TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 67 ------refoule (HTQ) Violence per 3 when attempting to cross when attempting Conclusions:

: 98.14% reported experienc: Results Harvard Trauma HarvardQuestionnaire Trauma (push-backs) post-traumatic stress disorder. Guaranteeing stress disorder. post-traumatic human rights for migrants/refugees through out their journey is needed. (PTSD) due to the cumulative effect of trau (PTSD) due to the cumulative found were Differences experiences. matic experiencesonly in the amount of traumatic economic migrants whobetween and refugees No differ fled for political or religious reasons. found in tortureences were experiences and PTSD diagnosis. by securitypetrated forces against migrants Migrants is crystallized the border-zones. at by amount would that held in conditions are experiences Traumatic to torture. themselves mental an effect on migrants/refugees’ have health and can trigger of the development was adapted to collect traumatic and torture to collect traumatic adapted was stressors experienced by the migrants/refugees and more Bosnia, Western during in their stay specifically during and their detention ment and Bosnia-Herzegovina the border between Croatia. ing multiple forms 81.5% reported of torture, stated 70.4% and propertytheir having looted, harmed had been physically they that during migratory 50% of participants fulfilled transit. the criteria stress disorder for post-traumatic 26 were self-declared economic migrants26 were they fled due to political that and 28 stated The Iraqi version or religious persecution. of the - - - - and Antonio L. Manzanero and Antonio 2 - : 54 partici :

Method , Steven Byrne

1 antonio.manzanero@psi.

10.7146/torture.v30i3.120232 : The number of people being : torture suffered in their country of origin. Migrantsduringrefugees and their transit through Europe are submit and of ill-treatment ted to situations torture of the add to the burden that Marta Guarch-Rubio (Lecturer Assistant, Assistant, Marta (Lecturer Guarch-Rubio of University ByrneSteven Researcher, (PhD Universidad (Professor, Manzanero Antonio L. Correspondence to: [email protected] to: Limerick (Ireland)). [email protected] Correspondence to: Compultense de Madrid Correspondence to: ucm.es University of Limerick (Ireland)). Key points of interest • 3) 1) 2) and at the gates of Europe. of Europe. the gates and at and 3 females, 51 males assessed, pants were migrants and refugees have not ceased arrivmigrants and refugees have societies despite facing violence Western ing in and torture both throughout their journey, rizedmade effortsenforcement border have The Euro migration a dangerous endeavour. pean Union is externalizing but its borders, Abstract Introduction forcefully displaced is increasing and milita International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims. All rights reserved. Victims. Torture International Council for Rehabilitation https://doi.org/ Union through the Western Balkans the Union through Guarch-Rubio Marta Violence and torture against migrants and migrants against and torture Violence the European to reach attempting refugees ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 68 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 Some have beatings, experienced sexualvio 2018; et al., Infante 2012; Koning, 2019). al., 2017; Crepetetal., 2017; Farhat etal., and at theborder crossing(Arsenijevi vulnerability theysufferbothalongthetrip hasbeguntoshinealightonthe countries tohost migrants’ during journeys rienced of displacementandrelated violenceexpe Increased coverage effects oftheharmful Introduction stress disorder, border, torture Keywords: criticized forattaching negativecriticized connotations age of the so-called crisis”“migrant has been threat to the nation state. Accordingly, cover inward migration, oftenpresenting itasa Pepe, & Vigliaroni, 2019). Reques etal., 2019)orinNiger (Veronese, al., 2012), inLibya (Be etthe UnitedStates andMexico(Infante world, forexampleat theborderbetween canbefoundaroundthe against migrants ity assessmentsofallegations. processesandcredibil interview appropriate system, detentions, delays in procedures, in lack ofaccess to thelegalandhealthcare may takeplace(Pérez-Sales, 2018), suchas process, manyviolations otherhuman rights agents andothermigrants. theasylum During areoftensmugglers,petrators police/border difficult todetect(Silva etal., 2018). The per quent. However, someoftheseincidencesare violations arefre and detentions at borders napping, extortion, trafficking, humanrights tection. process, themigration During kid pro the asylum process and in humanitarian country, process, the migration during during intheirhome evidence ofmigrants’ torture Sales (2018)pointsout, thereissignificant lence, and forced detention. torture As Pérez- Examples of human rights violationsExamples ofhumanrights In Europe, whooppose thereareactors

