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Muslim world - Wikipedia Page 1 of 16

Muslim world From Wikipedia, the free

The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community (), consisting of all those who adhere to the of ,[1] or to where Islam is practiced.[2][3] In a modern geopolitical , these terms refer to countries where Islam is widespread, although there are no agreed criteria for inclusion.[4][3]

The of the Muslim world spans about 1400 and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, , , and technology, particularly during the Islamic . All look for guidance to the and believe in the prophetic mission of , but disagreements on other matters have led to appearance of different religious schools and branches within Islam. In the modern era, most of the Muslim world came under influence or colonial domination of European powers. The nation states that emerged in the post-colonial era have adopted a variety of political and economic models, and they have been affected by secular and as well as religious trends. The Muslim population of the world map by percentage of each country, according to the Pew Forum (assessed on 29 June 2014). As of 2015, over 1.7 billion or about 23% of the world population are Muslims[5] including the 4% who live as minorities. By the percentage of the total population in a region considering themselves Muslim, 91% in the -North Africa (MENA),[6] 89% in Central ,[7] 40% in Southeast Asia,[8] 31% in ,[9][10] 30% in Sub-Saharan Africa,[11] 25% in Asia–Oceania,[12] around 6% in ,[13] and 1% in the Americas. [14][15][16][17]

Contents

◾ 1 History ◾ 1.1 Classical culture ◾ 1.1.1 Ceramics ◾ 1.1.2 ◾ 1.1.3 Philosophy ◾ 1.1.4 ◾ 1.1.5 Technology ◾ 1.2 Gunpowder Empires ◾ 1.3 ◾ 1.3.1 Colonialism ◾ 1.4 Countries gaining independence ◾ 2 Contemporary developments ◾ 2.1 Muslim cultures today ◾ 2.2 Globalization ◾ 3 Geography ◾ 3.1 Countries with the largest Muslim populations (2010) ◾ 4 Demographics ◾ 4.1 Religion ◾ 4.1.1 Islamic schools and branches ◾ 4.1.2 Geographical distribution ◾ 4.2 Refugees ◾ 5 Education ◾ 5.1 Literacy ◾ 5.2 Scholarship ◾ 6 Economy ◾ 6.1 Regional economies ◾ 6.1.1 Western Muslim economies ◾ 6.1.2 African Muslim economies ◾ 6.1.3 Near East and Southwest Muslim economies ◾ 7 Culture ◾ 7.1 Arts ◾ 7.1.1 ◾ 7.1.2 Aniconism ◾ 7.1.3 ◾ 7.1.4 ◾ 7.1.5 Islamic ◾ 7.2 ◾ 7.2.1 Islamic ◾ 7.2.2 ◾ 8 Organizations ◾ 9 ◾ 9.1 and compulsion indexes ◾ 9.2 Religion and state ◾ 9.2.1 Islamic states ◾ 9.2.2 State religion ◾ 9.2.3 Unclear / No Declaration ◾ 9.2.4 Secular states ◾ 9.3 Law and ◾ 9.4 Politics

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◾ 9.4.1 Religious nationalism ◾ 10 List of conflicts in Muslim world ◾ 11 Gallery ◾ 12 See also ◾ 13 Notes ◾ 14 References ◾ 15 External links

History

Muslim history involves the history of the Islamic as a religion and as a social institution. The began in Arabia when the Islamic prophet Muhammad received the first of the Quran in the 7th century in the cave of Hira in the of . He was commanded by to convey this message to the people and be patient with those who became very hostile to it, especially the leaders of who did not like the call of and abolishing . After 13 years of spreading this message despite increased persecution by the Quraysh, the Prophet Muhammad and his followers migrated to to establish a new state under the Prophet's leadership and away from persecution. This migration, called the Hijra, marks the first of the . Islam then spread to the entire over the course of the Prophet's life. The , drawn by Al-Idrisi in 1154, After the Prophet Muhammad passed away, his successors (the Caliphs) continued to lead the Muslim community based one of the most advanced ancient world maps. Al- on his teachings and guidelines of the Quran. The majority of Muslims consider the first fours successors to be 'rightly Idrisi also wrote about the diverse Muslim guided' or . Islam under the Rashidun grew rapidly. Geographic expansion of Muslim power extended communities found in various lands. well beyond the Arabian Peninsula in the form of a vast Muslim Empire with an area of influence that stretched from northwest , across , the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees.

A century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic empire extended from Spain in the west to Indus in the east. The subsequent empires such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljukids, Ajuran, Adal and Warsangali in , Mughals, Safavids in Persia and Ottomans in Anatolia were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world.

Classical culture

Mir , a Portrait of a painter A of Mongol ruler, Ghazan, and Majnun scholar writing a during the reign of Shah Abu'l Ma‘ali, a studying the Quran. studying together, from commentary on the Ottoman Sultan scholar. a Persian miniature Quran, during the reign Mehmet II. painting. of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan.

