Traditional Versus Contemporary Dwellings in a Desert Environment

118 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4

Traditional Versus Contemporary Dwellings in a Desert Environment: EREM 76/4 The Case of Bechar, Algeria Journal of Environmental Research, Engineering and Management Vol. 76 / No. 4 / 2020 Received 2018/09 Accepted after revision 2020/07 pp. 118–130 DOI 10.5755/j01.erem.76.4.21595 http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.76.4.21595

Traditional Versus Contemporary Dwellings in a Desert Environment: The Case of Bechar, Algeria

Nawal Benslimane*, Ratiba Wided Biara Departament of Architecture, ARCHIPEL Laboratory, UniversiteTahri Mohammed de Bechar Avenue de l’ independence, Rue deKenadsa, B.P 417, 08000, Bechar, Algeria Hocine Bougdah University of Westminster, School of Architecture and Cities, 35 Marylebone Rd, London NW1 5LS

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Traditional architecture has always demonstrated a strong relationship between the buildings and their environment, as these are designed with the climatic conditions and socio-cultural values in mind. However, multiple challenges facing traditional buildings are linked to the ability of communities to sustainably preserve themin an ever changing and very different urban fabric. At a time of great socio-economic change and technological progress, sustainability, both tangible and intangible, means preserving as much heritage as possible, would be an important factor in restoring and preserving the city’s identity. The traditional “ksour”settlements have proved their environmental and socio-cultural credentials. Given that this dwelling typology is fast disappearing and being replaced by villas and apartments using contemporary production methods and materials, this work aims to compare the two dwelling typologies with a view to test to what extent the latter ones do fulfil their environmental and socio-cultural roles and to identify what lessons, if any, can be learned from traditional settlements. The research presented here, which was undertaken using a qualitative approach based on case study analysis, is likely to contribute to a better understanding of the design and functioning of the“ksar”, which is a fast disappearing urban dwelling typology. Keywords: traditional, dwelling, “ksar”, architecture, sustainability, socio-cultural. Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4 119

Introduction In traditional societies, architecture echoed the social, Such a lesson is particularly pertinent to the Arab/Islam- economic and cultural characteristics of the society and ic world as Bougdah (2016) puts it: “[t]here is a percep- acted as a mirror reflecting its identity.Local architectural tion among the younger generation in the Arab/Islamic forms and details were found and seen all over the world world – and most developing countries – that building in in buildings that were the most wonderful outcome of a traditional way is backward. One cannot deny that life- combining people’s imagination and land availability in a styles change and with themarchitecture can and must way that reflected local specificities (Fathy, 1966). change and the reproduction of tradition will not solve Traditional architecture is, primarily, about addressing the problem. For these reasons, the need to understand the needs and aspirations of the community using the heritage, learn the lessons from it with a view to adopt available skills and local resources. Despite the lack of certain principles and adapt them within a contemporary its coverage in a globalised world, compared to the slick, context is most critical.”Thus, there is a need to consider cloud-reaching contemporary “signature architecture” what we can learn from the traditional that can serve a that fills the page spreads of architectural magazines, purpose in a contemporary context to achieve a sustaina- this type of architecture is still relevant in many parts ble living environment and reap its environmental, social of the world. As recently as the third quarter of the last and economic benefits. Through a case study analysis, the century, traditional architecture represented two-thirds paper will test the impact of contemporary changes to the of the world’s construction activities (Rapoport, 1972). original dwellings on both their sustainability credentials Often described as spontaneous, primitive, and indige- and the environmental quality of life for their inhabitants. nous, it is the product of a community or a social group’s Through an analysis of two dwelling typologies, the tradi- initiative and a reflection of their way of lifeand social val- tional house from the “ksar” and a typical contemporary ues. It is rooted in its physical context through the use family dwelling, this research will look into the conse- of local construction materials in a way that takes into quences of the introduction of contemporary design and consideration climatic and topographic conditions while construction methods on the spatial and physical quali- responding to the socio-cultural needs of the community. ties of the dwelling and to what extent these can replace Traditional settlements in the arid regions of Algeria have those of the traditional dwelling known for its environ- demonstrated, with their better-quality character and mental performance and socio-cultural relevance. environmental awareness, that they can achieve both environmental and cultural sustainability (Momtaz and Feisal, 2012, cited by Diafat et al., 2019). Notwithstanding these symptomatic features, traditional Literature Review settlements are quickly abandoned. The lack of mainte- According to Sayigh (2014), the work of Rapoport’s book nance is making their poor and perishable materials of titled “L’anthropology de l’habitation” is intended for all construction prone to rapid erosion and disappearance. those interested in the topic of the dwelling for the or- This explains the changes in cities in the late 60s when dinary social classes. The book is an original work that vernacular neighbourhooddisappeared while large social demonstrates the contribution of the social science and housing projects proliferated instead, let alone thereno- the ethnography to explain the concept of living (to exist vationof urbancentresand city expansion. as a human being) by showing the complexity of the re- While the advances in technical ability and the changes lationships which bind humans to their environment. The in the socio-cultural values of contemporary societies work refers to primitive dwellings, usually built by their mean a no return to traditional or vernacular architecture, occupants with basic processes and uniform patterns as we can learn a lesson from the approach of the builders those that predate the industrial indigenous dwellings who believed in the interdependence of the human be- that were brought about to provide the rising need for ing, buildings, and physical environment (Helena, 1998). housing as a consequence of the industrial revolution. 120 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4