migrant, trauma, post-traumatic ş er &Elfeitori, 2018; ć et ------EU’s external borders is a primary method EU’s isa primary borders external by state authorities. Systematic violence at the aviolent eventees experienced perpetrated through Serbia. Oneoutofthreeinterview crossing of protectionformigrants/refugees (11%).(24%) andkidnapping/torture ofdeathat (29%), risk detention/kidnapping finding themselves inasituation ofcombat or The most frequent events were experienced traumatic eventsrienced alongtheirjourney. (89%) expe migrants/refugees cently arrived al. (2017)foundthat alargepercentageofre oforigin.InItaly,ing thecountry Crepetet todepart prior experiences to alreadyharmful ence newpotentiallytraumatic events that add journey, experi migratory migrants/refugees 82.3%) and Turkey (7.8-59.3%). Along the bypoliceinbothGreece(33.3- perpetrated were subjectedtowas beatings, whichwere Greece, the main type of violence that refugees journey, finding that, whilst they were in theirugees’ ofviolenceduring experiences Farhat etal. ref (2018)examined728Syrian phenomena(Karamanidou, 2016).migratory focusing oncountries’ managementofthe to theterms dangers and risks formigrants. andrisks dangers but itremainsreplete with itsown initself, Sea lished alternative to the Mediterranean instance, isnow anestab theBalkancorridor transit. during experience Forlence migrants thetypology ofvio of theroutedetermine andthecharacteristics oforigin The country by motorvehicle (El-Shaarawi &Razsa, 2019). onfootor continuethe trip migrants/refugees Europe, therearealsolandroutesonwhich into remains thedominantpath formigrants route that theCentralMediterranean the fact Network,lence Monitoring 2020). Despite and aidingcollective expulsion(Border Vio of “gatekeeping” protection in international Arsenijevi migrant ć etal. (2017)denouncedalack SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE and refugee, rather than ------TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 69 ------In the present project, the initial goals were the initial goals were In the present project, Bosnia-Herzegovina stands out as a transit Bosnia-Herzegovina suffered by the migrants/refugees, and con suffered by the migrants/refugees, However, sequently the presence of PTSD. a large observationthroughout field, in the govina represents an auspicious place for re represents an auspicious govina migrants search into how to are subjected violence or bodily trauma when attempting Violence Border the During 2019, EU. enter to recorded 3,251 (2020) MonitoringNetwork to Bosnia-Herzegov pushbacks from Croatia Moreover, Turkey. and from Greece to ina, of the documentation there is little quantitative of violence among these migrants, prevalence their period their experiences on the border, of transit or time spend in detention centres. and torture the traumatic to evaluate events provide neither adequate protection nor living neither adequate provide conditions for migrants Interna (Amnesty that locations the addition, In 2019). tional house migrants a concen frequently contain per of conditions on based violence of tration of which the quantification insecurity, vasive this, Given is almost impossible to manage. by virtue of of the complexity and volatility the patterns as the diver of mobility as well sity of experiences and itineraries of those who the at the situation arrived the border, at have and Bosnian-Herze Croatia border between 2200 per month. Most of them were located located Most of them were 2200 per month. Croatian Western and close to the in Sarajevo 2020). border (UNHCR, reported migrants/refugeescountry; have in other destination they intend to settle that (18%), France countries as Italy (27%), such Germanyothers (14%) and (41%) (IOM, along Limited capacity and resources, 2020). institutional and stalemate political the with has paralyzed the countrydysfunction that mean that in 1995, since the end of the war ill-prepared to has been Bosnia-Herzegovina 2018 to December 2019, 53263 refugees/mi 53263 2019, 2018 to December grants arrived - over in Bosnia-Herzegovina ------Following the definition of torture definition the by the Following Violent deterrence is not exclusively per deterrenceViolent exclusively not is ternational, 2019; Meçe, 2018). From January 2018). Meçe, 2019; ternational, and Slovenia fortifying the so- and Slovenia its borders, emerged as one of the “Balkans route” called steps before arriving in the EU (Amnesty In Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia Bosnia-Herzegovina Bosnia-Herzegovina recently, Until relatively migrationestablished any of outside was Hungary with however, 2015, Since route. on mental health as PTSD. on mental health as PTSD. Current the border crossing between at situation govina. It also shows traumatic events as ex events traumatic It also shows govina. periencedmigrantsby during migratorythe in their home country and its impact journey, economic migrantseconomic duringrefugees and their period on the EU´s of transit and detention and Bosnia-Herze Croatia bordersbetween United Nations Convention against Torture Torture against Convention United Nations the present paper examines 1984), (UNCAT, violent and torture as experiencedby events to potentially traumatic events, time since events, to potentially traumatic of residency level and assessed status conflict, 2009). political terror (Steel et al., ability observed studies is across the different as due to a type of numerous factors, such exposure cumulative and of number torture, Steel et al.’s (2009) meta-analysis of 161 arti Steel et al.’s cles (181 surveys) reported of 30.6% for rates The vari PTSD and 30.8% for depression. Several studies have reportedthe effects of studies have Several and political violence on exposure to war in different countries. the civilian population (Holmes & Casteñada, 2016). 2016). (Holmes & Casteñada, of violence on migrantsPsychological effects and refugees migrants and refugees globally. In addition, In addition, migrantsrefugees globally. and second-countrybecoming less recep hosts are persons displaced toward hostile, or even tive, petrated throughout Europe; it also seems it also seems throughout Europe; petrated to discourage to be a wide buffering strategy ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 70 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 two pointsonthe Western Balkanroute. on thetowns ofBiha mentioned border. To achieve this, we focused alongtheafore treatment they experienced on theviolenceandinhumandegrading search goalswere thereforeadapted, focusing occurred, theyhad “lost thegame.” The re and clothes). Intheirown words, whenthis money andotheritemssuchasbags, glasses (mobile phones,and without their property Croatia. woundedThey usuallyreturned back illegallytoBosnia-Herzegovina from number ofpeoplewere detectedbeingpushed in Biha ered “on themove” astheywere intransit andwere migrants/refugees consid irregular sample.as anopportunistic All were deemed freelyintheresearch,if theywould takepart population ofthemigrant by askingmembers and Velika Kladuša. The samplewas obtained livinginBiha bymigrants as chainreferrals fromlocalNGOsand (2)snowball referrals 4.72). intwoThey were ways: recruited (1) between ( 17and41years males (94.4%)and3females, ofagesranging were assessed,Fifty-four participants 51 Participants Method services.to various tion duetoovercrowding access andrestricted couldaccesssuitableaccommoda migrants that hostmigrants.barracks However, notall both theselocations, therewere institutional (Amnesty poverty International, 2019). In fleeing conflict,migrants and persecution refugeforbetween 5000and5500 temporary nia-Herzegovina, both towns had become a ofBos border withCroatia inthenorthwest (Milan,and Hungary 2019). Located on the passing throughtheformer Yugoslav States This path extendsfrom Turkey toGreece,

