SHS Web of Conferences 119, 02001 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202111902001 QQR’21

The Representation of Yemeni Culture in Early 20th Century British Travel Writings

Bandar Mannaa1 and Naima Benlarabi2

1 A doctoral Student at Faculty of Languages, letters and Arts

2 A Professor at faculty of languages, letters, and Arts

Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra-Morocco

ABSTRACT: The present article seeks to analyze the representation of Yemeni culture in early 20th century British travel writings. It questions the British travel writings as merely stereotypical texts or regard them as vital historical documents. This article also tries to locate different themes that have been deploying by British writers in the respective period. The chosen works are by Harold Ingrams (1937) and Freya Stark (1948), which have shown different features about the relationship between Yemeni culture and the British attitude. I used the post- colonial theory and Orientalism as approaches to analyze the works under examination. In the analysis, I argued that a writer's choice for language and content entails a lot of differences, which reflects the location of Yemeni culture in the eyes of the Western encounters, particularly British travelers' accounts. Finally, I revealed how two writers have portrayed Yemeni culture, its land, people, and presented diverse images of to emphasize my assumption that British travel writings on Yemen are both diverse and complex in their representation.

Key words: The representation, British travel writings, Orientalism, Yemeni culture. civilization and wealth on the Arabian Peninsula

for ages. Classic Greek and Roman historians 1- INTRODUCTION depicted it as a land of prosperity and wealth, using Since childhood, I have spent a long time the phrase Arabia Felix to refer to its material thinking, like other people, about the true meaning wealth and strategic geographical location. Because of the phrase "Al-Saeedah" or "Arabia Felix1", as of its fertility and its trade prosperity, Yemen was a Romans and Greeks described Yemen in their home to several great ancient kingdoms; for that ancient writings. I wonder why giving such a name same reason, it was popular in ancient times as to a country that had not savored such "happiness" Arabia Felix or in Latin 'Fortunate Arabia'2 to for centuries. In fact, Yemen was the center of

1Arabia Felix, ( Latin: “Happy, or Flourishing, 2Playfair, Robert L. A History of Arabia Felix or Arabia”) in ancient geography, the comparatively Yemen: From the Commencement of the Christian fertile region in southwestern and Era to the Middle of the sixth century. Amsterdam: southern Arabia (in present-day Asir and Yemen) Philo Press, 1970. P 2

© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). SHS Web of Conferences 119, 02001 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202111902001 QQR’21

distinguish it from the vast forbidding reaches of Egyptian army from Yemen, the country became a

the Arabia Desert. hot point of the Cold War in the region and it could

not be said that it was totality isolated. Third, the Later, Yemen was the place where coffee Unit that was achieved on 22 May 1990, and what consumption used (Arabic Qahwah) to support followed that up to the Arab Spring. (religious chanting) by Sufis before even the fame

of coffee plants were known in other parts of the However, in recent years, Yemen was

world. The latter, leads to huge international almost very isolated from the world due to internal

commerce of coffee around the world. Coinciding political war and economic crises, which has led to

with the rise of the ancient civilizations in , a lack of knowledge regarding Yemen. Nowadays,

Mesopotamia, and along the Mediterranean Sea, the negative image of Yemen has been widespread.

Yemen became a crucial overland trade link among It is mainly due to misleading media broadcasts on

civilizations. Consequently, many pre-Islamic the East and Arabs after the 11 of Sept. Such

trading states grew up astride, an incense trading misrepresentation has overlapped with the

route that ran northwest between the foothills and historical records of Western writings in the

the side of the desert. In addition, it was the source colonial and post-colonial eras. Apparently, the

of precious stones, incense, and mastication. Yemeni legacy, particularly during the Greek and

However, this positive reputation in ancient times classical Roman periods, has been forgotten. With

has eclipsed after numerous crises that Yemen went the current negative-positive Western discourse on

through its long history. First, the defeat of the Yemen overlapping with the reality portrayed by

Ottoman Empire during World War I and the European travel accounts, particularly British ones,

withdrawal of the Turkish army out of Yemen, the this study seeks to uncover such representation(s)

country was governed by isolationist Imams until by focusing on British travelers' accounts from the

the establishment of the Republic on 26 Sept. 1962 early 20th century.

supported by the Arab Egyptian army, under the Long before the colonial era, Yemen, both leadership of Gamal Abdul Naser. This Arab land and culture, has titillated Westerners. Many presence had directly led to the liberation of South travelers, writers, and anthropologists like Carsten Yemen, on 30 Nov. 1967, making an end to 129 Niebuhr, James Welested, Walter Harris, and years of British occupation. Second, the Arab others have made Yemeni traditions and defeat of June 1967 and the withdrawal of the civilization the main objects of their works. During

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the period of Western industrial growth, several various pretexts that legitimize the British

Western writers portrayed Yemen from colonialist representation of Yemeni people in different

perspectives. Yemen represents a good example of cultural aspects. Their perception is vividly