The coincided with the in the Muslim world, starting with the rise of Islam and establishment of the first in 622. The end of the age is variously given as 1258 with the Mongolian Sack of , or 1492 with the completion of the Christian of the Emirate of in Al-Andalus, Iberian Peninsula. During the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun ar-Rashid (786 to 809), the legendary was inaugurated in Baghdad where scholars from various parts of the world sought to translate and gather all the known world's knowledge into . The Abbasids were influenced by the Quranic injunctions and , such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr," that stressed the value of knowledge. The major Islamic capital cities of Baghdad, , and Córdoba became the main intellectual centers for science, philosophy, medicine, and education.[18] During this period, the Muslim world was a collection of cultures; they drew together and advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese, Indian, Egyptian, and Phoenician .[19]

Ceramics

Between the 8th and 18th centuries, the use of was prevalent in , usually assuming the form of elaborate .[20] -opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in , dating to around the 8th century. Another contribution was the development of , originating from 9th century .[21] Other centers for innovative ceramic pottery in the Old world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).[22]

Literature A Seljuq, (chess) set, glazed fritware, .

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The story of Princess Ali Baba by Maxfield The Magic carpet. Parizade and the Magic Parrish. Tree.[23]

The best known work of fiction from the Islamic world is One Thousand and One Nights (In Persian: hezār-o-yek šab > Arabic: ʔalf-layl-at-wa-l’-layla= One thousand Night and (one) Night) or *Arabian Nights, a name invented by early Western translators, which is a compilation of folk tales from , Persian, and later Arabian fables. The original concept is derived from a pre-Islamic Persian prototype Hezār Afsān (Thousand Fables) that relied on particular Indian elements.[24] It reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.[25] All Arabian fantasy tales tend to be called Arabian Nights stories when translated into English, regardless of whether they appear in The of One Thousand and One Nights or not.[25] This work has been very influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland.[26] Imitations were written, especially in France.[27] Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in , such as , and Ali Baba.

A famous example of Arabic and Persian poetry on romance (love) is , dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet, which was itself said to have been inspired by a version of Layla and Majnun to an extent.[28] 's , the national epic of , is a mythical and heroic retelling of Persian history. Amir Arsalan was also a popular mythical Persian story, which has influenced some modern works of fantasy fiction, such as The Heroic Legend of Arslan.

Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis were pioneers of the philosophical . wrote the first Arabic novel (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to Al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the , and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic feral children living in seclusion on a , both the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on the desert island for the rest of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the earliest known coming of age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel.[29][30]

Theologus Autodidactus,[31][32] written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288), is the first example of a science fiction novel.[33] It deals with various science fiction elements such as , futurology, the end of the world and doomsday, , and the afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to explain these plot elements using the scientific knowledge of biology, astronomy, cosmology and known in his . Ibn al-Nafis' fiction explained Islamic religious teachings via science and .[34]

A Latin translation of Ibn Tufail's work, Philosophus Autodidactus, first appeared in 1671, prepared by the Younger, followed by an English translation by Simon Ockley in 1708, as well as German and Dutch translations. These translations might have later inspired Defoe to write , regarded as the first novel in English.[35][36][37][38] Philosophus Autodidactus, continuing the thoughts of philosophers such as from earlier ages, inspired Robert Boyle to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist.[39]

Dante Alighieri's Divine ,[40] derived features of and episodes about Bolgia[41] from Arabic works on Islamic :[42][43] the and the Kitab al-Miraj (translated into Latin in 1264 or shortly before[44] as Liber Scale Machometi[45]) concerning the ascension to Heaven of Muhammad,[46] and the spiritual writings of . [47] The also had a noticeable influence on the works of George Peele and William Shakespeare. Some of their works featured Moorish characters, such as Peele's The Battle of Alcazar and Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Titus Andronicus and Othello, which featured a Moorish Othello as its title character. These works are said to have been inspired by several Moorish delegations from to Elizabethan England at the beginning of the 17th century.[48]

Philosophy

One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of ."[49] Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.[49] The Persian scholar Ibn Sina () (980–1037) had more than 450 attributed to him. His writings were concerned with various subjects, most notably philosophy and medicine. His medical textbook was used as the standard text in European universities for centuries. He also wrote , an influential scientific and philosophical encyclopedia.

One of the most influential Muslim philosophers in the West was (Ibn Rushd), founder of the school of philosophy, whose works and commentaries affected the rise of secular thought in Europe.[50] He also developed the concept of " precedes ".[51]

Another figure from the Islamic Golden Age, Avicenna, also founded his own school of philosophy, which was influential in both Islamic and Christian lands. He was also a critic of Aristotelian and founder of Avicennian logic, developed the concepts of and , and distinguished between essence and existence.

Yet another influential who had an influence on was Ibn Tufail. His philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdha, translated into Latin as Philosophus Autodidactus in 1671, developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus Ibn Rushd (Averroes) Muslim [52] [53] [54] nurture, condition of possibility, , and Molyneux's problem. European scholars and writers influenced by this novel polymath from Spain. include ,[55] Gottfried Leibniz,[38] Melchisédech Thévenot, , ,[56] George Keith, , the ,[57] and .[39]

Islamic philosophers continued making advances in philosophy through to the 17th century, when founded his school of and developed

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the concept of existentialism.[58]

Other influential Muslim philosophers include al-Jahiz, a pioneer in evolutionary thought; Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), a pioneer of phenomenology and the and a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Aristotle's concept of place (topos); Al-Biruni, a critic of Aristotelian natural philosophy; Ibn Tufail and Ibn al- Nafis, pioneers of the philosophical novel; Shahab al- Suhrawardi, founder of Illuminationist philosophy; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, a critic of Aristotelian logic and a pioneer of inductive logic; and , a pioneer in the .[59]