ć and Velika Kladuša (Bosnia-Her ć and Velika Kladuša, M =26.15; SD = ć ------

nostic andStatistical ManualofMental Disor measure PTSD symptomsaccordingtoDiag bit, 4=extremely). 16itemsaimto The first scale (1=notat all, 2=alittle, 3=quite a sity ofthesymptomsona4-point Likert-type 44 itemsthat evaluate the severityorinten the symptomsoftraumaand is composedof threatened?” to illhealth?” or “Were you humiliated and “Were conditionsleading you exposedtodirty sectionoftheHTQ;the torture forexample, binary “yes/no”the thirty-five questionsfrom Consequently, themainbodyofthisresearch orhumansmugglers.trated byothermigrants or perpe other stages of their journey during refugees sufferedintheirhomecountry, that migrants/ study includesthosestressors cally designed for this study were applied. The Mollica, 2007)andaquestionnairespecifi the Iraqipopulation (Shoeb, Weinstein, & Questionnaire The Arabic versionofthe andprocedure Instruments order toavoid Sea. crossingtheMediterranean of hadchosentheBalkanroutein North Africa from the mentioned that all migrants/refugees had “lost thegame their own words, thenumberoftimesthey number of attempts to cross the border; in to Bosnia-Herzegovina asthe was understood from Croatia considered as illegal deportations that takeplacethere.deportations) to thenumberofviolentpushbacks(unofficial “hot spots” inthe Western Balkanroute, due afforded tothem. These two towns aretwo EU, regardless oftheofficialpoliticalstatus zegovina) andwaiting totravelinto further perpetrated on the external EUborders. ontheexternal perpetrated focuses onthepresenceoftraumatic events In thisstudy, the number of pushbacks The fourth sectionoftheHTQmeasures The fourth For ofthisresearch, thepurposes we used (henceforth HTQ)adaptedfor (henceforth SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE .” Finally, tobe itdeserves Harvard TraumaHarvard - - - - - TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 71 - - 87 9.3 3.7 11.1 88.9 48.1 51.9 % 38.9 18.5 14.8 14.8 3.7 3.7 1.9 1.9 1.9 94.4 5.6 53.7 40.7 5.5 = 54). N 47 5 2 6 48 26 28 N 21 10 8 8 2 2 1 1 1 51 3 29 22 3 Questionnaires were completed orally with completed orally Questionnaires were a trauma psychologist completing the ques answers. respondent’s the with line in tionnaire for the open questions interviewees However, of writingalso had the possibility the answer interviewsThe language. another or Arabic in individually. English and in conducted were written the questionnaires were In addition, so the particArabic, in both in English and both ipants could also read the questions in languages. status etc.); cause of the migration cause or length etc.); status of the migratory journey. - - - Better life persecution and Political/religious war Western Sahara Western Male Female 18-25 26-34 ≥ 35 Single Married Divorced Ye s No Algerian Moroccan Iraqi Syrian Palestinian Tunisian Lybian Pakistan . Socio-demographic characteristics of migrants/refugees. to survey ( Also, an adapted clinical questionnaire was was questionnaire clinical adapted an Also, Reason of migration Progeny Marital Status Age Category (Years) Sex Origin Table 1 Table used as it permitted for the collection of so marital ciodemographic characteristics (age, their own daily life. The Cronbach’s alpha of The Cronbach’s daily life. their own .939 and inter was the section in this sample .253. item correlation was tify what the authors name “refugee specific,” specific,” “refugee the authorstify what name the traumatic the impact that which evaluates perception of had on their could have events ders (4th ed.; DSM-IV; American Psychiatric DSM-IV; ders (4th ed.; 1994) criteria, with a threshold Association, quan items 28 The other higher. or 2.5 of ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 72 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 which assesses the psychological needsofref which assessesthepsychological ofalargerresearchproject This studyispart Ethical aspects share information. orto gathered toregroup here wheremigrants campsandurbanparks.ganised migrant Itwas 2019. As such, we spenttimeat NGOs, self-or were conductedbetween Julyand August context in the region.ing migration Interviews that tookintoconsideration theever-chang recruitment dynamic approachtoparticipant and further into Europe.and further Nearly all the data to getintotheEUSchengenopenborderarea border from Bosnia-Herzegovina into Croatia tocrossthe were waiting fortheopportunity are shown in Table 1. All oftheinterviewees sourcesofthe54migrants/refugees referral and characteristics The socio-demographic Results exclusions basedongenderorethnicity. was obtainedverbally. As such, therewere no reasons, consent tural andsecurity informed tions (Ibrahim&Hassan, 2017)andforcul tine RefugeesintheNearEast(UNRWA). Nations Relief and Works forPalesAgency sioner forRefugee(UNHCR)andtheUnited interest totheUnitedNations HighCommis (Spain),versity ofMadrid anddeclaredof the EthicsCommitteeofComplutenseUni ugees andasylumseekers. Itwas approved by Table 2 Number of deportations fromCroatia toBosnia-HerzegovinaNumber ofdeportations Length stay inBosnia-Herzegovina (months) (months) journey Length migratory Like other studies with migrant popula Like otherstudieswithmigrant The strategy was to have a flexible and

. process. ofthemigration Characteristics ------Middle East, and Sub-Saha North Africa with peopletravelling fromCentral Asia, the withotherroutes,that thisrouteintersects This isinlinewiththeliterature, whichshows to Europe tends to be continuously evolving. movements alongthisroute,tory asthispath representativeis not necessarily of all migra 2020; UNHCR, 2020). However, thispattern do sothroughthe Western Balkanroute(IOM, seekingtoenterEurope The mostmigrants (18.5%), (14.8%). Iraq (14.8%) and Syria was (38.9%),Algeria followed by Morocco (UNHCR, 2019). should have toapplyforasylum hadtheright law of refugees, regarding therights they country. As such, accordingtointernational whendecidingtoleave theirhome ing factors asthemotivat persecution cal andreligious over citedpoliti halfoftherefugees/migrants the MiddleEastandNorth Africa. Slightly in this researchcamemainlyfromcountries elled with dependent children. in Participants wereterviewees singleandnoneofthemtrav were old. menandunder35years Mostin of the migrants/refugees and the vast majority collection was conducted in Velika Kladuša of the to this (81%) who contributed Algerians through Italy andincreasearrivals Turkey. to the traditional routes from North Africa Europeanpoliciesdivert how newmigratory & Razsa, 2019). routeshows This emerging ran (Crepetetal.,Africa 2017; El-Shaarawi From anational perspective, themajority oforigin The largestdeclaredcountry SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE 5.87 5.84 20.50 M 5.50 5.03 17.66 SD ------TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 73

