Islamic Ethics in Australian Muslim Everyday Life: A Shi’ite Perspective Mohamad Younes

Master’s Thesis in Sociology Spring Term 2017 Humanities and Communication Arts Western Sydney University

1 17481784 Mohamad Younes

2 17481784 Mohamad Younes ABSTRACT

Despite the strong emphasis on ethics within the Islamic tradition, Islamic ethics itself is scarcely represented as a discipline within academic scholarship (Ansari 1989). Even within this area, Islamic ethics have predominantly been studied from Sunni perspectives, with little attention being paid to Shi’ite or other minority understandings. This thesis will, therefore, use qualitative data collection methods of semi-structured in-depth interviews and focus groups, to sociologically study the perceptions, understandings, and applications of Islamic ethics in Australian Shi’ite Muslim everyday living. It will investigate the overarching understanding of Islamic ethics and its specific application in Australian Shi’ite Muslim context. The project's objective, therefore, is twofold: one to strengthen Islamic ethics as an independent discipline; and two to address the scant attention Shi’ite Islamic ethics has received in Islamic ethics scholarship generally. Conceptually, this project will contribute to the understanding of Islamic ethics through a particular analysis of Shi’ite Islamic ethics in an Australian Shi’ite context. This is significant as specific understandings of Islamic ethics in certain contexts help to explain how minority groups such as Shi’ite Muslims develop their own ethical standards to shape social relations in society. In addition, this thesis argues for Shi’ite Islamic ethics to be highly Imamate based; that is, very reliant on the actions and sayings of 12 divinely guided Imams (leaders). Achieving such goals will enhance the overall conceptualisation and understanding of the complexities of Islamic ethics in contemporary Muslim contexts.

Keywords: Shi’ite, Islamic ethics, Ethics, Australian Muslim.

3 17481784 Mohamad Younes Acknowledgements

This study is the result of a research project conducted for my master’s thesis in Humanities and Communication Arts at Western Sydney University. This thesis is written as part of Western Sydney University’s two-year Master of Research course. After finishing my Bachelor of Business and Commerce degree with a sub major in Islamic studies, I decided to pursue a Master of Research course. Now, almost two years later, I have completed my master’s thesis. When first confronted with my thesis topic of Islamic ethics, several questions crossed my mind. What is Islamic ethics all about? Are Islamic ethics different to secular ethics? Does Islamic ethics have a direct link with the behaviour of Muslims in the West? Eventually the questions expanded and became more specific to studying and understanding the level of understanding from the Shi’ite Muslim perspective. It was triggered by a scanty literature on Islamic ethics from the Shi’ite Muslim point of view. Being a Shi’ite Muslim myself, I wanted to know more about it, and what would be a better manner than writing a thesis on the subject? This master’s thesis would not be accomplished without the support of some important people. I would like to thank Dr. Jan Ali for his excellent guidance in both the master's thesis and bachelor degree phases of my studies, Dr. Jack Tsoutsas for his awesome guidelines for writing, and useful feedback in all aspects of my time in university, and Dr. Alex Norman for providing me with great comments and strategies to improve my study. I would like to thank my co-students, with whom I learnt and shared valuable information. And finally, a special thanks to all my family and friends for the support they gave me to make my student life a really great experience.

4 17481784 Mohamad Younes CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 7

1.1 Secular Ethics vs Islamic Ethics ...... 9

1.1.2 Ethics and Moral Philosophy ...... 11

1.1.3 Good and Bad ...... 12

1.2 Early Developments: Essential Values ...... 14

1.2.1 Shi’ite Ethics ...... 14

2 FOUNDATIONAL BASIS ...... 16

2.1 Islamic Principles ...... 16

2.1.1 Sources of Ethics (Qur’an & Sunnah) ...... 17

3 TAQWA (GOD-CONSCIOUSNESS)...... 19

3.1 An Ethical way of Life is Islamic ...... 19

3.1.1 Roles in a Muslim Society ...... 21

3.1.2 Legal/Intellectual Emphasis on Ethics...... 21

3.1.3 Theological Traditions ...... 22

4 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ISLAMIC ETHICS ...... 23

Rationalist and Traditionalist ...... 23

4.1 Traditional Contributions ...... 23

4.1.1 Sunni Muslim Approach ...... 25 4.1.2 Shi’ite Muslim Perspective ...... 26 4.1.3 Diversity in Shi’ism ...... 29 4.1.4 Modernisation Islamic Ethics ...... 30

5 DISCUSSION ON ISLAMIC ETHICS ...... 31

5.1 Minding the Gap in Islamic Ethics ...... 31

6 RESEARCH METHOD ...... 39

6.1 Qualitative Data Collection ...... 39

5 17481784 Mohamad Younes 7 PARADIGM OF SHI’A ISLAMIC ETHICS ...... 42

7.1 Cultivation of Character Framework ...... 42

8 RESEARCH FINDINGS & RESULTS ...... 48

8.1 Shi’ite Muslims ...... 49

9 DATA INTERPRETATION & ANALYSIS ...... 52

9.1 Reliability and Validity ...... 52

9.1.1 Limitations ...... 53

9.1.2 The (Qualitative Method) ...... 53

Principle ethical teachings within Islam ...... 66

Shi'a/ Sunni Differences ...... 71

10 CONCLUSION ...... 73

REFERENCES ...... 75

APPENDICES ...... 83

6 17481784 Mohamad Younes 1 INTRODUCTION

Amongst the family of monotheistic faiths such as Judaism and Christianity, Islam is the youngest of these major world religions. With its inceptions in Saudi Arabia over 1400 years ago, Islam has expanded encompassing over 1.8 billion adherents, virtually living in all corners of the globe (Lipka 2016). Although most of Islam's adherents, known as Muslims, are located throughout Africa and Asia, there has been a significant growth in Muslim populations living in Australia, Europe and the Americas, or what is collectively known as the West in the twenty first century (Siddiqui 2012). Recently, the diverse communities constituting the worldwide Muslim community have expressed a need, in differing ways, to link their Islamic heritage to points of cultural self- identification (Peters 2015). Where this sensation has grown to be related to internal and external conflict, it has generated a huge amount of confusion and misconceptions with respect to the role of Islam. In order to highly value the variety of Islam's legacy of ethical thought and life, it is potentially vital to develop sociological insights as to how the range of Islamic esteems and crucial ethical presumptions have been fashioned in the progression of Muslim history. Ethical traditions in Islam are an application of various approaches toward moral and ethical values. This thesis will highlight the various traditions in Islam that is evident today which developed due to varying emphases on Islamic ethics. With ethical responsibilities of individuals to other communities, as well as each other within the community, the general environment has been shaped by earlier theological, philosophical and pragmatic assessments. This thesis will convey the actions that later developed to shape moral and legal rationalities of particular schools of thought (Turner and Nasir 2013).

Ethics has been defined by Lillie (1971, p.1-2) as “The normative science of the conduct of human beings living in societies – a science which judges this conduct to be right or wrong, to be good or bad or in some similar way.” (The word “ethics” originates from the Greek word “ethos”, which means “character, spirit and attitude of a group of people or culture” (Loeb 1971, p.301). According to the Oxford English Dictionary, ethics is defined as “a system of moral principles by which human actions may be judged as good or bad, right or wrong; and the rules of conduct recognised in respect of a particular class of human actions.” Rachels and Rachels (1993) explain ethics as

7 17481784 Mohamad Younes representing a set of moral principles, values and forms of conduct. Rania (2006) highlights ethics as interrelationships between human beings and society. Delaney (2005) holds that ethics is interested in rules that ought to carry out human behaviour and interaction. Elegido (2000) describes ethics as the mission for, and understanding of, living the good life, as valuable and pleasant as possible. Thus, he suggests ethics is hugely a matter of point of view by arranging daily actions and objectives in their part, also understanding what is meaningful to do and not to do. Some of the key words used in the definitions above are briefly expanded in order for a greater comprehension of the concepts. ‘Normative Science’, in other terms, is a discipline that sets out measures for the field under study. For instance, normative science deals with ‘how things ought to be’ rather than ‘how things really are’ (Lillie 1971). ‘Normative Science’ is primarily comprised of three areas:

1. "‘aesthetics’, standards by which we judge the beauty or ugliness of things, 2. ‘logic’, the measures by which we evaluate truth or the falseness of statements, and 3. ‘ethics’, the standards in which we determine right or wrong in human action."

Conduct is a collective term for voluntary or chosen actions. A voluntary action is something an individual could have done differently if he/she had so preferred. This study is confined to the conduct of individuals living in relevant societies. This conduct studied in ethics not only deals with actions performed in society but also that which affects other members of the society. The moment an individual's activity has a social effect, that will be involved in the study of ethics. For example, somebody playing his music may begin to disturb his neighbours. At this point in time, his seemingly private action would now be related to the scope of ‘ethics’. This thesis will delve specifically into the ideas, thoughts, perceptions and understandings of ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims and assess whether such principles are applied in their everyday living in Australian society. The topic of ethics fundamentally comprises issues essential to practical decision making in the case of all possible actions. Hence, the discipline, although classically regarded a branch of philosophy, is tied with various fields of inquiry such as sociology, anthropology and politics.

Ethics, nonetheless, still continues to be distinguished from such fields of study, as ethics centres on human conduct, as it ought to be, as opposed to how it actually is. According to Burks (2006), ethics is normally split into three primary sub-disciplines.

8 17481784 Mohamad Younes "These are:

1. meta-ethics, 2. normative ethics, and 3. applied ethics."

‘Meta-ethics’ focuses on issues pertaining to the origin of moral judgments and ideas. Philosophers throughout history in this field have held various positions on this issue. ‘Normative ethics’ as explained before deals with general theories on how an individual ought to live his/her life. Theories which judge actions by their consequences are traditionally called 'teleological', however the word 'consequentialist' has recently superseded it. Another group of theories within normative ethics, entitled 'deontological', determines someone's actions by their agreement or disagreement to a formal principle. ‘Applied ethics’ deals with applying moral theories to practical moral issues. Such matters as racism, human rights and justice have been predominant, as have abortion, euthanasia and controversial questions raised over the value of human life.

1.1 Secular Ethics vs Islamic Ethics

Should Muslims subscribe to secular ethics or Islamic ethics in the West? This question should be viewed from both an Islamic and secular standpoint. People are motivated by various factors in regards to ethics. Having material gains high on the list of motivators makes ethical behaviour difficult to maintain as it may seem contrary to achieving those certain benefits. However, from both an Islamic perspective and secular level there are reasons for individuals to behave ethically. From an Islamic point of view, there are two prime factors stemming from the same source:

1. Belief in Allah (God) and the Hereafter. The proper Islamic understanding of belief in God involves a behaviour from the Muslim with a sense of striving to earn the pleasure of God on the one side and aiming to secure a place of success in the Hereafter on the other (Fakhry 2004), and 2. Secular ethics is a branch of moral philosophy by which human faculties are the basis of ethics, the difference here is that secular ethics are not derived from supernatural revelation or guidance

9 17481784 Mohamad Younes For a Muslim, however, preferring Islamic ethics over secular ethics is completely rational. If a Muslim denies the importance or rather even preference of Islamic ethics, he/she is undermining their claim in being a Muslim (Schimmel 1992). A requirement and an essential message of Islam demands believers to behave ethically in all facets of human activity. In fact, Muslims should welcome the study of Islamic ethics as an opportunity to properly understand what their faith involves. The Qur’an emphasises that good ethics of a believing Muslim is always inspired by the desire to seek the pleasure of God (Ahmad and Sadeq 2002). Good ethics are not meant to attain worldly benefits; however, this does not necessarily suggest that worldly gains are not Islamically acceptable. The other important moving force for the Muslim is the desire to be rewarded by God in the Hereafter. The believer sacrifices difficult temptations of worldly benefits related to unethical practices by storing faith in God alone for benefits in the Hereafter (Sajoo 2008). It can be derived from the above varying standards of ethical and unethical behaviour that the moving forces for enjoining good and refraining from bad would normally differ from other perspectives. For instance, proponents of the idea of 'relative ethics' are motivated by the external as well as internal factors of consideration leading to a decision, while in the case of 'intuitive ethics', the psychological circumstances of the individual are what is important, which depends on his/her social, educational and financial background. Becker and Becker (2003) state that according to ‘the standard as law’, the moving force for ethical behaviour is generally avoiding the idea of a punishment related to ‘bad’ behaviour. If we look at ‘the standard as pleasure’, behaving ethically is because of the pleasure that is expected from doing so. In the case of the ‘evolutionary view of ethics’, the motivating factor is to add to the developmental process of the person and the group to which the he/she is connected. Finally, in the ‘standard as value school’, the motivation for doing ‘good’ is based on expecting a good or valuable outcome.

10 17481784 Mohamad Younes

1.1.2 Ethics and Moral Philosophy

Having briefly explored the concept of ethics and identified some of the various views of moral philosophy, it is now relevant to delve into the ethical philosophy of Islam. By introducing the standard of Judgment with respect to ethical and unethical behaviour, Islam’s motivating force, as per its followers, is striving to ‘opt for good’ and ‘avoid bad’. The Qur’an mentions, “And let there be [arising] from you a nation inviting to [all that is] good, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong, and those will be the successful.” (3:104)

How does an individual judge right from wrong, and what is the meaning of this regarding the individual's practical life in the community to which he/she belongs? A considerable amount of the Qur’an and Islamic traditions associated with it orbit these questions (Leaman 2006). Philosophy, theology and schools of law in classical Islam wrestled intensely with ethical judgements in the past (Ahmad 2003). In our modern time, the challenges and difficulties of modernity have much to do with the answers we offer on ethical decisions (Saniotis 2012). This thesis will delve into the roots of Islam’s ethical framework providing insight as to how the teachings of Islam expanded out in the intellectual, political, cultural and religious lives of Muslims, both past and present. According to scholars such as Ajijola (2006) in his introduction to Islamic law, Islamic ethics are to manage all of an individual's life, hence, having values frequently interpreted to reach a result. One may then ask, are ethics then laws binding in the name of a society of virtue? Where does this leave an individual's own choice on how to live a ‘good’ life? Muslims, just like people in a range of faiths and traditions grapple with these questions daily. After all, the Qur’an itself expects nothing less, in calling on ‘those possessed of minds’ to strive for belief with a social conscience, to think, to reflect, to question, travel and produce the evidence if we are indeed truthful. The Qur’an says, “Say, ‘Produce your proof, if you should be truthful." (2:112). Ethics is considered by such primary sources as the Qur’an and secondary sources as the Hadiths to be the main objectives of Islam (Denny 2015). The Prophet Muhammad was sent to preach a message that was essentially about morality and

11 17481784 Mohamad Younes

ethics. The Qur’an mentions, “we sent you not but as a mercy for all creatures” (21:107). In a famous Hadith the Prophet Muhammad said, “I was sent to complete morals.” He also said, “those who have perfect faith are those who have better moral character” (Ali 2015, p.852). Unfortunately, there are only a few books on the subject of ethics as opposed to those written about fiqh (jurisprudence) and aqidah (creed). Philosophical books about ethics do not entirely focus on ethical issues in their discussions, they also include metaphysical and psychological issues. The reason for this lacking may be, according to Al-Attar (2010), due to ethics being relatively neglected by Islamic movements throughout history. Perhaps some movements historically emphasised other issues such as politics and law.

1.1.3 Good and Bad

From the Islamic perspective, people have not come into being alone nor are they a result of nature occurring by chance to create life. Rather, humans are a creation of a supreme being and merciful creator. From the Islamic perspective, God gives humans life and in addition gives them freedom to do good work or to engage in evil (Sajoo 2008). One of the reasons this freedom was given to humans was for the simple purpose of trialling them; to see how people would use their authority and freedom. As a feature of this test, God likewise gave people the fundamental information of 'good' and 'bad' at the time of his/her creation. Thus, from the Islamic perspective, states Hasan (2010, p. 43), "every individual has been bestowed a clear standard of judgment of ‘good’ and ‘evil’ by God." The Qur’an, in (91:7-10), presents this information of the human ‘soul’ suggesting that soon, man will surely face individual consequences of his/her ‘good’ and ‘bad’ actions. In this manner, as indicated by the moral philosophy of Islam, the standard of recognizing good from bad is a piece of the innate disposition of man. This innate disposition involves moral concepts like honesty, truthfulness, justice, assisting the weak, freedom and more. However, it is very possible that there are differences within the application of these concepts in practical situations, nevertheless they remain unquestioned and universally accepted. This idea can very well relate to how different Muslims, i.e. Shi’a or Sunni Muslims, apply their understandings of ethics which is what this thesis will examine. Moreover, according to the classical Islamic view, everyone,

12 17481784 Mohamad Younes

regardless of whether they are Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, Jew, Hindu, or non-theist, understands that deceiving others is wrong, lying is wrong, cheating is wrong, murdering is wrong and so on (Beekun 1996; Baier 1958). The same is the situation of all other basic ethical values. Pure ignorance, on account of these ethical values, won't spare a person from consequences upon the arrival of Judgment day according to Islamic belief (Al- Kaysi 2015). The Qur’an, as a Muslim’s primary source, numerously and consistently reminds men and women of various basic ethical and moral values (Leaman 2006). For instance, the Qur’an speaks of wrongfully depriving others of their rights as well as bribery to authorities as a grave sin (2:188) because such actions reject the essential values of equity, honesty and ceasing from cheating others. The Qur’an says, “Woe to those who give less [than due].” (83:1) According to Hasan (2010), the Qur’an doesn't intend to explain to humanity these actions as sinful, rather the Qur’an presupposes this understanding, merely reminding humanity of the sinful actions as they already know. Many of the Qur’anic references to ethical principles and their applications in society are of a similar nature. They are all based on the idea that these principles are an obvious reality of which humanity is already aware. However, another field of Qur’anic commands relates mainly to applying such universal ethical standards. For example, the Qur’an speaks of the etiquette of interaction between opposite genders in a mutually interactive setting. This particular principle is based on the value of modesty and yet the Qur’an does not refrain from reminding men and women of keeping modesty throughout interactions with the opposite sex; rather it prescribes a code of conduct that is applied practically (Al-Attas 1980). This is seen similarly through the prohibition of riba (interest). The banning of riba as per the Qur'an is established on the standard of justice. Likewise, the Qur’an not only reminds people of the value of justice through economic transactions, but also prohibits a transaction that, from the Islamic point of view, is injustice.

These and other comparative occasions are cases where the Qur'an has not only specified an ethical standard but rather really connected and applied a moral guideline to a practical life circumstance and has endorsed or disallowed a specific action. Thus, to summarise, the ethical message of Islam can be placed into two categories:

1. where the Qur'an has prompted men and women, reminding them of the essential ethical values with the suggestion that if they deliberately go astray from such values, he/she should then have no reason to guard him/herself and,

13 17481784 Mohamad Younes

2. where the Qur'an has connected the essential ethical standards on viable life circumstances and has allowed or denied a specific set of conduct.

1.2 Early Developments: Essential Values

The standards and assumptions that have defined belief and action in Islam base their beginnings on two fundamental sources.

1. First is scriptural, exemplifying the teachings uncovered by God to the Prophet Muhammad (632 AD) written in the Qur'an. 2. The second is the representation of that teachings in the apparent model example of the Prophet's activities, maxims and standards, all things considered called the Sunnah recorded in the books of Hadiths.

Muslims primarily view the Qur'an as a definitive revelation of a progression to mankind from God, and the Sunnah as the verifiable projection of a divinely guided life in the person of the Prophet Muhammad, who is likewise accepted to be the seal of the Prophets from God (Robinson 2013). In addition to this general belief accepted by all Muslims, certain denominations within Islam such as the Shi’ite Muslims with which this thesis is concerned, may hold additional sources to the ones above and possibly different applications of such ethical principles. This will be discussed below and further explored in later chapters.

