskind], N. 722, 570, 657a rekh, B. Zinberg, L sec Cinberg, L Weinreich, M. see Vaanraax, M. Zivy, A. 267, 5®3 Weinreich, U. sec Vaanraax, J. Zohn, H !033 Weinryb, B.S. 710, 1041, 531 Zuckerman [Cjkerman], R. 287 Weiss, C.Th. 224 Zunz, L. 611, 383 Weiss, S. see Vaas, S.D. Zirmunski, V. 726,738 GENERAL INDEX

Abbreviations xv As/Asch/Ash Abramovitch, Sh.Y. 26, 125 Asceticism 2g Accent system, Ashkenazic 65 Aschcr Leb 161 Aemilius, P. 46 Asher Anshel b. Joseph 169 Africa 15 Ashkenaz 60n Africa, North g Ashkenazim, East-/West-11,16,17,60n Age criteria: practical 44^ psychological Asia 15 45, linguistic 462 sociological 52 Aspects, verbal 153, 258, 269 Agriculture 1j Assimilation 25 Aibiker ltd, Der vjj Assimilationists 11 Ainhoom/Ajnhom, D. 182 Atatiirk, K. 14 Amitams re la thiteitts-teoriy 184 Auerbach, S. 163 Akffdys Iuxyk 152 Augsburg 46 Alemannic 7, 55, 56 Austria 16 Algymamy Enciklopediy 182 Austria-Hungary qjn Alphabet g, 13, 138 Avroom oviittu 146 Alsace 34,35, 165 Azoi hot ys zex uun gykoibn 187 Amphibrach 65 Amsterdam 162. 164 ‘Bach’ 171 Analogy 88 Baden 165 Anapaest 65 Baghdad 121 'Ancient treasures’ 11 Bahya 174 Andalusia 7 Balkans 16 Anglo-Saxon 11 Baltic countries 22 Anshel Levi 152 Barditchever, L. L 2? Anti-traditionalism 25 Baruch b. Isaac 149 Arabic language !2 Bavaria 16 Arabic, Maghrebinian j Bavlic 121 Arabic script 9, ■2 Bayis Khudosh 131 Arabo-Turkish script 9 Bendit 161 Aramic, East/West 15, 60, 66 Benjamin Altorf 161 Aramic clement in Yiddish 13, 2$ Berberic 15 Archaisms 10 Berdytchev 152 Archives Nationales (Paris) 119 Bergen-Belsen 187 Armenia 15 Berlin 182, 184 Armenian crypto-Jew 24 [Berlin: Staatsbibliothek] 116,122,151, Arvic 15 LS? 390 General Index

Bernstein, L vii Bytuxn 182 Bessarabia 17 Byzantine Jews 16 Bialik, Ch.N. 180 Byzantium if Bible: i^j 5£i concordance 169; recitation 60; translations 63, 120. 154 Cabbala 66 Biblical books: Sam. 46, Ruth 120, Ps. Cait I in 173 i i q , 151, 1S2, 162, 170, Prov. n g Cambridge Manuscript, The 106, 109n Bibliotheque Nationale 115-118, 149, Cambridge: University Library 114, L52 11S, n6. 117, 118, 120, 138 Biimyn 161 Canada 17 Bilder fjn der Iidiier literatuurgyiixty Carpathians 17 185 Carpatho-Russia: see Ruthenia Bioxemiy 187 Carpatho-Ukraine: see Ruthenia Birnbaum, L viii Casimir 169 Black Death: 3^ 55; persecutions 55 Caspian Sea 16 Black Sea 16 Catalan 78 Blacks 4 Catalanic 15, 12fl Bljmgartn, I.S./Bloomgarden, J.S. 178 Caucasus 15 Bodleian Library 114-20, 122, 158 Cdnereny 171 ךBogylain 161 Central German element 1 Bohemia L 12! 331 35 Central Yiddish 96! 166 Bollag, E. 164 Chassidim 17, 26. 36, 81 Bologna inj Christian, Christians 12. 13, 14, §6, 76 Borchling, C. 39 Ci iz miiglex a fonitiier ous-laig far der Boston 176 Itdiier literariier iprax ? L&1 Bovo d’Antona 161 Cj a folkistUer baviigung 185 Brasiav/Braslyv 172 Class vi Braunschweig, D. 164 Clermont-Tonnerre 35 Breslau: City Library 170 Ousters 220 Bucharic language 15 Cockney 6 Bucovina 37 Cologne: Archiv der Stadt Koln 113,