- - - - = SD SD and Velika ć and Velika Kladuša, the Kladuša, Velika and ć research because participants they that stated had occurred throughout the whole migratory The expe journeycountry. or in their home had been physically tortured had been physically or perceived Table Despite as torturethemselves victims. research this for results, the of all showing 3 selected just the three mentioned have we experiencestraumatic (in bold in the table) tes because they took place according to their timonies during their detention on the Croa regarding the item Moreover, tian border. migrantsthe of 25 added harmed,” “physically Therefore, on the head. beaten they were that included as an extra item below this item was The rest of traumatic harmed.” “physically fully described are not in this however, events, to traumatic experiences their to traumatic to associated the vast migratory In addition, experience. majority (98.14%) reported experiencing multiple forms and psychological of physical trauma during or attempted their push-back to Bosnia-Herzegovina crossing from border from the first Data section of the Croatia. 81.5% reported that HTQ revealed having they that 70.4% stated their property looted, harmed been physically had 46.3% of which they had been subjected to maintained that they claimed that 40.7% to the head. beatings = 6.23) for economic reasons, and 4.82 ( reasons, = 6.23) for economic 4.60) for political/religious reasons. experiences Traumatic life in Biha that shows The data difficulties and fraught with Kladuša was a high prevalence and there was hardships, violence and tortureof instances of both re migrants/refugeesthe for addition, In ported. resident in Biha sense of insecurity push- and the frequent All the participants clearly issues. backs were they had been subjected that (100%) stated for refugees for political/religious reasons. The for political/religiousfor refugees reasons. deportations number of 7.00 ( was average

------= SD p (1,52) = 2.155, (1,52) = 2.155, = 160.86) days days 160.86) = F SD (1,52) = 0.326, (1,52) = 0.326, F ten times or more. According to ten times or more.

= .040. Migrants for economic = .040. 2 η = .006; nor on the number of times = .006; 2 η When the motive for migration is consid When the motive Overall, departure from the country dates Overall, = .148, = .148, = 145.93), and 163.75 ( 163.75 and 145.93), = they had been deported, they had been deported, p ( of 187.69 days an average reasons stayed there were no effects on the length of time they no effects there were Bosnia-Her on the border between had stayed and Croatia, zegovina .570, ported to Bosnia-Herzegovina. found that we ered as an influencing factor, tried to cross had the opportunity nobody their statements, de unlawfully to apply for asylum and were process or access to asylum procedures. The process or access to asylum procedures. to cross the median number of attempts also close to six and 24.07% had border was the maximum was 2 years. Finally, 48 out of 48 out Finally, years. 2 was maximum the 54 participants to cross the border attempted deported were and once least at due without median length of time in Bosnia-Herzegovina Bosnia-Herzegovina in time of length median 22.2% of the inter with 6 months, barely was spending 12 months in the country. viewees and 10 days The minimum period was of stay Table 2 shows, the median length of their mi 2 shows, Table gratoryyears journey since two to close was the However, country. their home left they 2019. However, in this study, most of the most of the in this study, However, 2019. migrants/refugees their home countries left As December 2017 and June 2019. between refugees according to their migratory status. their migratoryrefugees according to status. to June 2012 August originof from ranged was the main motivational factor in their deci the main motivational was before, mentioned as Therefore, to leave. sion had the right to have half should slightly over been considered as have apply for asylum and said that they left because of political perse they left because said that is in comparisonThis the to 75% of cution. religious that Iraqis who stated persecution study cited “a better quality of life” as their life” “a better quality of study cited In con to Europe. for travelling motivation all Syrians (100%) trast and unsurprisingly, ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 74 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 Sorted from highesttolowestSorted frequency. specificevents inBiha letters occurred Table 3 Searched Lacked shelter Disappearance ofafriend Murder orviolentdeath offriend Confined tohomebecauseofchaosandviolenceoutside Suffered illhealthwithoutaccesstomedicalcareormedicine Physically harmed Forced tofleeyour country Suffered fromlackoffoodorcleanwater looted,Property confiscated, ordestroyed Witnessed someonebeingphysically harmed Trauma Events Sexually abused orraped(i.e., forced sexualactivity) Forced todestroy someone’s property Kidnapped ortaken asahostage Forced to pay member forbullet usedtokillfamily Forced someone to physically harm fromcombat situation physical orlandmine Serious injury Used asahumanshield Family memberkidnappedortakenasahostage ordeath ofinjury Forced onsomeoneplacingthemat risk toinform member Disappearance ofafamily Witnessed massexecution ofcivilians onyou placingyou ofinjury atSomeone informed andyour risk family Witnessed sexualabuse orrape Witnessed chemicalattacks onresidentialareasormarshlands kidnappedortakenasahostage Friend Received member thebodyofafamily member Murder orviolentdeath offamily shrines ofreligious Witnessed thedesecration ordestruction basedonancestralorigin,religion, orsect Expelled fromcountry Imprisoned Tortured fromcombat memberorfriend offamily physicalSerious injury Witnessed shelling, orrazingofresidentialareas burning, Witnessed thearrest, torture, leaders orexecution ofreligious Forced toleave ofthe your hometown andsettleinadifferentpart Oppressed becauseofethnicity, religion, orsect Witnessed murder Witnessed torture Witnessed rottingcorpses Present whilesomeonesearchedforpeopleorthingsinyour home. Beatings tothehead