1.2.1 Shi’ite Ethics

The etymology of Islam means surrender and obedience (Nasr 1972, p.29). The Qur’an calls the religion which welcomes individuals toward this way 'Islam' as its goal is to surrender and submit to the laws governing the universe, it is through this submission, one worships God alone. As the Qur’an notifies us in chapter 22 verse 78, the first individual who named this religion 'Islam' and its devotees 'Muslims' was the Prophet Abraham. Shi'a, which truly implies follower or devotee, alludes to the individuals who considers the progression to the Prophet to be the exceptional right of the family of the Prophet (Tabatabai 1975). Shi'a Islam started with a reference set aside for the first time to the adherents of Ali (shi'ah-I 'Ali), the initial pioneer of the family of the Prophet, amid the Prophet's lifetime. From the Shi’ite point of view, Ali was appointed to be the next

14 17481784 Mohamad Younes

successor after the Prophet Muhammad (Daftary 2013). This difference between Shi’ism and Sunnism is mostly political as opposed to doctrinal. In terms of understanding ethics and morality, the primary source for the Shi’ite Muslim is the Qur’an, just like in Sunnism. Second to this for the Shi’a are the authenticated Hadiths and Sunnah, not only from the companions of the Prophet, but most importantly from the 12 divinely inspired Imams who are regarded as infallible human beings (Muzaffer 1982). The distinction is drawn with the belief of 12 Imams being ethical exemplary figures for humankind after the Prophet. In addition to this understanding, Shi’ite Muslims also follow a mmarja (high Islamic authority) which provides advice when Shi’a Muslims are in doubt over social, religious, ethical and even political queries (Nasr 1972). Moreover, Shi’ite Muslims follow the Ja’fari school of thought and use this school to derive ethical understandings similar to how Sunni Muslims follow their four schools of thought. Shi'ism holds that the (Shari'ah), Islam's divine law, found in the Book of God and customs (Sunnah) of the Prophet, will stay legitimate to the Day of Judgment. According to Tabatabai (1975), the religious rituals practiced by the twelver Imam Shi'ites are basically the same as those of Sunni Muslims with minor changes of expressing which are similar to those found among the Sunni schools (madhhabs) themselves (Al-Shafi'i 1961). For Shi'ism, similar to Sunnism, the significant rituals comprise of daily prayers such as noon, afternoon, evening and night. The main seperate nature of Shi'ite practice in this regard is that as opposed to playing out the five supplications totally independently, more often than not Shi'ites pray the noon and afternoon prayers together, and in addition the evening and the night. Concerning the second essential Islamic ceremony of fasting, it is practiced by Shi'ites in a way that is indistinguishable with that of Sunnis. "Likewise, numerous Shi'ites, like Sunnis, fast on certain days amid the year, particularly toward the starting, center and end of the lunar month, following the case of the Prophet. In addtion, regarding the pilgrimage (hajj), Shi'ite and Sunni Muslim practices only have exceptionally minor variations" (Tabatabai 1975, p. 32). Shi'ism in Islam ought to be examined in the light as an insistence of a specific dimension of Islam which is made focal and in reality taken by Shi'ites to be Islam as such (Nasr 1972). It was not a development that at all pulverized the solidarity of Islam, rather, a contribution to the extravagance of the historic deployment of the Qur'anic message. Without, subsequently, needing to decrease Shi'a Islam to a slightest shared factor with Sunni Islam, this thesis presents Shi'ism as a religious reality and essential

15 17481784 Mohamad Younes

part of the Islamic tradition (Muzaffer 1982). Such an introduction will allow for a greater in-depth information of Islam in its multidimensional reality. With a specific end goal to comprehend Islam completely it should dependably be made aware that, as different religions, contain themselves from the inceptions various sorts of interpretation and understanding: (1) "that Shi'a and Sunni Islam, while restricted to each other on certain significant parts of history, are joined in the acknowledgment of the Qur'an as the Word of God and in the fundamental standards of the religion; (2) that Shi'ism constructs itself in light of a specific dimension of Islam and on a part of the idea of the Prophet as proceeded with later in the line of the 12 Imams and the family of the Prophet" (Tabatabai 1975, p. 12).

2 FOUNDATIONAL BASIS

2.1 Islamic Principles

According to Houvannisian (1985), Islam within its inceptions was motivated by a strong rational and ethical focus for society reformation, and that this ethical intention was formulated through human reason and rational discourse. With religious traditions such as Judaism and Christianity, similarly, Islam, in response to the question ‘What ought to be done or not done?’ had a well-illustrated understanding of the sources of ethical and moral authority. Throughout the Qur’an, exercising reason in an attempt to understand revelation is heavily encouraged. According to Hourani (1971), this rational inquiry led early Muslims to expand regulations for ethical behaviour and standards for such regulations to be based on. By all accounts the Qur’an, in presenting Prophet Muhammad as a model of behaviour, heightens the framework for which values and responsibility could be established. Brown (1999, p. 28) suggests that such "process of determination, however, involved the application of reasoning, thus, it is this continuing interaction between reason and revelation that provided the basis for prescribed expressions of Islamic ethical thought."

16 17481784 Mohamad Younes 17

2.1.1 Sources of Ethics (Qur’an and Sunnah)

Generally speaking, Hasan (2010) states that all societies carry principles in ethical thought held in common. Furthermore, Hasan adds that the sources of such moral and ethical behaviours can be dated back to three main sources; 1. divine revelation, 2. innate disposition, and 3. reasoning.

In the 25th chapter of the Qur’an, called the Furqan (criterion), revelation from the Islamic perspective is given to all humanity becoming a point of difference discerning right from wrong. Moreover, the chapter proceeds to provide ethical cases of past Biblical Prophets and their characters mediating God’s word to the relevant societies. Karen Armstrong in ‘A History of God’, states, “In practical terms, Islam meant that Muslims had a duty to create a just equitable society where the poor and vulnerable are treated decently. The early moral message of the Qur’an is simple: It is wrong to stockpile wealth and build a private fortune, and good to share the wealth of society fairly by giving a regular proportion of one’s wealth to the poor." (Armstrong 1993, p.171). Just like Christianity and Judaism, Islam is grounded on the idea of divine revelation setting the basis for moral and ethical order (Brockopp and Eich 2008): Divine Revelation: Muslims subscribe to the idea of humanity being guided by God through means of Prophets and messengers sent to various nations throughout human history bearing God’s revelation. Although the Qur’an only mentions 25 Prophets by name, Muslims believe that since the beginning of time there has been messengers sent to different nations as mentioned in the Qur’an: “Then We sent Our messengers in succession. Every time there came to a nation its messenger, they denied him, so We made them follow one another [to destruction], and We made them narrations. So away with a people who do not believe.” (23:44) Such Prophets are believed to be sent with a universal message from God, as well as a specific Shari’ah (rule of law) to establish a Muslim ummah (community) subscribing to the submission of God (Hashi 2011). The Qur’an states, “Say we believe in God, and His revelation given to us, and to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes; and that given to Moses and Jesus, and that given to all Prophets from their Lord. We make no difference between one and another of them; and we bow to God in submission (Islam).” (2:136-8) The Qur’an is replete with

17 17481784 Mohamad Younes 18 admonitions by Prophets to their nations proclaiming unity of the one true God (7:56-57). A Muslim should believe and accept all the Prophets teachings whether or not he/she knows their backgrounds or origins, as they are all to be considered part of God’s message in the Islamic faith. This revelation is found primarily in the Qur’an and also exists in Hadiths as secondary sources. Intuitive Reasoning: In Arabic, this idea is known as ‘the fitrah’ (Baalbaki 2001) which, from the Islamic perspective, is the basic innate disposition of all human beings. This is another source of ethical thought claiming there is an innate intuition in all people to guide them to right or wrong (Carney 1983). For instance, killing innocent people is an abominable and detestable crime according to all human beings who are considered normal. The Qur’an magnifies the idea of an innate nature in many verses, such as: “Our (religion) is of Allah (Islam) and which (religion) can be better than Allah’s? And we are His worshippers.” (2:138) This concept can also be seen in (30:30) “So direct your face toward the religion, inclining to truth. [Adhere to] the fitrah of Allah (i.e. Allah’s Islamic Monotheism) upon which He has created [all] people...” Faculty of Reason (Al-’Aql): This third source of ethical thought is through the ability to reason and deduct a conclusion using one’s own mind. From the Islamic point of view, those who possess wisdom, thoughtfulness and reflect over life matters, are glorified by the Qur’an. Thus, the Qur’an states, “You who believe. If you heed Allah, He will give you criteria (by which you will judge right from wrong), and will cleanse you of your sins and forgive you.” (8:29) However, also mentioned in the Qur’an, are those who refuse to use their faculty of reason and wilfully violate the boundaries set by God’s commands (67:10). In addition to these main sources, Shi’a Muslims in particular gather and strive to imitate the ethical and moral characteristics of the 12 Imams believed to be appointed by God. These are, according to Shi’a tradition, divinely guided leaders from the lineage of Prophet Muhammad (Al-Sadr 2003). This will be covered in later portions with more detail and clarity in addition to the above general sources of ethics for Muslims.

18 17481784 Mohamad Younes

3 TAQWA (GOD-CONSCIOUSNESS)

Siddiqui (1997) explains that the embodying characteristic of ethical value in the Qur’an is summed up by the word taqwa (God-consciousness). Appearing over 200 times throughout the Qur’an, it signifies the moral grounding that governs human actions, at the same time representing ethical consciousness by humans aware of their responsibilities to God and their respective society. Moreover, applying taqwa to the wider social context, it becomes the universal and moral imprint of a genuinely ethical community (Ansari 1989). The word taqwa generally refers to being conscious and cognisant of God, truth, reality and most importantly moral principles. The Qur’an states, “O humankind! We have created you out of male and female and constituted you into different groups and societies, so that you may come to know each other - the noblest of you, in the sight of God, are the ones possessing taqwa.” (49:11-13)

3.1 An Ethical Way of Life is Islamic

From the Islamic perspective, ethics can generally be defined as values and principles based on Islamic sources (Mohammed 2011), coherent with human capabilities (Al-Qaradawi 1994). Interestingly, Yaken (2006) defines Islamic worship as deeds and actions ordered by God for his acceptance, whereas they are designed to not only improve but also protect an individual's ethics (Al-Banna 1940; Al-Qaradawi 1985, 1994, 1996). In addition to this, prayer from the Islamic point of view refrains one from indecency and wrong behaviour. Zakat (Almsgiving), for instance, is taken from the wealthy and distributed to the poor in order to cleanse and sanctify their sins. For example, the Qur’an expresses this idea in “And establish regular prayer, for prayer restrains from shameful and unjust deeds” (29:45) and further states, “Of their goods, take alms, that so thou mightiest purify and sanctify them.” (9:103) Fasting is another form of Islamic worship which teaches Muslims to live with ethical principles as it is narrated that Prophet Muhammad said: “Whoever does not give up false speech and acting upon it and does not give up offensive speech and behaviour, Allah has no need of his giving up his food and drink” (Al-Aidaros, Shamsudin, and Idris 2013). Muslims in the month of Ramadan fast not only to abstain from food and drink, but also to abstain from falsehood, lying and all other negative conduct (Al-Ghazali

19 17481784 Mohamad Younes

2001). The Hajj (pilgrimage) prepares and develops Muslims with characteristics such as patience, altruism and endurance. The Qur’an states, “For Hajj is the months well known, if anyone undertakes that duty therein, let there be no obscenity, nor wickedness, and nor wrangling.” (2:197)

Furthermore, the Prophet Muhammad stated numerously that the primary intention God sent him was to improve their ethics. It is narrated that he said, “I have been sent to accomplish the best of the morality” (Al-Ghazali 2001). At the social level, the Muslim community is viewed as the mechanism by which Qur’anic principles and values are translated. Muslims become agents through which a spiritual and moral vision is accomplished in their personal lives being both accountable to God and the community. Furthermore, the Qur’an complements dual dimensions of material and spiritual aspects. They are in no way mutually exclusive, nor is it assumed that spiritual aspects outweigh the material aspects of life. Having said that, the Qur’an asserts that human conduct and ambitions are faithful acts within the wider human, cultural and social settings (Dien 1992). It is within this context that the idea of Islam encompassing a complete way of life can be best understood. One aspect of such a vision can be illustrated by the Qur’an’s emphasis on the ethics of repairing injustice in social and economic life (George 2011). For example, individuals are advised to use their wealth on:

▪ family and relatives, ▪ freeing of the enslaved, ▪ the poor, ▪ orphans, ▪ the needy, and ▪ the travelling homeless.

The above actions outline a Muslim’s responsibility in developing a social conscience sharing communal resources with the underprivileged. Muslims are institutionalised through the Qur’an with the duty of almsgiving, which displays the virtue of giving and purification. Eventually, this practice became mandatory for believers, integrated into the framework of Islamic pillars, such as fasting, prayer and pilgrimage. Moreover, from a historical point of view, the Qur’an also endeavoured to remove extortive practices of exploitation in the mercantile society of Arabia, specifically Medina

20 17481784 Mohamad Younes

and Mecca. From the social perspective, the Qur’ans concern regarding family is to strengthen the position of women, by abolishing pre-Islamic customs of female infanticide and granting the rights of women such as property, inheritance and divorce (Nanji 1991). A very popular notion is the concept of polygamy in Islam. However, the plurality of wives from the Islamic perspective was regulated and restricted to four wives and it was only acceptable if the man treated them with equality (Qur’an 4:3).

3.1.1 Roles in a Muslim Society

Eventually, as society formed, addressing the issue of relationships with non- Muslims with similar traditions, specifically Jews and Christians, who are referred to as the ‘People of the Book’ in the Qur’an (3:64) became necessary. They were granted protection through a mutual agreement when living amongst Muslims subject to a poll tax known as the ‘Jizya’ which guaranteed the protection of their religious property, law and practices (Robinson 2013). Moreover, the Qur’an, according to Ramadan (2009), promotes a broader respect for differences in society accommodating central moral objectives. For example, we read in the Qur’an: “For each community, we have granted a Law and a Code of Conduct. If God wished, He could have made you One religion, but He wishes rather to test you through that which has been given to you. So vie with each other to excel in goodness and moral virtue.” (5:48)

3.1.2 Legal/Intellectual Emphasis on Ethics

The need to conform divine moral obligations and human life is mirrored in the preserved and authentic traditions of the prophet Muhammad, viewed as explaining the Qur’anic values and ethical principles (Hashmi 2009). These recordings of the Prophet’s life, words, habits and actions symbolises an endless model and example for Muslims. The Hadiths also complemented the Qur’an at times explaining certain verses from the perspective of the Prophets family and companions. The Prophet Muhammad himself is for Muslims the paradigm and seal of prophecy (Siddiqui 2012) through his character, struggle, success and personal character. This paradigm strengthens not only the commitment to emulate his ethics but also creates a perception of close affinity and love for his family. For Muslims all across the globe, the Qur’anic message as well as the Prophet’s life example remains inseparable throughout history as exemplar of moral and ethical behaviour. Moreover, Muslim philosophers consecutively developed legal tools

21 17481784 Mohamad Younes

for expressing moral regulations (Fahri 1991). The extension and elaboration of the legal sciences led to an arrangement of the standards giving rise to the idea of law in Islam (Coulson 2011), known as the Shari’ah. Amongst such developments to incorporate moral principles were the differing Islamic schools of law each of which, through the legal discipline of jurisprudence, extended legal codes of conduct to represent particular interpretations on how Muslims should react to the command of God in their day to day lives. Aligned with establishing legal sciences, moral assumptions arose articulating ethical values grounded in a more philosophical and intellectual understanding of human behaviour in light of the Qur'an and life of the Prophet. For instance, Muslim expansion had brought about contact with societies whose scholarly legacies were, in time, specifically appropriated by Muslims, at that point additionally created. According to DenBoer (2013) the unification of intellectual and philosophical traditions such as Iran, India, Greece and many others set up circumstances and a culture of intellectual interests leading to the cosmopolitan heritage of a rising Islamic civilization. Similarly, it was amid this period, (8th to 10th centuries) that developed philosophical, intellectual and theological positions inside the Muslim community recognised as Sunni, Shi’a, Mutazila and Islamic philosophers (Hafez 2002).

3.1.3 Theological Traditions

The intellectual tradition of inquiry using reason and rationality to understand Qur'anic directives prompted the use amongst Muslims of a precise teaching committed to the investigation of Kalam, simply meaning the word of God. The teaching objectives were religious, as in the use of reason was to validate the word of God and make it understandable. The discussions of this discipline according to Nasr (1972) involved Muslims in the explanation and definition of certain ethical matters, mostly the following: • The significance of Qur'anic ethical traits, for example, 'just', 'mandatory', 'good' and 'evil'. • The relationship between God's will and human free will. Determining through reason, using knowledge of objective ethical standards, the limit of people.

22 17481784 Mohamad Younes

4 CONTRIBUTIONS TO ISLAMIC ETHICS

Rationalist and Traditionalist

There is indeed an extensive account of contributions towards Islamic ethics over the centuries. The Mutazilite Muslims, for example, argued for the idea of human beings in power of free choice being fully accountable from a just God (Hourani 1985). Mutazilites mostly denied the concept of predestination. Moreover, they also maintained that ethical notions were objective because individuals were intellectually capable of grasping these ideas. Using reason for the Mutazilites was a large key factor, independent of revelation, relying on empiricism and formulating ethical conclusions (Hourani 1985). However, natural reasoning was to be enriched and verified by divine revelation such as the Qur’an. Eventually, the Mutazilite school of thought diminished over time as its positions were viewed unacceptable to the majority of traditional Muslims. The traditionalist stance, as incorporated in the classical work of a renowned Muslim juridical school, Al-Shafi'i, stated that the premise of Islamic belief involved practice, not theory (Hourani 1971). Al- Shafi’i highlighted that revelation was the ultimate source of ethical principles as opposed to reason and rationality. Furthermore, human accountability has always been the cornerstone of juridical thought, this meant according to Rogers (1999) that good and evil was to be determined on the basis of scriptural proof-texts such as the Qur’an, in addition to the prophetic traditions of the Hadiths. Nonetheless, actions and obligations were good and evil due to the divine commands defining them as such.

4.1 Traditional Contributions

The Islamic philosophical heritage of antiquity was a huge factor regarding the use of philosophical traditions among Muslim scholars and thinkers (Harevy 2014). Such a legacy gave rise to significant figures, like, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), and other polymaths, renowned in medieval Europe as commentators, scientists and analysts of classical tradition dating back to Plato and Aristotle (Kelsay 1985). The general discourse on ethics was rooted in philosophical and moral concerns, reflecting an integral part of the cosmopolitan heritage of ethics in Islam which represented efforts to harmonise scriptural-derived values with intellectual and ethical

23 17481784 Mohamad Younes

foundations. The Muslim philosophical tradition of ethics is then twofold in its significance: 1. for its enhancement of classic Greek philosophy, and 2. for its dedication to harmonise Islam and philosophy. Al-Farabi (951 AD) argued to synthesise the ideals of virtuous religion and the objectives of a true state (Walzer 1985). Through the use of philosophy, an individual is able to understand how human happiness can be attained, however, an actual path to moral virtues and actions incorporates the instrumentality of religion (Ramadan 2013). Al- Farabi compares the establishment of religion to that of a city. The core argument Al- Farabi poses in his classical work ‘The Virtuous City’ a collective and shared framework to attain true and ultimate happiness, thus implying important political and social roles for religion. The more wise and virtuous rulers and citizens are, the more likely of attaining true goals of philosophy and religion leading to happiness (Harvey 2014). Ibn Sina (1037 AD), another significant figure, interestingly develops an argument suggesting that the Prophet Muhammad embodied the completeness of virtuous action and thought at its finest (Ibn Sina 1984). This is best shown in the realisation of high moral virtue. Acquiring the moral characteristics necessary for this development, the Prophet resulted in a perfect soul making him not only a free intellect but also capable of formulating rules and regulations for others to establish justice. Ibn Sina here is claiming that the Prophet goes well and beyond the philosopher and virtuous leader, possessing the strength for practical morality and intellectual development achieving justice (Leaman 2013). Therefore, according to Ibn Sina’s view, establishing justice is the basis for all human good. Ibn Rushd (1198 AD), as a Muslim philosopher, faced the daunting task in defending philosophy against attackers, one of the most notable being a Muslim theologian, Al-Ghazali (1111 AD). Al-Ghazali, through important works such as ‘The Incoherence of the Philosophers’, seemed to represent philosophers as a self-inflicting wound going against scripture and at some points being anti-Islamic (Ibn Rushd 1974). Ibn-Rushdi’s defence to this was founded on the position that the Qur’an consistently and emphatically stresses the importance of reflection and reason in which the study of philosophy not only complemented the traditional approach to Islam but also heightened it (Rahman 1980). Both philosophy and Islam, according to DenBoer (2013), have common goals but may arrive at them differently. Nonetheless, there exists a personality of interest between Muslims who are philosophical and Muslims who are juridical. In

24 17481784 Mohamad Younes

short, the various Muslim scholars through their disclosures, contemplation's and occasional correction of prior traditional thoughts, connected ethics to theoretical knowledge, accomplished through reason and rationality (Al-Attar 2010). Since people were rational, the embraced and practiced virtues strengthened the goal of attaining happiness.