Sciences

Muslim contributed to advances in the sciences. They placed far greater emphasis on than had the Greeks. This led to an early being developed in the Muslim world, where progress in was Sciences made, beginning with the of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on from circa 1000, in his . The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first ."[60] al-Khwarzimi's invented the log base systems that are being used today, he also contributed theorems in as well as limits.[61] Recent studies show that it is very likely that the Medieval Muslim artists were aware of advanced decagonal geometry (discovered half a millennium later in the 1970s and 1980s in the West) and used it in intricate decorative tilework in the architecture.[62]

Muslim contributed to the field of medicine, including the subjects of and physiology: such as in the Abu al-Qasim al- A self-trimming lamp 15th century Persian work by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn al-Faqih Ilyas entitled Tashrih al-badan (Anatomy of the Zahrawi's Kitab al- from Banū Mūsā's work body) which contained comprehensive diagrams of the body's structural, nervous and circulatory systems; or in the work Tasrif On Mechanical Devices of the Egyptian Ibn al-Nafis, who proposed the theory of . Avicenna's The Canon of Surgical instruments on Automation. Medicine remained an authoritative medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (also illustrations. (11th known as Abulcasis) contributed to the discipline of medical with his Kitab al-Tasrif ("Book of Concessions"), a century) medical encyclopedia which was later translated to Latin and used in European and Muslim medical schools for centuries. Other medical advancements came in the fields of pharmacology and .[63]

In astronomy, Muḥammad ibn Jābir al-Ḥarrānī al-Battānī improved the precision of the measurement of the of the 's axis. The corrections made to the by al-Battani, Averroes, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories were also discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Al-Biruni, Al-Sijzi, Qotb al-Din Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī. The , though originally developed by the Greeks, was perfected by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and was subsequently brought to Europe.

Some most famous scientists from the medieval Islamic world include Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Farabi, Abu al-Qasim al- Zahrawi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Biruni, Avicenna, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun. An illustration from al- The Elephant Biruni's astronomical was one of the most works, explains the famous inventions of Technology different phases of the Al-Jazari. moon. In technology, the Muslim world adopted from .[64] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via Islamic countries, [65] where formulas for pure potassium nitrate[66][67] were developed.

Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, "Cubic equations and Lagâri Hasan Çelebi's Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through intersections of conic rocket flight depicted in Muslim states between China and Europe. sections", of a 17th-century Khayyam. engraving. Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of , and early industrial uses of tidal power and wind power,[68] The Spinning wheel is believed to fuels such as , and early large factory complexes (tiraz in [69] have been invented in the medieval Arabic). The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical- era (of what is now the Greater wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. A variety of industrial mills were being employed in Middle East), it is considered to be an the Islamic world, including early fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, sawmills, ship mills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, tide mills important device that contributed and windmills. By the , every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al- greatly to the advancement of the Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.[64] Muslim engineers also invented crankshafts and water turbines, Industrial . (scene from employed gears in mills and water-raising , and pioneered the use of dams as a source of water power, used to provide Al-Maqamat, painted by al-Wasiti additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.[70] Such advances made it possible for industrial tasks that were previously 1237) driven by manual labour in ancient to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe had an influence on the Industrial Revolution.[71]

Gunpowder Empires

Scholars often use the Gunpowder Empires to describe the Islamic empires of the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal. Each of these three empires had considerable exploits using the newly developed firearms, especially cannon and small arms, to create their empires.[72] They existed primarily between the fourteenth and the late seventeenth centuries.[73]

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Persian Zamburak. Bullocks dragging Gun-wielding Ottoman Cannons and guns siege-guns up hill Janissaries in combat belonging to the Aceh during Mughal Emperor against the Knights of Sultanate (in modern Akbar's Siege of Saint John at the Siege Indonesia). Ranthambore Fort in of Rhodes in 1522. 1568.[74]

Great Divergence

The Great Divergence was the why European colonial powers militarily defeated preexisting Oriental powers like the Mughal Empire, and many smaller states in the pre-modern Greater Middle East, and initiated a period "Why do the Christian nations, which were so known as 'colonialism'.[75] weak in the compared with Muslim nations begin to dominate so many lands in modern times and even defeat the once victorious Ottoman armies?"..."Because they have laws and rules invented by reason"

Ibrahim Muteferrika, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)[75]

Mughal Emperor Shah Siege of Ochakov Combat in the Caucasus Alam II negotiates with (1788), an armed (during the Russo- the British conflict between the Persian Wars). Company after being Ottomans and the defeated during the Russian Tsardom. Battle of Buxar.

Colonialism

Beginning with the 15th century, colonialism by European powers (particularly, but not exclusively, Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Russia, Austria, and Belgium) profoundly affected Muslim societies in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Colonialism was often advanced by conflict with mercantile initiatives by colonial powers and caused tremendous social upheavals in Muslim societies.

Colonial powers commonly classified Muslim societies that were highly heterogeneous as monolithic, anti-modern and anti- Map of colonial powers throughout intellectual. the world in the year 1914 (note colonial powers in the pre-modern A number of Muslim societies reacted to Western powers with zealotry and thus initiating the rise of religious nationalism; or affirmed Muslim world). more traditionalist and inclusive cultural ideals; and in rare cases adopted modernity that was ushered by the colonial powers.[76]

The only Muslim regions not to be colonized by the Europeans were , Iran, , and .