. Trauma events( amongmigrants ć and Velika July-August2019. Kladušaduring N =54) during their migration process. theirmigration =54) during Inbold SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE 35 25 38 40 43 44 45 N 2 5 6 6 8 9 10 11 13 14 15 16 16 16 17 17 17 20 20 21 22 25 25 25 26 27 28 28 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 64.8 46.3 70.4 74.1 79.6 81.5 83.3 % 3.7 9.3 11.1 11.1 14.8 16.7 18.5 20.4 24.1 25.9 27.8 29.6 29.6 29.6 31.5 31.5 31.5 37.0 37.0 38.9 40.7 46.3 46.3 46.3 48.1 50.0 51.9 51.9 51.9 55.6 57.4 59.3 61.1 63.0 64.8 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 75 5.6 5.6 3.7 3.7 3.7 1.9 1.9 55.6 53.7 51.9 46.3 38.9 38.9 29.6 29.6 27.8 25.9 25.9 20.4 14.8 14.8 13.0 13.0 13.0 5.6 7.4 % 92.6 66.7 66.7 64.8 59.3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 30 29 28 25 21 21 16 16 15 14 14 11 8 8 7 7 7 3 4 N 50 36 36 35 32 =54) during N and Velika Kladuša ( Velika and ć . Torture experiences migrants among in Biha Torture . Other experience of torture Suspended from a rod by hands and feet for longs period of time or raped Sexually abused Stretched on a rock for long periods or corrosive acid fire, hot oil, electricallyBurned rods, heated by cigarettes, with near-drowning Head submerged in water Subjected to mock executions Blindfolded Forced to write falseForced confessions arranged or sexually explicit positions in various humiliating Forcibly photographed where you ‘yes’, If Witnessed the sexual abuse, rape or torture of someone Witnessed the sexual abuse, Electrocuted Placed in an isolation cell with no clothes, toilet or ventilation cell with no clothes, Placed in an isolation Prohibited from ablution and prayer labor Forced Placed in a sack, box or very box small place Placed in a sack, on soles of feet with rods or whips Beaten Chained or tied in front of people to undress Forced Deprived of sleep Exposed to continuous/piercing noise from urinating or defecating Prevented Forced to stand for long periods of time Forced and threatened Humiliated Exposed to dirty leading to ill health conditions sun or light Exposed to strong heat, or stricken kicked with objects slapped, Punched, Deprived of food and water for long periods for water of time Deprived of food and care Deprived of medical Torture experiences Torture Exposed to rain or cold Table 4 Table frequency. Sorted to lowest from highest 2019. July-August ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 76 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 Trauma symptoms highest tolowest scores. Table 5 among migrants inBiha among migrants Feeling irritable orhaving of Feeling outbursts irritable Difficulty concentrating Feeling exhausted upon but god Feeling that you have noonetorely events orterrifying most hurtful ofthe thoughtsormemories Recurrent Trouble sleeping ing again Feeling asthoughtheevent ishappen people Feeling detached orwithdrawn from events with thehurtful Avoiding thoughtsorfeelingsassociated beingsqueezed Sensation oftheheart what happenedtoyou Feeling don’t that others understand Feeling humiliated byyour experience trayed you Feeling that be someoneyou trusted Feeling onguard Feeling asifyou don’t have afuture tiredness, andsomatic complaints of initiative, boredom, sleepproblems, Ruminations, poorconcentration, lack Less interestindailyactivities events when remindedofthemosthurtful Sudden emotionalorphysical reaction you didbefore. Feeling that you have lessskillsthan Feeling inothers notrust event the hurtful Avoiding activitiesthat remindyou of anger

