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End-of-Life Batteries by Ning Ai and Katheryn Borucki

2017 EV Battery System (Weight: 435 lbs, Energy: 60 kWh) Source: chevrolet.com. Printed with permission.

2018 Chevrolet 2011 NiMH Battery (Weight: 403 lbs, Energy: 18.4 kWh) Pack (Weight: 480 lbs, Energy: 24 kWh) Source: chevrolet.com. Printed with permission. Source: nissanusa.com. Printed with permission. End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries U.S. Projections and Management Strategies

A look at projected volume, current regulations, and recent strategies to advance end-of-life electric vehicle battery reuse and recycling.

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Through 2016, 4.8 million electric vehicles (EVs) had been Battery lifespan varies by battery type, battery capacity, sold in the United States. Annual sales are projected to increase degradation effects, technology innovation, and individual substantially and reach 2.3 million by 2040. 1 The transition to driving and charging behaviors (e.g., frequency, environment, increased EV fleets marks a promising shift toward reducing and rate). Existing studies about batteries sold by 2010 often U.S. oil dependence and greenhouse gas emissions. Mean - refer to their lifespan ranging from 3 to 8 years. New tech - while, retired EVs create many challenges to be revealed and nology has prolonged the lifespan to reach up to 15 years. managed, in particular concerning the batteries, given their This explains why existing studies have led to widely ranging short lifespan, significant volume and mass, difficulty of estimates of current EOL EVBs, even when using the same disassembly, and risky-to-handle content. basis of historical EV sales.

Currently, there are two main types of EV batteries (EVBs): Projections for total EV sales are based on two primary nickel metal hydride (NiMH) used in hybrid EVs (HEVs) and approaches. The first is based on a market approach and lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) used in plug-in EVs (PEVs). analyzes growing trends from historic sales volumes. The Historically, the majority of EVs on the market have been other utilizes a market share approach that looks at market HEVs, but PEV sales have risen dramatically from 18,000 in penetration. A strong correlation has been shown between 2011 to 158,600 in 2016. 1 Emerging recycling programs historic EV sales and gas prices (see Figure 2), although it is are challenged by limited practices of batteries’ second use at anticipated the EV sales will decouple from gas prices given present, the transition to less expensive materials being used decreases in EV sale prices. Many other factors may weigh in, in PEV battery manufacturing, and large variations in volume including demographic trends, consumer usage patterns, and estimates of end-of-life EVBs (EOL EVBs), as discussed in this policies regarding renewable energy and carbon emissions, article. Proper management of EOL EVBs necessitates strategic as well as technological development. actions and early planning for supporting infrastructure and programs. U.S. Regulations While most states have banned used EVBs from landfill End-of-Life EV Batteries disposal, there is currently no federal regulation mandating At present, it is estimated that between 200,000 and 500,000 battery recycling. LIB wastes are included under the U.S. EVBs are retired each year in the United States. Annual EOL Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Universal Waste EVBs may be close to 1 million units in 2025 and reach Rule, and are generally considered nonhazardous to the 2 million units by 2040. 2 The wide ranging estimates found environment due to the absence of toxic elements, such as in existing studies (shown in Figure 1) results from considerabl e lead, mercury, or cadmium. However, landfilling LIBs still uncertainties in both battery lifespan and EV sales, as poses environmental risks due to the leakage of organic discussed below. 2-5 electrolytes, the presence of metals (e.g., copper, nickel, and

Figure 1. Annual EOL EV battery volume (2000–2040). Chart by authors, modified from Ai and Zheng (2016).

em • The Magazine for Environmental Managers • A&WMA • April 2018 End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries by Ning Ai and Katheryn Borucki

Battery lifespan varies by battery type, capacity, degradation effects, technology innovation, and individual driving and charging behaviors. This explains why existing studies have led to widely ranging estimates of current EOL EVBs, even when using the same basis of historical EV sales.

lithium), and the large quantity of carbonaceous materials can help overcome economic constraints and promote (e.g., graphite and carbon black). economies of scale by mandating landfill bans and providing incentives for recycling, as the case with lead-acid car batteries, NiMH batteries are generally considered dry-cell batteries which have achieved a 99-percent recycling rate in the and therefore nonhazardous under federal and state laws United States. if sealed properly and not leaking. If found to be leaking, however, NiMH batteries are regulated as hazardous waste Main Strategies under federal and state regulations. Only three states The EV battery pack is made of numerous cells that are (California, New York, and Minnesota) have incorporated configured in cases. When some cells are degraded, the LIBs and NiMH batteries into waste management regulations. battery can no longer hold a sufficient charge for long-range While the complexity of the recycling process varies based trips. Remanufacturing is the process of identifying and on the diversity of the materials in EVBs, policy intervention replacing degraded battery cells. One study shows that

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em • The Magazine for Environmental Managers • A&WMA • April 2018 End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries by Ning Ai and Katheryn Borucki