Arab countries that were the object of British travel affected by the so-called ‘superiority-complex' as

narratives, especially during the British colonizers, powerful governors, and civilizers of

colonization of Southern Yemen. The British the East and other parts of the world. Respectively,

multiplied their travels to Yemen and began the Westerns consider themselves white as opposed to

rivalry for its colonization. Easterners, who are colored. In this vein, a

significant figure of studies has been conducted on Since the European geographical the representation of West-Arab encounters; discoveries in the 15th century, and throughout the however, the studies carried out on Yemen binaries Renaissance and Enlightenment periods, up to the from the last decades are comparatively very few. industrial revolution in the 19th century, Europeans In fact, most of the studies conducted on the have reckoned themselves as 'civilized beings' as representation of Yemen are in the scope of Arabic opposed to Arabs. In this regard, due to their access studies (Bafakih, Mohammed, 1988; Shuja, Abdul to scientific, political, economic, social, and Rahman, 1993; Holfritz, Hans, et al, 1986) with a military development, Europeans have enjoyed total absence of English studies regarding the power and supremacy, which they would exercise image of Yemen in travel writings. over their colonies. This power will not only be Apparently, such situation has resulted in limited to military and warship monopoly, but it a shortage of academic and analytical studies that will be also exercised through huge literary explaining the shaping issues before Arab Spring. productions that describe the Arab world such as Therefore, this study attempts to highlight the Yemen, the case of this study, from an Orientalist crucial cultural interaction that appeared at such a point of view. historical juncture by examining how both sides

2- BACKGROUND have become involved in the representing of the

image of the "Other". This article will address the Going back to some historical reviews of lack of academic interest by paying attention to the literature written about the representation of both the Yemeni heritage and British travel Yemen in British travel writings, we find that discourses and discussing the manners in which political, economic, and religious motivations are

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each world perceives the "other". Some British Western feminist discourse in shaping this picture

travelers had provided a negative image of the positively or negatively. Also, Amshouch focuses

Orient to the Western audience in most of their on the image of Yemen in the thoughts of the

representations. Those representations differ German traveler Hans Helfritz, in which he

depending on the different perceptions of the included various social, cultural, artistic, and

writers and their origins. Therefore, the idea of economic aspects of life in Yemen at that time.

representation emphasizes itself as an indicator that In the same vein, Ahmed Kayed Al Saidi defines people’s culture. argues in his study Yemen in the Eyes of Foreign

Massoud Amshouch, who is specialized in Travelers4, those travel writings portray Arab

comparative literature and cultural studies at Aden negatively in most of their works. He presents

University, offers various readings of western many western books that dealt with Yemen and

accounts about Yemen through different times. In offers a vision of Yemen through trips and

his book The image of Yemen in the writings of memoirs. In Al Saidi’s view, the writings have

Westerners "Studies in the representation of the gotten rid of many of the methodologies of

other3, he focuses on the representing of Yemeni Orientalism and traditional approaches; the

culture in Western writings, precisely, European shortcomings of which reinforce the other "non-

travel accounts. The study contains an introduction European" as primitive and Berber, particularly

that reviewed the French trend in the first half of assessing their speech on this basis of their colonial

the twentieth century in comparative literature authority. Despite the importance of these studies,

widely for a new field of research. It deals with they are confined to a limited range due to the poor

studying the image of people and countries in the translations since it was difficult to analyze the

writings of the "other". He tackles the position of Western discourse about Yemen in an extended

Yemeni women in European writing as victims of paradigm. In other words, there was no connection

social customs, ignorance, economic and to the reality that Yemen has sensitive cultural

conditions within patriarchal traditions. The second features. These features were almost absent in the

part revealed the technical and fictional dimensions abovementioned studies (Amshouch, Al Saidi) as

in the image of Yemeni women and the role of they tackled some European accounts ambiguously

3AmshIsh, MasʻId. KIrat Al-Yaman FL KitMbMtAl- GharbLyLn: DirMsMt FL TamthLlAl-Nkhar. ʻAdan: 4Al Saidi ,Kayed .Yemen in the eyes of foreign DMrJMmiʻatʻAdanlil-OibMʻahwa-al-Nashr, 2010. travelers. Sanna:DarJamiatSannaLilNashr, 2009.

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in the sense they neglected some small cultural ; and a new competition for it appeared presently in trails that travelers talked about in their accounts. the shape of the British East

On the other hand, travel to discover Indian company, which sent Captain Sharpey in the ship Yemen by Europeans back to the early sixteenth "Ascension" to the Red Sea in century when Ludovico Di Varthema, an Italian 1609. (40)

traveler, visited Yemen and published his book in This was the first encounter between Britain and 1510 before two hundred and sixty years of Carsten Yemen. Yemen has a strategic location in the Niebuhr and the Royal Danish Expedition to Red Sea trade since it has one of the important Arabia (1761–1767). From then on, Yemen was the straits in the world. "Bab Al Mandab" which heart of trade, especially coffee and spices, which links the Red Sea with the Arab Sea. Eventually, made it a place of competition by European British travel writers became more interested in powers. For example, Denmark and Portugal sailed discovering an unfamiliar country. However, the off the Yemeni coast and found fierce competitors actual travel journeys coincided with the in the Othmans (G Hogarth, David, 40). The British existence of the occupation. In 1839, Southern joined the competition quite late, but with Yemen officially became under the British imperialist policy, which eventually led to Mandatory, which opened the appetite of colonization. However, the British joined the travelers in Yemen to write about their competition quite late, but with imperialist policy, adventures. which eventually led to colonization. The

archaeologist David Hogarth mentioned it on his Edward Said's Orientalism has left a

account5: significant stamp on the history of post-colonial

studies. This extremely debatable work has had an The new berry, first mentioned by European ongoing impact on related disciplines in humanities writer in 1592, grew so and social sciences. Post-colonial theory, rapidly in favor that the trade postcolonial studies, anthropology, history, of Yemen came to be desired equally with the trade of women's writing, tourism, geography and travel literature have all been influenced by Said. His 5 Hogarth, David G. The Penetration of Arabia: A work is an attempt to combine Michel Foucault's Record of the Development of Western Knowledge Concerning the Arabian Peninsula. theory of discourse, in the sense of the relationship