Biieberl 161 » » S > 1 5 2 Buld 161 Components 82n Buovo d’Antona 158 Conference on behalf of Yiddish, The Burgenland 168 32 Byelo-Russia ^ 22! 541 Si Conservatism 10 Byelo-Russian element 78 Constantinople 120, 121 Byman 161n Corrupted language 5 Byt hds 171 Court documents 153,155, 16g, 171 Byt Ycqb 198 Cracow 18 39! General Index

Creolized languages !2 East Aramic 15 Crimchak 15 East Ashkenazim: ^ 16, 81; cultural Crimea y structure 18; social structure 1J Croatian language 13 East Rome 16 Croats 41 East Yiddish 24! 5!! 96, 169 Crusades 23 Eastern Europe 15, 16, 36, 80 Crypto-Jews 24 Eastern Jews 16 Cultural autonomy 19 Efroikin, L 1S1 Cyrillic script 13 Egypt *5 Czech: language 41^ 78; element 77!29 Einhorn, D': see Ainhoorn, D. Czemowitz 33 Einstein, A. 184 Elbe 22 Dacians 4 Elia Levita 158, 161 Dactylus 65 Elijah 28 Danube 16 Emancipation 12 Dead Sea Scrolls: sec Qumran Scrolls Endingen 164 Denmark 24 England 29 Dental accretion 56 English language 2! 4» 5?! 79 Dcvanagari script !2 Enlightenment 34, 29! 198 Dialect 6 Epic 46! 47! 48! 49 Dialect map of Yiddish 95 Essays 170, 181, 185 Dialect, Northern/Southern S4. SS, 97, £sterky 182 58, 99j 100, 101. m2 Estonian language 17 Dialect, Silesian German 76n Europe, Eastern/Western 24 Dialect statistics of Yiddish 99 Dialect table of Yiddish Phonology im Falk, F. vii Dialects 94 Farmers 17 Dialects, Names of 97n Fariaat Haabl, A 182 Disturs 164 Far vuus hobn nist Litviiy Iidn dym Divine: names 28j services ifi naitrabt mint ? 185 Doctoral theses 29 Fiider, Z. 183 Double U/waw/yodh 112 Fiction 172, 17S, 176, !70, 181, 182 Drama 177 Fiderholc/Fiderholcz 153 Dravidian languages 15 Finnish Gulf 16 Dreessen, W.-O. 1^7 F10rian6w 171 Dress 17,22 Folksongs 22, 42,42,445 4S Durmenach 165 Fraand, Der 182 Dutch language 4, 6, 41, 78 France 22! & D£idezmu/D£idy6 7. 10. 11, !4, is, Franco-German 8 12a Franconia 25 392 General Index

Frankfort/M 114 Great Britain 12 Fremder, Der 177 Greco-Turkish 9 French language 4, 8. 11, 14, 65 Greece 15 French, Medieval 142 Greek language 4J, 53 Greek-Latin element 28 Galicia lj! 32 Group-forming factor 13 Gallo-Larin 8 Griinbaum, M. vii Galxys 46! 107n Griinwald, M. vii Gauls 4 Giidemann, M. vii Gemara 13 Gurjic 15 Genocide 41 Gydaxt 181 Geographical factor (in the develop- Gyklibyny dixtungyn 182 ment of Yiddish) L2 Gyzamlty liider 178 Geometry 184 Gyzamlty liider 182 Georgia 15 German Jews 1_2 Haggada L22 Ha-maggid 170 ן. German language 67 .66 ,56 ,55 ,8 German, Low 6, ji Ha-mavdil 158 German, Middle High: 63j 62! 106j Hamburg 6, 33, 39 108n; connections with Yiddish 51- Hamburg: Staats- und Universitats- 54i spelling m bibliothek 114, n 6 ,156 German philologists 207 Hanna b. R$$zyl/Resel 167 German spelling in Yiddish 198 Harkavy, A. vii German/Germanic element of Yiddish Hebrew alphabet 197n2, 198-99 58, 60. 66 Hebrew, Ashkenazic 60 German element in Yiddish, New High Hebrew element in Yiddish 13, S9. 79 29J&1 Hebrew language 14, 26n, 34, 36 Germanization 79 Hebrew language, Medieval 59 Germanisms 80 Hebrew palaeography 67 ן ,ךGermany Hebrew script 167 ,8 56, 52j 60n, 76. 106. 122 Hebrew script, Ashkenazic type 197n3 Gerschel, P. 165 Hebrew vowel signs 214 Gerzon, J. vii Hellas 26 Ghetto 12,18 Hellenic if Ginninger, Ch. vii Heller, P. 161 Ginsburg, M. vii H&icly Kirchhaan 163 Hertz, N. 172 ן;>Glosses i4q, isi, 1 Goc/Gotz 159 Hesse 35, 163n ‘Gothic’ script HeSeq Selomo L20 Grammarian 158 Hindi 13 393 General Index