4.1.2 Sunni Muslim Approach

From the Sunni Muslim perspective, Makdisi (1985) highlights that the basis for moral obligations is that of Islam’s essential texts being the Qur’an and Sunna. These sources are expanded and enforced as the commands from God, understood as the Shari’ah and developed through juridical schools. Certain directives and prohibitions in Muslim law books are communicated in ethical terms. Five classifications are used for assessing all demonstrations (Hassan 2010): 1. Obligatory acts, for example, custom prayer, paying of zakat and fasting. 2. Recommendable actions, for example, charity, gentleness, additional supplication, and so forth. 3. Permitted activities, with respect to which the law embraces a neutral position. 4. Discouraged acts viewed as unpardonable, yet not entirely forbidden. 5. Actions that are completely forbidden, for example, murder, infidelity, burglary, intoxicants, etc

There are four major schools of thought in the Sunni world. These four schools of thought are the Shafi’i, Hanafi, Maliki and Hanbali and they think of each other to consider normative positions on ethical and legal issues. For these judicial specialists, ethics and law are both finally interested in moral commitments, which they accept to be the focal concentration of the Islamic message. According to Injorn and Tremayne (2012), some Shi’a Muslims are closer in their deliberations to the conclusions of Sunni madhabs than leaders such as Ayatollah Khamenei. In the Shi’a world, there are only two surviving schools; Jafari and Zaydi. The Jafari is the most prominent and widespread which is really close to the Shafi position and the Hanafi position is close to the Zaydi position (Abdal- Haqq 2002). Moreover, the ethical goals of the Qur’an act as a vital role in the procedure of legal analysis. Qur’anic laws consistently reinforce and advocate for ethical objectives such as equality, freedom of human affairs and women's rights to own property. Having said that, in order to fulfil such objectives, it is up to the individual to apply him/herself

25 17481784 Mohamad Younes

intellectually. These ethical and moral objectives according to Sajoo (2008) seek the good in an individual and society. All the Sunni and Shi’a schools of thought submit that the purpose of the Shari’ah is to serve the best interest of human beings in any given context and society (Schimmel 1992).

4.1.3 Shi’ite Muslim Perspective

My main focus in this thesis is to delve into the perspective of Shi’a Muslims, more specifically Australian Shi’a Muslims. Having said this, and having explained a comprehensive background to the topic of ethical thought in Islam generally, it is now vital to understand the origins and rationalities of the Shi’a Muslims. The Prophet Muhammad laid the foundations of a new religion depicted as the fulfillment of the previous Abrahamaic faiths. He was successful in establishing his community (umma) of considerable power. It was over a decade, extending from the time of Muhammad’s emigration (hijra) from Mecca to Medina in 622 AD, until his death in 632 AD that the bedouin tribes of the Arabian peninsula pledged their allegiance to Muhammad (Daftary 2013). The death of the Prophet Muhammad confronted the growing Islamic community with its first major crisis. Islam’s main division into Sunni and Shi’a may, indeed, be broadly traced to the crisis of succession to the Prophet Muhammad. The successor to Muhammad could not be another Prophet or nabi, as it was already made known through revelation that he was the ‘seal of the Prophets’ (khatam al-anbiya) (Ismaeel 1983). Aside from conveying the message of Islam, Prophet Muhammad had additionally acted as the pioneer of the Islamic community. A successor was, in this way, vital keeping in mind the end goal to guarantee the unified progression of the Islamic community (Daftary 2013). As per the Sunni perspective, the Prophet Muhammad had left neither formal guideline nor a confirmation in regards to his succession. In the midst of much resulting debate, Abu Bakr, one of the earliest converts to Islam and companion to the Prophet, was chosen by a gathering of driving Muslim notables as the successor (Injorn and Tremayne 2012). In the meantime, after the death of the Prophet, there had openly showed up in Medina a small group trusting that Ali was the ideal candidate over any other Muslim, including Abu Bakr. This following of Ali's devotees and companions at that point extended to be known as the shi'at Ali (followers of Ali) and then eventually as the Shi’a (Izzi Dien 1992). Despite Ali’s convicted belief in the legitimacy of close kinship and association with the Prophet, Ali only eventually succeeded to the leadership of the Muslims as the

26 17481784 Mohamad Younes

fourth caliph as opposed to immediately succeeding (Lapidus 2002). The more specific Shi’a view is the fundamental belief of the Prophet himself designating Ali as his successor, a designation through divine command and revealed by the Prophet at Ghadr Khumm on 18 Dhu’l-Hijja 10/16 March 632, shortly before his death. "Among the Shi'ites, who differed from the Sunni Muslims in attributing authority and rights after the Prophet Muhammad's demise to his cousin and son in-law 'Ali, and thus to his elect descendants, known as Imams, there developed the prospect of discernment under the controlling rule of the Imam. The Imam, who was acknowledged to be divinely inspired, acted in early Shi'a history as both overseer of the Qur'an and the Prophet's instructing, and interpreter and teacher of the elaboration and fulfillment of the Qur'anic vision for the person and in addition society"(Daftary 2013, p. 24). The Imam would be then crucial in terms of ethical teachings and guidance (Khateeb 1986). Shi'ism, similar to the early religious and philosophical institutes, asserted the utilization of intellectual and scholarly discussion focused on a blend and further improvement of components evident in different faiths and scholarly customs outside Islam (Kaliffa 2003). A case of a work on ethics by a notable Shi'a writer is the Nasirian Ethics by Nasir al-din Tusi (1274 AD) which further developed the philosophical methodologies officially known amongst Muslims and connecting them to Shi'a notions of guidance. Tusi attracts thoughtfulness regarding the requirement for ethical establishments to be founded on prevalence of learning and dominance of separation, i.e. by a person “who is distinguished from others by divine support, so that he may be able to accomplish their perfection” (Tusi, 1964, p. 191-2). Madelung (1985) has attempted to demonstrate that Neo-Platonic components were mixed into the ethical work of Tusi as well as Shi'a Ismai'li and Twelver Shi'a moral and philosophical points of view. The name 'twelver' is given the group of Shi'a Muslims due to their conviction that the twelfth in the line of Imams they believe had gone into occultation from the world, to return physically just toward the end of time to re-establish justice. Meanwhile, "amid his absence, the community was guided via scholars called mujtahids who translated for devotees good and bad in all issues of personal and religious life" (Dabashi 2011, p. 112). In the Twelver Shi'a convention hence, such people, called mullahs as a marja (taqlid), play a critical part as ethical and moral models, as in Iran, have taken a significant role in the political life of the state, looking to shape it in accordance with their perspective of a Muslim nation.

27 17481784 Mohamad Younes

In all normative concerns, the Shi'ite point of view is described by the part of Muhammad's family and the Imams as sources of ethics and direction, either regarding understandings of the Qur'an and the model of Muhammad or independently (Nasr 1977). Moral standards are displayed in various ways, once in a while reflected in restricting legitimate prescriptions. The essential reason for the existence of Shi'ism, in any case, lies in the way that this probability existed inside the Islamic revelation itself thus had to be figured it. In light of the fact that there were exoteric and esoteric understandings from the earliest starting point, from which built up the schools (madhhabs) of the "Shari'ah and Sufism in the Sunni" world, there similarly must be an understanding of Islam which would incorporate these segments in a unity (Ismaeel 1983). This credibility was recognized in Shi'ism, for which the Imam is the person in whom these two sections of conventional authority are combined and in whom the religious life is set by a feeling of hardship and martyrdom. The unique foundation of Shi'ism is the concept of Imamate and this is indivisible from that of walayat, or the mystical capacity of interpreting the inner mysteries of the Qur'an and the Shari'ah (Pinault 1993). As indicated by the Shi'ite perspective, the successor of the Prophet Muhammad needs to be an individual who leads over the group in equity as well as one who can translate the divine law and its esoteric importance. Thus, he should be free from sin and error (ma'sum) and he should be selected through divine declaration (nass) through the Prophet. The entire ethos of Shi'ism rotates throughout the fundamental thought of walayat, which is personally associated with the idea of sacredness (wilayawilayah) in Sufism (Tabatabai 1975). The five standards of religion (usul al-clamor) as expressed by Shi'ism include: "tawhid or belief in divine unity; prophecy, resurrection, Imamate, faith in the in the succession of the Prophet by Imams; and divine justice" (Nasr 1975, p. 63). In the three central benchmarks of unity, resurrection, and prophecy, both Sunni and Shi'a Islam concur. It is simply in the other two that they contrast. According to Tabatabai (1975, p. 32) "in the subject of the Imamate, it is the accentuation on the esoteric capacity of the Imam that separates the Shi'ite perspective from the Sunni; in the theme of justice it is the emphasis put upon this trait as a divine nature specific to Shi'ism." Among Shi’ites, the understanding of standards of moral thought and activity likewise relies upon the centrality Shi'ites ascribe to mystery knowledge. Inside such a framework, obligations, prayers, duty, and jihad are comprehended with a pragmatic measure to train the lacking human nature. Important examples for morality and commitment are the martyrs of Karbala (Tabatabai 1975).

28 17481784 Mohamad Younes

4.1.4 Diversity in Shi’ism

It is important to appreciate the diversity not only of Islam in general but also of Shi’a Islam. Currently, around 10-15 percent of the Muslim population of the world belong to various communities or branches of Shi’a Islam (Daftary 2013). Approximately 10 million account for the second largest Shi’a community in the world, dispersed as religious minorities in more than 30 countries across the globe. The Zaydis represent another significant community of Shi’a, currently almost exclusively concentrated in 20- 40 percent of the population of Yemen (Daftary 2013, p. 13). There are also Alawi Shi’a, known in earlier times as Nusayris. The overwhelming majority however, are known as Twelver Shi’as. More than 95 percent of Iran’s population of 79 million adhere to the Twelver branch of Shi’a Islam. Twelver Shi’as can be found mainly in South Asia and the Middle East, but also expanding across Africa, Europe and North America. To arrive at the total Shi’a Muslim population of the world, one also needs to take into account of those communities and lessor groupings who do not always acknowledge their Shi’a identity openly such as the Bektashis in Turkey. There are even those communities, such as Druzes of the Middle East who split from Ismailis and are no longer affiliated. The Bahais, even though considered by its adherents as a new religion, Daftary (2013, p.2) suggests may have Twelver Shi’a origins. However, in this thesis we shall concentrate on the major Shi’a followers, notably the Twelvers. Twelver Shi’ite law differs from Sunni law the same way Sunni legal schools themselves differ from each other. Shi'ite law utilizes the same two literary sources—the Qur'an and the customs of the Prophet (despite the fact that they are passed on by various chains of transmitters) (Nasr 1969). Parallel to the Sunni schools, which are named after scholars, the Imami Shi'ite law school is alluded to as Jafari after the 6th Imam, Jafar al- Sadiq (d. 765). Amongst Ismaili factions subscribing adherence to a living Imam, the Imam's essence is viewed as important by providing relevance to Islam in changing circumstances and conditions. This is evident through the case of the present Imam, Aga Khan, who guides a global community. In general, Shi'ism is a larger part with a minority complex. It is not quite recently that Shi'ism is political; governmental issues is Shi'a in its core. Shi’ism sublates violence from the domain of politics into the site of the metaphysics—for Shi’ism was born (not just politically but also metaphysically) when it's very first Imam, Ali ibn Abi Talib, was murdered by an assassin, and when Ali’s son,

29 17481784 Mohamad Younes

the Prophet’s grandson, the supreme heroic figure of Shi’ism, Imam Hossein ibn Ali, and his companions were massacred in Karbala (Dabashi 2011).

4.1.5 Modernisation of Islamic Ethics

Islam in Australia is a minority religious association. As indicated by the 2016 Australian census, the consolidated number of individuals who self-recognized as Muslim in Australia, including a wide range of Islam, involved 604,200 individuals, or 2.6% of the aggregate Australian populace. Of this 2.6% figure, there exists differing divisions and denominations of Islam introduced in Australia (ABS 2016). As per Hassan (2015) in 'Australian Muslims: A Demographic, Social and Economic Profile of Muslims in Australia', despite the fact that most by far of Muslims in Australia subscribe to the two major sections of Islam, the Sunni and Shi'a, with the devotees of each of these further split along various jurisprudential schools of thought, there are likewise other smaller denominations of Islam, including Ahmadiyya Muslim Australians of different national foundations, Ibadi Muslim Australians of Omani plunge, and in addition some non- denominational Muslims, and roughly 20,000 Druze Australians primarily from Lebanon and Syria. There are additionally Sufi (Islamic mystics) minorities among Muslims in Australia. Moreover, the overwhelming majority of Muslims in Australia are considered Sunni Muslims, with approximately only 30,000 Shi’a Muslims in Australia (Kerbja 2008). However, as the Muslim population increased from 1.7 to 2.6 in ten years, it is safe to assume the Shi'ites are roughly 10% of the Muslims in Australia and totalling 0.3% of people in Australia. Shi’ism in Australia is a minority within a minority. While Australian Muslims share the same faith, they are a semantically and culturally vivid group. Approximately 65% were born in countries overseas, such as, Bosnia, Cyprus, Somalia, Egypt, Lebanon, Turkey, Fiji, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Iran, and Malaysia. Regardless of the generalization that all Middle-Easterners or Arab are Muslims, under 21% of Australian Muslims were conceived in the Middle Eastern or Arabia. "A huge population originate from Africa, Europe and Asia. These Muslims speak a range of languages, for example, Persian, Pashtu, Dari, Arabic, Malay, Turkish, Indonesian, Albanian, Bengali and Bahasa. As stated, most Australian Muslims subscribe to Sunni Islam, however, there is an immense minority of Shi'ite Muslims and smaller groups of Bektashis, Ahmadis, Alawis and Druze." (HREOC 2004). Moreover, Hassan (2015) describes the tradition and impact of

30 17481784 Mohamad Younes

the various ethical legacy's in Islam have proceeded in fluctuating levels amongst Muslims in the modernity, such as Australia. Greater awareness can be seen developing, in regards to connecting their past heritage and an acknowledgment to adjust that heritage to changing conditions of societal globalization (Hassan 2015). Likewise, with whatever is left of the issues, ethical inquiries cannot be reflected in bound together and monolithic reactions. They should consider the assorted variety and pluralism that has denoted the Muslims of the past and additionally the current. An ethical yardstick which can manage matters of monetary and social equity and good systems for managing inquiries of poverty and socio-economic and political inequality is of greater importance to Muslim consideration in ethical issues. Regardless of whether certain reactions are marked modern or fundamentalist, they all display particular former Muslim images and designs and through re-evaluating and rehashing of standards and qualities, and utilize distinctive methods for inclusion and exclusion of particular portrayals of Islam. Regarding the wider ethical and moral concerns, this continuous discussion attempts to determine standards for both private and open life, and at the same time social, political, cultural and religious. As occasions and improvements of the twenty first century demonstrates, no reaction amongst the numerous Muslim communities on earth is viewed as normative for the entire Muslim population. In the quest for a dream that will direct Muslims in choices and decisions about future and present ethical issues, detailing a congruity and dialogue with its own particular past ethical foundation will be crucial as well as staying open to the possibilities of new moral and ethical encounters.

5 DISCUSSION ON ISLAMIC ETHICS

5.1 Minding the Gap in Islamic Ethics

Indeed, within recent years there has been an impressive growth in our general knowledge with respect to Islam, however, it should likewise be conceded that only relatively few considerable advances have been made in our insight into Shi'ite ethical thinking, reasoning and law (Daftary 2013). Inquisitively, research of extensive importance has been led with respect to Ismailism, additionally, works by L. Massignon, W. Ivanow and P. Kraus, particularly, have opened up new vistas and lines of progression.

31 17481784 Mohamad Younes

Regardless, as for the most essential and different factions amongst the Shi'a, the Ithna Ashariya (Twelvers), the position has stayed pretty much fixed. Isr. Friedlaender, writing in 1907, condemns the scarceness of our understanding in such manner, and he states that the roughest synopsis of Shi'ism is known to us, and the religious inclinations are not known by any methods. Educator E. G. Browne, writing in 1924, condemns the absence of our insight, especially as to the Shi'ite creed of faith, and he advocates for a comparative report. Next, examining the Haqqu1-Yaqin (last conviction) of Muhammad Baqir Majlisi, a vital religious work, Professor Brown (1924) suggests that we don't have a comprehensive and legitimate explanation of Shi'a beliefs in any European language. Furthermore, in 1934, the Encyclopedia of Islam written by R. Strothmann, provides a short record of the Shi'a, compactly comments that there is no exhaustive record of the Shi'a (Strothman 1934). The present position has just marginally enhanced, with the presence of works which shed light on specific parts of Shi'ism. The production of the late Professor Benedum 'A graphic investigation of Iran': Shiite Islam in 1956 denoted an age, and after its appearance it was by and large felt that having played out the task in a skilful manner, he had indicated the way another part of study being the examination of the Shi'ite ideology. Professor Benedum (1956) advanced the investigation but had limited himself to the Iranian point of view of Shi'ism, and keeping in mind that perusing his precise introduction of the subject, we see the picture is incomplete and must be completed by deciphering various Shi'ite creeds, in this way making ready for a methodical investigation of the subject. The use of such an investigation are numerous, however three unique perspectives may here be focused: such an examination would clear up numerous historical inquiries; it would give us a knowledge into religious debates as these are not generally barren, obsessive and personal, but rather demonstrative of general patterns of thought; lastly, it would move towards solving legal distinctions that baffle a portion of the foremost law specialists. Our insight with respect to the Shi'ite creed is for the most part derived from three surely renowned heresiologists whose distributed works are easily accessible. These are, in sequential order: Baghdadi (429/1038), Ibn Hazm (456/1054) and Shahrastani (548/1153). Of these, Shahrastani is the best known, for it was distributed earliest. Shi'ism is a dimension of Islam of interest from different perspectives and it ought to be assessed in its authentic setting mainly through Shi'ite sources, in correlation with the various material accessible. Thus, a historical, objective, essential and comparative

32 17481784 Mohamad Younes

investigation of the Shi'ite sources is to be highly desired. With a specific end goal to acquire knowledge into the Shi'ite religion, we should as a matter of importance take a look at their belief. For this reason, researchers should go to their own particular authorities where we find two main sources accessible to us. The first is by Allama Hilli (726/1326). His unique content, together with its discourse "a Nafi' Yawmi'l-Hashr' by Miqdad-I-Fadil al-Hilli" (8th A.H) was interpreted by W. M. Miller, and published by the "Royal Asiatic Society, London in 1928." This little treatise is an exceptionally mainstream doctrine and has for all intents and purposes superseded each other in modern circumstances. The second statement of faith, of which a short rundown is before us, is the 'Aqa'idu sh Shi'a' by Ali Asghar, written in the middle of the nineteenth century A.D. This is a book of 449 pages and Professor F. G. Browne gives an honourable synopsis in his 'Persian Literature in Modern Times' (p.381-402). He says, “Such an outline is the Shi’a creed of contemporary Persia in its crudest and most popular form. It would be interesting to trace the evolution of that creed from the earliest times of Islam, to compare (so far as the available materials allow) the historical with the legendary Imams, and to contrast in detail the beliefs, both doctrinal and eschatological, of the Shi’a and the Sunnis” (p.402). These seem, by all accounts, to be the primary Shi'ite creeds assessed in their entirety, however much important material may likewise be found in works like Nawbakhti's 'Firaqu 'sh-Shi'a' and 'The Shi'ite Religion' by D.M. Donaldson (1933), Ithna ‘Ashari Shi’ism and Iranian Islam by Nasr (1969), Shi’ite Islam by Tabatabai (1975), David Pinault with his book ‘The Shi’ites’ (1992) as a great introduction to Shi’ism and original work of scholarship, following Hamid Dabashi of ‘Shi’ism’ (2011) and more recently ‘A history of Shi’i Islam’ by Farhad Daftary (2013). "This thesis considers the consistent emphasis of importance ethical traditions presents within Islam (Sajoo 2004). Accordingly, this thesis endeavors to assess ordinary Australian Shi'ite Muslims' understandings and applications of Islamic ethics in everyday living. Currently, Islamic ethics is only evident within scattered sub fields of sciences, for example, science, legislative issues and financial matters (Rice 1999; McCary 2000; Rahman 1998). In spite of the previous century of Western scholarship in the field of religion, Tabatabai (1975) argues that many holes still exist in the understanding of Shi'ism. Expanding on this, Nasr (2003) and Daftary (2013) both signify that this hole has been unsatisfactorily filled, particularly regarding ethical conventions of Shi'ite Islam. The present thesis wishes to review the absence of accessible and trustworthy material

33 17481784 Mohamad Younes

relating to ethical conventions in Shi'ism" (Younes 2016). This research at first surveyed the ethical tradition within Islam, with specific concentration on Shi'ite Muslim understandings. This is crucial as the present literature on Islamic ethics has been strongly based toward the Sunni perspective (Hourani 2007; Brockopp 2003; Fakhry 1994; Sajoo 2004) having current researchers neglecting to consider how Muslims in general and Shi'ite Muslims specifically comprehend Shi'ite ethical principles. This study will receive qualitative data collection methods over a nine-month course. It is envisioned to contribute to the collection of knowledge associated with Islamic ethics from a Shi'ite perspective. Besides, this thesis will reinforce Islamic ethics as an independent discipline by attending various gatherings with ordinary Shi'ite Muslim interviewees over a nine- month course. This thesis is imagined to establish the frameworks experimentally for more future and far reaching research to occur. The themes for this research case extends over various fields of analysis on Islamic ethics. A survey of the literature presents Shi'ite ethical traditions intensely concerned with: 1. the origins of ethical knowledge, 2. ethical traditions throughout the Ahlul-Bayt—Family of the Prophet (Tabatabai, 1975), 3. the esoteric role of tariqah (path) through Shari’ah (Islamic law), and finally 4. notions of Imamate (leadership)/wilayah (governorate) in Shi’ite philosophy (Nasr, 2006).