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between knowledge and power, and Antonio colonial era (1839-1967). Therefore, I will use in the Hadhramaut region, where he mediated the Ingrams' motives to travel to Yemen were

Gramsci's conception of political and cultural postcolonial theory to analyze the documents under "Ingrams' Peace" truce between feuding tribes. politically driven. His expeditions to various parts

hegemony. Within these two frameworks, Said scrutiny shedding light on the notion of colonial of the country were either to explore or to reach a It is not for me to write about Colonial approaches Western writings, especially British discourse and the interrelation between the deal with tribal sheikhs in order to maintain peace policy and I do not propose to attempt to do and French, on the Orient from the late 18th century ‘colonizer’ and ‘colonized’. I will also use among tribes. From Edward Said's perspective, this so. But at the same time, I have an idea that onwards. Western writers, travelers and politicians, Orientalism as an approach to investigate the is a form of western political indoctrination of the at a moment when our enemies blackguard who wrote about the Orient are considered to be representation of British traveler’s accounts about East, that is vividly expressed in Ingrams' words us daily about the races who "writhe under Orientalists; thus, what they produced is a Yemeni cultural aspects; more precisely, the notion 'the policy of trusteeship’ and ‘teaching people to our yoke" it is not a bad thing to tell the discourse of Orientalism. In what follows, I will of the ‘Otherness’ between the West and East or govern themselves’, albeit he denies at first the idea story of an attempt to carry out the policy of provide a succinct account of Said's argument the ‘Orient’ and ‘Western’. of colonial policy. Moreover, the stereotypical trusteeship and of teaching people to govern regarding Orientalism according to what he view of the Orient as uncivilized and exotic from a themselves in a corner of the world which is mentions in his books and other critiques or western perspective, especially British, is clearly ARABIA AND THE ISLES BY HAROLD mostly desert and in which we can have no reviews. INGRAMS pointed in Ingrams’ orientation as he states ‘corner material ends to serve. A lot of nonsense 6 The book is a diary of Harold Ingrams of the world which is mostly desert’. This notion Ultimately, I will discuss British travel has been talked about "Imperialism" and during his stay in Yemen in 1934-1944 He was a seems to segregate the East from the West under narratives and their relation to the ‘Orient’ focusing the word has been given a meaning of British colonial leader who worked in the Aden the umbrella of ‘superiority complex’. This on the articulations of colonial discourse on the one exploitation of backward races. I do not Protectorate, Mauritius, and Zanzibar. He is best depiction puts more emphasis on the negative hand, and documentations that belong to the think anyone will be able to find much about known for his project in Mukalla, where he resided representation of the Orient and reinforces the cultural and historical archive of both Yemen (the exploitation in the story of the Hadhramaut with his wife Doreen. He also was an army colonel authority of the West as more civilized. Orient) and Britain (the West) on the other. This and I have not found it anywhere else in the

study also focuses on the contribution of depicting 6 Biographical history: Ingrams, William Harold (1897-1973) Empire. I should not be in the Colonial Aside from the Orientalist perspective, Born 3 February 1897, son of Revd. W.S. Ingrams. Educated at the portrait of cultures and nations, under the Shrewsbury School. Served European War, KSLI, 1914-1918. Service if I had. But I am quite certain I am Ingrams rejects the notion of 'imperialist mission Asst District commissioner, Zanzibar in 1919; 2nd Asst Sec., notion of ‘self’ and ‘other’. Therefore, it tries to 1925; Asst. Col. Sec., Mauri7us, 1927; Ac7ng Colonial Sec., an Imperialist and equally certain that the within the Empire', which, in his words, even the Jan.-May & Aug. 1932-April 1933; Poli7cal O

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in the Hadhramaut region, where he mediated the Ingrams' motives to travel to Yemen were

"Ingrams' Peace" truce between feuding tribes. politically driven. His expeditions to various parts

of the country were either to explore or to reach a It is not for me to write about Colonial deal with tribal sheikhs in order to maintain peace policy and I do not propose to attempt to do among tribes. From Edward Said's perspective, this so. But at the same time, I have an idea that is a form of western political indoctrination of the at a moment when our enemies blackguard East, that is vividly expressed in Ingrams' words us daily about the races who "writhe under 'the policy of trusteeship’ and ‘teaching people to our yoke" it is not a bad thing to tell the govern themselves’, albeit he denies at first the idea story of an attempt to carry out the policy of of colonial policy. Moreover, the stereotypical trusteeship and of teaching people to govern view of the Orient as uncivilized and exotic from a themselves in a corner of the world which is western perspective, especially British, is clearly mostly desert and in which we can have no pointed in Ingrams’ orientation as he states ‘corner material ends to serve. A lot of nonsense of the world which is mostly desert’. This notion has been talked about "Imperialism" and seems to segregate the East from the West under the word has been given a meaning of the umbrella of ‘superiority complex’. This exploitation of backward races. I do not depiction puts more emphasis on the negative think anyone will be able to find much about representation of the Orient and reinforces the exploitation in the story of the Hadhramaut authority of the West as more civilized. and I have not found it anywhere else in the