Countries gaining independence

Many disputes have occurred within the Muslim community regarding how to manage, organize and administer their respective countries. Contemporary developments

Ceiling with Islamic The Red Crescent is 1001 Inventions project By the medieval era Muhammad Yunus was patterns at the Museum recognized in 33 and its director Ahmed most of the countries on awarded the Nobel of Islamic Art, Doha. countries. Salim. the Silk Road were Prize, for his concepts Muslim majority. in Microcredit and Microfinance.

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Muslim cultures today

As of 2015 Islam has 1.7 billion adherents, making up over 23.4% of the world population.[5]

Throughout history Muslim cultures have been diverse ethically, linguistically and regionally. In the contemporary world Muslim cultures exist in Asia, Africa and Europe in various countries where Muslims constitute a majority.

However, other Muslim cultures have also emerged in countries throughout the world where Muslims constitute the minority segments of the population.

Globalization

Due to globalization, Islam today has taken root and influenced cultures in places far from the traditional boundaries of the Muslim world.[77] Geography

According to a 2010 study and released January 2011,[78][79] Islam has 1,5 billion adherents, making up over 22% of the world population.[80][81][82] According to the Pew Research Center in 2015 there were 50 Muslim-majority countries.[83][84]

Countries with the largest Muslim populations (2010)

In the following list, India, , , China, Russia and Philippines have large Muslim populations, but Muslims are not a majority in those countries. For other listed countries, the Muslim population has the overwhelming Muslim populations majority.[78]

◾ Indonesia 204,847,000 (87%[85]) ◾ Afghanistan 29,047,000 (100%) ◾ 178,097,000 (96%) ◾ Ethiopia 28,721,000 (34%) ◾ India 172,000,000 (14%) (2016) ◾ 26,833,000 (97%) ◾ Bangladesh 145,312,000 (90%) ◾ 24,023,000 (99%) ◾ Nigeria 75,728,000 (48%) ◾ China 23,308,000 (2%) ◾ Iran 74,819,000 (100%) ◾ Syria 20,895,000 (93%) ◾ Turkey 74,660,000 (99%) ◾ 17,139,000 (61%) ◾ 73,746,000 (90%) ◾ Russia 16,379,000 (12%) Indonesia is currently Silk and Spices Festival ◾ Algeria 34,780,000 (98%) ◾ 15,627,000 (98%) the most populous in Uzbekistan. [86] [89] [90] ◾ Morocco 32,381,000 (99% ) ◾ Philippines 5,000,000 or 11,000,000 (5% Muslim majority ◾ Iraq 31,108,000 (99%) or 11%) country. ◾ Sudan 30,855,000 (97%)[87] ◾ Somalia 10,864,733 (100%) ◾ Saudi Arabia 30,770,375[88] (100%)

Muslims live in, but also have an official status in the following regions:

◾ Africa: North African countries such as Morocco, Algeria, , Libya, Egypt, Sudan; Northeast African countries like Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti; and West African countries like Mali, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, , Sierra Leone, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, Mauritania, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Liberia, Comoros, Togo and ◾ Asia: Central Asia: Kazakhstan, , , Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Xinjiang (China) ◾ Southwest Asia: Arab nations such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq, , , Kuwait, Bahrain, Yemen, Kazakh guard at Horseman in , and non-Arab nations such as Turkey, Northern Cyprus, Iran and . celebrations in Nigeria, Durbar ◾ South Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the Maldives. Astana. festival. ◾ Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore. ◾ East Asia: parts of China (Ningxia) ◾ Europe: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, Russia (North Caucasus and Volga Region) and Ukraine (especially in the Crimea)

The countries of Southwest Asia and some in Northern and Northeastern Africa are considered part of the Greater Middle East. In Chechnya, Dagestan, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay–Cherkessia, Ingushetia, Tatarstan, Bashkortostan in Russia, Muslims are in the majority.

Some definitions would also include the Muslim minorities in:

◾ several countries of Europe, of which the Muslim population in Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and The weekly Jumu'ah Eid al-Fitr in Tajikistan. Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Georgia, Germany, Italy, Macedonia, Montenegro, Netherlands, Russia prayer (Pristina, and Switzerland make up at least 5% of the total population of each of those countries, and with more than half of Kosovo). European Muslims, 28,071,000, living in France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the United Kingdom,[78][91] ◾ several regions of Russia, other than ethnic republics above (Adygea, North Ossetia–Alania, etc.) ◾ some parts of India like Kashmir, Assam, West (India has the third-largest population of Muslims of any country) ◾ Singapore, Burma (Myanmar), Pattani (Thailand), and Mindanao (Philippines) ◾ Guyana, Suriname, . ◾ Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Malawi, South Africa, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Uganda, Ethiopia Demographics

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More than 23% of the world's population is Muslim.[92][93] Current estimates conclude that the number of Muslims in the world is around 1.5 billion.[92] Muslims are the majority in 49 countries,[94] they speak hundreds of languages and come from diverse ethnic backgrounds. Major languages spoken by Muslims include Arabic, Bengali, , Punjabi, Malay, Javanese, Sundanese, Swahili, Hausa, Fula, Berber, Tuareg, Somali, Albanian, Spanish, Bosnian, Russian, Turkish, Azeri, Kazakh, Uzbek, Tatar, Persian, Kurdish, , Balochi, Sindhi and Kashmiri, among many others.