A general look at the extensive literature on Islamic ethics gives a contextual awareness of what it is comprehensively and its connection toward different assortments of knowledge, for example, governmental issues, science, law and education (Al-Adaros, Shamsudin and Idris 2013). From a contemporary point of view, writing on Islamic ethics developed in the 1960s, with preeminent literature composed by scholars like George Hourani, and recently being re-examined by present day scholars, such as Aymn Sajoo and Tariq Ramadan. Moreover, Williams (2011) explains that the concept of ethics is vital to each society and public as it presents a crucial part in moulding people's perceptions and behaviours. Ethics is a critical reason for creating cohesion and social trades involving different traditions (Gensler 2011). Be that as it may, not all people hold similar perspectives of ethics in society (Williams 2011); thus, emerges the significance

34 17481784 Mohamad Younes

for literature on Islamic ethics to be made accessible in Australian Muslim communities. This accessibility is significant towards both comprehension and valuing the implications of Islam within society, making experimental research essential. As indicated by MacIntyre (2003), moralitas in the Latin is translated to morality, referring to individual conduct and behaviour. Morality is for the most part focus on a set of principles, which individuals within society accept as legitimate in deciding right from wrong (Frankena, 1963). As a comprehensive religion, Islam consolidates a moral framework which is a critical aspect of its reality. As expressed by Nasr (2006), within Islam, morality manages all parts of a Muslim's life acting universal in both extension and applicability. Moreover, the word ethics originates from the Greek ethos which alludes to the traditions, behaviour and conduct of individuals (MacIntyre 2003). Expanding on this, Sajoo (2004) characterizes Islamic ethics as the philosophical reflections upon the moral code of behaviours. In this manner ethics, from an Islamic point of view, manages practices of good and bad, the traditions and attributes of people and groups in a pragmatic sense. Certain individual qualities depend on the orders placed in the Qur'an with respect to human conduct towards society and each other. They are the reasonable applications of good and bad. The general apprehension of Islamic ethics sources as per Brown (1999) are:

• the Qur’an • Sunnah (traditions of Prophet Muhammad) • Authentic Hadith (sayings of Prophet Muhammad)

Akhlaq, is the equivalent word for ethics in Arabic, having the root referring to shape, form or make (Ba'labaki 1990). "Akhlaq is the plural of the word khuluq which alludes to the collection of characteristics; however, the knowledge of morality (ilm al- akhlaq) is deciphered as both ethical philosophy and moral science" (Ba'labaki 1990, p. 39). Moving to a Shi'ite Muslim ethical point of view, the 'Ahlul-Bayt', are an expansion of the sources of ethics, which means the family of the Prophet. They are a critical source of ethics for Shi'ite Muslims, as indicated by Tabatabai (1975), and are held as infallible Imams (leaders) in which Shi'ite Muslims endeavour to mirror alongside the Prophet. The Ahlul-Bayt are additionally equipped for deciphering the internal mysteries of the Qur'an while acting as perfect ethical figures. Pushing ahead within the literature, Ibn- Miskawayh in the translation of 'the refinement of character' by Zurayk (1968), utilizes

35 17481784 Mohamad Younes

the Arabic word khulq as one of the qualities of human self which influences one to showcase their everyday business without perception. This depends on two methods of realities: 1. natural environment, and 2. human nature to reach a stage of cultivation.

In regards to this, Ali (1985) states the term khulq insinuates the soul, however khalq alludes to the body. Adding to Ibn-Miskawayh's ethical cultivation model Nasir din Al-Tusi's Nasirean ethics (Madelung 1985), Al-Tusi broadens Ibn-Miskawayh both in the basic area on models, essentially a theoretical treatment of psychology, and in his resulting treatment of character and ideals (Tusi and Wickens 1964). Al-Tusi begins by supporting solutions for the soul as good activities. He sets out an establishment with a study of the faculties of the soul and reflections on virtues and vices. Ibn-Miskaway's framework of treating the soul manages a person's character, flawlessness and its association with equity, love and kinship. Ibn Miskawayh in his work additionally asseses diverse supposed 'infections' for the soul, for example, anger, pity and fear, deciding their causes as well as appropriate treatment. This treatment is of an enchanted level of joy and intellectual perfection. "Both Ibn-Miskawayh and Al-Tusi are especially intrigued by practical treatment and in addition creating ordinary capacity to virtue. This cultivation model is focused towards moral and physical wellbeing, expecting measures to protect individual soul balance (Madelung 1985). This harmony includes maintaining feelings under control, limiting identity attributes and fear of death as the soul, indicated by Ibn-Miskawayh, is something immortal. Nevertheless, this framework recommends that one is required to accommodate oneself to reality by understanding the genuine nature of his or her sentiments" (Younes 2016). Virtues are acquired through a process of training, which begins as a struggle, requires the repetition of moral acts, and the formation of a habit. Good habits, in turn, help cultivate virtues. Moreover, an individual is required to use rationality to understand what he/she should do and how to feel. Ibn-Miskawayh’s main ethical ideas are: • preserving the soul’s health through excellent conduct (Alavi 2009), • justice, noblest of all virtues, and • natural innate disposition (fitra).

36 17481784 Mohamad Younes

As indicated by Kamal (2006), Mulla Sadra's perspectives on ethics are passed on somewhat contrastingly to Ibn-Miskawayh and Al-Tusi. The persuasive Shi'ite scholar viewed ethics as inside a philosophical framework. Appropriately, ethics keeps up a preeminent and extraordinary stance fixated with anthropology and knowledge of the soul. This viewpoint holds morals and ethics to be fundamental to human conduct and what an individual soul receives. Moreover, Sadra emphasised the significance of "understanding the human being and the ontological measurements before entering the domain of ethics" (Kamal 2006, p. 12). Towards a broader comprehension of literature within Islamic ethics, a scope of ethical positions is clear while incorporating a distinctive history of philosophical debate and discourse on the ideas of applied ethics. Al-Attar's (2010) 'Divine command theory in Arabo-Islamic thought’, sets medieval Islam as the point of convergence, delivering distinctive discourse on one vital inquiry: Does the Qur'an establish the meaning of good and bad? Al-Attar amalgamates descriptive strategies to disentangle both scholarly and political history of developmental Islamic civilisation (p.14). The focus in discourse centres around two adverse positions within early Islamic history. This opposition existed between the Mutaz'ilite and Ash'arite Muslim schools of thought. At one position, the Ash'arite's held that the Qur'an was a perfect scripture in which ethics was completely received from divine-command theory. At the other position, the Mutaz'ilites maintained for the plausibility that human values and divine activities are understood through logic, reason and rationality (Hourani 2007). Despite the fact that Al-Attar notices previous related works on Islamic ethics, an orderly record of diverse approaches towards the topic is lacking. Fakhry (1994) in his eminent work 'Ethical theories in Islam’ concentrates on influential Muslim scientists, thinkers and philosophers of early Islam, for example, Fakhr Al-Razi, Al-Ghazali and Ibn Hazm, emphasising the significance of their ethical conventions (Quasem 1975). Fakhry reliably passes on the centrality of Islamic ethics while inciting readers' ideas of mystery, logic and metaphysics (1991, p.56). Be that as it may, despite the fact that Fakhry details subtle elements of ethical theories, he unsuccessfully consolidates methods for applied ethics on esoteric teachings, for example, Shi'ism. Hourani (2007) throughout his eminent impact of Islamic literature has published classic texts regarding Islamic ethical traditions investigating both religious philosophy and theology. Concerning Islamic ethics, Hourani initiates with two circumstantial pieces:

37 17481784 Mohamad Younes

1. the sources of our knowledge of value, and 2. the ontological place of value (p. 12). This thesis will adopt Ibn-Miskawayh’s groundwork made prominent in ‘Tahdhib al- akhlaq’ (The Refinement of Character) (Zurayk 1968). For Ibn-Miskawayh, “the art of character training…is concerned with the betterment of actions of man qua man” (Snow 2015, p. 200) and since we are fundamentally religious beings, the cultivation of our character is about discovering and then following a divine plan as revealed in the Qur’an and the Sunna of the Prophet. There are three tenants of Ibn-Miskawayh’s ethics that are important to grasp in order to understand character as cultivated in this theoretical framework: 1. The centrality of bodily practices, 2. Habituating sexual appetites, and 3. The social dimensions of virtue.

Moreover, this theoretical framework will be applied to the investigation of social understandings and perspectives that happen within sectarian and partisan groups, for instance, Shi'ism. The point of convergence of this approach is to provide a rich comprehension into Shi'ite Islamic ethical traditions through the accumulation of focus groups and detailed interviews. This endeavour will focus on demonstrating the ways in which understandings of Islamic ethics among Shi'ites influence on Australian Muslim communities. In addition to this structure of understanding, Tabatabai (1975) describes ethics as the investigation of moral laws revealed to Muslims through the Qur'an, Hadith, and Prophet's family. This definition of Tabatabai's will be used as a piece of this thesis, alongside Ibn-Miskawayh's structure to examine the level of understanding Australian Shi'ite Muslims have as to Islamic ethics and to decide whether they have misapplied, misconstrued or simply do not have the understandings of early Shi'ite Muslim ethical traditions in everyday living. Furthermore, Nasr (2006) in expansion expresses that Western scholarship has never had the same direct political contact with Shi'a Islam that it did with Sunni Islam. This has resulted with less consideration to Shi'ism, its ethical traditions and discourse, especially in Australian settings where the population of Australian Shi'ite Muslims are growing.

38 17481784 Mohamad Younes

6 RESEARCH METHOD

6.1 Qualitative Data Collection

In order to reach the goals of this thesis, a qualitative research method was undertaken. The primary characteristic of qualitative research is that it is for the most part "fitting for small samples, while its results are not quantifiable and measurable" (Crouch and McKenzie 2006, p. 16). Its core advantage, which at the same time reveals its essential distinction from quantitative research, is being able to offer a complete portrayal and investigation of research subjects, having no restrictions on the extent of the research and most importantly nature of participants responses (Collis and Hussey 2003). For the purpose of this study structured in-depth interviews were conducted. "In-depth interviews are personal and unstructured interviews, whose point is to identify member's feelings," sentiments, and views with respect to a specific research subject (Crouch and McKenzie 2006, p. 32). The primary advantage of personal interviews is that they include individual and direct contact amongst interviewers and interviewees, and in addition remove non- response rates, however interviewers need to have developed crucial skills necessary to effectively carry out a meeting (Fisher 2005; Wilson 2003). In addition, semi-structured interviews offer flexibility as far as the stream of the interview, along these lines leaving space for the era of conclusions that were not at first intended to be inferred with respect to a research subject. Be that as it may, "there is the risk that the interview may stray from the pre-specified research aims and goals" (Gill and Johnson 2002). This empirical research consisted of semi structured in-depth interviews alongside chosen focus groups. Thus, a qualitative data collection method was most appropriate, as it allows an adaptable way of gathering reactions and narratives (Taylor and Bogdan 1984). The technique by which respondents undrstand and decipher their social reality is among the essential drive for a qualitative research method (Bryman 2015). Qualitative research is intended to evoke an intended target audience's level of understanding, upheld with consistent references to a topic, for this situation being ethical traditions within Shi'ite Islam. Selecting such a methodology will create synergy among members, expanding on each other's perspectives and views on the Shi'ite Muslim appreciation of ethics. Another purpose behind this method choice is to experience the 'emic' point of view that is the viewpoint of the interviewees evaluated by unfolding their profound

39 17481784 Mohamad Younes

perceptions (Denzin and Lincoln 1994). This 'emic' viewpoint plays an overwhelming part in this experimental research on ordianry Australian Shi'ite Muslims. Before I began conducting my research on any participants, I had to apply for ethics clearance in order for my research to result in benefit and minimise the risk of any potential harm. This was important as the aim of an ethical review is to protect not only participants but also the researcher. I eventually received the clearance by the Human Research Ethics Application to go ahead and conduct my research across four different sites totalling 12 individuals identifying as ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims. The research question for this thesis ultimately aimed at understanding what exactly Australian Shi’ite Muslims consider to be ethics as well the sources of such ethical principles. In extension to this, the thesis also aimed to unravel the Shi’ite Muslims perceptions, views or lack thereof regarding Islamic ethical thought. Furthermore, the respondents were ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims from age 18 upwards. "All of the interviews were conducted over a nine-month course upon ethics approval during 2016, whereby repeated visits to mosques, schools and institutions of interviewees in the metropolitan areas of Sydney commenced. 10 interviews were conducted, and from this cohort two focus groups were identified with three members in each group. Respondents were chosen randomly regarding gender and maintained a balance of genders in both interviews and focus groups. This research remains aware of the generally brief time of nine months, thus 12 interviews of rich and various backgrounds alongside focus groups will sensibly suffice. The critical role of the interviews within this research is to unfold the ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslim respondent's understandings, application and recognitions with respect to Islamic ethics" (Younes 2016). This thesis aims to determine if Shi'ite Muslims in Australia have a clear comprehension of Islamic ethics or in the event that they are to some degree obscure. Despite whether understandings are clear or unclear, acquiring information on how this comprehension is applied will be evaluated. Furthermore, this thesis additionally endeavors to find whether this sociological application is consistent through everyday living or rather if there remains a specific application among Shi'ite Muslims in Australia. Patterns of the participants gender, age, profession, length of time in Australia (generation) and background will be vital toward the inferences drawn from the information gathered. This related back to the fundamental drive Taylor and Bogdan (1984) talk about with a specific end goal to unravel respondents social reality. Such research is important as it will make possible a more intimate knowledge of

40 17481784 Mohamad Younes

Islam in its multidimensional reality. Thus this thesis seeks to contextuali se its findings within the larger body of research on Islamic ethics. Adding on to the importance of this research, there are only relatively few published studies about Islamic ethics from an Australian perspective (Sajoo 2008), let alone any publications on Australian Shi’ite Muslim perspectives in Australia. This novel research contributes to the field of Islamic ethics not only by providing a unique perspective on Shi’ite Muslim views of ethics but also into Shi’ism which, according to Daftary (2013), has not been adequately assessed historically. Furthermore, this research derives meaning through multiple sources evaluating variables such as the impact ethics has on participants from an Australian point of view and presents Shi’ism as a religious reality and an important aspect of the Islamic tradition. The findings explain the research question which ultimately satisfies the objective of this study. Questions were asked to "interviewees in order to identify the detailed perceptions, beliefs and attitudes towards Shi’ite Islamic ethics. Semi structured interviews will provide felxibility to respondents so they can express their thoughts and ideas the way that suits them best. Additionally, a semi structured interview process best considers comparable and reliable data on social issues such as Islamic ethics from a sectarian and minority perspective" (Younes 2016). As indicated by Burgess (1982), remarkable ethno-methodologists, for example, Malinowski emphasi emphasise the significance of talking with respondents to better comprehend their viewpoint in the society and the effect it might have. In summary, semi semi structured in-depth interviews play an advantageous part in this research by enabling language to express meaning of the participant's thoughts (Goertz and Mahoney 2012). This proposal will likewise gather information through two concentration gatherings of five people chose inside the partner of interviewees. Focus groups are extremely useful in acquiring certain types of information when circumstances would make it hard to collect using different methods (Bryman 2015; Burgess 1982). Focus groups are additionally chosen so as to increase numerous points of view and perceptions from respondents about their comprehension or application of Islamic ethics in a group setting. Like semi structured interviews, focus groups utilize subject guides to help the discourses in maintaining its importance to the research. It is within this setting that focus groups will empower this research to better comprehend the level of consensus among Australian Shi'ite Muslims on Islamic ethics and also determine the scope of understanding and difference between the respondents (Taylor and Bogdan

41 17481784 Mohamad Younes

1984). With respect to data collection tools, the execution of this study included the utlization of in-depth semi-structured questions as guide for the interview process.

A few questions were prepared in advance, for the researcher to direct the interview towards the fulfillment of research goals, however further questions were added amid the interviews. Some example addresses that were incorporated into the semi-organized survey are the accompanying:

Question 1: Describe what you think Islamic ethics is about? Question 2: What do you think the sources of Islamic ethics are? Question 3: Can you give me an example of how Islamic ethics changes your everyday living?

Question 4: Do you think Islamic ethics are situational or always apply? (A detailed form of the interview guide is presented in Appendix A)

7 PARADIGM OF SHI’A ISLAMIC ETHICS

7.1 Cultivation of Character Framework

Given that over 80 percent of the world’s population is religiously involved, the study of Islamic ethics has much to add to our understanding of character and virtue (Nardin 1996). Religious traditions entail their own assumptions about human nature and human flourishing and thus have something at stake in the discussion of which virtues are valued and how best to cultivate these virtues. In this section, my goal is to introduce one exemplary Islamic figure: the 10th-century thinker Ibn-Miskawayh. Specifically, my focus is on the theory of virtue in the ethics of Ibn-Miskawayh and its contemporary applications to Islamic everyday practices in Australia from an ordinary Shi’a Muslim perspective. It is helpful to keep in mind two fundamental facts about the study of ethics in Islam as we move forward. Firstly, in Islam, revelation, as recorded in the Qur’an and

42 17481784 Mohamad Younes

Hadith, provides specific moral content. However, this content is limited: it does not cover every possible moral dilemma a Muslim may encounter nor do these sources articulate a theoretical framework for the elaboration of a fully robust Islamic ethics. This is not to say that individual Islamic thinkers did not develop systematic theories of moral philosophy, because polymaths like Al-Ghazali and Ibn Sina certainly did (Snow 2015). According to Snow (2015), in the Islamic tradition, ethical concerns are not exhausted in the sacred texts but instead have been discussed in various specialised sciences focused on akhlaq (ethics), tasawwuf (spirituality), tafsir (exegesis of the Qur’an), fiqh (jurisprudence), falsafa (philosophy), adab (etiquette), and so on. Secondly, Islamic legal thought, which focuses on the forms of reasoning, abstract values, and codes of conduct, is often perceived to be the dominant form for reflection on moral matters, and most work that we call ‘Islamic ethics’ produced in the West (Europe, Australia and the United States) in the last 50 years is not pure ethics but rather properly categorised as fiqh. From an Islamic orthodoxy perspective, being Shi'a or Sunni, the Qur'an and Sunnah (so called sacred texts) are sufficient for Muslims. Ibn-Miskawayh’s ‘Tahdhib al-akhlaq’ (The Refinement of Character) is an example of a specific genre of etiquette whose purpose is to bring together two sources, Islamic revelation and the Greek philosophical canon, and it is one of the earliest examples of this type of tahdhib we have (Alavi 2009). In this work, Ibn-Miskawayh develops a practical theory of virtue ethics that draws selectively from Greek philosophy to make it consistent with an Islamic ethos and worldview (Snow 2015). He holds a central place in Islamic ethics for his summary and explication of existing basic elements of practical philosophy, especially those arising from Neoplatonism. For Ibn-Miskawayh, virtues are dispositions related to faculties of the soul (Zurayk 1968). Virtues are acquired through a process of training, which begins as a struggle, requires the repetition of moral acts, and the formation of a habit. Good habits, in turn, help cultivate virtues. Virtues are character traits, which are permanent parts of a state of the soul that ‘go all the way down,’ so that to have a virtue is to be a certain sort of person. A virtue is more than a habit that affects multiple actions and causes a person to eventually perform moral actions without deliberation. Religions are not only concerned with right beliefs but also with right actions. Islam is no exception, and Muslims believe that completing certain bodily actions - such as prayer, fasting, almsgiving, and so on, are the pillars of a pious Muslim life. Belief, understanding, discussion or persuasion are not enough to transform a person; repetitive

43 17481784 Mohamad Younes

behaviour and physical habits are all part of moral development. As Ibn-Miskawayh put it, a disposition to do the right thing “may have its beginning in deliberation and thought, but then it becomes, by gradual and continued practice, an aptitude and a trait of character” (Zurayk 1968, p.29). Moreover, prostration of daily prayers cultivates humility and submission in the person who prays, devotion by fasting in Ramadan, and devotion and generosity almsgiving. Lowering one’s gaze is also a bodily action suggested for both men and women, but verse 24:31 requires a second category of bodily actions for women: they should not display their “ornaments”. Ibn-Miskawayh considers bodily actions central to the cultivation of character, a role he discusses in the following passage of ‘Tahdhib al-akhlaq’: “now as the soul is a divine, incorporeal faculty, and as it is, at the same time, used for a particular constitution and tied to it physically and divinely in such a way that neither of them can be seperated” (Zurayk 1968, p.157). In the context of physical health of the soul, Ibn-Miskawayh also discusses human sexuality. He begins with the assumption that sexual appetites, which he calls passionate love, are not in and of themselves problematic. This highlights a difference between early Islamic and Christian concerns with bodily practice, specifically sexual acts. Islam has a different ethical understanding of sex than Christianity has. Although there are similarities with the biblical creation story in Islam, the concept of original sin is non- existent. Instead, Islamic ethicists have often treated sexual appetites alongside physical ones such as hunger and thirst (Zaroug 1999): a drive that needs to be kept within the bounds but is at the same time necessary for human life. Al-Isfahani identifies three broad characters within the Qur’an. The pious, worshiping God; the martyrs who do good passionately; and the veracious who are satisfied with God’s decree (al-Isfahani 1987, p.158). To help us understand this more precisely, we can consider what Ibn-Miskawayh considers vices. “He who knows his own self should be aware of the many vices and defects which blemish it… consequently when one’s virtues depend upon others, it is one’s duty not to be vain.” (Snow 2015, p.205).