Empire. I should not be in the Colonial Aside from the Orientalist perspective,

Service if I had. But I am quite certain I am Ingrams rejects the notion of 'imperialist mission

an Imperialist and equally certain that the within the Empire', which, in his words, even the

vast majority of the Arabs in the Aden Arabs themselves serve the same purposes of

Protectorate. Because we all believe in interest. In this way, according to Homi K Bhabha's

belonging to an Empire which runs itself on approach, such a form of the British conquest of

a basis of the mutual interests of all who Yemen is not of colonial hegemony; but it is rather

belong to it7. a hybrid context between both encounters under the

7 Ingrams, William H. Arabia and the Isles. London: Murray, notion of Empire, that is marked in Ingrams' words. 2010. P xii He also rejects the false interpretation of imperialist

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exploitation in the story of Hadramout and favors a caged beasts in the Zoo, which principally form of co-existence between both encounters appealed to me. (84) based on the sense of mutual interest. In this passage, Ingrams tackles the physical The above passage gives the reader an idea aspect; he describes the shape of the Arabs and about Ingrams' ideological stances; it is open to compares their bodies to Zoo animals, ‘like those- interpretation from both an Orientalist perspective of freshly-caged beasts in the Zoo’, and this and a post-colonial one, particularly Bhabha's comparison is made in order to create a vivid approach, as I have explained. Thus, Ingrams’ picture in the reader’s imagination. In this context, contribution to peace treaties between tribes, the body in the Western discourse about Arabs particularly diminishing racial clashes, gives plays a dominant role, precisely the representation authentic value to his intervention that starts from of women and Bedouin, since it is reckoned as an colonial service indirectly, and ends with setting object of examination and an aesthetic instrument common grounds for a new 'civilizing mission'. of misrepresentation. It gives the reader hints that The first explicit initiation to racial differences is the first impression of the writer is negative, seen while mentioning the narrator's reaction tending to the preconception of the western towards the appearance of people within the first mindset, since centuries of cultural conflict and glimpse. Ingrams show the negative insinuations of misrepresentation of Others. Although Ingrams was the Arab race that is, from the narrator's point of in Zanzibar and Mauritius, in official missions and view, but a substitute for primitiveness and had contact with Arab traders, especially Swahili, ugliness incarnated in Arabic personality. Their he maintains Western the same view towards the perception is vividly affected by the so-called Arabs. 'superiority-complex' as colonizers. Respectively, What is compelling here is not just a the Westerners consider themselves as white as matter of appearance difference that underpins this opposed to Easterners, who are colored. He notices: text, but rather the theme of 'Otherness'. If we As far as I remember, it consider, for example, sentences such as 'Arabs was the camels, the with their long curls,' we will never understand brightly-clad Arabs with their long curls, strange why Europeans deliberately show such things in gutturals, and wild eyes their writings. The idea of differences between like those -of freshly-

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'Europeans' and 'others', which elapsed in the feminine (Oriental) sexuality and the 'Harem' of

Middle Ages until the 17th century, was solely Arabian Nights had an important effect on the

driven by religious dichotomy, as Said argues. writers and readers of the 18th and 19th centuries.

While in the 19th century, they were akin to However, in the early 20th century, Europeans

establish new civilization and breaking the edges of became more aware than before of the reality of the

races, which resulted in the same century, until the Orient.

beginning of the 20th, in the creation of a new The above passage by Ingrams can be political mapIngrams also mentions Yemeni interpreted as stereotypical stances about Yemeni women, describing their clothing, complexion, and Women; but in fact, he just conveys the real demeanor. He claims that Yemeni women, in situation of those women regardless of its general, cover their faces, with the exception of consistency to provide a holistic view. Thus, the older women, who wear a unique type of veil veil has been used more than anything else in the embroidered with a gold border. He explains their construction of the Oriental woman. Fascinated by garments as follows: the fact that she hid something behind or within her

In this town, as in Mukalla, all the women, clothes, thus Orientalist writers targeted the veil as

however poor, are veiled, and even young their primary subjects. Moreover, the use of these

children drew their head veils in front of themes expanded as a cliché colored, as it were, by

their faces as we went past. The poorer stance defamiliarization, i.e. the intertwine thread

women wear a cloak which falls from the between real and imagined has become unclear.

top of the head almost to the ankles at the However, regardless of Ingram's position back and, leaving a hole for the face in the colonization authorities, as an imperialist which is covered by a thin veil, falls to just writer who served as a British commander of the below the knees in front. (157) army8, a reader can admit that Ingrams had had the

In this regard, we see the most 18th and 19th-century ability and the competence to understand Yemeni

writers looked at the Orient through the Thousand culture and the complex tribal system. In February

and One Nights or Arabian Nights. Many writers 1937, a peace between the Hadramaout sultanates,

did not make their accounts on an informational the Qu'aiti and Ali bin Mansur al Kathiri and their

basis; rather, they produced literary imaginations. tribes, unprecedented in the history of that region,

The female stereotypes and the presentations of

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was brought about essentially by the efforts of two society that is prone to a variety of forces between

men: Sayyidi Abu Bakr al-Kaf and Harold the traditional and forms of government

Ingrams, the first political officers in Hadramaout. (Sultanates). In fact, tribalism has often been an

Such peace was knowing universally thereafter as effective and enduring source of non-stability in