Religion View of Jakarta, Indonesia. The country has the largest number of Muslims in the The two main denominations of Islam are the Sunni and Shia . They differ primarily upon of how the life of the ummah world. ("faithful") should be governed, and the role of the . Sunnis believe that the true political successor of the Prophet according to the should be selected based on ٍShura (consultation), as was done at the Saqifah which selected , Muhammad's father-in-law, to be Muhammad's political but not his religious successor. Shia, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad designated his son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib as his true political as well as religious successor.[95]

The overwhelming majority of Muslims in the world, between 87–90%, are Sunni.[96]

Shias and other groups make up the rest, about 10–13% of overall Muslim population. The countries with the highest concentration of Shia populations are: Iran – 96%, [97] Azerbaijan – 85%,[98] Iraq – 60/70%,[99] Bahrain – 70%, Yemen – 47%,[100] Turkey – 28%,[101][102][103] – 27%, Syria – 17%, Afghanistan – 15%, Pakistan – 25%,[104] and India – 5%.[105]

The Kharijite Muslims, who are less known, have their own stronghold in the country of Oman holding about 75% of the population.[106]

Islamic schools and branches

The first centuries of Islam gave rise to three major sects: Sunnis, Shi'as and . Each developed distinct schools () reflecting different of jurisprudence ().

The major Sunni are , , Shafi'i, and .

The major Shi'a branches are (Imami), Ismaili () and Zaidi (Fiver). Isma'ilism later split into Nizari Ismaili and Musta’li Ismaili, and then Mustaali was divided into Hafizi and Taiyabi Ismailis.[107] It also gave rise to the Qarmatian movement and the faith. Twelver Shiism developed Ja'fari jurisprudence whose branches are Akhbarism and Usulism, and other movements such as , Shaykism[108] and .[109][110]

Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five major branches: , , , Adjarites and Ibadis. Among these numerous branches, only Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Imamiyyah-Ja'fari-, Nizārī Ismā'īlī, Alevi,[111] Zaydi, Ibadi, , Alawite,[112] Druze and Taiyabi communities have survived. In addition, new schools of thought and movements like Quranist Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims and African American Major schools and branches of Islam (NB: Ja'fari and Twelver boxes are interchanged) Muslims later emerged independently.

Geographical distribution

A map of major denominations and of the world The main Islamic madh'habs (schools of law) of Muslim countries or distributions

Refugees

According to the UNHCR, Muslim countries hosted 18 million refugees by the end of 2010.

Since then Muslim nations have absorbed refugees from recent conflicts, including the uprising in Syria.[113] In July 2013, the UN stated that the number of Syrian refugees had exceeded 1.8 million.[114] Education

In many Muslim countries, illiteracy is a substantial problem. Low literacy rates in the Eastern Middle East countries and lack of educational initiatives are the cause of great social turbulence.

Seminary exist however many Madrassahs operated by renegade organizations have taken hold in the gap caused by the lack of basic education not provided and funded by

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the of various countries.

A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that Muslims have the lowest average levels of education after Hindus, with an average of 5.6 years of schooling;[115] About 36% of World Muslim population population have no formal schooling,[115] Muslims have also the lowest average levels of higher education of any major religious group, with only 8% have graduate and post- graduate degrees.[115] The highest of years of schooling among Muslim majority countries found in Uzbekistan (11.5),[115] Kuwait (11.0)[115] and Kazakhstan (10.7).[115] In addition the average of years of schooling in countries where Muslims are the majority is 6.0 years of schooling, which lag behind the [115] global average (7.7 years of schooling). In the youngest age (25–34) group surveyed, Young Muslims World map indicating literacy by country in 2013 (2013 UN have the lowest average levels of education of any major religious group, with an average of 6.7 years of Development Report and departments) Grey = no [115] schooling, which lag behind the global average (8.6 years of schooling). The study found that Muslims data have a significant amount of gender inequality in educational attainment, since Muslim women have an average of 4.9 years of schooling; compare to an average of 6.4 years of schooling among Muslim men. [115]

Young school girls in A primary classroom in Schoolgirls in Gaza Paktia Province of Niger. lining up for class, Afghanistan. 2009.

Literacy

Literacy rate in the Muslim world varies. Some members such as Kuwait, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have over 97% literacy rates, whereas literacy rates are the lowest in Mali, Afghanistan, Chad and parts of Africa. In 2015, the International Islamic News Agency reported that nearly 37% of the population of the Muslim world is unable to read or write, basing that figure on reports from the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. [116]

Scholarship

Several Muslim countries like Turkey and Iran exhibit high scientific publication.[117] Some countries have tried to encourage scientific research. In Pakistan, establishment of the Higher Education Commission in 2002, resulted in a 5-fold increase in the number of PhDs and a 10-fold increase in the number of scientific research papers in 10 years with the total number of universities increasing from 115 in 2001 to over 400 in 2012. Saudi Arabia has established the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology. United Arab Emirates has invested in Zayed University, United Arab Emirates University, and Masdar Institute of Science and Technology[118] Economy

The major economies of the Muslim world are composed of some economic systems of Western Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia; most of the Middle East, most of North Africa (and the ), and most of .[119]

Islamic bans interest or (Usury) but in the vast majority of Muslim countries Western banking is used.