When attempting to take from the past to create a signif- the house as a place of expressing and strengthening icant form of home for the contemporary era, it becomes family relationships. difficult to decide on what is relevant given the huge In a world of a more and more globalised culture, archi- choice of old-style forms something that a number of tects design in a way that cultural and religious values researchers referred to (Bodach et al., 2014; Saljoughine- and principles are kept away in favour of functionality and jadand Rashidisharifabad, 2015; Anand et al., 2013). The technology decisions which are favoured during plan- general approach that Rapoport aspires to, which focus- ning and design. On the other hand, there is a school of es on the concept of culture and cultural choices, leads thought where followers seriously think that cultural is- curiously to the notion of a flexible and varying lifestyle. sues, materials for construction and technology are only In the context of Islamic culture, the design of traditional tools needed in the process of making architecture for houses must take into account three principles: trust, pri- humanity. They believe that when designing a house, the vacy and hospitality (Susorova, 2013; Barbero-Barrera, designer has to be fully informed and well versed in is- 2014). These are mutually beneficial because they create sues connected to the task (physical, climatic and social) a peaceful and safe home and provide optimal comfort. (Mohamad et al., 2011). According to Islamic customs, a house is designed as a While this work does not intend to discuss, in details, the place for personal and family privacy, a modest space for changes brought about into urban dwellings in post-in- religious practices and worship. Such a space is a plat- dependence Algeria, it is worth looking at the main is- form for hospitality that develops and strengthens family sues relating to this topic. For a full discussion of the top- and socialrelationships that contribute to the concept of ic, Djermouli (2019) is the kind of work that deals with the mankind creating a pleasant environment built through matter in great detail. For the purpose of this work, an living on earth according to the divine rules and repre- overview of the evolution of the Algerian urban housing senting god’s good will on earth (Mortada, 2011; Omer, sector is presented. Up until the late 1970s, the housing 2010). The meaning of dwelling has been studied from provision was heavily dominated by the state sector, in the point of view of different disciplines such as psy- terms of construction, ownership and management. To chology, phenomenology, sociology, and environmental start with, housing development in the years following behaviour studies (Després, 1991; Moore, 2000; Mallett, the independence in 1962 was not a priority for almost a 2004). Moreover, many authors have argued that a more decade (Chaline, 1996). This is at a time when the need to integrative and interdisciplinary approach to the dwell- replenish the destroyed housing stock, as a result of the ing,in which physical, socio-cultural, psychological and war of independence, was estimated by some to be in the economic dimensions are interrelated, is needed (De- region of 100,000units each year following the independ- sprés,1991; Somerville,1997). The building and dwelling ence (Pagand et al., 2003). By the time housing produc- are single phenomena, the creation by the individual tion started to become a priority, it became a numbers consciousness out of its rootedness in culture, time and game as the government was trying to catch up with the place (Barbara, 2006, cited in Arslan, 2008). ever increasing demand and design as well as construc- Banham (1975) sees that modern homes are a set of tion qualities gave way to hastily built concrete housing modern appliances and services, not bound to any loca- blocks that do not meet the needs of the local population; tion and, therefore, they are essentially rootless. Accord- yet they were eagerly awaited and received in the ab- ing to El-Kardawi, (2010), a well-known Islamic schol- sence of alternatives. Djermouli (2019,210) describes the ar, the house is the place where an individual protects failures of these housing provisions in terms of lacking himself from harsh effects of the climate and where his urban infrastructures, technically poor quality, socially freedom is enjoyed away from the social restrictions and and culturally irrelevant, and inadequacy of design briefs pressures. It is a place for rest for both body and mind. at the level of both the dwelling and the neighbourhood. Thesame author, in his definition of home, refers to the The introduction of the self/privately built dwellings, as Quranic verse“It is Allah who made your habitations part of the deregulation of the housing sector that came homes of rest and quiet” (Quran, 16:80). According to in the 1990s, did not improve the situation. Deluz (2010) Nassr, (1996, cited by Mortada, 2003), Islam also regards argues that there is a cultural problem in this sector; as Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4 121

it is supposed to present diversity given that it relies on spatial production breaks with the urban and regulatory the initiative of the owners. Both Deluz (2010) and Hadjri standards destroying in its wake the feeling of intimacy (1997) argue that the only difference one can find is -re and the link to the environment. The changes produced flecting the different socio-economic strata in the society. new visual elements that no longer express the relationship of the individual to the group, and the very clear hierarchical relationships of the traditional settlementis lost. This also reflectsthe general disappearance of hi- Methods erarchies in society as all buildings tend to have equal The research method is a qualitative one, based on a importance confirming the views of Rapoport (1972). comparative analysis of casestudies of a traditional The “ksour”, plural for “ksar”, are regarded as archetyp- house from a “ksour” settlement and a contemporary al examples of settlements as they have morphological dwelling with a view to identify the impact on the spa- and organizational characteristics which are specific tial and physical qualities of the dwelling and to what to them (Champault, 1969). The “ksar” of Bechar, also extent these can have an effect on both the building known as “ksar of Taghda”, was first built by “Berber” and its inhabitants. Through this comparative study, it peasants settled in “Ouakda”, who later were joined by is hoped toidentify to what extent contemporary dwell- Arab population who settled there. The presence of mil- ings measure up to the sustainability credentials of the itary forces and the need for protection attracted traders “ksour”, as a form of dwelling, andtheenvironmental who came to settle around the fortified outpost. The con- quality of life for its inhabitants with a view to learn from struction of the railway road together with the passing of them in the search of a more socially, culturally and en- trading caravans turned Bechar into an attractive mar- vironmentally suitable form of urban dwellings for the ketplace, which became the “radiant city” in the entire future urban dwellers of these hot arid regions. region and even the Southeast of Morocco. Due to the lack of written documents, it is the legends that can provide some information about the origin of the old “ksar” The Case Study of Bechar. In his novel “Meriam in the palms” (Mohamed Ould Sheikh, 1936), the author gives one version of the Bechar is the largest province in the South West, located legend of Bechar. The couriers of the surrounding areas in the West of the Sahara. It is a part of what previous- came to the “ksar of Taghda” to collect news from trad- ly used to be the province of Saoura, where Bechar is ers who arrive from various parts of the region. This is the capital of the province; it is about 1,150 km from the how Bechar was given its name which, in Arabic, means capital and about 850 km north of the city of Tindouf and someone bringing good news. This suggests that the re- about 80 kilometres from the border with the Kingdom gion was an important post for travellers and caravans of Morocco. who carried the news with them. Another locally known The old quarter in Bechar consists of self-built traditional legend, quoted in a book by Hani (2002), suggested that dwellings with no input from architects, but through the the name “Bechar” came from the fact that a soldier sent craftsmanship of master builders who produced build- by a Muslim sultan to perform reconnaissance on the re- ings that respect the local environment and reflect the gion during the Islamic expeditions in the region in the economic means of low-income people. With the im- 9th century discovered the presence of water in a desert provement in economic conditions, the need to expand to landscape, hence, the name was derived from the root accommodate a growing population and the socio-cul- “bchara”, which means good news. tural changes that found their way into the contempo- Different climates require different and adequate adapta- rary society, changes were introduced to the traditional tions to satisfy the needs.Vernacular architectures that dwellings. Obvious changes include the building layout developed throughout history havemany original and in- and fabric, the size of plots and streets, the introduc- teresting design practices and techniques (Singh, 2009). tion of new domestic technologies and the appearance Vernacular building construction techniques and specifi- of new materials for construction. In short, the current cations are mainly based on knowledge acquired through 122 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4