. Frequencies, meanscores(M)andstandarddeviations (SD)for ć and Velika July-August2019. from Kladuša(N=54)during Sorted - - at all Not 17 18 14 15 17 10 11 14 12 18 19 16 17 16 20 21 13 19 7 8 5 Little 19 10 14 14 13 12 13 17 13 19 15 13 18 A 5 8 5 7 9 6 9 7 Quite a bit 15 14 10 12 14 12 13 11 12 12 13 14 17 12 16 19 13 14 14 11 6 SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE Extremely 20 16 22 10 15 11 13 12 15 16 12 15 14 13 15 14 17 15 16 17 9 trauma symptoms 2.76 2.76 2.78 2.26 2.31 2.37 2.39 2.39 2.39 2.43 2.43 2.44 2.46 2.46 2.52 2.54 2.56 2.56 2.63 2.65 2.69 M 1.21 0.99 1.21 1.12 1.23 1.12 1.17 1.14 1.25 1.28 1.09 1.24 1.19 1.19 1.16 1.16 0.92 1.24 1.09 1.12 1.08 SD TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 77 SD 1.03 1.14 0.94 1.07 1.07 1.20 1.16 1.09 1.10 1.20 1.05 1.10 1.24 1.16 1.06 1.09 1.13 0.91 1.05 1.12 1.16 1.19 1.14 M 1.74 1.72 1.72 1.65 1.63 2.07 2.04 2.02 1.96 1.96 1.94 1.93 1.93 1.89 1.83 1.78 1.78 1.76 1.74 2.26 2.24 2.22 2.09 7 8 4 7 6 8 7 5 8 9 7 7 7 4 6 11 10 10 11 12 12 12 10 Extremely 2 5 6 3 6 7 7 8 7 6 6 6 5 6 8 5 6 6 8 9 7 10 13 a bit Quite 5 8 4 8 5 9 9 5 A 15 15 11 12 15 11 10 14 14 19 10 20 15 12 15 Little 36 38 32 34 26 32 30 36 29 26 29 26 26 32 30 28 16 19 21 22 25 25 23 Not at all at - - - Feeling that you are the only one who you that Feeling suffered these events people that you have done something done something have you people that can't remember you that Hopelessness Feeling a need for revenge Feeling Finding out or being told by other Poor memoryPoor ashamed of the hurtfulFeeling or trau happened to you have that events matic problems survivedfor having guilty Feeling others are hostile to you Feeling and your familyand your Unable to feel emotions by bodily pain or physical Troubled Blaming yourself for things that have have Blaming yourself things that for happened are a jinx to yourself you that Feeling Having difficulty dealing with new situ difficulty dealing with Having ations Spending time thinking why God is Spending time thinking why events go through such making you startled easily jumpy, Feeling Difficulty paying attention Difficulty paying Inability to remember parts of the most hurtful events the other is doing to help others powerless Feeling to make daily plans unable Feeling Recurrentnightmares are split into two as though you Feeling what is watching people and one of you tience, and anger outbursts tience, a of tightness in the chest and Feeling choking sensation) Irritability, nervousness, lack of pa nervousness, Irritability, Trauma symptoms Trauma ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 78 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 Torture experiences fered anaverage of22.93( reasons suf refugees for political or religious 12.15 ( for economicreasonssufferedanaverage of p the motives tomigrate, ( range [1-36]). Effectswere foundbasedon was 17.74( suffered bymigrants The average numberoftraumatic experiences effect on mental health (Steet et al., 2009). oftraumatic eventsrience hasacumulative and thepush-back. oftimebetween theperiod thearrest during others, tookplaceunderpolicecustodyor or “subjected tomockexecutions,” between time,” insexualpositions”“photographed such as of “forced tostandforlong periods actions that involved ordeprivations orders by cigarettes. Similarly, the maintenance of two peoplewhostated that theywere burned weaponselectrical suchastasers, exceptfor having been wounded(13%) described by rods, hotoil, fireorcorrosiveacid,” allofthem bycigarettes,“burned heated electrically when theysaidthat “were electrocuted” and was attributed toborderagents. For instance, monies, by others all the violence perpetrated ill health. According tothemigrants’ testi conditionsleadingto were exposedtodirty had been withheld when required and 64.8% of time, that medical care 66.7% reported deprived offoodandwater forlongperiods border, that theyhadbeen 66.7%reported ofdetention ofthe toperiods When referring objects intheirattempt tocrosstheborder. that theyhad been punchedorslappedwith to strongheat, sunorlightand55.6%stated (92.6%), beingexposed while59.3%reported was prolonged exposuretorainand/orcold (TableThe mostcommontypeoftorture 4) <.001,