Ibn-Miskawayh theory of virtue challenges the critique of it being a form of egoism when focusing on character cultivation. For Ibn-Miskawayh character formation is not merely an individual process aimed at merely an individual result. In fact, he devotes the entire fifth discourse of ‘Tahdhib al-akhlaq’ to love and friendship:

44 17481784 Mohamad Younes

"There is no way for any single individual among them to become complete by himself. There is, then a genuine need and a demanding necessity for a condition in which diverse persons are brought together and combined so that they become, by agreement and harmony, as one single person all of whose (bodily) organs associate in the performance of the single act which is useful to him." (Snow 2015, p.206)

The Islamic veil continues to be one of the most contentious Islamic practices both because of disagreements among Muslims over its necessity and because of its meaning and non-Muslim judgements of it; thus, it is one of the most studied by academics. When ethicists consider the veil, it is most often to assess whether veiling is good or bad within a specific framework such as international law or feminism. When asked "why they cover their head, body or face, most Muslim women reply that they are following a command in Islamic scripture and do so to be good Muslim women" (Snow 2015, p. 34). Throughout history Qur’anic commentators have disagreed over what verse requires women to cover. Despite the interpretive debates, Ibn-Miskawayh framework can help us understand more precisely what this process looks like. Instead of the question ‘should Muslim women wear the veil?’, Ibn-Miskawayh’s virtue theory can answer the question by asking, ‘what does veiling ethically do?’ or ‘what role does veiling have in character formation?’ By adopting such a framework this will help us explain for example why veiling might be an ethical practice integral not only as a display for virtue but also for the cultivation of virtue. Ibn-Miskawayh’s framework can also help explain why this practice is so important to many Muslims in the contemporary world. Ibn-Miskawayh’s cultivation of an individual’s character was the first step to virtue acquisition, but he understood the ultimate goal was to have a community in which individuals, acting cooperatively out of habit, creates a virtuous society. Ibn-Miskawayh's work on ethics, in any case, is of a significantly higher level, and shows confirmation of extensive conceptual complexity (Alavi 2009). In his 'Tahdhib al-akhlaq' he embarks to demonstrate how we may secure the correct dispositions to perform ethically remedy actions in an organised and orderly way (Snow 2015). The premise of his contention is his record, received from Plato, of the idea of the soul, which he sees as a self-subsisting element or substance. The soul differentiates us from creatures, from other individuals and from minor things, and it utilizes the body and the parts of the body to endeavour to come into contact with more mystical domains of being. The soul,

45 17481784 Mohamad Younes

at that point, is an immortal and independent substance that controls the body. This movement takes two bearings, downwards towards matter or upwards towards reason and the dynamic intellect. Our happiness emerges through upwards motions, our tragedies through motions the opposite way. The most significant type of happiness exists when we can get rid of the requirements of this world, throwing off of the trappings of our physical existence and following spiritual aims in mystical contemplation of God (Baldick 2012). Ibn- Miskawayh's supernatural level of happiness appears to rank higher than mere intellectual perfection, yet Ibn-Miskawayh is especially intriguing in the advice he provides on the developing out ordinary capacities for virtue. He believes the cultivation of our ethical wellbeing in an Aristotelian manner as similar to the development of physical wellbeing, expecting measures to safeguard our moral balance (Alavi 2009). We should monitor our feelings and carry out practices both to control us on specific situations and furthermore to create personality qualities that will keep up that level of restraint for the duration of our lives. To abolish faults, we should examine their definitive causes and try to supplant these with more accommodating choices. Ibn-Miskawayh provides a complex theory of virtue acquisition as dependent on bodily action, habituation of sexual desires and public interaction. Once applied to veiling for example, this framework counters the theory, popular in media and political discourse, that the veil is merely a symbol and encourages us to see it instead as the means by which virtues are made. Moreover, one of the important ways in which ethical theories and practices are related in scholarship is that not only does theory illuminate practice, in this case Ibn-Miskawayh’s understanding of virtue helps explain the importance of veiling to character formation, but also having practice point out the unstated assumptions of a theory. This suggests some important future directions for research. In addition to Ibn-Miskawayh, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, a monumental figure in medieval Islamic sciences and philosophy, wrote two principle works in al-Tusi's ethical output, the "Akhlaq-I Muhtashami' (Muhtashamean Ethics) and the 'Akhlaq-I Nasiri" (The Nasirean Ethics). These are hardly more than a manual of ethical principles, richly illustrated with citations from the Qur'an, the Shi'i Imams and Greek sources. The main publication of 'Akhlaq-I Nasiri'is orchestrated as a work of philosophical ethics. Its divisions into three sections - ethics (akhlaq), economics (tadbir-e manzil), governmental issues (siyasat-e mudun) - set the example for resulting works on practical philosophy in the Islamic convention. The initial segment on ethics is displayed on Ibn-Miskawayh's

46 17481784 Mohamad Younes

'Tahdhib al-akhlaq' (Cultivation of Morals). In any case, al-Tusi develops Ibn-Miskawayh both in the underlying area on standards, primarily a theoretical treatment of psychology (the soul), and in his consequent treatment of character. This initial segment ends with the expansion of an area on the treatment of afflictions of the soul, and of the cures to remedy them, heavily influenced and guided by Ibn-Miskawayh implicitly linking it with more Shi’a theology. Ethics is one of the cognitive branches of practical wisdom. This field examines the quality of human behaviour and provides some recommendations concerning how to attain the sublime ends of ethics. Like other branches of knowledge, ethics is based on a number of conceptual and judgmental principles. However, since it is not a universal science, some of its premises are theoretical and discussed in different sciences. The philosophy of ethics is a theoretical deliberation upon ‘ethics’. The development of ethics and its underlying basis is possible only when we can answer certain questions and analyse certain concepts. Ibn-Miskawayh, Al-Tusi and even Mulla Sadra, the Shi’a Islamic philosopher and theologian who combined features of the Islamic-peripatetic and Islamic mystical traditions, are no exceptions in this regard. In many of their works, we can find the answers to some of the fundamental questions about ethics upon which is formed the Shi’a philosophy of ethics. Of course, a review of all their ideas in this regard can never provide the answers to all the related questions. This is because the formation of the philosophy of ethics belongs to the contemporary period, and there are certain questions to which they have not given an explicit answer. However, through a study of such principles, we can provide a kind of philosophy of ethics which is quite vital. This particular study on ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims is significant as particular understandings of Islamic ethics in specific settings help to clarify how minority gatherings, for example, Shi'ite Muslims build up their own ethical principles to shape social relations. Humans are capable of acquiring the characteristics and habits they are brought up with. Indeed, the importance and benefit of ethics are what make it capable of development and evolution, and open the way for education and training. For it is by continuous training and some amount of time that we are able to ground the ingredients of good character in the personality of an individual such that it becomes a habit and natural disposition.

47 17481784 Mohamad Younes

8 RESEARCH FINDINGS / RESULTS

In this section, the results of the data analysis are presented. The data was collected from four main sites then processed in response to the problems posed in the first chapter of this thesis. The site locations were: 1. (Masjid Arrahman) Kingsgrove; 2. (Al-Zahra College) Arncliffe; 3. (Imam Hassan Centre) Annangrove; 4. (Al-Mahdi Masjid) Campbelltown. The essential objectives driving the accumulative data and subsequent data analysis was to broaden a base of knowledge. in order to strengthen Islamic ethics as an independent discipline while also addressing the scant attention Shi’ite Islam has received in respect to what ethics means to Shi’ite Muslims. These objectives were addressed throughout the research and the findings presented in this chapter demonstrate the potential for greater insights into ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims perceptions and views on Islamic ethics. Both interviews and focus groups were held at the four sites during February and April, 2017 after I had visited the four sites and discussed with the organisation leaders the nature and the scope of the study. The information regarding the study was sent to the respondents beforehand so that they were aware of it all. Announcements were all made during the daily activities at each site about the study suggesting that if anybody was interested, they were free to approach myself for both an interview and to join a focus group. In general terms, the participants were willing to participate in the research and the interviews were eventually conducted. The discussions took place in the classrooms and offices at the sites and lasted approximately 30 to 35 minutes for in-depth interviews. The focus groups lasted approximately one hour at each site. During the interviews, I kept notes in order to help me to analyse the gathered data. During the focus groups, respondents were free and encouraged to express their views even on topics not mentioned in the discussed fields. Participants were common in the fact that they were all ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims; however, came from many different walks of life and various upbringings. The research assessed the ethical traditions within Islam, with particular focus on Shi’ite Muslim understandings. It examined participants beliefs and attitudes towards Islamic ethics, with chosen sources used to apply them, and identified what influences or prevents them from applying such principles or traditions if any. Finally, it should be stated that the conversations with the participants flowed pleasingly with great insight into ordinary Australian Shi’a Muslims. Moreover, this section investigates the level of understanding

48 17481784 Mohamad Younes

and characteristics specific to Islamic ethics from a Shi’a Muslim perspective living in Australia specifically. Content analysis was used to analyse the data which was gathered from personal interviews.

As per Moore and McCabe (2005), content analysis is the kind of research where information assembled is arranged in themes and sub-themes in order to be comparable. A favourable standpoint of this research is that it assists in information gathered being reduced and simplified, while in the meantime bearing results that may then be measured utilizing quantitative methods. Also, an advantage of content analysis allows the research to structure the qualitative data gathered in a way that meets the research objectives. Each topic that rose up out from the data is described, discussed and supported with cases of real data. A discussion of the implications of such themes in the following section may potentially suggest ways to address the matters found. The primary categories which emerged were:

• Ahlul-Bayt (Family of the Prophet) • Sources of ethics themes - Qur’an / Imamate • Taqwa - God-consciousness through good actions

Muslims throughout their day by day practices are heavily influenced by ethical teachings, playing a critical role in their lives. The steady desire to earn lasting consciousness with Allah (taqwa) and in addition completely submitting, provides the foundation to Islamic ethical teachings. Achieving a sense of total submission to Allah and fulfilling his duty is the ultimate goal in Islam. Tawhid is the fundamental conviction for all ethical issues. This inspiration implies Islam is a constant in every Muslim's life and impacts their activities and choices. Likewise, the belief in the afterlife and the way that all people are required to stand before Allah calls the need for strict adherence to the ethical guidelines of Islam for one to 'enter heaven'.

8.1 Shi’ite Muslims

Despite the fact that there is a great deal of research on Muslims, Shi’a Muslims are a seldom studied group both in Australia and throughout the world in general (Daftary 2013, p. 3). The expectations of this research were based on both the inadequacy of

49 17481784 Mohamad Younes

Islamic ethics understanding throughout Australian Muslims and the lack of literature surrounding Shi’a Islamic ethics throughout Western scholarship. The qualities found in ordinary Shi’ite Muslims during the interviews and focus groups were:

● They are consciously unaware of Islamic ethical principles. ● They have a vague and uncertain understanding of what ethics and ethical traditions themselves are in general. ● They agree on the sources of ethics being the Qur’an, Hadith, Imams/Prophets. ● They have a low level of understanding of Shi’ite ethical traditions including significant figures such as Ibn-Miskawayh, Nasir Al-Tusi and Mulla Sadra. ● Most participants were not aware of the theoretical framework proposed by Ibn- Miskaway, and did not subscribe to the framework at all. ● They regard Imams/Prophets as sources of ethics guidance and are perfect role models.

Islamic ethics for all participants played an important role in their daily lives - some more than others - nonetheless 95% of members considered it vital with only 5% giving it moderate significance. There was a high emphasis on good in this world and the hereafter referencing the Qur’an (2:201). Moreover, taqwa for Shi’ite Muslims affected their ethical lives with one participant quoting a Shi’a tradition, “The one with most character is full of taqwa”. In extension, Shi’ite Muslims consider being ethical a form of worshipping God.

● Shi’ite Muslims rely on Hadiths of Imams as opposed to mainstream collections such as Sahih Bukhari. ● Shi’a Muslims uphold and accept the concept of the infallibility of 14 individuals. These individuals according to the participants were inspired by God and protected to not commit any sins during their lives. ● 70% of Shi’ite Muslim participants felt like a minority within Islam and that they must often limit themselves in practicing their traditions. Interestingly, the attention surrounding Islam, ISIS and terrorism led some (50%) Shi’ite Muslims participants in Australia to be more open about their practices. ● 95% of the participants stressed that their tradition is a more peaceful version of Islam, and based on universal values. Shi’ite Muslims are very concerned with

50 17481784 Mohamad Younes

distancing themselves from Wahhabi Islam, Isis, Salafism and extremism, all of which represent traditions that they believe are the furthest from their own outlook. ● Shi’ites believe the Qur’an is to be best understood through the Prophet’s family. 90% of Shi’ite Muslim participants saw Australian law as not in conflict with their Islamic ethics. Having said this, Shi’ite Muslims follow the 5th Madhab (Ja’fari school of thought) but also recognise the four Sunni schools as well. Shi’ite Muslims subscribe to marja’ taqlid (an Ayatolla – high Islamic authority) for ethical decisions in their lives. Finally, 90% of Shi’ite Muslims ranked themselves to be devoted 5/5 to Islamic ethics, when asked about why they ranked so high, the responses centred around aspiring to be like the Imams.

Ahlul-Bayt

There is heavy emphasis on the importance of the Ahlul-Bayt. The family of the Prophet are very much loved and revered by Shi’ite Muslims regardless of where they are from. In regards to infallibility, Shi’a Muslims claim there are 14 sinless and perfect role models for Shi’a Muslims to imitate and learn ethics from. Moreover, the concept of wilayah is very much upheld by Shi’a Muslim participants which is a guardianship by appointment and divine legislation. Shi’a Muslims exclusively believe that the Imams of Ahlul-Bayt have this wilayat as granted to them by God through His Messenger, again due to their close relation with the Prophet and the God. Shi’a Muslim participants accept the Imamate concept having ethical principles from the Imams advancing morality. These principles, according to participants, can be seen through the martyrdom theme of Karbala showing signs of justice and morality.

Taqwa

51 17481784 Mohamad Younes

Being God conscious according to Shi’ite Muslims affects their overall ethical lives. Good behaviour and character is viewed as a form of worship as there is a high emphasis on doing good in this world and the awaiting the hereafter. The Qur’an states, “But among them is he who says, ‘Our Lord, give us in this world [that which is] good and in the Hereafter [that which is] good and protect us from the punishment of the Fire.’” (2:201) Furthermore, achieving taqwa for Shi’ite Muslims is possible by emulating the actions and characteristics of the Prophet and Imams which are, according to them, perfect in the sense that God prevents them from committing sin.

Sources

of Ethics

Apart from the Qur’an and Hadith/Sunnah, Shi’ite Muslims subscribe to Imams as sources of ethics and moral principles. Moreover, Shi’ite Muslims follow marjaj taqlid who are high authority leaders for rulings on ethical matters such as Ayatolla Khamenei. Shi’ite Muslims follow the 5th Madhab (Ja’fari school of thought) but also recognise the four Sunni schools of jurisprudence. There is a high reliance on Imam sayings and teachings, such as esoteric understandings of the Qur’an. The twelve divinely inspired Imams are, according to Shi’ite Muslim participants, key sources of ethical principles. All in all, these ideas and foundational pillars help us understand what it really means for a Shi’ite Muslim to be ethical.

9 DATA INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

9.1 Reliability and Validity

Favourable qualitative studies can help us “understand a situation that would otherwise be enigmatic or confusing” (Eisner 1991, p.58). In order for this understanding to occur, Patton (2001) highly emphasises the need for validity and reliability, factors that a researcher should be concerned with. Moreover, according to Blumberg et al. (2005), the ideal scenario would be to conduct research that is both valid and reliable. In this

52 17481784 Mohamad Younes 53 thesis, both primary and secondary data have been taken into consideration to ensure validity and reliability in the research conducted. The majority of secondary data collected is from established academic peer-reveiwed international journals, and it is therefore reasonable to accept their reliability. Moreover, it may be difficult to tell for certain whether the theoretical framework is most reliable as there exists some assumptions about the study; for example assuming the particpants all experience the same thoughts. Nonetheless, Blumberg et al. claim both the primary and secondary data are valid and reliable when following the observations guideline.

9.1.1 Limitations

This research has been subject to several limitations and the most important ones are briefly discussed in this section. The first limitation of this study is that the size of the sample was relatively small, being only 12 participants. A bigger sample would probably enhance the reliability of the research. Second, this thesis is not a complete representation of all Shi’ite Muslim views living in Australia; rather a small-scale reflection of Australian Shi’ite Muslims. Thirdly, the research design adopted focus groups and in- depth interviews as opposed to a total ethnographic approach of direct respondent observation. Hence, the study may perhaps lack the investigation of certain cultural wonders among Australian Shi'ite Muslims. Regardless of the restrictions, this study draws the basis for future research to additionally explore and answer front line questions with respect to Islamic ethics.

9.1.2 The Qualitative Method

The main objectives of this qualitative research study were to examine the level of understanding ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims have with respect to Islamic ethics as well as the significance of ethics in everyday living. This chapter will provide an interpretation of the findings and illustrate why the findings are relevant to the research. The task in this section is to interpret the findings obtained through the process of in- depth semi-structured interviews and focus groups. Participants were all Twelver Shi’ite Muslims, interviewed individually as well as split into four focus group sessions at four different sites. The participants came from different national backgrounds such as Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Pakistan. Most of them have completed university

53 17481784 Mohamad Younes 54 degrees, ranging from Bachelor degrees in Business to one Professor of Global Finance. Others work in diverse industries including engineering, human resources and finance. Nonetheless, the common Shi’ite Muslim demographic in this study, as shown below, is an Australian born student, between ages 20-25.

PARTICIPANTS DEMOGRAPHICS

Human Resources Retail Finance Student OCCUPATION 3 2 2 4

Australian Overseas AUSTRALIA/OVERSEAS 9 3

Male Female MALE/FEMALE 6 6

(18-19) (20-25) (26-31) (32-41) A G E G R O U P 2 5 3 2

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

This sociological study investigating the views and perceptions of ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims is in good agreement with the conclusions of both Tabatabai (1975) and Daftary (2013). The study confirms the scant attention being paid to the understanding of Shi’ite Islam, specifically in terms of the ethical and moral values, mentioned first by Tabatabai then eventually Daftary. Moreover, this study conveys that all Shi’ite Muslim participants expressed emphatically throughout the interviews and focus groups that being ‘ethical’ was in itself an extremely humane and productive thing. In addition to this, three themes emerged throughout the qualitative data collection regarding the concept of ethics from a Shi’ite perspective:

a. the concept of Ahlul-Bayt (family of the Prophet), b. Taqwa (God-consciousness), and c. sources of ethics.