The location of the city of Bechar seasonal swings in daily air temperatures from−5°C in the Fig. 1. cold season and up to 46°C during the hot season. The 1 2 daily amplitude remains variable and significant through- 3 out the year, about 20 to 25°C. 4 5 6 7 8 9 Traditional Dwellings 10 11 The internal layout of a “ksour” house is typical of tra- 12 ditional settlements of the region based on the central 13 14 space (see Fig. 3). The “skifa”, or entrance hall, is a tran- 15 16 sitional space between the street and the inside of the 17 house as well as a filter between the inside of the house 18 20 19 Fig. 1 The location of the city of Bechar 21 Fig. 2 “Ksar" Bechar.Source:(a female space) Google Earth andthe 2018. guest room (a male space). This 22 latter one, locally known as “dar jmaa” is located next to 23Fig. 2. “Ksar" Bechar. 24 Different climates require different and adequate adaptations to satisfy thethe needs.Vernacularmain entrance architectures and opens the inner courtyard right 1 25 that developed throughout history havemany original and interesting designinside practices the and house.techniques The (Singh, rooms, which are long, are ar- 26 2009). Vernacular building construction techniques and specifications are mainly based on knowledge acquired 2 27 through the trial and error principle rather than conventional practices. Itranged creates aaround harmony the between courtyard the and open onto it. They tend 3 28 dwelling, inhabitants, and the environment which surrounds them, reflecting the environmental, cultural, and 4 29 historical context in which they exist. Thevernacular architecture of the “ksour”to be was closed able to create externally comfortable apart from the presence of some 5 30 climate conditions indoor by applying design strategies adapted to the naturalhigh-level and social conditions small openings of specific for some of them. The central 6 31 locations (Rakoto-Joseh et al., 2009; Rana et al., 2015). The climate of Bechar and the surrounding areas is a dry 7 32 and hot one, exceeding the thermal comfort during the day and night. Duringcourtyard winter, the orcold patio season traps extends the coolness from the air for a 8 33 from December to February;the monthly average air temperature reaches itslong minimum time of due3.3°C to in itsDecember. enclosure, and its cooling effect de- 9 34 During the hot summer season (June to August), the same temperature climbs all the way to 39.6°C in July. The 10 35 climate alsoshows large seasonal swings in daily air temperatures from−5°Cpendson in the cold seasonthe width and up of to the46°C yard enclosure. The house usu- 11 36 during the hot season. The daily amplitude remains variableand significant throughout the year, about 20 to25°C. 12 37 ally has two or more multi-purpose rooms, depending on 13 38 the size of the family and tends to be used more than just 14 39 Traditional Dwellings 15 40 as sleeping bedrooms. The kitchen or “kanoun”is usu- 16 41 The internal layout of a “ksour” house is typical of traditional settlementsally of thesurrounded region based on with the central three walls and can be uncovered 17 42 space (see Fig. 3). The “skifa”, or entrance hall, is a transitional space between the street and the inside of the 18 43 house 20as well as a filter between the inside of the house (a female space) andtheand guest open room for (a maleventilation. space). This The storage room or “el kasr” is 19 Fig. 1 The location of the city of Bechar 44Source: latter Google 21one, EarthlocallyFig. 2 2018. “Ksar"known Bechar.Source:as “dar jmaa” is Google located Earthnext to2018. the main entrance andone opens of the the innermost courtyard important right rooms in the home where the 22 45 inside the house. The rooms, which are long, are arranged around the courtyard and open onto it. They tend to be 23 46 closed externally apart from the presence of some high-level small openingsfoodstuff for some ofis them. kept. The It centralhouses a special element,a feature 24 Different climates require different and47 adequate courtyard adap tationsor patio to trapssatisfy the the coolness needs.Vernacular from the air architectures for a long time due to its enclosure, and its cooling effect called “khbaya”, which is a cylindrical form hanging from 25 that developed throughout history havemany48the original trialdependson andand interesting the error width designofprinciple the yard practices enclosure. rather and techniquesThe than house conventionalusually(Singh, has two or more multi-purpose rooms, depending 26 2009). Vernacular building construction techniques49 on and the specifications size of the family are mainly and tends based to beon usedknowledge more than acquired just as sleeping bedrooms.the ceiling The kitchen like caves,or “kanoun”is used for keeping the foodstuff cool. 27 through the trial and error principle rather50practices. thanusually conventional It surrounded creates practices. witha harmony threeIt creates walls betweenaand harmony can be theuncoveredbetween dwelling, the and open in -for ventilation. The storage room or “el 51 kasr” is one of the most important rooms in the home where the foodstuff isThemain kept. It houses family a special room element,a “masria”has the highest status in 28 dwelling, inhabitants, and the environmenthabitants, which surrounds and them, the reflectingenvironment the environmental, which surrounds cultural, and them, 29 historical context in which they exist. Thevernacular52 feature architecture called “khbaya”, of the “ksour” which was is a ablecylindrical to create form comfortable hanging from the ceilingthe like traditional caves, used for“ksar” keeping dwelling; the it is where the patriarchal 30 climate conditions indoor by applying design53reflecting strategiesfoodstuff adapted the cool. environmental, toThemain the natural family and room social cultural, “masria”has conditions and the of historical highestspecific status con in -the traditional “ksar”dwelling; it is where 31 locations (Rakoto-Joseh et al., 2009; Rana et54 al., 2015).the patriarchal The climate head of of Bechar the family and the reads surrounding the Quran. areas is a dry head of the family reads the Quran. 32 and hot one, exceeding the thermal comfort55text during in whichtheThe day function andthey night. exist.of theDuring space Thevernacular winter, and the the social cold status architectureseason of extendsits users determineof the its importance, but never the shape of 33 from December to February;the monthly average56“ksour” theair architecturalwastemperature able design.toreaches create its minimum comfortable of 3.3°C climate in December. conditions The function of the space and the social status of its us- 34 During the hot summer season (June to August),57 the same temperature climbs all the way to 39.6°C in July. The 35 climate alsoshows large seasonal swings in58 indoordaily air bytemperatures applying from design−5°C in strategies the cold season adapted and up to to 46°C the natu- ers determine its importance, but never the shape of the 36 during the hot season. The daily amplitude remainsral and variableand social conditions significant throughout of specific the year, locations about 20 to25°C. (Rakoto-Jo - architectural design. 37 38 seh et al., 2009; Rana et al., 2015). The climate of Bechar Traditional vernacular housesin this climate require 39 Traditional Dwellings 40 and the surrounding areas is a dry and hot one, exceed- specific design features such as compact urban fabrics 41 The internal layout of a “ksour” house ingis typical the ofthermal traditional comfort settlements during of the region the daybased and on the night. central During (Fig. 5a), regular forms, optimal orientation and fenes- 42 space (see Fig. 3). The “skifa”, or entrance hall, is a transitional space between the street and the inside of the winter, the cold season extends from December to Feb- tration, massively built solid roofs with high thermal ca- 43 house as well as a filter between the inside of the house (a female space) andthe guest room (a male space).4 This 44 latter one, locally known as “dar jmaa” is locatedruary; next the to themonthly main entrance average and opens air thetemperature inner courtyard reaches right its pacity materials and courtyards as microclimate modifi- 45 inside the house. The rooms, which are long, are arranged around the courtyard and open onto it. They tend to be 46 closed externally apart from the presence minimumof some high-level of 3.3°C small inopenings December. for some During of them. the The hot central summer ers. The main materials used, in this case, are sun dried 47 courtyard or patio traps the coolness from seasonthe air for (June a long timeto August), due to its enclosure,the same and temperatureits cooling effect climbs 48 dependson the width of the yard enclosure. The house usually has two or more multi-purpose rooms, depending clay blocks for walls with earth and palm trees sourced 49 on the size of the family and tends to be usedall morethe waythan just to 39.6°Cas sleeping in bedrooms.July. The The climate kitchen oralso “kanoun”is shows large timber for the roof. The walls are usually 500-mm thick 50 usually surrounded with three walls and can be uncovered and open for ventilation. The storage room or “el 51 kasr” is one of the most important rooms in the home where the foodstuff is kept. It houses a special element,a 52 feature called “khbaya”, which is a cylindrical form hanging from the ceiling like caves, used for keeping the 53 foodstuff cool. Themain family room “masria”has the highest status in the traditional “ksar”dwelling; it is where 54 the patriarchal head of the family reads the Quran. 55 The function of the space and the social status of its users determine its importance, but never the shape of 56 the architectural design. 57 58

Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4 123

Fig. 3. Floor plans of a vernacular “ksour” house.

1 2 3 Fig. 3 Floor plans of a vernacular “ksour” house.Source: by authors. 4 5 6 Traditional vernacular housesin this climate require specificdesignfeatures such as compact urban fabrics 7 (Fig. 5a), regular forms, optimalorientation and fenestration, massively built solid roofs with 8 highthermalcapacity1 materials and courtyards as microclimate modifiers. The main materials used, in this case, aresun dried clay1 2 blocks for walls with earth and palm trees sourced timber for the roof. The walls are usually 9 2 10 500-mm thick to3 maintainFig. 3 the Floorroom plans at comfortable of a vernacular temperatures, “ksour” house.Source: cool in summer by authors. and warm in winter,due to the Source:3 4by authors.Fig. 3 Floor plans of a vernacular “ksour” house.Source: by authors. 11 effect of its thermal4 5 mass. Openings, which are located high for privacy, are usually small in size to reduce heat 12 and solar glare5 (see6 Fig. 5c).Traditional vernacular housesin this climate require specificdesignfeatures such as compact urban fabrics 13 Fig. 64. 7 The use(Fig. ofTraditional timber5a), andregular vernacularearthin theforms, construction housesin optimalorientation this a heavy climate roof. require and specificdesignfeaturesfenestration, massively such asbuilt compact solid urban roofs fabrics with 14 7 8 (Fig.highthermalcapacity 5a), regular forms,materials optimalorientation and courtyards as microclimaand fenestration,te modifiers. massively The main builtmaterials solid used, roofs in this with case, 8 9 highthermalcapacityaresun dried clay blocksmaterials for andwalls courtyards with earth as and microclima palm treeste modifiers.sourced timber The main for the materials roof. The used, walls in thisare usuallycase, 15 9 aresun dried clay blocks for walls with earth and palm trees sourced timber for the roof. The walls are usually 16 10 500-mm thick to maintain the room at comfortable temperatures, cool in summer and warm in winter,due to the 1011 500-mmeffect ofthick its thermalto maintain mass. the Openings, room at comfortable which are located temperatures, high for cool privacy, in summer are usually and warm small inin winter,duesize to reduce to the heat 17 1112 effectand ofsolar its glarethermal (see mass. Fig. 5c).Openings, which are located high for privacy, are usually small in size to reduce heat 18 1213 and solar glare (see Fig. 5c). 19 1314 20 1415 1516 21 16 22 17 1718 23 1819 24 1920 25 2021 26 2122 27 2223 23 28 24 2425 29 Fig. 4 The use of timber and earthin the construction a heavy roof.Source: by authors. Source:2526 by authors. 30 2627 31 Traditional2728 patio houses in the hot and dry region of Becharcan also be considered as a successful climate- responsive architecture2829 that Fig.responds 4 The touse many of timber environmental and earthin the challenges. construction aThese heavy roof.Source:houses make by authors.use of passive 32 to maintain the room at comfortable temperatures, cool The passive cooling system in the traditional dwelling re- 33 cooling and heating2930 strategies Fig. to4 provide The use thermalof timber comfortand earthin for the their construction occupants. a heavy roof.Source: by authors. 30 34 The inpassive summer31 cooling and Traditional warmsystem in in winter, patio the traditionalhouses due toin the dwelling hoteffect and dry ofrelies its region onlies of the onBecharcan thermal the thermal also properties be properties considered of the of as materialthe a successful material used, climate-used, their thermal3132 mass.responsiveTraditional Openings, architecture patio which houses are that locatedin responds the hot high andto formanydry pri region -environmental ofthermal Becharcan capacitychallenges. also be and considered These the presencehouses as a makesuccessful of the use courtyard. ofclimate- passive The 35 their thermal32 capacity responsive and thearchitecture presence that of responds the courtyard. to many environmentalThe thermal challenges.capacity ofThese the houses air is makevery uselow; of passivethe vacy,33 are usuallycooling small and heating in size strategies to reduce to provideheat and thermal solar comfort thermal for their capacity occupants. of the air is very low; the temperature 36 temperature 33of34 the coolingcourtyard Theand passiveisheating also coolingstrategiesclose to system tothe provide temperature in the thermal traditional comfortof itsdwelling surrounding for their relies occupants. on surfaces.the thermal At properties night, the of thewalls material and used, 37 floor of theglare courtyard3435 (see Fig.their are The5c). thermalcooled passive capacity downcooling due systemand to the radiation in presence the traditional heatof the loss dwelling courtyard. toof the the relies open Thecourtyard on