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Norms for Constructing Language in Humans and Animals

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Norms for Constructing Language in Humans and Animals NORMS FOR CONSTRUCTING LANGUAGE IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS Fachbereich Erziehungswissenschaft und Psychologie Arbeitsbereich Vergleichende Entwicklungspsychologie der Freien Universität Berlin kumulative Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) von MSc Ullrich, Robert Berlin im April 2018 i Tag der Disputation: 12.07.2018 1. Gutachterin: Prof. Dr. Katja Liebal 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Markus Wild ii Danksagung Dank all jenen, die mich die letzten dreieinhalb Jahre unterstützt, beraten und bei Laune gehalten haben. Allen voran Prof. Dr. Katja Liebal, die die Dissertation primär betreute, nahezu alle Abstracts und Manuskripte als Erste las, kommentierte und positiv vorantrieb; die finanzielle Ressourcen bereitstellte, Konferenzreisen ermöglichte und mich auch in Momenten, an denen ich dem Aufgeben sehr nah war, weiter vorantrieb. Dank an meinen Zweitbetreuer Prof. Dr. Markus Wild für die Ermöglichung eines Forschungsaufenthaltes in Basel am Fachbereich Philosophie in den ersten Monaten und für die finanzielle Unterstützung in schwierigen Zeiten. Ohne sein Feedback wäre das erste Drittel der Dissertation nicht zustande gekommen. Dank auch an Prof. Dr. Norbert Müller für die Lektion, dass meine Gutgläubigkeit manchmal zu weit geht. Darüber hinaus großen Dank an Dr. Kathrin S. Kopp, Philipp Norton und Dr. Moritz Mittelbach für kontinuierliches, kritisches Feedback, bzw. für das unerbittliche Produzieren von Programmiercode in R. Dank an Prof. Constance Scharff. Dank an Freunde. Danke Familie. i Publication Notes At the time of submitting the current dissertation, three studies were accepted for publication in peer- reviewed media. One study was submitted for publication, though not finally accepted. Publication 1 Ullrich, R. (2016). From ‘speech’ to ‘gesture’: The ‘oral’ as norm in ‘language’ research. In G. Hartung & M. Herrgen (Eds.), Interdisziplinäre Anthropologie (pp. 179–208). Wiesbaden: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-14264-3_15 Publication 2 Ullrich, R., Mittelbach, M., & Liebal, K. (2018). Scala Naturae: The Impact of Historical Values on Current “Evolution of Language” Discourse. Journal of Language Evolution, 3(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/jole/lzx017 Publication 3 Ullrich, R., & Liebal, K. (in print). Times change, values change: Criteria for attributing language in species comparative research [expected summer 2018]. In E. Luef & M. M. Marin (Eds.), The talking species: Perspectives on the evolutionary, neuronal, and cultural foundations of language. Graz: Unipress Graz-Verlag. Publication 4 Ullrich, R., Mittelbach, M., & Liebal, K. (submitted). Introducing intention: How an idea has spread within species-comparative science. Animal Cognition ii Table of Contents Danksagung.............................................................................................................................................. i Publication Notes .................................................................................................................................... ii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................ iv List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................... iv General abstract .................................................................................................................................... 1 General introduction ............................................................................................................................ 2 1. On the author ............................................................................................................................... 2 1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Motivation ........................................................................................................................... 3 2. The dissertation title .................................................................................................................... 3 2.1 Why species comparison? ................................................................................................... 3 2.2 Why language evolution? .................................................................................................... 4 2.3 Why norms and values? ...................................................................................................... 7 3. The advent of Meta-Research ................................................................................................... 10 3.1 Fading trust in science ....................................................................................................... 10 3.2 Questionable research practices ........................................................................................ 12 3.3 Self-correcting science ...................................................................................................... 14 3.4 Why mixed-methods? ....................................................................................................... 15 Summary of the main results ............................................................................................................. 17 Publications ......................................................................................................................................... 20 Publication 1: From ‘speech’ to ‘gesture’ ......................................................................................... 20 Publication 2: Scala Naturae ............................................................................................................. 41 Publication 3: Times change, values change .................................................................................... 64 Publication 4: Introducing intention ................................................................................................. 80 General Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 121 References ........................................................................................................................................... 127 Allgemeine Kurzfassung der Ergebnisse ............................................................................................ 135 Erklärung über die eigenständige Verfassung der vorgelegten Dissertation ...................................... 136 iii List of Figures Figure 1 Cartoon illustrating the influence of values on scientific practice 9 Publication 2 Figure 1 Comparison of the range of studied species 50 Figure 2 List of the 80 most common adjectives 51 Figure 3 Occurrence of words classified as ‘high’ and ‘low’ 53 Figure 4 Occurrence of words by article type 54 Figure 5 Comparison of context from the lemma ‘unique*’ 55 Figure S1 Comparison of the focus on modality 62 Publication 4 Figure 1 Citation map 90 Figure 2 Appearance of the term intention according to schools of thought. 91 Figure 3 Line graph depicting positions on orders of intentionality 93 Figure 4 Citation map focussing on non-human primates 95 Figure 5 The decision diagram 105 Figure 6 Annotating 90 of the most cited articles in the citation map 113 List of Tables Table 1 Short list collecting few examples of traits once supposed to be human unique 5 Table 2 Collection of quotes mentioning the uniqueness of human language 6 Table 3 List summarising prominent questionable research practices (QRPs) 12 Publication 2 Table 1 Composition of corpus ‘language’ and ‘communication’ by journal 46 Publication 4 Table 1 List of the schools of thought 84 Table 2 List of the 20 most cited articles within the corpus 111 Table 3 Top 10 cited articles that are not part of the corpus 112 iv General abstract When investigating the evolution of language, scientists often approach one prominent question: What makes humans human? While researchers might share a common question that motivates them to investigate the origin of language, they do not share a common definition of that original term. The current dissertation hypothesises that definitions of language are ever-changing, temporary constructions which are implicitly informed by historical and social values. By utilising a mixed- methods approach, which combines socio-historical research with quantitative strategies, three examples are investigated: (i) Language defined as speech (oral norm); (ii) Language defined as highest evolutionary achievement (Scala Naturae); (iii) Language defined from its external structure (Behaviourism). The dissertation reveals and illustrates that each of the historical constructions has its problems. Regarding (i), a historical argument from analogy to the deaf discourse reveals prejudices towards nonverbal forms of communication. Addressing (ii), a quantitative text analysis on 915 articles from a time span of 10 years testifies the use of value-laden adjectives in some publications. Analysing (iii), a citation network on 653 articles, published over the time of 69 years, illustrates how the term intention enters a discourse that originates from a behaviouristic era and turned into a cognitive one. The quantitative evidence revealed by the dissertation demonstrates: Science is not, never was and likely never
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