54 17481784 Mohamad Younes 55

AUSTRALIAN SHI'ITE MUSLIM FOCAL POINTS

Importance of ethics

Sources of ethics

Taqwa

Ahlul-Bayt

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Figure 1: Main focal points Shi’ite Muslims highlighted throughout interviews and focus groups.

To get an understanding of what the participants meant when they talked about Shi’ite Islamic ethics they were asked to give their own definition of the term. The statements are listed below (in the interest of confidentiality the names are fictitious):

[Zeinab, aged 41 yrs] “I think it means adopting the rules and conduct of the Qur’an and following our Imam’s examples.” [Tariq, aged 37 yrs] “For me it is what’s allowed and what’s not allowed. The morals in Islamic theology.” [Rana, aged 20 yrs] “The laws and teachings from all the Prophets, Imams and Hadiths in Islam.” [Abdul Hayeq, aged 22yrs] “Islamic ethics are the laws of God.” [Abdulla Hanif, aged 19 yrs] “The Qur’an and Hadiths from the Imams.” [Fatima Khalfan, aged 24 yrs ] “The good and bad according to Islamic traditions.” [Ibrahim Salim, aged 25 yrs] “What is right and wrong.” [Leila Ali, aged 19 yrs] “The rulings of the marja.” [Meissa Iqbal, aged 31 yrs] “This refers to Shi’ite beliefs about the Qur’an.” [Muhamad Beydon, aged 21 yrs] “Imam traditions about what is good and bad.” [Sarah Mohamad, aged 28 yrs] “Moral guidance from the Qur’an and Ahlul Bayt.” [Tallal Isa, aged 25 yrs] “How to conduct oneself according to Qur’an and Hadiths.”

55 17481784 Mohamad Younes 56

PARTICIPANTS EXPLANATION OF THE SOURCES OF SHIA ISLAMIC ETHICS

Qur'an Imams Hadith Sunnah

17%

41% 17%

25%

As participants were asked to define Shi’ite Islamic ethics, the above graph shows four main factors used in defining the term. Interestingly, Imams seem to be a high source of ethics after the Qur’an. However, this is not surprising as it was supported by the literature such as Nasr (1977) and Dabashi (2011) conveying Shi’a Islam as very focused on the concept of Imamate. Sunnah above is referred to the established Sunnah. This is as reliable as the Qur'an in light of the fact that it has been transmitted similarly. The Hadith is not as solid as the Qur'an and the established Sunnah subsequently it should be confirmed and comprehended under the light of the Qur'an and the Sunnah. Nonetheless, the Hadith is an extremely rich source of understanding the life of the Prophet and his way of life. It is likewise a good facilitator to assess the Qur'an. Before we proceed, below are some main concepts better explained from the Shi’a Muslim perspective.

Infallibility: Infallibility is a quality inherent to the appointment of the Prophet or one of the 12 divinely inspired Imams (Ja’fari 2014). Infallibility is a hidden psychological ability known to God alone; no one can identify this trait without the direct divine authority’s appointment and clarification. Prophethood is the position given to selected individuals who are chosen and purified by God to be his messengers to mankind. The divine role of the Prophet is quite clear as well as the need for his infallibility as the guide to mankind and the representative of God on Earth. Similarly, the Imams are bestowed by infallibility as a physical and psychological privilege that prevents them from committing sins (Ja’fari 2014). While Tabatabai (1975) claims that infallibility is the ability to perform obedience and inability to err or to fall into sins, others define it as a protection sent from God preventing the possibility of sins. Others have defined it as

56 17481784 Mohamad Younes 57 the psychological ability that deters them from falling into sin. Finally, the Shi’a perspective is that the sovereignty over all humanity belongs to God, who asserts this through his Prophet and the 12 infallible Imams, during the occultation of the last Imam.

Imamate: The word ‘Imam’ is literally used by the public to refer to ‘the spiritual leader’ of Muslims in a certain locality, time or thought (Ismaeel 1983). The Shi’a Twelver school of thought defines the Imam to be the person who administers ‘by originality’ the general affairs of life and religion in this life. The term ‘originality’ is used to refer to the administration of the Imam because he has the status of Imam. This status is directly conferred on him by God alone; not even by a Prophet or Messenger. Only God alone has such power over his creatures and only he can delegate these powers upon whom he wishes. This definition of Imam is the most precise and accurate one, which has been unanimously agreed upon by Shi’a scholars (Dabashi 2011).

Ahlul-Bayt Signifiers

8%

8% 34%

25%

25%

Infallibility Imamate Source of ethics Karbala Wilayah

It is clear from the findings and literature review including the most authentic traditions in collections of the both Sunni and Shi'a Islam, that the Ahlul-Bayt (family of the Prophet) are one of the two most beloved elements of Islam after the death of the Prophet. Considering the crucial significance of the subject, it is not surprising to see that the Shi'a vary from some Sunnis on this issue. From the Shi’a perspective, the family of the Prophet consists of fourteen below (Angeles 1983):

57 17481784 Mohamad Younes 58

• "Fatimah al-Zahra • Imam Ali • Imam al-Hasan • Imam al-Husayn • Nine descendants of Imam al-Husayn • The Prophet Muhammad"

All participants during the focus groups asserted that the above 14 individuals are protected by Allah from any kind of flaws, and thus worthy of being obeyed beside the Qur’an, and they are the only people who have further knowledge of the esoteric interpretations of Qur’anic verses. In this discussion, I would like to elaborate on the Ahlul-Bayt signifiers which were stated in the previous data chapter as well as highlighted in the interviews and focus groups.

Infallibility: A big factor stemming from the study was that all participants seemed emphatic and clear on the idea of the infallible Imams. With regards to the concept of infallibility, the Shi’a point of view states that all Prophets and messengers of God, with no exception, are without sin. (Daftary 2013). According to Dabashi (2011), in his book ‘Shi’ism’, Ismah (infallibility) is a concept usually misunderstood by Muslims. Dabashi further explains that this concept correctly refers to the idea of a Prophet, by virtue of his Prophethood, is blessed with a pure soul. As the Qur’an states, “the (human) soul certainly incites evil, unless my lord do bestow His Mercy” (12:53)

Furthermore, in view of Shi'ite philosophy, the connection of the soul (Nafs) relative to being, refers to an agent relationship. In this way, the soul may instigate evil; yet the choice and freedom to dismiss that invitation to evil is open to the individual (Tabatabai 2007, p.51). This exact understanding was verified throughout the in-depth interviews regarding Imams being literally perfect role models (Moradi 2015) along with the Prophet. In the event that the individual welcomes evil, he ends up noticeably responsible for that evil which he commits. This is an extremely simplified clarification; however, it fills the need. It should not be thought of as a Prophet or messenger being unable to sin, the ability is there, rather it is the "mercy" highlighted in the above (12:53) entrusted upon them from God preventing them from doing so. One participant stated, “Imams are sinless and infallible even though they have full ability of committing any kind of sin.”

58 17481784 Mohamad Younes 59

Imamate: Another theme which arose was the idea of the Imamate. The meaning of the term ‘Imamate’ refers to leadership and credited as somebody trustworthy whose behaviour and thoughts are trailed by the population. The pioneer of the devout and the pioneer of the wrongdoer are both called Imam. The two implications are specified in the Qur'an as well. “And We appointed, from among them, leaders, giving guidance under Our command, so long as they persevered with patience and continued to have faith in Our Signs.” (Qur’an 32:24)

The Shi’a Muslim participants were very emphatic about this idea of Imamate and defined it as a succession and caliphate of the Messenger in every prophetic obligation and positions, aside from connection with the invisible world and accepting revelation, which are only for the Prophets. From the Shi’ite point of view, the institution of Imamate is necessary, according to reason. The participants were asked to explain Imamate, thus to better understand their perceptions, below are a few examples:

(Abdul, 22) “For me it is a lutf (grace) of Allah which brings the believer towards obedience and keeps him away from disobedience.” (Fatima, 24) “Imamate is a grace with objectives to avenge the oppressed of their oppressor and restrain the oppressor.”

In extension to the above understandings, Imamate intends to draw others nearer to righteousness and departure from corruption (Pinault 1993). Shi’a Muslims in the focus groups commented on such an idea and 90% suggested that this grace is incumbent on God to appoint an Imam to guide and lead the ummah (community) after the Prophet. The Shi'as trust that, an Imam, similar to the Prophet ought to excel the Muslim community in all ethics and virtue, for example, knowledge, charity, devotion and philanthropy, and ought to possess information of the divine law. This is the first major qualification; the second qualification is ismah (infallibility) as mentioned before (Moradi 2015). This was very important as the participants all believed that if the Imam is not infallible (ma’sum) there is a possibility that the Imam would err and potentially deceiving others. In such a case, the participants were asked if whether the Imams being infallible was mandatory, in which they responded that they would place no implicit confidence in what he says and dictates to them. The understanding of the Shi’a Muslim participants was that the head and ruler of the Muslim community is the Imam, hence, people should unconditionally follow him in all matters. In addition to this, on account of the Prophets, the above-

59 17481784 Mohamad Younes 60 mentioned capabilities alone are insufficient to qualify an individual as Imam. Imamate is not a gained work; it is a 'designation' bestowed by Allah (Muzaffar 1982, p.30). It is for this reason that the ‘Asharis’ (the Twelver Shi’is) emphasise that it is only God who has the ability to appoint a successor to the Prophet, the Muslim community's duty is to accept and follow such divinely appointed Imam (Ja’fari 2014).

Likelihood of following Imams ethics 100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

If Imam is fallible Fallible but appointed by God Imam is infallible

Interestingly above, Shi’a Muslim participants agreed with the literature such as Muzaffar (1982) on only accepting an Imam to be rightful if they pass the qualification of being infallible. Only when this is established will the Imam be a source of ethics and a perfect role model. No participants accepted an Imam to be a source of ethics if that Imam was fallible; however, if the Imam was appointed by God 65% of the participants would accept them as sources of ethics.

60 17481784 Mohamad Younes 61

Wilayah: The term wilayah has various meanings, yet it normally implies guardianship, help or kinship. As needs be, wali (in Arabic, the subjective noun stems from wilayah) refers to a gatekeeper, partner, or companion (Ja'fari 2014). Wilayah is the connection between the community of believers in general and the Prophet and Imams, and furthermore the relationship among the devotees themselves. All through history, God, who is the wali of the faithful, has selected certain individuals as walis for them because of His grace and blessing. For instance, He chose the Prophet Muhammad and his legitimate successors as the walis for the people of the last phase of life in this world to guide people (Mottahedeh 1985). Note that this sort of wilayah is subordinate to God's wilayah and not at a similar level. Wilayah is not viewed as any common guardianship or authority. There must be dedication, genuineness and true-heartedness between various gatherings associated with wilayah (Ja’fari 2014).

Interestingly the Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Arabic defines wali as: ‘to take over the government….to be in power, hold supreme power….to follow in succession’ (p.1100). Moreover, we read in the Qur’an that “Your guardian is only God, His Apostle, and the faithful who maintain the prayer and give the zakat while bowing down.” (5:55)

Based on the understanding above, 65% of Shi’a Muslim participants throughout this study used the above Qur’anic verse to support their idea of the importance of wilayah not only for the Prophet but also Imams. A Prophet (nabi) from the Islamic perspective is one to whom divine law (shari'ah) is revealed; this might be involved with beliefs (`aqa-id) or with pragmatic actions, (for example, supplication). A messenger (rasool) is moreover, already a Prophet who receives divine law applicable to himself and others. So, by default all messengers are prophets, while the reverse is not true. An Imam is a leader only appointed by God to lead the community as a guide (Qur'an 21:73 and 32:24) to whom compliance is expected, and whom individuals ought to follow and learn from. "Messengers are warners and Imams are guides"(13:7), also referred to as the stars of guidance (6:97). There are differences between Prophets and Imams, for instance, Imams do not receive divine revelation, nor do they receive any commands concerning new religious practices, and so on. However, Imams may be informed about the past and future events.

61 17481784 Mohamad Younes 62

From the Shi’ite perspective, this compliance is not restricted to Allah only. It is Allah's will that all Muslims ought to comply with the Prophet of Islam and the infallible Imams (Tabatabai 1975). This belief infers that absolute obedience belongs to Allah and this is His request that influences us to comply with the Prophet and the Imams (Muzaffer 1982). Furthermore, participants expressed that it is their behaviour and sayings which lead them to the right path and provide Allah’s satisfaction. Imams have been granted infallibility (Angeles 1983) and thus do not commit any sin or make any mistake.

Sources of ethics: A consistent theme throughout the interviews and focus groups related to the question of where such ethics come from according to Shi’a Muslim perspectives. As mentioned briefly before, and will be expanded upon in subsequent sections, Shi’ite Muslims accept the Qur’an, Sunnah, Hadith as sources of ethics primarily; however, in addition also place 12 infallible Imams as sources of ethics. Their behaviour and exemplary actions are to be imitated along with the Prophet of Islam for all Shi’ite Muslims. Furthermore, such understandings and beliefs are best conveyed to Shi’ite Muslims through a marja’, which is a mujtahid (high authority of fiqh) who is followed by Shi’as. Some Shi’as practice their religious acts in accordance with that mujtahid’s jurisprudential views (fatwas) and interpretations. This practice is known as taqlid. Such high authorities provide religious interpretations on matters of law and rituals (Nasr 1977). Ideally, the most just and knowledgeable scholar in the field of Islamic law ought to be recognised all through the Muslim world as the marja-I taqlid (source to imitate). By practice, however this rarely ever happens and there are a few marja taqlids among whom a Shi'ite Muslim is allowed to select and emulate.

Sources of ethics

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Kingsgrove Arncliffe Campbelltown Annangrove

Qur'an Imams Marja

62 17481784 Mohamad Younes 63

Shi’a Muslim participants from across the four sites all consistently placed the Qur’an as the primary and highest source of ethics. Interestingly, not all the participants across the sites agree with each other in terms of status and level of priorities when it comes to how high the sources of ethics are. The Campbelltown participants interestingly reported to place all three, Qur’an, Imams and marja, as the same. The other three sites placed the Qur’an first followed by Imams and marja. These findings do present the ordinary Australian Shi’a Muslims as being diverse within their own Shi’a interpretations and rationalities. Nonetheless this all relates back to literature such as Muhammad Rida al- Muzaffar’s ‘The faith of Shi’a Islam’ where he states:

"We believe that, just as it is necessary for Allah to send someone as a Prophet, so it is also necessary for Him to appoint an Imam. It is necessary that at all times there should be an Imam to represent the Prophet, and that he should perform the duties of the Prophet, such as guiding the people, and showing them the way of goodness and prosperity in this world and the next. He ought also to hold the highest position as a public authority in all aspects of people’s lives, so that he may cause Justice to increase among them and eliminate enmity and oppression from between them." (1982, p.25).

Karbala: Karbala was another focal point and signifier of the concept of Ahlul- Bayt for Shi’a Muslim participants. For Shi’a Muslims, the event is well known due to its historical importance and lamenting for the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad during the Battle of Karbala in (AD 680). Shi’a Muslim participants explained that this is "a day of speeches, public processions, and great grief. Men and women chant and weep, mourning Husayn, his family, and his followers." However, in terms of how this event relates to ethical characteristics, the speeches emphasise the significance of the values in which Husayn fought for. Husayn, according to the Shi'a view point sacrificed his family, himself, and his followers for the religion of Islam. The association between Karbala and Shi'ism has been a centre of religious worship and command; having more than a hundred mosques and 25 educational institutions. Later on, the city developed around the tombs of very prominent leaders and saints. For example, Shi'a Muslims travel to visit the tomb of Husayn, particularly on the commemoration of the battle, the Day of Āshūrā. Each muharram, if not at each khutba

63 17481784 Mohamad Younes 64

(sermon), Shi'as help each other to remember the dedication regarding justice the Prophet Muhammad's adored grandson Imam Hussain, granddaughter Zainab, and around a hundred other close family members and companions made in Karbala. They prompt each other in order to protect this vital historic account. In terms of ethical principles, Shi’a Muslim participants throughout the focus groups all agreed that this is a cosmic event that still remains impactful and influential in their lives across time and space today living in Australia, over 7000 miles away. Another interpretation that participants also mentioned in the interviews was to recognise the "critical battle against systematic oppression, standing up for justice even when it is against one’s own community." For Shi'a Muslims, the events at Karbala teach them to stand up for all the ‘Hussains’ of the world as they put it. The tragic events remind them that when the good few are silent, not willing to confront corruption, evil will succeed. This again is something Shi’a Muslims believe the Qur’an is constantly warning believers to do.

TAQWA

Good behavour Obedience & Hereafter

46%

54%

Good Behaviour: The findings of this research study suggest that when it came to the second theme of the importance of ethics, taqwa was identified as being linked with good behaviour and obedience for the hereafter. Across all four sites, Shi’ite Muslims submitted that taqwa is approximately comprised of 28% good behaviour and 72%

64 17481784 Mohamad Younes 65 obedience for the next life. The participants stated that obedience and the hereafter are more significant than mere actions. Rather, the participants mostly agreed that it is both obedience and good behaviour which is required for taqwa, in which ultimately converts to good Islamic ethics. This also relates back to Muzaffar (1982) in which good behaviour and obedience to Allah are basic foundations of ethical principles in Islam. In order to appreciate the importance Islam gives to good behaviour we highlight some of the traditions and verses highly esteemed by Shi’a Muslims:

"Thus it is due to mercy from Allah that you deal with them gently, and had you been rough, hard hearted, they would certainly have dispersed from around youAnd when the ignorant address them, they say: Peace. And most surely you conform yourself to sublime morality." (Qur’an 3:159)

Traditions are also important and were interestingly sources Shi’a Muslim participants relied on, especially if it came from one of the 12 infallible Imams. The Prophet is reported to have said in Al Kulayni's (2007) Kitab al-Kafi, “I have been appointed to carry the greatness of man to perfection”. He has also said, “The weightiest of all deeds in the balance of deeds is nice behaviour and manners”. Imam Ali, the first Shi’a Imam, has been quoted as saying, “Taqwa is to avoid sins.” Imam Baqir, the fifth Shi’a Imam, says, “Most perfect from the viewpoint of Faith are those who are good mannered”. Imam Sadiq, the sixth Shi’a Imam, said, “the Faithful Mo-min, on the Day of Judgement, does not present to Allah anything dearer to Allah than good behaviour with people, except the obligatory duties” (Al Kulayni 2007). In addition to this, Imam Ali, the cousin and son in law of Prophet Muhammad and also the first of the 12 infallible Imams according to Shi'ism, was mentioned extensively in high respect and honour from the participants. Imam Ali, according to the participants was one of the most brilliant, just, ethical and influential leaders to ever live along with the Prophet Muhammad. These sorts of testimonies correspond deeply with studies such as (Paya and Tehrani's 2013), 'Imam Ali's theory of Justice revisited'. From the Shi’a Muslim perspective, good manners and obedience along with taqwa are the core ingredients to be successful in the hereafter. It may be helpful to explain what the term taqwa refers to. In general terms, taqwa can be used in a very broad definition and also in an absolute way: the first definition is “to beware of and avoid

65 17481784 Mohamad Younes 66 everything which is harmful for the eternal life of one’s soul, or, more importantly, to eschew associating partners to God, which is the cause of spending eternity in Hell” (4:48).

Maintaining a close distance between one's soul and God for an individual is at the height of the definition of taqwa. This can be seen through the Qur'an: “O you who have attained faith! Be conscious of God with all the consciousness that is due to Him” (3:102). The second specific meaning is absolutely “to guard oneself against any sin which may be cause for the abandonment of good deeds or which may lead one away from salvation” (53:32). The verse, “Those who avoid the major sins and indecent, shameful deeds, only falling into small fault,—surely your Lord is of extensive forgiveness” (Qur’an 53:32), highlights the meaning of taqwa, which is avoiding major sins.