thermal sky.the thermal Thus,is capacityalso propertiesthese close of surfaces theto of theair the is temperaturematerialwill very stay low; used, the of its 38 cool untilTraditional the35 next36 theirmorning. patiotemperature thermal houses Therefore, capacityof thein courtyardthe andmost hot the areasandis presence also dry ofclose theregion of to centralthe the ofcourtyard. temperature courtyardsurrounding The of thermalhaveits surrounding surfaces. a coolercapacity At surfaces.air night,of temperaturethe theAtair night,wallsis very theduringand low; walls floor the and of the 3637 temperaturefloor of the of courtyard the courtyard are cooled is also downclose dueto the to temperatureradiation heat of lossits surrounding to the open surfaces.sky. Thus, At these night, surfaces the walls will and stay 39 mornings.Becharcan At the same also time, be asconsidered the outside as aira successfultemperatures cli start- courtyardrising due are to cooled solar radiations,down due totheir radiation effect heat is loss to 3738 floorcool of until the courtyardthe next morning. are cooled Therefore, down due most to radiation areas of heatthe central loss to courtyard the open sky.have Thus,a cooler these air surfacestemperature will duringstay 40 preventedmate-responsive from38 reachingcool until the architecturethe inside next morning.of the that rooms Therefore, responds due mostto to presence manyareas of theofthe thecentral open cool courtyard sky. air Thus,in thehave these courtyard. a cooler surfaces air This temperature will is stay helped cool during until the 41 by the large thermal39 massmornings. of the At wallsthe same around time, theas thecourtyard outside air(Farzaneh temperatures et al., start 2016). rising In due the to evening, solar radiations, the process their effectis is environmental3940 mornings.prevented challenges. At from the reachingsame These time, thehouses as inside the outside makeof the roomsuseair temperatures of due tonext presence morning. start risingof the Therefore, duecool to air solar in most the radiations, courtyard. areas of their theThis centraleffect is helped is court - 42 reversed as the4041 heat prevented storedby the largein from the thermal reaching structure mass the needsof inside the walls toof bethe around released.rooms the due courtyard The to yardpresence cool have(Farzaneh air of ina the cooler the coolet al.,courtyard air 2016). intemperature the In helpscourtyard. the evening, ventilate during This the is mornings.thatprocess helped is At heat gain passiveinto41 the coolingoutsideby the large andand thermalheatingkeep the mass strategies inside of the cooler. walls to provide around Without thether courtyardthe- presence (Farzaneh of the et courtyard,al., 2016). In a the large evening, proportion the process of is 43 42 reversed as the heat stored in the structure needs to bethe released. same The time, cool as air thein the outside courtyard air helps temperatures ventilate that start 44 that heat malwould42 comfort43 stay reversed heatinside for gain their as the theinto occupants. househeat the outsidestored and in andraise the keep structure its thetemperature inside needs cooler. to be even released.Without further theThe presence (Meircool air et ofin al., the 1995;courtyard,courtyard Farzaneh helpsa large ventilate proportionet al., that of 45 2016). The rooms4344 heathavethat gain heatflat into roofswould the outsidethatstay insideare and mainly keepthe house the made inside and of raisecooler. palm its Without temperaturetree branches the presence even withfurther of thetheir (Meir courtyard, leaves et al., aand1995; large a Farzanehproportionmassive et of al., 4445 that2016). heat Thewould rooms stay haveinside flat the roofs house that and are raise mainly its temperature made of palm even tree further branches (Meir with et al., their 1995; leaves Farzaneh and a massiveet al., 46 layer of earth.45 This 2016). adds toThe the rooms thermal have capacityflat roofs ofthat the are structure mainly made and ofcontributes palm tree branches to the passive with their cooling leaves systemand a massive as 47 described above.46 Traditionallayer of earth. wind This catchers adds to “hinia” the thermal are capacitypart of aof natural the structure cooling and contributessystem while to the small passive narrow cooling high- system as 4647 layerdescribed of earth. above. This Traditionaladds to the windthermal catchers capacity “hinia” of the are structure part of anda natural contributes cooling to system the passive while cooling small narrow system high- as 48 level openings4748 provide describedlevel natural openings above. light. provideTraditional natural wind light. catchers “hinia” are part of a natural cooling system while small narrow high- 49 4849 level openings provide natural light. 49 5 5 5 124 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4