SD =6.67)traumatic experiences, and η 2 =.338). motivated Migrants F SD (1,52)=26.604, =8.49). SD =9.34, - - PTSD ( wereexperiences positively associated with agnosis. The cumulative effect of traumatic forPTSDdi refugees (50%)metthecriteria According totheHTQ, 27outof54migrants/ Psychological effects of 9.43( reasonssufferedanaveragelitical orreligious experiences, andrefugeesforpo 4.59) torture reasons suffered an average of 8.58 ( η nosis ( forthediag 5.22) whofulfilledthecriteria 8.56 ( events was from PTSDthenumberoftorture disorder. As such, for those who did not suffer topredicttheaforementioned not determinant innoPTSDcondition.experiences periences, for14.19( average of21.30( diagnosedwithPTSDsufferedan Migrants motives tomigrate, ( [0-27]). Noeffectswere foundbasedonthe ences sufferedwas 9.02( This studyexamines theprevalence oftrau Discussion each symptom. shows frequenciesandtheaverage scores for more presenceoftraumasymptoms. Table 5 tively). negativeThe greater experiences, the p trauma symptoms;chological ( were relatedriences tothepresenceofpsy cution reasonswere diagnosedPTSD. economic reasons and 17 (60.71%) for perse 2.670, p=.102). Ten (36.46%)for migrants to motivation for migrate, ( <.001, and 2 =.007). motivated Migrants foreconomic The average experi number of torture The amount of trauma and torture expe The amountoftraumaandtorture was experiences The numberoftorture No significant differences were found due SD F (1,52) =0.425, F SD (1,52) =9.006, = 5.20)comparedto9.48( =5.74). r (54) =.298, SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE SD F (1,52) =0.359, =9.59)traumatic ex SD p <.01, =7.73)traumatic p SD <.01, χ 2 p (1, N = 54) = =5.19, range <.05respec r (54) = .468, η 2 η =.148). 2 =.148). p =.552, SD SD = = ------TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 79 ------et al. (2017), our data our data (2017), et al. ć Similar to Arsenijevi reach the European Union (Arsenijevic et al., reach the European Union (Arsenijevic et al., 2018; et al., Farhat 2017; Crepet et al., 2017; to exposure Psychologically, 2019). Koning, capacities are repressed or destroyed both at at both destroyed or repressed are capacities pro The territorial the beyond and border. within the cesses of border violence operate of of contemporary“geopolitics framework is char 2012) which (Hyndman, migration” acterizedthe a global process of worsening by restrictive, conditions for migration (selective, migration policies) and punitive repressive detention and render through surveillance, ing migrants legally and economically precar the frequent violence Research e reveals ious. and torture migrants/refugees that suffer by to agents in their attempt police and border site facility. site facility. while border closures in Balkan that indicates countries with a considerable are associated also be associated they may decline in arrivals, As with an increase in violence and torture. European policies are based on politi noted, agreementscal externalizathe promote that tion of borders condemning whilst not openly Border vio the use of violence as a deterrent. includes the entire set of pro therefore, lence, and mental somatic cesses whereby migrants’ (Steel et al., 2009). The migrant population 2009). (Steel et al., almost exclusively was in both of these towns is un This single males. made up of young, surprising, also gender differences given that vul example, For migratoryaffect processes. unac such as single women, nerable people, been companied minors or families have may migration orcentres reception directed toward Guarch-Ru 2017; et al., safer areas (Crepet Bouhe instance, For 2020). bio & Manzanero, in work in their that (2017) found nia et al. authorities local frequently (France), Calais off- to a separate and children women moved tentially explain the difference in prevalence in prevalence the difference tentially explain to other populations of PTSD as compared ------To summarise, according to the data, data, the to according summarise, To ogy (Peace & Masliuk, 2011). This can po can This 2011). & Masliuk, (Peace ogy ous studies have pointed out, given the mo the given out, pointed have studies ous a be may there protection obtain to tivation tendency to overreport PTSD symptomatol their situation (Crepet et al., 2017). More 2017). al., et (Crepet situation their how into insight an provides data this over, politically supported is violence systematic as previ However, refugees. directed toward a multitude of human rights in violations cluding inhuman and degrading treatment. a better understanding provides of The data during the trip in the EU and their stay to subjected migrants/refugees were border, reports of experiences of torture then be can occurredassumed that mostly during the trip and during the border. pushbacks at experiences suffered because they add trauma in their origin during to those suffered the trip The to enter the EU. and in their attempts ably had no traumatic and torture and no traumatic had ably experiences could results These country. home their in refugees for political/religious that indicate reasons experienced more traumatic many have been in Bosnia for roughly the same been in Bosnia for roughly the have suffered similar numbers of they have time, migrants and economic deportations, prob no differences were found between refugees found between no differences were migrantseconomic and to tortureregard with Since both experiences and PTSD diagnosis. cal and religious reasons. The latter suffered The latter cal and religious reasons. experiences traumatic almost twice as many study present the in However, former. the as agents amongst the participantsagents amongst the during July- differences in showed data The August 2019. experienced events the number of traumatic by economic migrants and refugees for politi ences were associated with PTSD. Similarly, Similarly, with PTSD. associated ences were of other violent the study found the prevalence perpetratedpolice and border by events matic events experiencedmigrants/refu by events matic gees throughout migratoryand also transit these experi and how in their home country, ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 80 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 experiencing often-ignoredhighrates ofvi experiencing constitute a vulnerable populationmigrants theargumentthat studysupport the current threatened bytheir experiences. The resultsof felthumiliated and 51.9% oftheinterviewees themselves asvictimsoftorture, althoughthis mentioned,and torture just40.7%perceived al., 2017). and refugees(Dimitry, 2012; Manzaneroet ofmentalhealth issues formigrants the risk add toprevioustraumatic events andincreases to transitserves these violentepisodesduring can beexplained bytheconditionsendured fore, here described thetraumatic experiences beingexposedtorainorcold.reported There that ahighnumberoftheir respondents also refugees, Ibrahim and Hassan (2017) found Similarly, in their work with Syrian-Kurdish thebordercrossingor push-backs.during of food and water of time, for long periods deprivation and 66.7% reported the journey exposed tostrongheat, sunorlight through food orwater. Inaddition, 59.3%hadbeen tances on foot in extreme weather with little process.tory For example, travelling longdis nature ofthemigra bythe very understood exposuretorainandcoldcouldbe ported fortheirhealth.was arisk Secondly, there conditionswhich todirty exposed migrants lacked basicamenities. also This experience into improvised accommodation centresthat that hadbeenhastilyconverted empty factories dents, at thetimeofdata collection, occupied that manyplained bythefact oftherespon for two reasons. Firstly, beex itcanpartly posure torainorcold(92.6%). This couldbe public. aswellmedical authorities asthegeneral be broughttotheattention ofpoliticaland olence (Bouhenia et al., 2017). This should The most frequent form of torture was ex oftorture The mostfrequentform However, despite the institutional violence

------research islimitedinitsabilitytomakewider this studyisthesmallsamplesize. As such, this refuge inEurope. protection tothosefleeingconflictandseeking oftheEUtoofferreal is exposingthefailure migration that thecurrent “crisis” inEurope ings echoFreedman(2016), whomaintains and fearofracism. Adding tothis, ourfind issues detection, transport languagebarriers, care, oftenduetoobstaclessuchasfearof duetopooraccesshealth lems inmigrants (France) whofoundaggravated healthprob ducted byBouheniaet al. (2017)inCalais zegovina. This issimilartotheresearchcon of accesstomedicalhealthcareinBosnia-Her this, alack 66.7%oftherespondentsreported bymigrants.ination experienced Relating to tematic andorganised elementtothediscrim Data thereisasys suggeststhat inthisregion existed(UnitedNations,alternatives 2018). were closetocapacityandlimitedsustainable where centresat thetimeofdata collection isstrained, intheregion influx ofmigrants stitutional violence. processandalsoby in themigratory during of violence across settings, to identify potential as well aspotentialmechanisms andpredictors issues,Future researchshouldassess reporting was conductEDbeyond applying theHTQ. that examination nomedicalnorpsychiatric more vulnerated. Finally, the last obstacle is are andwhofeelthat theirrights experiences are morewillingtotalkabouttheirtraumatic samplelikelywithpeoplewho opportunistic an overestimation ofdata duetotheuseofan On theotherhand, anotherlimitation may be sensitive nature ofthetopic(Falb etal., 2013). for violence owing to the highly a key concern is participants. under-reporting Furthermore, the subjective to understand perspective of the inferences. Qualitative researchisalsoneeded In addition, thecapacitytorespond Limitations : Oneofthemajorlimitations of SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE ------TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 81 , ć (4th ed.). (4th ed.). Diagnostic Conflict and , C., , D., & Vraneši & D., , ć Libya Detention Detention Libya ć , 1-11. https://doi. 1-11. , https://www. , 335-342. https:// 335-342. , 11 9

, , Đuri Pushed to the edge: Pushed to the edge: . Ankara: Migration Ankara: . https://www.amnesty.org/