According to the Salam Standard Global Economic Impact of Muslim Tourism 2015/2016 report, the GDP impact of the world’s Muslim tourism sector exceeded US$138 billion in 2015.[120] The industry generated 4.3 million jobs and contributed more than $18 billion in tax revenue.[121]

Regional economies

Western Muslim economies Petronas Towers in Burj Khalifa in , Kuala Lumpur The major economies of the western Muslim economies are in part composed of the Asiatic United Arab Emirates economies of Islamic Western Asia and South Asia.[119] Avaz Twist Tower in Sarajevo African Muslim economies

The major economies of the African Muslim economies are composed of Islamic African nations.[119]

See also: Horn of Africa Economy ( and Economy of Somalia)

Near East and Southwest Muslim economies

The major economies of the Near East and Southwest Muslim economies are composed of Islamic Near Eastern nations (the Middle East) and Islamic Southeast Asian nations.[119]

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Further information: Economy of the Middle East (Middle East economic integration), Economy of Palestine (Economy of Gaza), Economy of Iraq (Economy of Iraqi Kurdistan), Economy of Brunei, Economy of Malaysia (Bamboo network), and Economy of Indonesia Culture

Arts The term "Islamic art and architecture" denotes the works of art and architecture produced from the 7th century onwards by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic populations.[123][124]

Architecture

Encompasses both secular and religious styles, the design and style made by Muslims and their construction of buildings and structures in Islamic culture included the architectural types: the , the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque.[125] Through Islamic architecture, effects of varying cultures within Islamic can be illustrated. Generally, the use of Islamic geometric patterns and foliage based were striking. There was also the use of decorative calligraphy instead Et'hem Bey Mosque in The Taj situated of pictures which were (forbidden) in mosque architecture. Note that in secular architecture, human and animal Tirana, capital of in Agra city of India is representation was indeed . Albania. (Larger one of the most notable (http://upload.wikimedi example of Islamic The North African and Iberian Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great a.org/wikipedia/commo architecture.[122] (Larger [126] Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings, in the palace ns/4/4b/Et% (http://upload.wikimedi at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba. 27hem_Bey_Mosque_ a.org/wikipedia/commo %26_Clock_tower.jpg)) ns/4/4d/TajMahalbyAm Persian-style are characterized by their tapered brick pillars, large arcades, and arches supported each by alMongia.jpg)) several pillars. In South Asia, elements of Hindu architecture were employed, but were later superseded by Persian designs.

Aniconism

No Islamic visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because it is believed that such artistic depictions may lead to idolatry. Moreover, Muslims believe that God is incorporeal, making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Instead, Muslims describe God by the names and attributes that, according to Islam, he revealed to his creation. All but one sura of the Quran begins with the phrase "In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful". Images of Mohammed are likewise prohibited. Such aniconism and iconoclasm[127] can also be found in Jewish and some Christian . A Chinese pavilion The 10th-century Grand instead of a at Mosque of Cordoba. Arabesque the Great Mosque of ( Cordoba Xi'an, one of China's BW 2015-10-27 13-54- Islamic art frequently adopts the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as arabesque. Such largest mosques. 14.jpg Larger designs are highly nonrepresentational, as Islam forbids representational depictions as found in pre-Islamic pagan (http://upload.wikimedi religions. Despite this, there is a presence of depictional art in some Muslim societies, notably the miniature style made a.org/wikipedia/commo famous in Persia and under the Ottoman Empire which featured paintings of people and animals, and also depictions of ns/9/98/Spain)) Quranic stories and Islamic traditional narratives. Another reason why Islamic art is usually abstract is to symbolize the transcendence, indivisible and infinite nature of God, an objective achieved by arabesque.[128] is an omnipresent decoration in Islamic art, and is usually expressed in the form of Quranic verses. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic and scripts, which can be found adorning the walls and of mosques, the sides of , and so on.[128]

Distinguishing motifs of Islamic architecture have always been ordered repetition, radiating structures, and rhythmic, metric patterns. In this respect, fractal geometry has been a key utility, especially for mosques and palaces. Other features employed as motifs include columns, piers and arches, organized and interwoven with alternating sequences of niches and colonnettes.[129] The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Its usage spans centuries, Hassan II Mosque in of the in first appearing in 691 with the construction of the Dome of the Rock mosque, and recurring even up until the 17th Morocco. Jerusalem century with the Taj Mahal. And as late as the 19th century, Islamic domes had been incorporated into European architecture.[130]

Example of an Example of an Example of an Arabesque Arabesque Arabesque

Girih

Girih is an Islamic decorative art form used in architecture and handicrafts (book covers, tapestry, small metal objects), consisting of geometric lines that form an interlaced .

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Girih tiles The subdivision rule Girih pattern that can be used to generate the drawn with Girih pattern on the and straight edge. spandrel.

Islamic calligraphy

Islamic calligraphy, is the artistic practice of handwriting, calligraphy, and by extension, of bookmaking, in the lands sharing a common Islamic cultural heritage.

Kufic script from an Bismallah calligraphy. Islamic calligraphy Islamic calligraphy Modern Islamic early Qur'an represented for amulet praising Ali. calligraphy representing manuscript, 7th century. of sailors in the various planets. (Surah 7: 86–87) Ottoman Empire.

Calendar

Islamic lunar calendar

The Islamic calendar, Muslim calendar or Hijri calendar (AH) is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 in a year of 354 or 355 days. It is used to date events in many Muslim countries and determines the proper days on which to observe the annual fast (see Ramadan), to attend , and to celebrate other and festivals.