rising due to solar radiations, their effect is prevented from that heat would stay inside the house and raise its tem- reaching the inside of the rooms due to presence of the perature even further (Meir et al., 1995; Farzaneh et al., cool air in the courtyard. This is helped by the large ther- 2016). The rooms have flat roofs that are mainly made mal mass of the walls around the courtyard (Farzaneh of palm tree branches with their leaves and a massive et al., 2016). In the evening, the process is reversed as layer of earth. This adds to the thermal capacity of the the heat stored in the structure needs to be released. structure and contributes to the passive cooling system The cool air in the courtyard helps ventilate that heat as described above. Traditional wind catchers “hinia” gain into the outside and keep the inside cooler. With- are part of a natural cooling system while small narrow out the presence of the courtyard, a large proportion of high-level openings provide natural light.

Fig. 5. Elements of sustainability in the old vernacular city “ksar”of Bechar

1 1 1

2 2 23 (a)(a) General General view: view:compact compact urban urban layout layout (b) FortifiedFortified wallwall 3 34 (a) General view:compact(a) General view:compacturban layout urban layout (b) Fortified wall (b) Fortified wall 4 4

5 5 56 6 67 (c)Small(c) Small windowswindows andand wind catchercatcher (d) Narrow(c) Narrow alleyways. alleyways. Source: Source: Ballalou Ballalou (2008). (2008) 7 (c)Small7 windows(c)Small and windwindows catcher and wind catcher (d) Narrow alleyways. (d) Narrow Source: alleyways. Ballalou Source: (2008). Ballalou (2008). 8 Fig. 5 Elements of sustainability in the old vernacular city “ksar”of Bechar 8 89 Fig. 5 ElementsFig. of 5sustainability Elements of sustainabilityin the old vernacular in the old city vernacular “ksar”of city Bechar “ksar”of Bechar 9 109 At the urban scale, the type of materials used, the size of the plots and the separation (width of alleyways) At the urban scale, the type of materials used, the size of the plots and the separation (width of alleyways) 10 At1011 theAt urbantheare urban allscale, factors scale, the typethat the contributeof type materials of materials to used,the specific the used, size characteristics the of thesize plots of andof the the the settlement settlement separation andand (width the the environmental ofenvironmental alleyways) performance performance 11 are all factors that contribute to the specific characteristics of the settlement and the environmental performance 11 are all factors12 thatof its contribute dwellings. to The the compactspecific urbancharacteristics layout contributes of the settlement to self-shading and the and environmental reduction of performanceexcessively high levels of 12of theof plotsits dwellings. and the Theseparation compact (width urban oflayout alleyways) contributes are to self-shadingof its dwellings. and reduction The compact of excessively urban layout high levels contributes of 12 of its dwellings.13 solar The radiationcompact thaturban can layout cause contributes overheating. to self-shadingNarrow enclosed and reduction alleyways of provide excessively shading high during levels theof hot season. 13all factorssolar radiation that contribute that can to cause the specificoverheating. characteristics Narrow enclosed to self-shading alleyways provide and reduction shading duringof excessively the hot season. high levels 13 solar radiation14 Fromthat can a different, cause overheating. but relevant, Narrow perspective, enclosed urban alleyways morphology provide and landscapeshading during evolution the describehot season. the relationship 14 From a different, but relevant, perspective, urban morphology and landscape evolution describe the relationship 14 From a 15different, between but relevant, society perspective,and place: theurban way morphology humans inhabit and landscapespace and evolution intervene describe in it through the relationship the use of the various 15 between society and place: the way humans inhabit space and intervene in it through the use of the various between16 society production and place: methods the way in theirhumans daily inhabit lives. Thespace link and between intervene a community in it through and athe landscape use of theis expressed various through the 15 16 production methods in their daily lives. The link between a community and a landscape is expressed through the 16 production17 methodsactivities in their of individuals daily lives. and The territorial link between behaviour a community and cover and a numbera landscape of aspects is expressed including through the type the of economy 1718 activitiesand how naturalof individuals resources and are territorial used, the behaviour type of regulation and cover and a number the ways of buildingsaspects including are built, the which type all of leave economy their 17 activities18 of individualsand how natural and territorial resources behaviour are used, andthe typecover of a regulation number of and aspects the ways including buildings the aretype built, of economy which all leave their 18 and how19 natural imprints resources on theare builtused, environment the type of regulation that makes and up the waysurban buildingsspace. Agrarian are built, and which industrial all leave societies their gave birth to 19 imprintsspecific landscapes,on the built seenenvironment as a synthesis that makes not only up the of urbanthe social space. or Agrarianeconomic and nature industrial of its inhabitantssocieties gave but birth also toof 19 imprints20 on the built environment that makes up the urban space. Agrarian and industrial societies gave birth to 2021 specifichistorical landscapes, and cultural seen foundations. as a synthesis Thus, not strong only linksof the have social been or foundeconomic between nature the of perception its inhabitants of the but landscape also of 20 specific landscapes, seen as a synthesis not only of the social or economic nature of its inhabitants but also of 2122 historicaland many and concepts cultural associated foundations. with Thus,the idea strong of place links identity have been (Cerasella found between andMaria, the 2014, perception cited inof H theărm landscapeănescu et 21 historical and cultural foundations. Thus, strong links have been found between the perception of the landscape 2223 andal., 2016).many concepts associated with the idea of place identity (Cerasella andMaria, 2014, cited in Hărmănescu et 22 and many concepts associated with the idea of place identity (Cerasella andMaria, 2014, cited in Hărmănescu et 2324 al., 2016). al., 2016). 23 2425