Hindu 13 Japanese language 3 Historily Sriftn fjn ltdiin VimiaftUxn Jargon 6, 32 Institut 175 Jerusalem: Jewish National and Uni- Hitler 42 versify Library 11;, 149 Holocaust 42 Jerusalem: S. D. Sassoon 122 Hoschel/Hosyl 161 Jewish language Q, rj Hostility to Yiddish 32 Jewish linguistics 14 Htebrnt hlbbwt 174 Jewish ,particularity’ 34 Hungarian: language 2& Jewry 1j_ ‘Jewish persuasion, Germans of the’ 35 Hungary 17 Jewish Theological Seminary of Amer- ica n8, 121 Iambus 65 Joel Serkes b. Samuel Jalfe 171 Iberian Peninsula 15 Joffe, J.A. vii Ichenhausen 162 Joseph b. Moses 113 lidii jn xsiidii 186 Joseph b. Yakar 162 Ifdiikait jn luuSn 202n2 Joseph Mordecai b. Gcrshon 169 Imber, S.I. 182 Joy in religion 2Q ‘Immigrants’ language 52 Judaism 22j 25, 34 In iap 176 Judaeo-Arabic: see Bavlic, Temanic In vald 181 Judaeo-Arabic, Mahxebinian: see India 13 Maaravic Indo-European languages 15 Judaeo-Catalan: see Catalanic Indo-European element in Yiddish 198 Judaeo-French: see Zarphatic Infinitive, Absolute gz Judaeo-German 8 Ingolstadt 46 Judaeo-Latin: see Latinic Innsbruck: Landesregierungsarchiv 155 Judaeo-Persian: see Parsic loslin Vicnhauzyn 162 Judaeo-Spanish 8, and see Diidezmu/ louxynyn Roufy 164 D£idy6 Iranian languages 1^ Judah b. Abraham 175 Isny 161 Isolation 85 Kahanovil/Kahanowitch, P. 181 Israel Baal-Shem 26, 28 Kalmanovid/Kalmanowicz, Z. 181 Israel Isserlin b. Petahiah m , 114 Karaite languages 15 Istanbul. See Constantinople Karlsruhe: Badische Landesbibliothek Italkian language 12, 13, 116. 11Q 151 it^y 32! 34 Kazimierz 169 lyhoiyi 178 Klinigsberg, D. 184 Ketubat hatTora 12a Jacob b. Isaac Ashkenazi 170, 171 Khazar empire 16 Jaffe, J.: see Joel Serkes Kiev 16, 24 394 General Index

Kirchhaan/Kirchhain 163 Lithuanian language 22 Konigsberg, D. 184 Lithuanians 17 Koouzmer 169 Liturgy sg Koran 13 Loan words 58, 80 ‘Ksav min kol korys hahakozy vehav- Lombardy 153 ,ז ridin’ 152 London: British Library 114, 115, » 6 Kuuzxnark 169 t!7, 118. 1iMaltese language 13 Leipsic: Universitatsbibliothek 151 Man: see Mlndyl Lemberg 175 Mantua ng Lemgnau 164 Maor Katan 166 Length opposition of vowels 220 Marek, P. vii Leningrad: Publichnaya Biblioteka 121 Mark, I/Y. vii Lettish language 79 Mashait 195 Lera 17 Mattersburg/Mattersdorf 168 Leqe! hayYoSer 113 Maximilian, Emperor 156 Leqet hazZohar 120 Meam loez 120 Letters 27,155, 159, 170 Medicine 152 Levi Isaac Barditchever 30 Mediterranean countries 7, 15 Litby 179 Mendaly Moixer Sfuurym/Mendele Linguistics 46, 185 Moicher Sfurim 26! 175 Lintz, Z. 167 Mendyl 159 Literature, Modem Hebrew 25 Mergam/Meriam 161 Literature, ‘Rabbinic’ 66 Mesopotamia 15, 121 Literature, Traditional Yiddish 2^ 80 Meyer-Benfey, IL 33 Literature, Yiddish 23, 25 Middle High German: see German Lithuania 17, 33, 54, 55 Migration n , 33, 34 39$ General Index