Principal Ethical Teachings within Islam

The Muslim intention in life is to submit to the will of God. Every snapshot of each day is to be lived in a mentality of total surrender to God. In addition, Muslims endeavour to carry every one of their activities into accord with the will of Allah. This calls for a consistent mindfulness with respect to being in line with God's will in everyday life. It is this mindfulness and consciousness that we call taqwa, which carries Muslim reflections into continuous contact with the field of ethics. Good manners are by definition part of achieving taqwa, thus Muslims are then successful in the hereafter.

Obedience and Hereafter: Throughout the focus group sessions in all four sites, Shi’a Muslim participants were asked about the relationship between being ethical and the hereafter. The responses varied slightly; however, they mostly agreed upon the same conclusions. Throughout time, God had assigned individuals as agents on earth and some of these them were appointed as messengers and Prophets. Their main mission was to present codes of conduct as well as principles regulating their lives.

"Had the people of the towns believed (in Our revelations) and maintained piety, We would have certainly showered on them Our blessings from the

66 17481784 Mohamad Younes 67

sky and the earth. But they called Our revelations lies, thus Our torment struck them for their evil deeds." (Qur’an 7:96)

In order for one to achieve success and accomplish his/her goals in life, obedience to God by applying his codes of conduct is required: “One who obeys Allah and His Messenger will certainly achieve a great success.” (Qur’an 33:71)

According to the participants, "God made the good of this world as well as the world to be dependent on fear of Him." Fear in this case does not primarily refer to being frightened, rather to revere, respect and obey. “We will save the pious ones from the hell fire and leave the unjust people therein in crowded groups.” (Qur’an 19:72)

Source of ethics in addition to Qur'an & Sunnah

25%

Imams 42% Marja Emulation

'5th Madhab'

33%

The above graph details three major sources of ethics Shi’ite Muslim participants accepted in addition to the Qur’an and Sunnah. The highest sources in addition to the Qur’an and Sunnah are the Imams. This further strengthens the idea of Shi’a Islamic ethics being very Imamate based in terms of their ethical principles. Second to this was marja emulation, in which all participants submitted that they will seek marja assistance when it came to ethical issues they had no answer to such as abortion and euthanasia. The third source was the 5th Madhab which is sometimes considered the fifth school of thought for Shi’ite Muslims. Interestingly, according to Muzaffar, a marja is an “authority over Muslims and he performs the functions of the Imam as regards judgement and

67 17481784 Mohamad Younes 68 administration among the people." (Muzaffar 1982, p.13) Because of this, Imam Ja’far as Sadiq said, “To deny the authority of a mujtahid is to deny the authority of the Imam, and to deny tile authority of the Imam is to make an objection to the authority of Allah and this is tantamount to polytheism (shirk).” (Muzaffar 1982, p.5). Furthermore, despite the participants understandings, there was a lack of understanding in regards to the sources of the shari’ah, which according to Muzaffar (1982) are "the Qur’an, the Sunnah (of the Prophet and the Imams), consensus (ijma’) and reasoning (‘aql), as have been mentioned in the texts of usul al‐fiqh." (Muzaffar 1982, p.18) The participants mainly focused on Imams, marja and 5th madhab as sources of ethics.

Imams: Within the Shi'te perspective, 12 Imams were inherited exclusive authoritative positions through the power of Prophet Muhammad and most importantly divine appointment. Not only are they considered temporal successors of Muhammad but as also "inheritors of the prerogatives of closeness to Allah, and the interpreters of the Qur’an." (Dabashi 2011, p. 43).

As per the Shi'a viewpoint, there are three main capacities within the Imam regarding his appointment: to govern over the community, to clarify the religious sciences and law, and to be a profound guide for individuals to a comprehension of the inner significance of things (Ja'fari 2014). In light of these functions, he cannot in any way, shape or form be chosen by a public assembly. The Imam receives his authority from God alone, travelling as a spiritual guide. Along these lines, every Imam is delegated by the appointment of the prior Imam through inspired instruction. Moreover, Imams are to be focused on day to day issues and the spiritual world. "His capacities are human and cosmic" (Nasr 1978, p.278). "The 12 Imams are mediators for mankind" (Donaldson 1933, p.343).

The Prophet Muhammad according to Shi’a Muslim participants was always devoid of any errors and forgetfulness in satisfying his ethical duties. The Prophet was infallible in the sense of both delivering his message and committing sin. Muslims in general are not necessarily in agreement with the Shi’a Twelver position, as some Sunni Muslims believe at times the Prophet would commit minor mistakes due to his limited self. Sunni Muslims generally accept the Prophet being perfect in terms of his message from God, however he may at times slip and commit minor mistakes. Nonetheless, the Shi’a Muslim participants consistently expressed that "if a Prophet is not infallible,

68 17481784 Mohamad Younes 69 religious commandments and rules are not guaranteed and divine mercy is not accomplished". This particular viewpoint extends to then also suggest that since humans require and rely on divine knowledge, regulations, and teachings revealed to Prophets, an infallible leader must arise in the absence of the Prophet to undertake his responsibilities throughout history. When asked further on this idea of continuation, participants expressed that "religious sciences and teachings are not limited to the Prophet’s age; humans need this divine source of knowledge in all ages." This in summary was the Shi’a Muslims viewpoint of Imams, that the 23-year mission of the Prophet did not secure this continuous need of guidance.

How do Shi’a Muslims view Imams in terms of ethics?

The Shi’a Muslims describe the Imams as magnificent and complete human beings. The Imams undertook the moral and ethical duties of the Prophet through the form of succession. Shi’a Muslims follow and strive to emulate the teachings, Hadiths and ethical principles the Imams emphasised and lived. The characteristics and duties of the Imam according to all Shi’a participants are as follows:

• "He is informed of all sciences, teachings, commandments, and rules of the religion, not from revelation, but through the Prophet’s training."

• "He spreads Islamic teachings and commandments and opposes deviations."

• "He enforces political, social, judiciary, legal and economic tenets of Islam."

• "The Imam, similar to the Prophet, is totally free of making mistakes, forgetfulness, and purposeful wrongdoing. He is, indeed, infallible."

Marja: Unlike Sunni Muslims, the Shi’a Muslims practice what is known as emulation (taqlid). Within the practice of emulation, a Shi’a sheikh or marja, (person of a religious learning), is believed to mediate hierarchically between the hidden Imam and the ordinary Shi’a Muslim providing them with religious and social advice on all matters (Terhalle 2007). The Shi’a distinguish between sheikh and sayyid. A sayyid may or may not possess religious knowledge, is a descendant of the Prophet’s family and is recognised by the wearing of a black turban. For the Shi’a participants interviewed, following a cleric or religious scholar or marja is very important, as marjas for the participants provide advise potentially making decisions for Shi'a Muslims if they are uncertain of religious,

69 17481784 Mohamad Younes 70 social, and even political inquiries. Marjas are recognised and regarded ayatollahs, normally great ayatollahs, who are qualified and acknowledged by the society to settle on choices within the framework of Islamic tenets and customs. Marjas result in becoming a source of ethics for Shi’a Muslims, helping them through all sorts of ethical dilemmas and various rulings on certain situations and scenarios. For instance, imagine a Shi’a Muslim travelling on a lengthy overseas flight and is unsure of conducting his/her ablutions or prayers. Moreover, picture a political situation, dispute or event in his/her society such as plebiscite on same sex marriage, and he/she is uncertain on how to respond. Further, suppose a couple are unsure about abortion. Shi’a Muslims check the book of their marja, the risalah (religious prescription), and gather some answers which will assist them in their decision-making process. Every marja has his own religious prescription on Islamic jurisprudence. For things that cannot be found in those books, Shi’a Muslims may turn to the nearest representative of their marja, write an e-mail or, more recently, visit the marja website and raise any concerns or questions. A marja must address the concerns and necessities of his muqallid or the emulator will search for one who will. On the other hand, the muqallid needs the direction of the marja to legitimately satisfy his religious commitments and to see how religious law is appropriate to the constantly changing world. Because of this commonly supportive relationship, the marja and other ulama may try to decipher and change tradition in order to react to constituent demands. Such an understanding applies and is exceptionally dynamic in countries like Australia.

‘5th Madhab’: The 6th Imam of the 12 appointed Imams for Shi'a Muslims, known as Imam Ja'far ibn-Muhammad al-Sadeq, directed the Ja'fari school of thought. Imam Ja'far lived from 702-765 AD and for Shi'a Muslims he remains to be significantly influential. Despite the fact that his jurisprudence was established by the Prophet Muhammad, at one time in history, over 4000 Qur'anic commentators, scholars, students of philosophy and history attended his classes in Medina. Along these lines, Imam Ja'far transmitted the authentic lessons of the honourable Qur'an and teachings of the Prophet. Imam Ja'far crystallised these teachings into what is known as 'al-Fiqh al-Ja'fari', (the Ja'fari Jurisprudence). There were over 400 lessons gathered in usul (foundations) composed by his students, incorporating theology, philosophy, Hadith and more importantly ethics. While these are the primary sources of Hadith for the Shi'a, their writers still did not mark their books as sahih (credible). In spite of the fact that they did

70 17481784 Mohamad Younes 71 their best to assemble just authentic traditions, in the event that a specific tradition went against the Qur'an then it was not acknowledged as legitimate and legal. Hadith, as indicated by the Ja'fari perspective, are accepted with the condition that they are verified by the Qur'an, since the noble Qur'an is the primary infallible source of guidance.

Shi’a/Sunni Differences

There are substantial common denominators between Sunni and Shi’ite Islam. Both Muslims trust that piety, righteousness of Qur'anic standards, and striving for goodness everyday are the best ideals for people. Sunni and Shi'a Muslims both concede to the requirement for a solid ethical and moral guide to manage human conduct in every one of its manifestations. Having said that, there does exist differences in not only sources of ethics but also Islamic law. Both Sunni and Shi’a Muslims accept the below as crucial and primary sources:

• Qur’an • Hadith and Sunnah • Five Jurisprudential Schools of Thought

Shi’a Muslims go further to include 12 Imams as sources of ethics being perfect role models to follow and learn from having these infallible leaders as moral exemplary figures. In addition to Imams, Shi’a Muslims also follow a marja as a source of ethics regarding various ethical and situational questions they may face in their surroundings as mentioned previously. Having said this, Shi’a Muslims seem to be more Imamate based in their Islamic approach as opposed to the Sunni Muslims perspective, which does not have such an emphasis on Imams. Furthermore, the Shi'ism expression of the five principles of religion (usul al-fiqh) include: "tawhid or faith in divine unity; nubuwwah or prophecy; ma'ad or resurrection; imamah or the Imamate, belief in the Imams as successors of the Prophet; and 'adl or divine justice." (Tabatabai 1975, p 14). Sunni and Shi'a Islam both concur regarding the three essential principles of God unity, prophecy and resurrection. It is only in the principles of Imamate and divine justice they differ. On the topic of Imamate, the Shi'a view places an emphasis of exclusive capacity over the Imam which in turn separate the Shi'a from the Sunni perspective. On the topic of divine justice, an emphasis of God

71 17481784 Mohamad Younes 72 possessing an innate quality of 'divine nature' is specific to Shi'ism. However, one may say that the exoteric plan of Sunni religious philosophy, particularly in Ash'arism places a focus on the will of God. Justice, on the other hand is considered intrinsic to the divine nature from the Shi'a view (Ja'fari 2014). Acting unjustly is not possible for God as his tendency is to only be just, in so by acting unjust this would violate his own unique nature, which is beyond comprehension. Consequently, there is "a higher accentuation upon intelligence ('aql) in Shi'a philosophy and also upon will (iradah) in Sunni kalam, or theology, at least in the Ash'arite school." Reinhart 1980, p. 188) Shi'ism, focusing on the subject of walayat and demanding the exclusive prophetic message, found in Ali and the family of the Prophet in its Shi'ite view, the only pathway through which the initial message of Islam was transmitted, albeit interestingly enough, most of the descendants of the Prophet had a place with Sunnism and remain so today. Henceforth, a large portion of the Hadith writing in Shi'a and Sunni Islam is similar, but the chain of transmission in numerous cases is not similar. Likewise, the continuation of the Prophet's authority in Shi'ism is constituted by the Imams, in spite of his lawful capacity, the Imams sayings and actions supplement the prophetic Hadith and Sunnah. For Shi'ism, the Imams can be said to expand the identity of the Prophet Muhammad amid the succeeding centuries. Such accumulations of the sayings of the Imams found in 'Nahj albalaghah' of Ali and the 'Usul al-kafi', comprising proverbs from all the Imams, are from the Shi'ite perspective a continuation of the Hadith collections focusing on the Prophet himself (Ali 1985; Keizoghani and Nafchi 2016). Overall this chapter provided an interpretation of the findings acquired as well as demonstrate the importance of the findings relevant to the research. It is trusted that the limitations of the researcher were kept to a minimum as far as its impact on the 12 respondents' answers on Islamic ethics. Moreover, the interpretations found to have Shi’a Islam a more Imamate based approach to Islamic ethical discourse, focusing heavily on the concept of Imamate and wilaya. This is not something surprising as Dabashi (2011) states this to be an open and very clear Shi’a principle. In addition to this qualitative study, according to Daftary (2013), there seems to be very little attention paid to the topic as well as little to no research done in the Australian context, thus, highlighting the importance of such research to continue to take place striving to understand more insights with an in-depth perspective.

72 17481784 Mohamad Younes 73

10 CONCLUSION

This thesis set out to sociologically asses the understandings, perceptions and uses of Islamic ethics in Shi'a Muslim everyday living. Using qualitative data accumulation methods for semi-structured in-depth interviews and focus groups, this study aimed to 1) strengthen Islamic ethics as an independent discipline and 2) address the scant attention Shi’a Islam has received in general and in regards to ethical principles. The aim of this chapter was to present the results of the qualitative research of this study on ordinary Australian Shi’a Muslims regarding Islamic ethics. Summarising the main points:

• Islamic ethics for all participants played an important role in their daily lives. • Taqwa (God-consciousness) for Shi’a Muslims affects their ethical lives as being ethical is considered a form of worshipping God. • Shi’a Muslims believe the Qur’an is to be best understood through the Prophet’s family (Ahlul-Bayt). • Shi’a Muslims follow the 5th Madhab (Ja’fari school of thought) but also recognise the four Sunni schools. • Shi’a Muslims subscribe to a marja’ taqlid (high Islamic authority) for various ethical decisions in their lives.

As for the theoretical framework, Ibn-Miskawayh’s work on ethics in his tahdhib al- akhlaq (cultivation of ethics) sets out to show how individuals might acquire the right dispositions to perform morally correct actions in an organised and systematic manner. This theoretical framework according to the participants had no significant influencing effect, nor did any of the participants resonate deeply with the traditions, heritage of influential figures such as Ibn-Miskaway. There was some awareness amongst the participants, and the data clearly signified a high reliance and devotion toward the 12 Imams, however, not too much was cantered amongst figures like Ibn-Miskaway. This thesis identified the complexity of the field of Islamic ethics and points out the need for a comprehensive study in this discipline. Moreover, significant relationships were found between Shi’a Muslims sources of ethics being very much imamate based. Although Shi’a Muslims identified primary sources as Qur’an and Hadith, Imams were extremely

73 17481784 Mohamad Younes 74 vital in their approach to ethical and moral questions. Shi’a Muslims were not too familiar with the concept of Islamic ethics until it was later explained to them, however this was expected as Daftary (2013) points out the level of awareness and knowledge regarding Shi’ism is quite low. Furthermore, the results were expected based on the fact that literature of Islamic ethics is predominantly based on Sunni perspectives, with little attention being paid to Shi’ite or other minority understandings (Ansari 1989). Overall, not only does this thesis delve into the minds of ordinary Australian Shi’a Muslims perceptions and understandings regarding Islamic ethics, it demonstrates that Shi’a Muslims approach to Islamic ethics is very much focused on the Imamate and wilaya as integral components to Shi’ite understanding. Shi'ite Islam is in no way a monolithic understanding, rather it comes in different shapes and rationalities from within. The application of Islamic ethics from a Shi'a perspective is evident based on the data across four different sites, to be highly Imamate based. This is based on participants responses, comments and explanations given during in-depth interviews and focus groups in order to understand the level of awareness Shi'ite Muslims have in Australia. Moreover, Shi'ism and Sunnism, while opposing on certain critical parts of history, are joined in (1) the acknowledgment of the Qur'an as the Word of God and in the fundamental standards of the faith; (2) the way that Shi'ism constructs itself with respect to a specific dimension of Islam and on a part of the Prophet's nature as maintained in the line of the Imams and family of the Prophet to the prohibition of, lastly contrary to, another viewpoint which is held in Sunnism; (3) the way that the Shi'ite-Sunni contentions can be set aside and the position of each of these schools clarified just on the level of esotericism, which rises above their differences but joins them internally. One limitation, however, in this thesis is that it is a limited sample size reflection rather than a complete representation of the Shi’a Muslim community. However, having said that, this thesis has identified the research gaps in Islamic ethics literature and sets up the foundation for future cutting-edge research seeking to investigate and answer ground-breaking questions on the field of Islamic ethics.

74 17481784 Mohamad Younes 75

REFERENCES

Abdal-Haqq, I 2002, 'Islamic Law—An Overview of its Origin and Elements'. Journal of Islamic Law & Culture, vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 27.

Ahmad, K & Sadeq, A.H.M 2002, 'Islamic ethics in a changing environment for managers. Ethics in Business and Management: Islamic and Mainstream Approaches’, pp.97-109. Asean Academic Press, Subang Jaya.

Ahmad, K 2003, The Challenge of Global Capitalism: An Islamic Perspective. Making Globalization Good: The Moral Challenge of Global Capitalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ajijola, A 2006, Introduction to Islamic law. Adam Publishers & Distributors, New York.

Al Kulayni, M.I.Y., 2007. 'Kitab al-Kafi, Al-Serat': A Journal of Islamic Studies, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 56-78.

Al-Aidaros, A.H, Shamsudin, F.M & Idris, K.M 2013, 'Ethics and ethical theories from an Islamic perspective’. International Journal of Islamic Thought (IJIT), no. 4, pp.1-13, viewed 14 May 2017.

Al-Attar, M 2010, Islamic ethics: divine command theory in Arabo-Islamic thought. Routledge. New York.

Al-Attas, M.N 1980, 'The concept of education in Islam’. Journal of Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia, vol.1, no. 2, pp.1-8.

Alavi, H.R 2009, 'Ethical views of Ibn miskawayh and Aquinas'. Philosophical Papers and Review, vol. 1, no.1, pp.1.

Ali, I 1985, Nahjul Balagha (Peak of Eloquence). Sayings, letters and sermons of Imam Ali ibn abi Talib, compiled by 7th century AD scholar Allama Syed Muhammad Razi. Arabi, ibn. Futuhat makkiyah (The Meccan Revelation). CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, Qum: Ansariyan.

Ali, K 2015, 'Sexual ethics and Islam: Feminist reflections on Qur'an, hadith and jurisprudence', vol.44, no.8, pp.1-15, DOI10.1558. Oneworld Publications.

Al-Kaysi, M 2015, Morals and manners in Islam: A guide to Islamic Adab, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester, UK.

75 17481784 Mohamad Younes 76

Al-Sadr, M 2003, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence According to Shi'i Law, Islamic College for Advanced Studies Press. London

Al-Shafi’i, M 1961, Islamic Jurisprudence: Shafi’i’s Risala. Trans. M. Khadduri. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Al-Tusi, N.A.D 1964, The Nasirean Ethics., Trans. G. Wickens. London: Allen and Unwin.

Angeles, V.S, 1983, 'The Development of the Shi’a Concept of the Imamate'. Journal of Asian Studies,vol. 3, no. 21, pp.145-60.

Ansari, A.H 1989, Islamic Ethics. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, vol. 6, no. 1, pp.81.

Armstrong, M 1993, Ethics And Professionalism in Accounting Education: A Sample Course. Journal of Accounting Education, vol.6, no. 11, pp.77-92.

Australian Bureau of statistics 2016, Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia - Stories from the Census, http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0~2016~Main%20Fea tures~Religion%20Data%20Summary~25

Baalbaki, M 2001, Al-mawrid: A Modern English-Arabic Dictionary, Dar El-Ilm, Lil- Malayen, Beirut.

Baier, K. 1958, The Moral Point of View: A Rational Basis of Ethics. New York: Cornell University Press.

Baldick, J 2012, Mystical Islam: An Introduction to Sufism. London: I.B. Tauris.

Becker, L & Becker, C 2003, A History of Western Ethics, Routledge, New York.

Beekun, R. 1996, Islamic Business Ethics. Reno: University of Nevada Press.

Benedum, G.C 1956, A descriptive study of Iran: Shiite Islam (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia Bible College, Columbia, SC).