24 2526 The Contemporary Dwellings 25 2627 The Contemporary Dwellings 26 The Contemporary2728 DwellingsDuring the 1950s, the colonial administration introduced urban neighbourhoods, consisting of residential 27 2829 plots, Duringorganised the in1950s, a chequered the colonial board administration pattern. Apart introduced from theurban rigid neighbourhoods, orthogonal grid, consisting this type of residential of urban 28 During2930 plots,theintervention 1950s, organised the has colonial inalso a introducedchequered administration theboard garden introduced pattern. house Aparturban or villa neighbourhoods,from typology the rigid for orthogonal consistinglarge isolated ofgrid, residential plots. this typeThese of changes urban 29 plots, organised3031 interventioncontinued in a chequered to has appear also board afterintroduced thepattern. independence the Apart garden from andhouse affectedthe or rigid villa both orthogonaltypology at the levelfor grid, large of thisthe isolated dwellingtype ofplots. andurban These the settlement changes 30 intervention3132 hascontinued“ksar”. also Inintroduced theto appear case ofthe after the garden former, the independence house the introduction or villa and typology affectedof new Western forboth large at inspiredthe isolated level dwelling ofplots. the dwelling Thesemodels changes has and affected the settlement the way 31 continued3233 to appear“ksar”.the dwelling afterIn the the caseis organisedindependence of the former, spatially and the affected asintroduction well asboth its of contentsat new the Westernlevel in termsof inspiredthe of dwelling furniture dwelling and and models thefittings. settlement has They affected also the mark way a 32 “ksar”. 3334In the casetheturning dwellingof the point former, is in organised the the evolution introduction spatially of domesticasof newwell Westernas architecture its contents inspired with in dwellingterms the introduction of modelsfurniture has ofand affectedspaces fittings. suchthe They way as thealso hall, mark the a 33 the dwelling3435 isturningcorridor, organised point the spatially balcony,in the evolutionas the well la rgeas of itsbay domestic contents window, architecture in modernterms of furniture withfurniture the and introductionand appl fittings.iances of They suchspaces alsotables, such mark chairs,as a the fireplace,hall, the 34 turning35 36point incorridor,oven, the refrigeratorevolution the balcony, of and domestic thepower large supply.architecture bay window, These with changes modern the introduction affected furniture all and ofnew spacesappl dwellingiances such suchtypologies, as thetables, hall, bechairs, the that thefireplace, multi- 35 corridor,36 the balcony,oven, refrigerator the large andbay powerwindow, supply. modern These furniture changes and affected appliances all new such dwelling tables, typologies,chairs, fireplace, be that the multi- 36 oven, refrigerator and power supply. These changes affected all new6 dwelling typologies, be that the multi- 6 6 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4 125