Minsk 179 Old Yiddish: 106, 108* 109, 146-1 Miriam b. Moses 166 spelling system ioq, 109n6 Mishna 13 Olsvanger/Olsvanger, E. 184 Mixed languages 3 Ooser br Iuudy 161 Moldavia 17 Opatoshu/Opatosu/Opatovski, J. 183 Mposy Loutynslagcr 161 Oriental Jews 16! 65 Moosy Niirbek 161 Moravia 16! 17, 33, 35, 168 Palestine 15, 117 Morphology 53! 54! 55! 24! 251 Peirye, I.L. 176 Mosche Lorch 161 Penultimate 65 Mosse Lauttenschlaher 161 Peretz, J.L. 176 Mrkbt hmsnh Iqamqardsym 169 Persia 15 Miillheim 165 Persian language 3} 4, 8, 9 Munich 6j 15^ Philosophy 174 Munich: Bayerische Nationalbibliothek Phoneme inventory 218 t 1 ; Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv Phonetical remarks 209 113; Kreisarchiv 159 Phonology יMysiirys niifyl 176 63! 6^ 67, 68, 69, 20, 71, 72, ZL 24 Mysticism 26 75■ 77 Pines, M.J. vii Pinman 161 Nachman of Braslav 172 Pinski/Pinsky, D. Nahuatl 3 Plene spelling 200 Nathan b. Naphtali 172 Podolia 12 Nation 35 Poems 20,21.22, 30,146,14Q, 154,156, National spirit 9 !57, !58, 161, 163, 176, 177, 178, Nationalism 24, 36, 80 179, 180,182,184, 186, 187 Nationality 35 Poetry 59 National-Socialism 41 Poeziy 180 Naxmyn Braslyver 28, 172 Pogroms 24 Near East § Neo-paganism 26 Poland 16! LZ! 3!. 39! 54! 551 & 22! 200 Netherlands 34, 35 Poles 16 New York 18, 185, 187 Polish element in Yiddish 22• 29 Niger, S. vii Polish Jewry 17 Nister, Der 181 Polish language 78 Norman-Anglo-German 8 Political aspect 38 Niirnberg 46n, 161 Portuguese language 4, 78 Portuguesic language 15 Ofn M l 185 Prague 166, 167 396 General Index

Prayers 18, 38, 60 Raznfeld, M. 176 Prayer book 59, rig, 121* 162 Rumania 33, 35» Press 81 Rumanian Jewry u Preterite 11 Rumanian language 41, 79 Prilucki/PrihitzkyfPrylucki, N. vii, 166 Rumanians 16 Protestantism 67 Russia 24, 36, 38 Provence 15 Russian element in Yiddish 78 Proverbs 168 Russian language 77 psqym vktbym 113 Russian revolution 16 Pyman, Pymann 161n Ruthenia ij

S*ryt Ywsp 169 Qumran Scrolls 123 Sain6u1 vii Salfeld, S. 46 Rabinovitch, Sh. 176 Salonica 120 Race 9 Samaritan language 15 Raizin, A. 177 Samson b. Abraham 119 Rashi 109* 122 Samuel Book/Epic 465 47, 48, 154 Ratisbon 155, 153, 161 Scandinavian 78 Reading exercises 20g, 213, 215 Science 187 Regensburg: see Ratisbon Schaechter, M. vii Registration note 156 Schindler, E. 186 Reisen, A.: see Raizin, A. Schoeffel, R.M. viii Relativity, Theory of 184 Script: Cursive Hebrew 195; Cyrillic Religion 13, 19, 22, 34, 58, 81 13; Hebrew 9, 13, w j, 195; ,Rab- Religious experience 26 binic’ 19504; Roman 9,13, 107 Religious terms 13n, §9 Scriptio defectiva 198 Reminiscences 164, 165 Scriptio plena 198 Rhythm 65 Seclusion, compulsory 12 Roback/Robak, A.A. 185 Secularization 14, 24, 36 Rome 161 Secularized language Si Roman empire 33 Semantics 83, 86 Roman times 142 Semitic languages 15 Romance element in Yiddish 56, 58, 66. Semitic clement in Yiddish 56, 58, 65, 22 66*74 Romance languages 66, 68 Semitic grammars 60 Root of word 66 Sephardim 7, n* 62! L2Q Rosenberg, F. vii Serbian 41 Rosenfeld, M. 176 Serkes: sec Joel Serkes Roufy 164 Shambat 24 397 General Index