"Ingrams Peace" (Smith, G. Rex 40). Ingrams Yemen since tribes have endless conflicts. In this

describes people's need for peace in the following regard, the official mission of Ingrams was to make

lines: peace among feuding tribes; it took him almost two

years to achieve such a goal. The main aim was to Everywhere outside Mukalla, I was begged to configure stability and secure the route, which was stay in the Hadhramawt, a serious problem for the colonization authorities. because I think they Notably, tribal chiefs are local rulers that often believed I could give them peace. Very often there have more say in the everyday lives of ordinary was the suggestion, "if you people than Sultanates at that time. Tribal heads do not stay something else can maintain this power in part because they are must happen." This was a strong undercurrent which themselves, government representatives, and was not immediately religious guides. Gayatri Spivak argues that apparent on the surface. I Western discourse approved the 'justification of never anticipated such wide anxiety for me to imperialism as a civilizing mission’.( Spivak 271- remain in the country. 313)The concept of 'civilizing mission' is based on When I passed through the premise that the people of Arabia needed to be Seiyun for the first time since my return and halted enlightened and raised from their misery. In this in the marketplace talking regard, the notion of colonialism as a 'moral to people in .the crowd, an obligation' to expand Western civilization, old man came up and said to me: "Is it true that appearing long before imperialism, was defined as Ingrams is coming. (271) such. Elsewhere, in his account, Ingrams confirms

Yemen is a tribal society in which most of the that he was more than an individual traveler; rather,

people live in rural regions. The sovereignty of he was taking up his government's political agenda

tribes is apparent in the lack of state control in regarding interference in the area. In other words,

tribal areas. Yemen is also a multi-layered tribal the colonized role is to change his condition by

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altering his shape or by mimicking the colonizers' the place of the colonizer where he sees his image.

behavioral characteristics; then by learning the To gain the power of the colonizer and to fulfill his

language of the colonizer or by educating himself desire, the colonized mimics the colonizer.

in the knowledge of the colonizer. With the However, unfortunately, the colonized can't attain

intention to draw himself closer to the master, the the position of colonizer because of the gap

colonial subject becomes separated from his unique between the positions of the colonizer and the

culture and its traditions. He can associate himself colonized. The gap mirrors reality, which creates

neither with the colonizers' identity nor his own barriers for the colonized ones to be like colonizers.

and eventually becomes a hybrid person. However, Ingrams elsewhere shows Therefore, he becomes separated from his "true" respect to people's local culture and their choices of self and finds himself torn in the 'gap' between the imitating what they think is peculiar to Yemeni colonizer and the colonized. As Bhabah argues: society. Here we can notice that the text has been

It is true for there is no written with credible intention even if Ingrams native who does not served in colonial authority; he maintains the spirit dream at least once a day of people's freedom for reproducing some cultural of setting himself up in the settler's place. ‘It is aspects of a specific frame, which serves their always in relation to the interest. Ingrams states regarding the Arabs' place of the other that architecture style: colonial desire is articulated; that is, in It is the Arabs themselves, part, the fantastic space of who, with Arab eyes, are possession' that no one seeing what other subject can singly occupy countries produce and which permits the dream copying what they think of the inversion of roles. worth copying. They may (117) hit it off wrongly, but Bhabha here makes an essential element gradually innate instinct will lead them right and to define human subjectivity, that is the mirror they will produce image. The colonized has been set in place of the something worth looking subject that the colonizers desire him to imitate at. It seems to me that no one can help them with their style in life. The colonized forms a mirror in this. (204)

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The construction of a new style of buildings by the resources, and civilization, the more powerful it

colonizers has been considered by the post- becomes.

colonialists as a direct distortion of a great cultural Representation here remains an essential heritage, but the colonizers reckoned these new method of defining a people's identity. Stuart Hall constructions as an "act of human solidarity" order defines it as a 'process of fixing meaning to modernize and disseminate a new civilization. In throughout a shared conceptual map and practically fact, the colonizing powers masquerade under the by way of language in its wide meaning’. ( Hall 11) pretext of reformation to gain strength over the Simply put, members of a specific environment colonies. This point entails the notion of hegemony produce meanings over people and objects that is exerted on the Yemeni people. According to according to their ideology, understanding, beliefs, Antonio Gramsci, hegemony is an integral form of and customs. They share a fixed meaning over a class rule, that exists not only in political and phenomenon and transmit it to their descendants economic institutions but also in social activities9. within the same culture. For instance, this In other words, the fundamental power of the ruling contradiction of Arab regarding the practice of their class holds a specific ideology that can serve their religion gives the reader a sense of the reality of imperial plot to convince the lower class (Yemenis) this feature of the Arabic character; yet, it is not that their interests resemble the whole community generalized to all characters. Thus, the absolute as a win-win affair. Therefore, people can believe delivery led to the confusion of faith and that reformation is beneficial, and the colonizer' application. purposes are to protect and civilize them. Instead,

they were trying to abolish a whole civilization for In this sense, many travel writers base

the sake of gaining strength. Thereby, Said claims their representations of the places they visit on their

that the result of cultural hegemony gives cultural backgrounds. They view them from a

Orientalism durability and strength. To be more given misconception already held in their country

explicit, the colonizers try to attribute to the natural using the stereotypes and prejudice rooted in

resources, cultural heritage, and knowledge power, ideology, and discrimination. However,

because the more a country possess the knowledge, some travel writers are not too extreme in their

negative representations; but they make little

exceptions when they come up with allusive 9 Retrieved from hEp://www.theory.org.uk/ctr- gram.htm accessed 8 May 2021 interpretations of the subject matter, which is