Solar Hijri calendar

The Solar Hijri calendar, also called the Shamsi Hijri calendar, and abbreviated as SH, is the official calendar of Iran and Afghanistan. It begins on the vernal equinox. Each of the twelve months corresponds with a zodiac sign. al-Ḥusayn ibn The first six months have 31 days, the next five have 30 days, and the last month has 29 days in usual years but 30 Zayd ibn ‘Alī days in leap years. The year of Prophet Muhammad's migration to Medina (622 CE) is fixed as the first year of the ibn Jaḥḥāf's calendar, and the New Year's always falls on the . work on the Islamic Calendar. Organizations

The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is an inter-governmental organization grouping fifty-seven states. also called Solar Hijri 49 are Muslim countries, the others are non-Muslim countries with Muslim minorities. The organization is the collective voice of the calendar. Muslim world to safeguard the interest and ensure the progress and well-being of their peoples and those of other Muslims in the world over.

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) includes many nations that are also in the Arab League. Government

Democracy and compulsion indexes

In the 2010 Democracy Index published by the Economist Unit, no Muslim World countries were rated as a "Full Democracy" under its guidelines, and 3 out of 49 were rated as a "Flawed Democracy." The rest were rated either an "Authoritarian Regime" or a "Hybrid Regime."[131]

The 2010 Freedom in the World rated three Muslim-majority nations as Free based on Political and Civil Liberties in the member countries.[132]

Reporters Without Borders in its 2010 Press Freedom Index rated Mali and Suriname among the Muslim world as having a Satisfactory Situation. Other Muslim states had ratings ranging from Noticeable Problems to Very Serious Situation.[133][134]

The US Department of State 2010 International Religious Freedom Report cited Iran, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Uzbekistan as being Countries of Particular Concern, where religious freedom is severely violated. It also cited Afghanistan, Egypt, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan as "countries that face challenges in protecting religious freedom".[135]

The Open Doors USA organization, in its 2012 survey of countries around the world that persecute , listed 37 members of the Muslim world amongst the top 50 countries where Christians face the most severe persecution. 9 of the top 10 countries are Islamic-majority states.[136]

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Religion and state

Muslim majority countries classified by constitutional role for religion. Islamic state State religion Secular state Unclear / No declaration

As the Muslim world came into contact with secular ideals, societies responded in different ways. Some Muslim countries are secular. Azerbaijan became the first secular republic in the Muslim world, between 1918 and 1920, before it was incorporated into the Soviet Union.[137][138][139] Turkey has been governed as a secular state since the reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[140] By contrast, the 1979 replaced a mostly secular regime with an led by the Ayatollah, .[141]

Some countries have declared Islam as the official state religion. In those countries, the legal code is largely secular. Only personal status matters pertaining to inheritance and marriage are governed by law.

Islamic states

Islamic states have adopted Islam as the ideological foundation of state and constitution.

◾ Afghanistan[142] ◾ Oman[145] ◾ Iran[143] ◾ Saudi Arabia[146] ◾ Mauritania[144] ◾ Yemen[147]

State religion

The following Muslim-majority nation-states have endorsed Islam as their state religion.

◾ Algeria[148] ◾ Maldives[158] ◾ Bahrain[149] ◾ Malaysia[159] ◾ Brunei[150] ◾ Morocco[160] ◾ Comoros[151] ◾ Pakistan[161] ◾ Djibouti[152] ◾ Qatar[162] ◾ Egypt[153] ◾ Sahrawi Republic[163] ◾ Iraq[154] ◾ Somalia[164] ◾ Jordan[155] ◾ Tunisia[165] ◾ Kuwait[156] ◾ United Arab Emirates[166] ◾ Libya[157]

Unclear / No Declaration

These are neutral states where the constitutional or official announcement regarding status of religion is not clear or unstated.

◾ Bangladesh[167] ◾ Lebanon[169] ◾ Indonesia[168] ◾ Syria[170]

Secular states

Secular states in Muslim world have declared separation between civil/government affairs and religion.

◾ Albania[171] ◾ Guinea[177] ◾ Azerbaijan[172] ◾ Guinea-Bissau[178] ◾ Bosnia-Herzegovina[173] ◾ Kazakhstan[179] ◾ Burkina Faso[174] ◾ Kosovo[180] ◾ Chad[175] ◾ Kyrgyzstan[181] ◾ The Gambia[176] ◾ Mali[182]

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◾ Niger[183] ◾ Tajikistan[187] ◾ Nigeria[184] ◾ Turkey[188] ◾ Northern Cyprus ◾ Turkmenistan[189] ◾ Senegal[185] ◾ Uzbekistan[190] ◾ Sierra Leone[186] ◾ West [191]

Law and ethics

In some nations, Muslim ethnic groups enjoy considerable autonomy.