, E., ć (5), 580-590. https://doi. 580-590. (5), 294 , https://aybu.edu.tr/gpm/contents/ , T., Sulji T., , ć Jama , 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031- 1-9. , Conflict and Health International Health 11 , J., Schillberg, E., Ponthieu, A., Malvisi, Malvisi, A., Ponthieu, E., Schillberg, J., , , iškovi ć č lu, M., Livanou, M., Crnobari M., Livanou, M., lu, ğ doi.org/10.1093/inthealth/ihx040 A., Barbieri, G., Quaranta, P., Deiana, W., Mental health and (2017). S. & Di Carlo, trauma in asylum seekers landing in Sicily in study of neglected invisible a descriptive 2015: wounds. org/10.1186/s13031-017-0103-3 mental health of children and adolescents in areas of armed conflict in the Middle Violence and abuse against refugees and migrants refugees against Violence and abuse along the Balkans Route. en/documents/eur05/9964/2019/en/ Zamatto, S., Argenziano, E., A. W. Ahmed, L., A crisis of protection (2017). B. Vingne, … de F. violence experienced by and safe passage: Western along the migrants/refugees travelling Balkan corridor to Northern Europe. Health 017-0107-z reports. and border violence push-backs Illegal 2019. December Balkan Region. borderviolence.eu/wp-content/uploads/ December-Report-2019.pdf Fran effects of Psychiatric and cognitive (2005). M. of lack Association Yugoslavia: in formerwar stress of redress for trauma and posttraumatic reactions. org/10.1001/jama.294.5.580 of Impunity A State Centres: Center. Policy files/enesbeser.pdf M., Berthelot, M., Neuman, D., Visentin, S., Quantitative (2017). S. & Cohuet, K., Porten, survey on health and violence endured by refugees during their journey and in Calais, France. and statistical manual of mental disorders and statistical APA. DC: Washington, o er, M. E., & Elfeitori, F. (2018). (2018). F. & Elfeitori, E., M. er, ş ş Dimitry, L. (2012). A systematic review on the A systematic (2012). L. Dimitry, Bouhenia, M., Farhat, J.B., Coldiron, M.E., Abdallah, Abdallah, M.E., Coldiron, J.B., Farhat, M., Bouhenia, den Boogaard, Van A., Reid, F., Rita, A., Crepet, Border Violence Monitoring Network (2020). Violence Monitoring (2020). Network Border Ba Be Arsenijevi by the authors. References (1994). Association. American Psychiatric Amnesty International (2019). Conflict of interest interest Conflict of reported of interest was No potential conflict ------This paper supports trau the claim that This research supports evidence previous PR75/18-21661). (ref. 971672), in the framework of the pro in the framework (ref. 971672), jects financed by Santander-Universidad Complutense de Madrid (PR26/16-20330, assessment of memories and psychological disorders refugees to trauma in associated by the UCM developed and victims of war, Testimony Eyewitness Group on Research Funding is partThis work of a research project on human rights of migrants are attempt who Balkan Western ing to enter Europe along the route. pean borders. Furthermore, this articlepean borders. lends support re to recent calls for an improved and sponse from the EU to ensure the safety as described in the previous sections, there is as described in the previous sections, examines a need for continued research that the conditions faced by migrants on the Euro shown how violence perpetrated security by violence how shown forces against migrantscrystallized is the at and notwith Considering this, border-zones. standing the dearth of research in the context matic experiences have an effect on migrants/on an effect experiences matic have mental health and can trigger the refugees’ also has study This PTSD. of development populations, as well as the violence and trauma as the violence and as well populations, they suffer is of central importance. Network, 2020). At a time that saw unprece saw that time a At 2020). Network, toward numbersdented move the on people of studying the vulnerability of mobile Europe, tations, with frequent use of violence against with frequent use of violence against tations, Bosnia-Her migrants border between the at (Amnesty Interna and Croatia zegovina Violence Monitoring Border 2019; tional, Conclusion depor unofficial deliberate and systemic of protective characteristics the use of to reduce protective violence during border crossings. attempted ARTICLE SCIENTIFIC 82 TORTURE Volume 30, Number 3, 2020 Farhat, J. B., Blanchet, K., JuulBjertrup,P., Veizis, Falb, K. L., McCormick, M. C., Hemenway, D., El-Shaarawi, N., &Razsa, M. (2019). Movements International Organization(IOM). forMigration International Infante, C., Idrovo, A. J., Sánchez-Domínguez, Ibrahim, H., &Hassan, C. Q. (2017). Post- Hyndman, J. (2012). and The geopoliticsofmigration Holmes, S. M., &Castañeda, H. (2016). Guarch-Rubio, M. &Manzanero, A.L. (2020). Freedman, J. (2016). at the security Engendering M. S., Vinhas, S., &González-Vázquez, T. doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00241 Iraq. Kurdish refugeesinKurdistanSyrian Region, andothertraumatic events among from torture traumatic stress disordersymptomsresulting 10.1080/14650045.2011.569321 mobility. amet.12259 Ethnologist and difference, lifeanddeath. andbeyond:in Germany Deservingness Representing the “European refugeecrisis” https://doi.org/10.1163/15718166-12340076 andLaw, ofMigration Journal 22 with unaccompaniedrefugeeminors. Credibility andtestimony in asylum procedures 29 ‘crisis’.Mediterranean ofEurope:borders women andthe migrants doi.org/10.1186/s12916-018-1028-4 while inGreece. and thejourney during and accesstoinformation withviolence,experience mental healthstatus, Cohuet, S. (2018). refugeesinGreece: Syrian A., Perrin, C., Coulborn, R. M., Mayaud P., & ijgo.2012.10.015 Obstetrics border. against refugeewomen along the Thai–Burma Anfinson, K., &Silverman, J. G. (2013). 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