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eventually the oriental community. Ingrams also imperial discourse, he justifies the bombardment on

revokes the Bedouins' personality, trying to claim ‘Al Jabir’ (Ingrams291) houses and their

that they were "hot-blooded" and that even the tiny inhabitants. However, the reason was basically

incident could spark a fight, and quarrels were related to robbery and plunder in routes.

common. However, such a feature may not have To sum up, the complexity of British been unique to the Bedouins of Hadramaout at the travel texts discussed in this text is also apparent time, as Yemen was rife with tribal wars and feuds, because Ingrams is, thematically and stylistically, as Ingrams himself notes. heterogeneous. We have seen his achievements in

By contrast, I would not claim that documenting and describing Yemeni culture and

Ingrams planned this splenetic picture of life in heritage and his fascination with native hospitality

Yemen to show the 'superiority of his culture. As and tolerance, but this is not the whole image. In

we accepted the idea of self-cultural criticism as this sense, travel writers who include such peculiar

one of the significant themes in the Western descriptions in their travelogues intend not only to

discourse on the Orient, the same concept should attract western readers but also to depict the 'other'

find its position in our reading of this discourse as a different and weird creation. Ingrams,

with self-criticism. At the same time, one cannot particularly, was concerning with attracting

minimize the significant contribution made by readers, not only by relating strange events about

Ingrams, who witnessed the traditional Yemeni the Bedouins or the tribesmen but also by using

customs and wrote about them besides his irony in his descriptions.

contribution to making peace among tribes. His A WINTER IN ARABIA BY FREYA STARK description of the superstitions of Yemen is free The book is half-journal and half-diary from prejudices or unpleasant words. recounting Freya Stark's10 second trip to Arabia.

Nevertheless, Ingrams, like Walter She traveled to explore and document pre-Islamic

Harris and Freya Stark, could not withdraw using 10 Freya Stark, in full Dame Freya Madeline Stark (born Jan. 31, 1893, Paris, France—died May 9, 1993), a Bri7sh imperial discourse where politics were included. travel writer who is noted for two dozen highly personal books in which she describes local history and culture as Having held the position of military governor of well as everyday life. Many of her trips were to remote areas in Turkey and the Middle East where few Wadi Hadramaout and the counselor to the Sultan Europeans, par7cularly women, had traveled before. of Mukalla, he was hostile to tribes that opposed Retrieved from: hEps://www.britannica.com/biography/Freya-Stark the regime and British intervention. With such accessed, June 2019

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ruins (in the 1930s) in the Arabian Peninsula as active and contemplative;

part of the archeologist’s team under the auspices they drift ever more apart.11

of the Royal Geographic Society. Stark was Here, Stark emphasizes the notion of East and accompanied by two other women: a game West, that are considered by culture, literature, and geologist and an archaeologist uninterested in the philosophy as the two essentially different types of locals or their customs but in monuments. worldviews and social structures. Stark's point is to

In addition, the book, especially the diary show the different scope, which embraces the

section, focuses on many cultural and religious oppositional space between the Arabic East and the

observations about life in Hadhramaut. The European West; this is commonly labeled as the

following passage is a case in point: clash of civilizations. However, in the period of

colonization, the features involved in the The Orient does not get much encountering of two completely different worlds done; it looks upon work as a and their cultural meetings appear simultaneously part only and not too in literary texts. Indeed, European travelers important a part at that of its produce literary discourses that appeared the theme varied existence, but enjoys of the encounter between East and West. As a with a free mind whatever result of the Western colonial policy, which created happens besides. The the entire system of the European envision about Occident, busily budding, has the Arab world, thus producing wrong stereotypes, its eyes rigidly fixed on the and therefore, tries to execute its imperial policy. future: Being and Doing, and

civilization, a compromise, Further, Stark reflects how the Arab

between them. There is too community enjoys every moment in life, depicting

little of the compromise now. images of their mindset at that time; she

Too much machinery in the reasonably, considered the Arabs as people who

West, too little in the East, enjoy their time in any given situation; the Arabs

have made a gap between the are contented and satisfied with their life as it is.

For them, simplicity is one of the key conditions

11 Stark, Freya. A Winter in Arabia. London: Murray, 1948.p43

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that can lead a person to happiness. An illustration elsewhere in the book, Stark states her motives to

of this point is given as follows: travel in the East as the following:

Small boys lost their feet and Here on my bed, wondering flew about like a football. why I come to these They were all in holiday disastrous lands when I have mood and cheerful, and when a comfortable home of my I looked up from my own, I can find no better photography and smiled, the answer than that old one. I phenomenon was greeted with reached the East with the shouts of joy. (62) mere wish to know more about the world we have in. Stark highlighting the difference between the But I suppose that now many Yemenis and the Westerners' way of life. She other reasons have added

believes that the Arabs may be happy even with the themselves: partly that it is easier to think in this simpler smallest things as she mentions that “Dates” satisfy atmosphere, partly that one the Hadramis as opposed to westerners who are would like to add some small

always seeking material luxury, even though they arch to the bridge of understanding between East are unsatisfied with their life. This conclusion and West…. (130) appears to be the outcome of the writer’s long It is noticed here, in Stark’s words, that a personal observation of Wadi Hadramaout. interest constantly derives her from targeting the

In this respect, Stark is best known among East, particularly the Arab Peninsula, as the best

the early female writers who recorded the life of example for discovery. Stark finds many motives to