Shatzki, J. 163 Standard Yiddish 101 Shewa 64, 142 Standard pronunciation of Yiddish 1a Shin/Sin, Pronunciation of 142 Standard language 6, j Shneur, Z. 129 Statistics of Yiddish 40 Shondlin 113 Steinberg, I.N. 185 Shtif, N. 153 Steinschneider, M. vii Shulem Alaichem 136 Stem of word 66 Shuadit y Stern, M. 46 Signatures 161 Stif, N. 159 Silesia 33 Strasbourg 165 Simeon b. Yohai 123, 125 Strasbourg: University 118 Simha b. Judah 149 Straus, R. 155 Simxys ha-neifys 163 Stress 6g, 217 Simxys-Toiry 178 Strong inflection 54 Sindler, L. 186 Stub, E. 189 Sipjjry maasys 132 Suulym Alaixym 176 Slavonic element in Yiddish 56, 63, 76 Surbtal 164 Slavonic regions 33 Syairis Iosyf 169 Slavs 4 Symbols, Religious 22 Sloimy rib Xaaiyms 175 Symon von der Freyenstat 161 Slovak language 79 Syntactical shifts qi Slovakia 1j Synthesis of elements in Yiddish 82 Slovaks 16 Synthesis of German elements in Smjjl-bjjx, Dus: see Samuel Epic Yiddish 76 Snaier, Z. 175 Syria 117 Socialism 26 Songs of the Ghetto 176 Talmud so. 66, 122 South Africa 39 Tatic language if Soviet Jewry ij Temanic language 15* 122 Soviet orthography 217 Territorial concentration 18 Soviet Union 39 Tiberian vocalization 62, 63, 64n Spain 2, 11 Tradiciy, caixns jn simioln 181 Spaniards 8 Traditional Jewry 36 Spanish language 4j 8, 11 traditionalism 37, &1 Spelling system, Ancient Semitic 200 Transcribing 132 Spelling Phonctic 1&1 Transcription 102! I31 201 Spelling systems, Yiddish zqq Transcription alphabet 216 Spires: Archiv der Stadt Speyer itf Transcription alphabet for Old Yiddish Stain berg, I N. 18; 109 Stalin 39 Transliteration 108 398 General Index

Trwml hdsn n j Vus darf Itsruuyl tjjn in ietiker coat fjn Tsarfat 33 xevly Mymex ? 179 TsenncTcnne 171 Turkey 14 Wachsiein, B. 161 Turkic languages 1£ Wagenseil, J.Ch. 44 Turkish 3 Warsaw 176, 179,183 Weil, J. 113, 114, 153 Weinreich, M. vii, 1!3n, 185 Ukraine 16.17, Weinreich, U. vii Ukrainians 17 Weinryb, B. 170 Ukrainian element in Yiddish 78 Weissenburg 165 Ulm !53 West Yiddish 12, 46, 94, 138 United States of America 17 White Russia: see Byelo-Russia Urdu language 13 Wiener, L. vii, 175, 176 Urkunden und Aktenstucke zur Geschithte Witzenhausen, J. 162 d v r Juden rn Regensburg 155 Word formation 84 Uuser And b. Iosyf 169 Word order 92 Utrecht 164 Words, development of new 90 Uvnt-klangyn 177 Working class ij Worship 29 Vaanraax, M. vii, 185, 113n Writing exercise 224 Vaanraax, J. vii Wroclaw: Gty Library 170 Vail, L ill, 114, !S3 Vallachia 1j /X/, pronunciation of 56 Valuation 4 X(dm ha-itetfyi, A 181 Vatican Xoivys hahuvys 174 Venice 119, 120 Venosa Catacomb rrj Yefroikin, L 181 Vicynhauzyn, L 162 Yemenite: see Temanic language Vienna 3 ! L2Q Yevanic language 15, 33 Vienna: Archiv der Stadt Wien 114* 115 Yevreyski language 39 Vienna: Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv Yiddish, borderlines of 16 Yiddish Scientific Institute 38 115 נ114 Villages 35 Yiddish transcription of English 10gn7 Vilna/Vilnius 79 Yoslin: see Joseph Vocabulary it. 58, 74, 78, 90 Vogelein 161 Zamljng fjn katit jn gtio-liider 187 Volhynia tj Zanvel Lintz 167 Vowel letters 142 Zarephat 33 Vowels, long 228 Zarphatic element in Yiddish 58,79 399 General Index

Zarphatic language 15, 33, 56, 58, 67, Zeitlin, H. 179 115, 118, 149, 151, 200 Zimlin 153 Zarphatic pronunciation of Hebrew 150 Ziwy, A. Zarphatic spelling system 108n, 126, Zjnyn-Jntergang 178 150 Zurich 1 $6 This book was designed by WILLIAM RUETER was set in type by WILLIAM CLOWES (INTERNATIONAL) LIMITED and was printed and bound by THE HUNTER ROSE COMPANY LTD