In some places, Muslims implement Islamic law, called sharia in Arabic. The Islamic law exists in a number of variations, but the main forms are the five (four Sunni and one Shia) and Salafi and Ibadi schools of jurisprudence (fiqh)

◾ Hanafi school in Pakistan, North India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Turkey, Albania, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, other Balkan States, Lower Egypt, Spain, Canada, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, Russia, Caucasus Republics, China, Central Asian Republics, European Union, other countries of North and South America. ◾ Maliki in North Africa, West Africa, Sahel, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Kuwait. ◾ Shafi'i in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Eritrea, Somalia, Yemen, Maldives, Sri Lanka and South India Use of Sharia by country: ◾ Hanbali in Saudi Arabia, Sharia plays no role in the judicial system ◾ Jaferi in Iran, Iraq, Bahrain and Azerbaijan. These four are the only "Muslim states" where the majority is Shia Sharia applies in personal status issues only population. In Yemen, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Turkey, and Syria, are countries with Sunni populations. In Lebanon, the majority Muslims (54%) were about equally divided between Sharia applies in full, including criminal law Sunni and Shia in 2010. Regional variations in the application of sharia ◾ Ibadi in Oman and small regions in North Africa

In a number of Muslim countries the law requires women to cover either their legs, shoulders and head, or the whole body apart from the face. In strictest forms, the face as well must be covered leaving just a mesh to see through. These rules for dressing cause tensions, concerning particularly Muslims living in Western countries, where restrictions are considered both sexist and oppressive. Some Muslims oppose this charge, and instead declare that the media in these countries presses on women to reveal too much in order to be deemed attractive, and that this is itself sexist and oppressive.

Politics

During much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues have arguably increased during the early 21st century. The fast-growing interests of the Western world in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization have changed the influence of Islam on the world in contemporary history.[193]

Religious nationalism

Some people in Muslim countries also see Islam manifested politically as .[194] is powerful in some Muslim- majority countries. Islamic parties in Turkey, Pakistan and Algeria have taken power at the provincial level. Some in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups (in Benazir Bhutto, the former prime democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party) and their views of democracy are complex. minister of Pakistan became the first woman elected to lead a Muslim Some of these groups are accused of practicing . majority country.[192] List of conflicts in Muslim world

Some of the events pivotal in the Muslim world's relationship with the outside world during the Soviet era and Post-Soviet era were:

◾ Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 ◾ The Arab-Israel War 1967 ◾ The Nagorno-Karabakh War ◾ The Western Sahara War ◾ The ◾ The Iran–Iraq War ◾ The Gulf War 1991 ◾ The Bosnian War ◾ The First Chechen War Bosnian Muslim mourners at the ◾ The Kosovo War reburial ceremony for an exhumed ◾ The South Lebanon conflict (1982–2000) victim of the Srebrenica massacre. ◾ The Kashmir conflict ◾ The Kargil War (Between Pakistan and India) (1999) ◾ The War in Afghanistan (2001–present) ◾ The 2003 invasion of Iraq ◾ The War on Terror ◾ The Syrian occupation of Lebanon ◾ The Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy of 2005 ◾ The Sudanese Civil War ◾ The 2006 Lebanon War ◾ The 2006 controversy over remarks quoted by Pope Benedict XVI ◾ The 2007 Lebanon conflict ◾ The ongoing war in Darfur ◾ The ongoing standoff with Iran over its nuclear program ◾ The ongoing Second Chechen War ◾ The ongoing War in North-West Pakistan ◾ The ongoing Islamic insurgency in the Philippines

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◾ The ongoing Islamic insurgency in Thailand ◾ The War in Somalia (2009–) ◾ The 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence ◾ The Arab Spring ◾ The 2011 military intervention in Libya ◾ The Syrian Civil War ◾ The Northern Mali conflict ◾ The Central African Republic conflict (2012–present) ◾ The 2013 Burma anti-Muslim riots ◾ The ongoing Xinjiang conflict ◾ The ongoing Islamist insurgency in Nigeria ◾ The 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict ◾ The 2014 Northern Iraq campaign ◾ 2014 India–Pakistan border skirmishes ◾ Yemeni Civil War (2015–present) ◾ 2016 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashes

Gallery

A Kazakh wedding A group of – Muslim girls at Istiqlal A tribal delegation in ceremony in a mosque West African religious Mosque in Jakarta Chad leaders and teachers of the Quran.

See also

◾ ◾ Islam by country ◾ ◾ Islam and other religions ◾ Religious nationalism ◾ Islamic Military Alliance Notes

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◾ Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. OCLC 223231547 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/223231547). ◾ Graham, Mark, How Islam Created the Modern World (2006) ◾ Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1. ◾ Tausch, Arno (2015). The political of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui. (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8. ◾ Russell, G. A. (1994). The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England. Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09459-8. ◾ "top_muslim_powers" (http://wn.com/top_muslim_powers_iran_turkey_pakistan_egypt_saudi_arabia_military_action_exclusive). ◾ Kraemer, Joel L. (1992). in the of Islam. Brill Publishers. ISBN 90-04-07259-4. ◾ Grant, John; Clute, John. "Arabian fantasy". The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. ISBN 0-312-19869-8. External links

◾ The Islamic World to 1600 (http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/) an online tutorial at the University of Calgary, Canada. ◾ Qantara.de-Dossier: Democracy and Civil in Muslim countries (http://www.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-593/i.html/) ◾ Is There a Muslim World? (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=104927939&ft=1&f=1004), on NPR ◾ Asabiyya: Re-Interpreting Value Change in Globalized Societies (https://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4459.html) ◾ Why Europe has to offer a better deal towards its Muslim communities. A quantitative analysis of open international data (https://ideas.repec.org/b/erv/ebooks/b001.html) ◾ Indian Ocean in World History, A free online educational resource (http://www.indianoceanhistory.org/) ◾ The Three Non-Arab Islamic Empires (Iran, Turkey and Pakistan) (http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=194_1389393515)

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