Oriental women. She is also distinguished as one of travel in Yemen. Thus, such eagerness for travel

the remarkable travel-writers of the 20th century emerge only when the trip becomes one of the main

traveling among Yemeni tribes delving into the conditions for attaining personal goals, so we can

tenets of their culture. Indeed, her journey is still define that as an internal force that makes people

recorded as an outstanding explorer of the East, put the deliberate effort to satisfy personal needs or

especially her challenges as she traveled comradely to seek fame in specific domains. This shows that

alone throughout Hadhramaout without guards. travel writing has not been initiated as a field aimed

Regardless of the main reasons mentioned for specific missionaries but as a space for pleasure

and passion for discovery, i.e. exploring different

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lands and people; in this sense, travel narratives Husain’s wife, her loose and flowery pink brocade tucked have always been related to personal needs, in a silver girdle, looked like colonial power, and policies. Then, intertextuality one of those Egyptian heads is not newly born with Western travel narratives, painted on mummy cases as she sat with one knee up and from the 17th to the 20th century; yet, cases differ one flat on the ground, from one Spatio-temporal context to another. attending to the tea. Her mass of small plaits was divided by In this regard, representation can no more be a parting down the middle, considered providing constant meaning, as and two subsidiary partings

representation depends on one's peculiar culture at right angles to it, one at the front and one at the back: and linguistic background, let alone the gender of from the front, one or two the writer; this representation underwent historical ringlets, not plaited, fall over

shifts through centuries. In this respect, feminist her ears. I have counted 212 plaits on the head of a small observation differs from a masculine perspective girl. (37) due to women were driving by sympathies. Stark In this sense, Stark can give a very depth insight has little knowledge regarding the sensitivity of into a part of the culture, which is nearly Yemeni culture, let alone being a woman in a impossible for most foreigners to penetrate the country in which women were controlling by hidden life of Yemeni ladies, who hide behind seals patriarchal domination due to social instructions. and a thick veil. She built strong relationships with Still, such stereotypical views decreased as she women who were around her during the journey, discovered the customs and rituals. then she succeeded in reducing the distance

The life of the Hadramis woman has between two different cultures. On another

devoted a wide deal of attention to Stark’s writings perspective, Stark highlights hidden dimensions

compared to the rest of the European travelers who regarding the construction of Yemeni families,

wrote about Hadhramaut. Stark was a woman who especially marriage-divorce relations, as is shown

managed to enter women's councils and engage at in these lines:

the heart of their life. For example, she depicts As we climbed the scree he Yemeni women’s clothing in Shibam as follows: told me his family affairs and how his father has now remarried his mother, long

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ago divorced. Forty-four in Seiyun. Despite the lack of love for the West and other wives, which is the Westerners, this British traveler was able to gain traditional number of a the sultan’s trust and confidence thanks to her centipede’s legs, have diversified the interval (90). ability to find a several common points as she

The representation of Yemeni women in this describes, “I think he is not fond of the Europeans

passage demonstrates a deep knowledge of the since he seemed not very pleased to see me.”

general situation of women in a conservative Furthermore, Stark gives more details about the

society that imposes restrictions to reduce their Sultan’s character as she points out:

freedom and limit their life orientation, including He is the religious ruler of marriage choices as submissive to men’s order. this place, a descendant of the Converter of the Stark also reported what she sees during her stay in Hadhraniaut, of the tribe of Yemen, so we do not have to take for granted such Qurcish. When he walks matters, that gives a close image about complex abroad, people kiss his hand as he passes. He has a make and rejection of Yemeni culture, which has manner of authority and looks been written with acute descriptions. However, handsome, his green turban these types of men are still present today among wrapped around a grey skull- cap that matches his grey Arab and Yemenis. gown. (66)

Thanks to Stark’s diplomacy, she was able However, in the letter she wrote to her mother on to use her friends and others to achieve her goals the evening of her first arrival in Seiyun, she said: and spend a large part of her life moving from one “Sultan Ali bin Mansour and his brother came to country to another despite her poverty. No doubt ask about me”. In this sense, the Sultan, who that the reasons for Stark's success in her favored of the traditional lifestyle, did not smile exploratory journeys are her ways of dealing with until Stark was assured of a common tendency the local population and her ability to weave between him and her. She told him that she prefers excellent relations with Sultans, rulers, and to live with the old and quiet way of life. merchants and learn how to address every one of Eventually, harmony was set between the sultan them appropriately. On one of her trips, Stark met and Stark; throughout her stay in Seiyun, he came with Sultan Ali bin Mansour Al Kathiri, who every morning to ask about her and eat his hosted her at his summer house, "Villa Ezz El-Din" breakfast with her. Here, we can say that Stark

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respects people's convictions to live; in turn, she British travel writings from the early 20th

could understand Yemeni culture and convey the century present diverse pictures of Yemen culture,

reality even if it is not the whole picture. To put it its people, and land. The methods that British

in other words, such relationships promote the travelers employed to represent Yemen are not tied

development of colonies in each location. It also to specific criteria as I propose but are much

reinforced the practice of colonial authority among heterogeneous, ambiguous, and discontinuous as

the colonized. Stark reasonably, understands that opposed to other Western/Eastern accounts. The

the purpose of Britain‘s imperial mission was to diversity of Yemen's geography is reflected in

bring civilization to the less developed people in Ingrams and Stark's accounts. The 'barren land' of

the colonies. She also postulates that the adaptation Hadhramaut, for instance, is contrasted with the

of the Arabs of the new colonial lifestyle facilitated image of 'Arabia Felix' in the 'paradise' of Sheba or

the 'civilizing mission'. the fields of fruit trees and streams of water in the

interior of 'Aden Tanks'. Yemen has been seen In the case of Stark, she is not an agent of either as the ‘roughness country’ in the Middle East imperialism perpetuating British colonial control or the most picturesque place on the Arabian over the Middle East. However, it does not mean Peninsula. that the credibility of her writing is misleading of

the reality of Eastern cultures, but we can interpret The Yemeni people, on the one hand, have

her accounts according to cultural dimensions and been portrayed as the cleanest, neatest, and most

not political ones. As a case in point, a woman in courteous of all the Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula,

the imperialist society is tasked with creating and on the other, as retarded and primitive people.