Brockopp, J.E & Eich, T 2008, Muslim Medical Ethics: From Theory to Practice. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.

76 17481784 Mohamad Younes 77

Brown, D 1999, 'Islamic Ethics in Comparative Perspective'. Journal of The Muslim World, vol. 4, no. 89, pp.181-192.

Burks, B 2006, 'The Impact of Ethics Education and Religiosity on the Cognitive Moral Development of Senior Accounting and Business Students in Higher Education'. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Nova Southeastern University, USA.

Carney, F.S 1983, 'Some Aspects of Islamic Ethics'. The Journal of Religion, vol. 1, no. 63, pp.159-174.

Coulson, N.J 2011, A History of Islamic Law. Aldine Transaction, Routledge, New York.

Crouch, M & McKenzie, H 2006, 'The Logic of Small Samples in Interview-based Qualitative Research'. Social Science Information, vol. 45, no. 4, pp.483-499.

Dabashi, H 2011, Shi’ism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Daftary, F 2013, A History of Shi’i Islam. London: I.B. Tauris.

De George, R 1986, 'Business Ethics'. Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 5, no. 6, pp.421-432.

Delaney, J 2005, The Impact of Ethics Education on the Moral Reasoning Ability of Accounting Students. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Ambrose University, USA.

DenBoer, J.T 2013, History of Philosophy in Islam. London: Routledge.

Denny, F 2015, Introduction to Islam. London: Routledge.

Donaldson, M 1933, The Shi’ite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Iraq. London: Luzac &Company.

Duska, R & Duska, B 2003, Accounting Ethics. 1st ed. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.

Elegido, J.M 2000, Fundamental of Business Ethics: A Developing Countries Perspective. Lagos: Spectrum Books Ltd.

Fakhry, M 1994, Ethical theories in Islam, E.J. Brill, Leiden.

Fakhry, M 2004, A History of Islamic Philosophy. New York: Columbia University Press.

George, K.M 2011, Picturing Islam: Art and Ethics in a Muslim Lifeworld. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

77 17481784 Mohamad Younes 78

Hafez, K 2002, 'Journalism Ethics Revisited: A Comparison of Ethics Codes in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and Muslim Asia'. Political Communication, vol. 1, no. 19, pp. 225-250.

Harvey, L.P 2014, Islamic Spain, 1250 to 1500. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Hasan, S.M 2010, Ethical Theories in Islam. Springfield: MD Publications.

Hashi, A.A 2011, 'Islamic Ethics: An Outline of its Principles and Scope'. Revelation and Science, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 1-21.

Hashmi, S.H 2009, Islamic Political Ethics: Civil Society, Pluralism, and Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Hassan, R 2015, Australian Muslims: A Demographic, Social and Economic Profile of Muslims in Australia. Adelaide: University of South Australia.

Hourani, G, 1985, Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hourani, G.F 1971, Islamic Rationalism: The Ethics of ‛Abd al-Jabbār. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Houvannisian. R 1985, Ethics in Islam. Malibu, Calif: Undena Publications

Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC), 2004, Isma–Listen: National consultations on eliminating prejudice against Arab and Muslim Australians.

Ibn Rushd 1974, Averroes on Plato’s ‘Republic’. Trans. Ralph Lerner. Ithaca:Cornell University Press.

Ibn Sina, 1984, Isharat wa al Tanbihat (Remarks and Admonitions). Trans. S. C. Inati. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies.

Injorn, M.C & Tremayne, S 2012, Islam and Assisted Reproductive Technologies: Sunni and Shi’a Perspectives (Vol. 23). Oxford: Berghahn Books.

Ismaeel, S 1983, The Difference Between the Shi’ite and the Majority of Muslim Scholars. Carbondale, IL: A Muslim Group.

Izzi Dien, M 1992, 'Islamic Ethics and the Environment'. Islam and Ecology, vol. 3, no. 2 pp.25-35.

78 17481784 Mohamad Younes 79

Ja’fari, S.H.M 2014, The Origins and Early Development of Shia Islam. Morrisville, North Carolina: Lulu Press, Inc.

Kaliffa, A.S 2003, The Multidimensional Nature and Purpose of Business in Islam. The Islamic Perspective Journal, vol. 7, no. 1, pp.1-25.

Keizoghani, S.M & Nafchi, A.M 2016, 'The Greatness of Nahj Al-Balagha and the Words of Imam Ali from the Perspective of Modern Christian Figures'. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences, vol. 69, pp.5-14. doi.org/10.18052

Kelsay, J.E 1985, Religion and Morality in Islam: A Proposal Concerning Ethics in the Formative Period. Doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia.

Kerbja, R 2008, "Call to probe mystery Shia cleric". The Australian. 14 June 2017.

Khadduri, M 1984, The Islamic Conception of Justice. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Khateeb, M 1986, Broad Aspects of Shi’ite Religion. Riyadh: National Offset Printing Press.

Khomeini, R 1979, Islamic Government. New York: Manor Books.

Lapidus, I.M 2002, A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lapidus, L 1984, Knowledge, Virtue and Action: The Classical Muslim Conception of Adab and the Nature of Religious Fulfilment in Islam. In B. Metcalf, ed., Moral Conduct and Authority.Berkeley: University of California Press.

Leaman, O 2006, The Qur’an: An Encyclopaedia. London & New York: Routledge.

Lipka, M 2016, Muslims and Islam: Key findings in the U.S. and around the world. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 5 June 2017, from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact- tank/2016/07/22/muslims-and-islam-key-findings-in-the-u-s-and-around-the-world/

Loeb, S.E 1971, 'A Survey of Ethical Behaviour in the Accounting Profession'. Journal of Accounting Research, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 287-306.

Madelung, W 1985, 'Nasir al-Din Tusi’s Ethics Between Philosophy, Shi ‘ism and Sufism,’. Ethics in Islam, pp.85-101.

Makdisi, G 1985, 'Ethics in Islamic traditionalist doctrine'. Ethics in Islam, pp.47-63.

79 17481784 Mohamad Younes 80

McCary, M 2000, 'Bridging Ethical Borders: International Legal Ethics with an Islamic Perspective'.Texas International Law Journal, vol. 4, no. 35, pp. 289.

Miskawayh, I. 1968, Tahdhib al-akhlaq (The Refinement of Character). Beirut: Mansyuwwarat Dar Maktabah al-Hayah.

Mohammed, A 2011, 'The Role of Yemeni Accountants in Fighting Corruption'. The Legal Accountant, vol. 2, no.15, pp.30-37.

Moradi, H 2015, 'The Ethics of the Perfect Man: Maurice Blanchot and Ibn ͑Arabi'. Journal of Shi’a Islamic Studies, vol. 8, no. 1, pp.61-80.

Mottahedeh, R 1985, The Mantle of the Prophet. New York: Pantheon Books.

Nanji, A 1991, 'Islamic Ethics', Journal of Medicine and Philosophy. Vol. 3, no. 1, pp.106- 18.

Nardin, T 1996, The Ethics of War and Peace: Religious and Secular Perspectives. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Nasr, S.H 1972, Ideals and Realities of Islam. Cambridge, Mass: Beacon Press.

Nasr, S.H 1969, 'Ithna ‘Ashari Shi’ism and Iranian Islam'. Religion in the Middle East, vol. 2, no.12, pp.96-118.

Nasr, S.V.R 2006, The Shi’a Revival: How Conflicts Within Islam will Shape the Future. New York & London: W.W. Norton.

Paya, A & Tehrani, H 2013, 'Imam Ali’s Theory of Justice Revisited'. Journal of Shi’a Islamic Studies, vol. 3, no. 6, pp.5-30.

Peters, R.S 2015, Ethics and Education. London: Routledge Revivals.

Pinault, D 1993, The Shiites. London: Macmillan.

Quasem, M.A 1981, 'Psychology in Islamic Ethics'. The Muslim World, vol. 3, no. 71, pp.213-227.

Yusuf, A. 2007, An English Interpretation of the Holy Qur'an, Lushena Books.

Rahman, F 1975, The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra Shirazi. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

80 17481784 Mohamad Younes 81

Rahman. F 1980, Major Themes in the Qur’an. Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica.

Ramadan, T 2009, Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and Liberation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ramadan, T 2013, 'The Challenges and Future of Applied Islamic Ethics Discourse': A Radical Reform, Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, no. 34, pp.105-115.

Reinhart, A.K 1983, Islamic Law as Islamic Ethics. The Journal of Religious Ethics,vol. 1, no. 3, pp.186-203.

Rice, G 1999, 'Islamic Ethics and the Implications for Business'. Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 345-358.

Robinson, N 2013, Islam: A Concise Introduction. London: Routledge.

Rogers, T 1999, 'The Islamic ethics of abortion in the traditional Islamic sources'. The Muslim World, vol. 2, no. 89, pp. 122-129.

Russell, B 2009, Human Society in Ethics and Politics. London: Routledge.

Sajoo, A.B 2008, Muslim Ethics: Emerging Vistas. New York: IB Tauris.

Saniotis, A 2012, 'Muslims and Ecology: Fostering Islamic Environmental Ethics'. Contemporary Islam, vol. 6, no. 2, pp.155-171.

Schimmel, A 1976, Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

Schimmel, A 1992, Islam: An Introduction. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Siddiqui, A 1997, 'Ethics in Islam: Key Concepts and Contemporary Challenges'. Journal of Moral Education, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 423-431.

Siddiqui, M 2012, The Good Muslim: Reflections on Classical Islamic Law and Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Snow, N.E 2015, Cultivating Virtue: Perspectives from Philosophy, Theology, and Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

TabãtabãI, A.S.M 1975, Shi’ite Islam. Trans S.H. Nasr.

Terhalle, M 2007, Are the Shi’a Rising? Middle East Policy, vol.1, no. 14, pp.69-83.

81 17481784 Mohamad Younes 82

Turner, B.S & Nasir, K.M 2013, The Sociology of Islam. Routledge, London.

Walzer. R 1985, Al-Farabi on the Perfect State. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.

Zaroug, A.H 1999, 'Ethics from an Islamic Perspective': Basic Issues. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, vol. 3 no.16, pp.45. Zurayk, Q 1968, Miskawayh’s Refinement of Character. Beirut: American University of Beirut.

82 17481784 Mohamad Younes 83

Appendix A Details of the interviews

NAME* AGE LEVEL OF INTERVIEW INTERVIEW DEVOTION DATE VENUE

Abdul Hayeq 22 High 29.3.2017 Al-Mahdi Masjid Campbelltown

Abdulla Hanif 19 Low 14.4.2017 Imam Hassan Centre Annangrove

Fatima Khalfan 24 High 28.2.2017 Masjid Arrahman Kingsgrove

Ibrahim Salim 25 High 14.4.2017 Imam Hassan Centre Annangrove

Leila Ali 19 Medium 17.3.2017 Al-Zahra College Arncliffe

Meissa Iqbal 31 High 29.3.2017 Al-Mahdi Masjid Campbelltown

Muhamad Beydon 21 Low 28.2.2017 Masjid Arrahman Kingsgrove

Rana Elsayed 20 Medium 14.4.2017 Imam Hassan Centre Annangrove

Sarah Mohamad 28 Medium 29.3.2017 Al-Mahdi Masjid Campbelltown

Tallal Isa 25 High 17.3.2017 Al-Zahra College Arncliffe

Tariq Musa 37 High 17.3.2017 Al-Zahra College Arncliffe

83 17481784 Mohamad Younes 84

Zeinab Mohamad 41 High 28.2.2017 Masjid Arrahman Kingsgrove

* In the interest of confidentiality the names are fictitious * The level of devotion is self identified by the participants

Details of Focus Group

# Members in group Dates Group Location

3 28.2.2017 Masjid Arrahman Kingsgrove

3 17.3.2017 Al-Zahra College Arncliffe

3 29.3.2017 Al-Mahdi Masjid Campbelltown

3 14.4.2017 Imam Hassan Centre Annangrove

Human Research Ethics Committee Office of Research Services Participation Consent Form

This is a project specific consent form. It restricts the use of the data collected to the named project by the named investigators.

Project Title: Islamic Ethics in Everyday Living: An Australian Shi’ite Muslim Perspective. I,______, consent to participate in the research project. I Acknowledge that: I have read the study information sheet and have been given the opportunity to discuss the information within it and my involvement in the research with the researcher Mohamad Younes.

84 17481784 Mohamad Younes 85

I consent to participating in a face-to-face interview that will be digitally recorded. I have been told of the possible risks and benefits of the study, procedures required for the project and any questions I have asked about the project have been answered to my satisfaction. I understand I do not have to take part in the interview and my refusal to participate will not involve any penalty. I may withdraw from the research at any time without it affecting my employment now or in the future. I understand a second interview will take place to verify the data before any publication of the research is disseminated. I understand that my involvement is confidential and that the information gained during the study may be published but all information about me will be de-identified.

Signature ______Print Name______Date______

Human Research Ethics Committee Office of Research Services Participation Consent Form

This is a project specific consent form. It restricts the use of the data collected to the named project by the named investigators.

Project Title: Islamic Ethics in Everyday Living: An Australian Shi’ite Muslim Perspective.

I,______, consent to participate in the research project. I Acknowledge that:

85 17481784 Mohamad Younes 86

I have read the study information sheet and have been given the opportunity to discuss the information within it and my involvement in the research with the researcher Mohamad Younes. I consent to participating in a focus group that will be digitally recorded. I have been told of the possible risks and benefits of the study, procedures required for the project and any questions I have asked about the project have been answered to my satisfaction. I understand I do not have to take part in the focus group and my refusal to participate will not involve any penalty. I may withdraw from the research at any time without it affecting my employment now or in the future. I understand that my involvement is confidential and that the information gained during the study may be published but all information about me will be de-identified.

Signature ______Print Name______Date______

Study Information Sheet

Study Title: Islamic Ethics in Everyday Living: Australian Shi’ite Muslim Perspective. What is the study about? This study attempts to understand ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims knowledge and applications of Islamic ethics in everyday living. This project will initially assess the ethical traditions within Islam, with particular focus on Shi’ite Muslim understandings. It will examine participants beliefs and attitudes towards Islamic ethics, the sources chosen to apply them, and identify what influences or prevents them from applying such principles and ethical traditions if any. Who is carrying out the study? This study is being conducted by:

86 17481784 Mohamad Younes 87

Mohamad Younes is a student enrolled in the Masters of Research at Western Sydney University- under the Supervision of Dr Jan Ali from the School of Humanities and Communication Arts. Where will interviews and focus groups be conducted? This study will conduct interviews and focus groups at four different Australian sites within Sydney. The first site is a Mosque (Masjid Arrahman) located at 20 Garema Circuit. Kingsgrove, NSW 2208. The second is a college (Al-Zahra College) located at 3-5 Wollongong Rd. Arncliffe NSW 2205. The third is an institution (Imam Hassan Centre) located at 165 Annangrove Rd, Annangrove NSW 2156. The final site is also an institution (Al-Mahdi Masjid ) located at Watsford Rd, Campbelltown NSW 2560. How is the study being paid for? This study will not be funded. What does the study involve? This study involves participating in an interview that will be conducted in venues mutually acceptable by you and the researcher to protect your confidentiality. You will be asked to describe your understanding, perceptions and thoughts about Islamic ethics with particular reference to Shi’ism. You will also be asked to discuss what other factors possibly impact you in making Islamic ethical decisions in your everyday living. With your permission, the interview will be digitally recorded and typed up. The study will also involve a focus group in which you may want to participate in. The focus group is an exploratory research method used to help researchers gather in-depth, qualitative information of their participants’ attitudes and perceptions on Islamic ethics. Focus groups will be selected in order to gain multiple perspectives and perceptions from respondents about their understanding or application of Islamic ethics in a group setting. How much of my time will you need to give? The interview will take approximately 30 minutes and another seven minutes will be allocated to confirm the transcripts to ensure the essence of what has been communicated by you is captured. The focus group will take approximately one hour. Can I withdraw from the study? Participation in this is voluntary. It is within your rights to withdraw at any given time during the research without any consequences. Participants wishing to undertake the focus group session must be advised that the recording cannot be erased if they wish to withdraw. What specific benefits will you receive for participating? Although participation in this study may not benefit you directly, the information you provide may influence educational opportunities in the field of Islamic ethics. The information provided will also be made

87 17481784 Mohamad Younes 88 available in the public domain for Shi’ite Muslims to develop their understanding of Islamic ethics. This study will be made available on the Western Sydney University’s website open to view. Will anyone be informed of the results? All aspects of the study will be confidential and only the researchers will have access to data. This thesis may then be submitted for publication. Can I view this thesis? If you wish to receive information about the findings of the research study, you will be given the opportunity to leave your contact details with the researcher. The thesis will be provided. Can I tell other people about the study? You are free to discuss with people about this particular study but not your actual participation undertaken in the study. You may provide eligible participants the contact details of the researcher. What if I require further information? When you have read this information, Mohamad Younes will discuss the study with you further. Please contact Mohamad Younes by email [email protected] if you wish to speak with the researcher before deciding whether or not to participate. What if I have a complaint? This study has been approved by Western Sydney University’s Human Research Ethics Committee. If you have any complaints or reservations about the ethical conduct of this research, you may contact the Ethics Committee through the Office of Research Services on Tel +61 2 4736 0229 Fax +61 2 4736 0013 or email [email protected]. Any issues you raise will be treated in confidence and investigated fully, and you will be informed of the outcome. If you agree to participate in this study, you may be asked to sign the Participant Consent Form.

Participant Name: Date of Interview:

Interview Start & End Times: Notes taken by:

Interview Questions

Semi-structured in-depth questions

1. How old are you? 2. What is your level of education?

88 17481784 Mohamad Younes 89

3. What does the word ethics mean to you? 4. Describe what you think Islamic ethics is about. 5. What do you think the sources of Islamic ethics are? 6. Do Islamic ethics play an important role in your daily life? 7. Are you influenced or guided by any ethical tradition(s)? 8. Do Islamic ethics impact you in Australia?

Focus Group

Focus group discussion points

How do you feel about Islamic ethics? What are some ways you think Islamic ethics can be revised? Do you think Islamic ethics are situational or always apply? What else can you say about the sources of Islamic ethics? Can you give me an example of how Islamic ethics changes your everyday living? What are the needs for Islamic ethics in Australia? How devoted are you to Islamic ethics on a scale from 1-5? How important do you think it is to be living in accordance to traditional Islamic ethics?

Semi-structured in-depth Questions

1. How old are you? 2. What is your level of education? 3. What does the word ethics mean to you? 4. Describe what you think Islamic ethics is about. 5. What do you think the sources of Islamic ethics are? 6. Do Islamic ethics play an important role in your daily life? 7. Are you influenced or guided by any ethical tradition(s)? 8. Do Islamic ethics impact you in Australia?

89 17481784 Mohamad Younes 90

17/01/2017

REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH

To whom it may concern My name is Mohamad Younes, and I am a humanities and communication arts student at the Western Sydney University. The research I wish to conduct for my Masters dissertation involves interviewing and conducting focus groups with ordinary Australian Shi’ite Muslims. The title of this project is: Islamic Ethics in Everyday Living: An Australian Shi’ite Muslim Perspective. This project will be conducted under the supervision of Dr. Jan Ali, a sociologist of religion from Western Sydney University. I am hereby seeking your consent to interview random participants from this Mosque for interviews and a focus group. With your permission I could introduce my research topic in front of the Friday prayer congregations or lecture audience. The audience will be advised about the research and will be free to introduce themselves to me to be involved. I have provided you with a copy of my thesis proposal which includes copies of the measure and consent forms to be used in the research process, as well as a copy of the approval letter which I received from the Human Research Ethics Committee. If you require any further information, please do not hesitate to contact me on 0405013202 or [email protected] Thank you for your time and consideration in this matter.

Yours sincerely, Mohamad Younes Western Sydney University CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT

I, ______, agree with the following statements: I have read and understood the below Privacy Policy. I understand that I may come in contact with confidential information during my time at this focus group session for the research project : Islamic Ethics in Everyday Living: An Australian Shi’ite Muslim Perspective – part of Mohamad Younes’ Master of Research project at Western Sydney University. As part of the condition of my work with the researcher Mohamad Younes, I hereby undertake to keep in strict confidence any information regarding any participant or any other organi sation that comes to my attention while undertaking this focus group session. I will do this in accordance with the above privacy policy.

______

90 17481784 Mohamad Younes 91

(Participant Name)

______(Signature of participant

______(Signature of researcher)

Dated this ______day of ______, 20___

91 17481784 Mohamad Younes