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Advances of 2Nd Life Applications for Lithium Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles Based on Energy Demand sustainability Article Advances of 2nd Life Applications for Lithium Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles Based on Energy Demand Aleksandra Wewer, Pinar Bilge * and Franz Dietrich Institute for Machine Tools and Factory Management (IWF), Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany; a.wewer@tu-berlin.de (A.W.); f.dietrich@tu-berlin.de (F.D.) * Correspondence: p.bilge@tu-berlin.de; Tel.: +49-(30)-314-27091 Abstract: Electromobility is a new approach to the reduction of CO2 emissions and the deceleration of global warming. Its environmental impacts are often compared to traditional mobility solutions based on gasoline or diesel engines. The comparison pertains mostly to the single life cycle of a battery. The impact of multiple life cycles remains an important, and yet unanswered, question. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate advances of 2nd life applications for lithium ion batteries from electric vehicles based on their energy demand. Therefore, it highlights the limitations of a conventional life cycle analysis (LCA) and presents a supplementary method of analysis by providing the design and results of a meta study on the environmental impact of lithium ion batteries. The study focuses on energy demand, and investigates its total impact for different cases considering 2nd life applications such as (C1) material recycling, (C2) repurposing and (C3) reuse. Required reprocessing methods such as remanufacturing of batteries lie at the basis of these 2nd life applications. Batteries are used in their 2nd lives for stationary energy storage (C2, repurpose) and electric vehicles (C3, Citation: Wewer, A.; Bilge, P.; reuse). The study results confirm that both of these 2nd life applications require less energy than Dietrich, F. Advances of 2nd Life the recycling of batteries at the end of their first life and the production of new batteries. The paper Applications for Lithium Ion Batteries concludes by identifying future research areas in order to generate precise forecasts for 2nd life from Electric Vehicles Based on applications and their industrial dissemination. Energy Demand. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: circular economy; remanufacturing; multiple life cycles; electromobility; lithium ion bat- su13105726 tery Academic Editors: Knut Blind, Simone Wurster, Rainer Walz, Katrin Ostertag and Henning Friege 1. Introduction Received: 23 March 2021 Electromobility is an approach that aims to reduce CO2 emissions and to decelerate Accepted: 16 May 2021 global warming. Scientific papers, reports and news often compare the environmental Published: 20 May 2021 impacts of electromobility to traditional mobility solutions with gasoline or diesel en- gines [1–5]. Some of these investigations address the question of whether electromobility Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral has, among others, a better CO2 footprint. Regardless of whether it is better, the same or with regard to jurisdictional claims in even worse than combustion technology, electromobility will be present in the future and published maps and institutional affil- continue to gain importance following a political urge and past investments. In any future iations. case, large quantities of used batteries will occur that need to be treated. The total demand for batteries is estimated to be 200 GWh by the year 2025, four-fold more than in the year 2020 [6]. If the total impact can be robustly assessed, it can influence the decision for or against a specific 2nd and End of Life (EoL) strategy. The total environmental impact of a Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. battery, considering multiple life cycles with various 2nd and EoL applications, remains an Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. important, and yet an unanswered, question. This article is an open access article The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the advances of 2nd life applications for distributed under the terms and lithium ion batteries from electric vehicles based on their energy demand within various conditions of the Creative Commons multiple life cycles. The total impact of a product consists of multiple factors including Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// environmental, social and economic factors such as the production costs, supply and creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ demand, which are influenced, among other things, by the customers’ acceptance. This 4.0/). Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105726 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24 Sustainability 2021, 13, 5726 environmental, social and economic factors such as the production costs, supply 2and of 22 demand, which are influenced, among other things, by the customers’ acceptance. This study is based on the impact of the energy demand in order to present the potential of study2nd Life is based applications on the impact in a comprehensible of the energy demand way. Economic in order tofactors present such the as potential the influence of 2nd Lifeand applicationscosts of supply in a comprehensible chain will be way.considered Economic in factorsfurther suchresearch as the activities influence and and costspublications. of supply For chain the willdemonstration, be considered it inpresents further the research design activities and results and of publications. a meta study For theon demonstration,the environmental it presents impact the of design lithium and ion results batteries. of a meta The studystudy on focuses the environmental on energy impactdemand, of lithiumand investigates ion batteries. this The demand study for focuses three on different energy demand,cases, namely and investigates (C1) material this demandrecycling, for (C2) three repurposing different cases, and (C3) namely reuse, (C1) as materialvisualized recycling, in Figure (C2) 1 and repurposing described and in (C3)Section reuse, 3.2 asin visualizeddetail. in Figure1 and described in Section 3.2 in detail. FigureFigure 1.1. ExemplaryExemplary cases:cases: C1—material recycling,recycling, C2—repurposing,C2—repurposing, C3—reuse.C3—reuse. 2.2. MethodMethod AA metameta studystudy is is designed designed to to create create a a data data basis basis that that allows allows the the energy energy demand demand of theof individualthe individual life cyclelife cycle stages stages to be to estimated be estimated in a in generally a generally valid valid manner, manner, rather rather than than just forjust a for specific a specific case. Thecase. results The results are described are described in detail in in detail Section in Section2.1. Based 2.1. on Based the results, on the a mathematicalresults, a mathematical algorithm algorithm is presented is presented in Section in 2.2 Section, which 2.2, calculates which calculates the energy the demand energy fordemand multiple for lifemultiple cycles. life cycles. 2.1. Meta Study 2.1. Meta Study The environmental impact of a product is dependent on the processes used within The environmental impact of a product is dependent on the processes used within the life cycle stages, but also on location-specific factors such as the available energy mix. the life cycle stages, but also on location‐specific factors such as the available energy mix. Reporting of the environmental impact in units as for example the CO2 equivalent allow the Reporting of the environmental impact in units as for example the CO2 equivalent allow comparison of the total impact for a specific case, but hinders the analysis of the magnitude ofthe the comparison processes itself. of the In total order impact to decide for whethera specific other case, processes, but hinders such the as remanufacturing, analysis of the shouldmagnitude be pursued of the processes in the future, itself. In the order influence to decide of these whether processes other mustprocesses, be estimated. such as Onlyremanufacturing, subsequently should should be the pursued location-specific in the future, impact the influence be considered. of these This processes assumption must is contrarybe estimated. to the Only way subsequently of presenting should the results the location of analysis‐specific on environmental impact be considered. impact. This assumptionWithin thisis contrary meta study, to the 31 way scientific of presenting articles the on results the environmental of analysis on impact environmental of lithium ionimpact. batteries were analyzed [1,2,7–35]. For the state of the art, a desktop research performed with GoogleWithin this Scholar meta using study, combinations 31 scientific articles of keywords on the such environmental as life cycle impact assessment, of lithium LCA, lithium-ion-battery,ion batteries were electricanalyzed vehicle, [1,2,7–35]. impact For and the emissions state of wasthe conducted.art, a desktop The research literature fromperformed the last with decade Google and additionallyScholar using the combinations most cited publications, of keywords despite such the as publication life cycle date,assessment, were considered. LCA, lithium The‐ion majority‐battery, state electric their resultsvehicle, in aimpact variety and of units, emissions such aswas the COconducted.2eq., which The cannot literature be unambiguously from the last converted decade into and a process additionally specific the unit most without cited fur- therpublications, information. despite Other the publications publication use date, secondary were considered. data. Only eight The articlesmajority have state reported their primaryresults in data a statedvariety in of the units, energy such
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