Figure 2. EV sales and motor gasoline prices trend (2000–2040). Chart by authors, modified from Ai and Zheng (2016). remanufacturing a battery costs 55 percent less than producing due to newer technologies and using lower cost materials a new one, 5 but large remanufacturing facilities are still lacking. could lower initial battery costs, but negatively impact In addition, the market demand for remanufactured batteries recycling and second-use battery markets. may be affected by the consumer concern about buying a “pre-owned” battery, even though it functions perfectly. Existing Programs EV manufacturers have been partnering with other sectors At the end of their useful automotive life, LIBs may still retain and continuing to drive new innovative solutions. For example, up to 80 percent of their capacity and allow for opportunities Tesla has been refining their battery recycling program for to be repurposed for alternative uses, including energy more than 10 years and is committed to using a closed-loop storage for electricity transmission support, light commercial system, which currently recycles nearly 60 percent of battery and residential electric-load following, and renewable electric packs. Their new facility, the Gigafactory at the Tahoe Reno generating sources, such as solar and . 6 Repurposing Industrial Center in Nevada, will significantly increase the EVBs extends their lifespan while generating other environ - global volume of LIBs and use economies of scale to lower mental benefits, such as increasing grid reliability and promoting manufacturing costs of both Tesla cars and EVBs. renewable energy sources delivered to the power system. Second use of batteries from retired EVs in California, for Meanwhile, Nissan has partnered with Green Charge, a com - example, is estimated to offer the potential to deliver mercial provider, to promote LIBs second use 5 percent of the electricity demand of the state by 2050. 7 for stationary commercial energy storage, for both national and international markets. Disassembly of EOL EVBs is a major factor contributing to their sustainability, though the waste management hierarchy In addition to EV manufacturers, other companies are suggests it should be considered only after exploring reuse becoming proactive in the EVB recycling market. Retriev options. The most important component of LIBs—lithium—is Technologies, based in Anaheim, CA, has two recycling already in high demand, since it is also used in rechargeable facilities in North America (Ohio and British Columbia) that batteries for laptops, mobile phones, and digital cameras. not only recycle EVBs, but help other EVB manufacturers However, the cost to mine new lithium is much lower than to implement their own recycling programs. Shorai, based out extract lithium from EOL EVBs, so most of the value in recycling of Morgan Hill, CA, takes in retired lithium starter batteries EV batteries comes from other metals present, such as nickel, from all over the world at no charge and has recycled over cobalt, and iron. Consequently, changes in battery components five tons of batteries.

em • The Magazine for Environmental Managers • A&WMA • April 2018 End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Batteries by Ning Ai and Katheryn Borucki

Summary Within the next decade, the United States will face the challenge underdeveloped. Potential environmental benefits from of managing approximately 1 million units of retired EVBs increasing adoption of EVs can be compromised if the EOL each year, and the volume is anticipated to grow continually. EVBs are not managed properly. Strategic and comprehensive Multiple EOL EVB management strategies, including reman - planning processes that incorporate life-cycle benefits, market ufacturing for reuse in EVs, repurposing for stationary energy barriers, multiple stakeholders, technological advances, public storage, and disassembly for rare materials, have emerged. education, and economic incentives are essential to ensuring Yet, the EOL EVB regulations, programs, commercial-scale environmentally sound EOL EVB management and promoting recycling infrastructure, and second-use markets are still increased EV use. em

Ning Ai, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Urban Planning and Policy at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC), with a joint appointment at the Institute for Environmental Science and Policy. Katheryn Borucki is a master’s student in urban planning and policy at UIC, anticipated to graduate in May 2018. E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected].

Acknowledgment The authors are grateful for the assistance of Junjun Zheng, Ph.D. student at UIC, and the constructive suggestions from David Minott and anonymous reviewers. The authors would also like to acknowledge the support from the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) under Grant CyberSEES Type II: Data Integration for Urban Metabolism (No. CISE-1331800). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the NSF.

References 1. Annual Energy Outlook 2017 ; U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2017. 2. Ai, N.; Zheng, J. End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Battery Management: An Inventory Analysis. Presented at A&WMA’s 109th Annual Conference & Exhibition, New Orleans, LA, June 20-23, 2016; Paper 1161 . 3. Environmentally Sound Management of End-of-Life Batteries from Electric-Drive Vehicles in North America ; José Castro Díaz, Ed.; Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 2015. 4. Richa, K.; Babbitt, C.W.; Gaustad, G.; Wang, X. A Future Perspective on Lithium-Ion Battery Waste Flows from Electric Vehicles; Resources, Conservation, and Recycling 2014 , 83 , 63-76. 5. Standridge, C.R.; Corneal, L. Remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling of post-vehicle-application lithium-ion batteries ; No. CA-MNTRC-14-1137; Mineta National Transit Research Consortium, 2014; 58 pp. 6. Ahmadi, L.; Young, S.B.; Fowler, M.; Fraser, R.A.; Achachlouei, M.A. A cascaded life cycle: Reuse of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery packs in energy storage systems; The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 2015 , 1-14. 7. Plug-In Electric Vehicle Battery Recycling Scale-Up Strategies for California (2015–2050); produced by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for California Energy Commission, 2016.

Environmental education will drive the future 8

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em • The Magazine for Environmental Managers • A&WMA • April 2018