humanity through gender representation and Even the Bedouin himself is represented

through the process of 'social mission' to civilize ambiguously in the British account on Yemen. The

the Other. Similarly, when it comes to portraying two travel writers idolize him as 'innocent'; while

women in the eyes of western thought, Spivak does the other places depict him as 'savage' and '

not blame women for their complicity in barbarian'. I present these interestingly diverse

imperialism, but rather explains their place in images of Yemen to emphasize my hypothesis that

patriarchal society as impactful actors like any British travel writings on Yemen are both diverse

other. and complex in their representation. The latter does

not only reflect Said's view of Orientalist as being 4- CONCLUSION

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subjective to colonial hegemony but also could be professional writer who, before she came to

tackled from other post-colonial orientations, Yemen, had traveled widely abroad and published

namely Bhabha and Spivak's accounts. In this several travel accounts and books that dealt with

regard, the works that I have investigated offer a Arabs. She is best known for her accounts such as

paradigm to reconsider Edward Said's project in 'Baghdad Sketches’, letters from and East is

Orientalism as a just form of colonial West. Travelers’ purposes also contributed to the

indoctrination. Arguably, in British travelers to ambivalence of their attitudes to Yemen; in this

Yemen, we have seen not only those who were vein, although Stark did not articulate her reasons

fascinated by the life and culture of the Yemenis for visiting Yemen, her texts and the directions of

but also, and more importantly, those who her journey give us some hints of the objectives.

criticized the culture of their societies, which gives She was interested in scientific activities such as

a sense of self-criticism and awareness because of mapping and charting the hydrography of Yemen

the intercultural relations between Yemeni people and more precisely, the route of incense, in

and British encounters. In fact, the latter does not addition to her depiction of the feminist trend in

reinforce stereotypical images of the Orient that are travel accounts.

grounded from orientalist perspectives, but Overall, British travelers to Yemen establish authentic historical records of the Yemeni contributed to documenting everyday life in culture at that time. Yemen, specifically in Hadhramaut, in the early

However, many things have contributed to 20th century. In addition, the criticism of some

the heterogeneity of British travel writings on cultural aspects of Yemeni culture should not lead

Yemen, such as travelers’ objectives, backgrounds, us to underestimate the writer's efforts in describing

time of visit, peoples encountered, and the way of what the Yemeni and Arabs that have been

travel. This article shows how British travelers to neglected in Arabic sources. I, myself, admire

Yemen were from different backgrounds; Ingrams travelers’ courage and patience in traveling through

was a government administrator who had Yemen when the country in the 30s was in a

experience in Mauritius and East Asia with little difficult situation and tribal conflicts in its climax.

knowledge regarding Arabs, but it was clear that he Such journeys are marked with great bravery and

had of traveling through Yemen as an administrator challenge surrounded by tribal disputes, harsh

in Colonizer' authority. While Stark is a geography, unbearable weather, let alone

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differences in culture, language, and religion. As a Essays in Gender and the Politics of Literary Criticism. (1997). matter of fact, it is worthy of mentioning here what 11. Spivak, Gayatri C. Can the Subaltern Speak? British travelers themselves confess about the Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988. Yemeni people, who were free of xenophobia as 12. https://www.sant.ox.ac.uk/mec/MEChandlists/ GB165-0156-Ingrams-Collection.pdf accessed, they treated their British encounters with total June 2019 tolerance and hospitality. 13. http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr-gram.htm accessed, June 2019 REFERENCES 14. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Freya- Stark accessed, June 2019 1. Al Saidi ,Kayed . Al-yemen fi Ain almsafron Al ajanib,Sanna:DarJamiatSannaLilnashr, 2009. 2. Al-Taha, Muhammad. The Orient and Three Victorian Travelers: Kinglake, Burton and Palgrave. University of Leicester, 1989. 3. Amshuush, Masoud. Kuurat Al-Yemen FL Kitaabat Al-Gharbiyin: Dirasat FL TamthLlAl- Nkhar.ʻAdan: DMrJMmiatʻAdanlil-OibMʻahwa- al-Nashr, 2010. 4. Ed. Hall, Stuart. Representation: Cultural Representations and signifying practices. London: The Open University,1997 5. Playfair, Robert L. A History of Arabia Felix or Yemen: From the Commencement of the Christian Era to the Middle of the sixth Century. Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1970. P 2 6. Homi ,Bhabha,The Location of Culture London: Routledge, 1994. 7. Hogarth, David G. The Penetration of Arabia: A Record of the Development of Western Knowledge Concerning the Arabian Peninsula. 8. Ingrams, William H. Arabia and the Isles: By Harold Ingrams. New York: F.A. Praeger, 1966. 9. Said, Edward. Orientalism London: Penguin Books, 1995. 10. Spivak, Gayatri C. Three Women's Texts and a Critique of Imperialism. Feminist Reader :

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