of solar radiation that can cause overheating. Narrow Contemporary dwellings are characterised by a compart- enclosed alleyways provide shading during the hot sea- mentalised layout without the presence of the traditional son. From a different, but relevant, perspective, rbanu central courtyard and the multi-functional rooms (see morphology and landscape evolution describe the re- Fig. 6). The introduction of rooms with specific functions, lationship between society and place: the way humans such as the dining room, the kitchen, the living room, inhabit space and intervene in it through the use of the the child’s corner, the dining room, the TV area, and bed- various production methods in their daily lives. The link rooms, is a feature of contemporary dwellings. The lay- between a community and a landscape is expressed out consists of a distribution node (corridor and staircase) through the activities of individuals and territorial behav- from which there is access to the various rooms of the iour and cover a number of aspects including the type of house. Although some examples of dwellings have a economy and how natural resources are used, the type courtyard, it is not central and hardly used as a climate of regulation and the ways buildings are built, which all moderator, which is the case in the traditional dwellings. leave their imprints on the built environment that makes The newly acquired features extend to new construction 1 occupancy apartment block type or the privately/self-built individual houses. In this study, the focus is on the up the urban space. Agrarian and industrial societies2 latter methods for a direct and comparison materials. with The the usetraditional of reinforced dwellings concrete as stated previously.in gave birth to specific landscapes, seen as a synthesis3 theContemporary structural frame, dwellings concrete are characterised blocks and by clay a compartmentalised fired bricks layout without the presence of the not only of the social or economic nature of its inhabit4 -traditionalare common. central courtyard The glazed and the openings multi-functional have increased rooms (see in Fig. size 6). The introduction of rooms with specific 5 functions, such as the dining room, the kitchen, the living room, the child’s corner, the dining room, the TV ants but also of historical and cultural foundations. 6Thus, area, compared and bedrooms, with is atraditional feature of contemporaryones. The combination dwellings. The of layout the consists of a distribution node (corridor strong links have been found between the perception7 ofand staircase)used new from materials, which there larger is accessopenings to the and various little roomsthermal of the house. Although some examples of the landscape and many concepts associated with8 thedwellings consideration have a courtyard, of the thermalit is not centralperformance and hardly of theused building as a climate moderator, which is the case in the 9 traditional dwellings. The newly acquired features extend to new construction methods and materials. The use of idea of place identity (Cerasella andMaria, 2014, cited10 inreinforced fabric concretehave led in tothe the structural use of frame,both heating concrete and blocks air andcondi clay- fired bricks are common. The glazed Hărmănescu et al., 2016). 11 openingstioning have in increasedan attempt in sizeto mitigate compared against with traditional the harshness ones. The of combination of the used new materials, 12 largerthe openings climatic and conditions. little thermal consideration of the thermal performance of the building fabric have led to the 13 use of both heating and air conditioning in an attempt to mitigate against the harshness of the climatic 14 conditions.The new physical and spatial characteristics of what be- 15 cameThe newof the physical dwelling and spatialhave affected characteristics the ofway what of lifebecame for theof the dwelling have affected the way of life The Contemporary Dwellings 16 for the family. The solid family unit that shared the spaces and family activities has given way to individual use 17 of roomsfamily. by individualThe solid members family unitof the that family shared for the the best spaces of times. and Even when family members are in the same During the 1950s, the colonial administration introduced18 room, family they are activities interacting has virtually, given way with topeople individual outside use the familyof rooms unit, through social media gadgetry. The new urban neighbourhoods, consisting of residential19 plots, way of life has also extended to the function of hospitality, as the clear demarcation of male only space for organised in a chequered board pattern. Apart from20 theguests has disappeared. 21 rigid orthogonal grid, this type of urban intervention has Fig.6. Layout of a contemporary dwelling also introduced the garden house or villa typology for large isolated plots. These changes continued to appear after the independence and affected both at the level of the dwelling and the settlement “ksar”. In the case of the former, the introduction of new Western inspired dwelling models has affected the way the dwelling is organised spatially as well as its contents in terms of furniture and fittings. They also mark a turning point in the evolution of domestic architecture with the introduction of spaces such as the hall, the corridor, the balcony, the large bay window, modern furniture and appliances such tables, chairs, fireplace, oven, refrigerator and power 22 supply. These changes affected all new dwelling23 typol - Fig.61. Entrance Layout of a 5.contemporary Bedroom dwelling9. Courtyard ogies, be that the multi-occupancy apartment block24 type 2. Garage 6. Bathroom 10. Corridor or the privately/self-built individual houses. In this25 study, 3. Livingroom 7. W.C. 11. Family room 26 Comparison between the Traditional and the Contemporary Dwellings the focus is on the latter for a direct comparison with27 the 4. Staircase 8. Kitchen 12. Balcony traditional dwellings as stated previously. 28 During the 1950s, the colonial administration introduced urban neighbourhoods, consisting of residential 29 plots,organisedin a chequered board pattern. Apart from the rigid orthogonal grid, this type of urban intervention 30 has also introduced the garden house or villa typology, which has become the most favoured type of dwellings 31 for the privately and self-built sector that has seen its introduction en-masse as a result of the housing sector 32 deregulation in the 1990s. These changes have also affected the way the dwelling is organised spatially as well 33 asits contents in terms of furniture and fittings. They also mark a turning point in the evolution of domestic 34 architecture with the introduction of spaces such as the hall, corridor, balcony, large bay window, modern 35 furniture and appliances, such tables, chairs, fireplace, oven, refrigerator and power supply, instead of relying on 36 the natural ventilation system, which is fundamental in the design of old vernacular houses. 37 At the level of the dwelling, a direct comparison between the two typologies reveals quite few differences 38 as shown in Table 1 below. While those differences have an impact on the physical characteristics of the 39 dwelling and the way the space is used, their effect is also extended to the neighbourhood. In the traditional 40 settlement, the financial contribution and the participation in the works by the neighbours are always means of 41 asserting a sense of civic pride among the inhabitants of the “ksar” of Bechar, that confirms the existence of a 42 certain relationship of togetherness among the inhabitants of the district during social and cultural events, such as 43 the celebration of the prophet’s birthday or the renovation of the old mosque through community funded means 44 in the face of being neglected by the state authorities. 45 In the self/privately built contemporary neighbourhoods, social participation and solidarity have been 46 replaced by the use of paid-up contractors who have no interest in the matters of the neighbourhood beyond what

7 126 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4

by individual members of the family for the best of times. replaced by the use of paid-up contractors who have Even when family members are in the same room, they no interest in the matters of the neighbourhood beyond are interacting virtually, with people outside the family unit, what they can get for their time on the building work. through social media gadgetry. The new way of life has Table 1 below highlights the main features of the tradi- also extended to the function of hospitality, as the clear de- tional and contemporary dwellings. marcation of male only space for guests has disappeared.

Comparison between the Traditional Discussion and the Contemporary Dwellings The changes that occurred in the urban settlements in During the 1950s, the colonial administration intro- Bechar over the last six decades were inevitable for a duced urban neighbourhoods, consisting of residential number of reasons including political, demographic, plots, organised in a chequered board pattern. Apart from economic and urban ones. Their impact has marked the the rigid orthogonal grid, this type of urban intervention individual dwellings, the neighbourhoods and the city in has also introduced the garden house or villa typology, its entirety. In this study, however, the focus was kept on which has become the most favoured type of dwellings the dwelling. for the privately and self-built sector that has seen its The transformations introduced into the urban neigh- introduction en-masse as a result of the housing sec- bourhoodin the form of contemporary dwellings brought tor deregulation in the 1990s. These changes have also with them much welcomed modern commodities and affected the way the dwelling is organised spatially as services that made domestic life easier and comforta- well asits contents in terms of furniture and fittings. They ble such as contemporary furniture, fittings and rooms/ also mark a turning point in the evolution of domestic spaces where specialist functions became common architecture with the introduction of spaces such as the features of the contemporary dwellings. Contemporary hall, corridor, balcony, large bay window, modern furni- servicing, such as hot and cold running water, elec- ture and appliances, such tables, chairs, fireplace, oven, tric appliances, air conditioning and gas heating, have refrigerator and power supply, instead of relying on the brought about much needed domestic improvements. natural ventilation system, which is fundamental in the All these changes, however, did not address two major design of old vernacular houses. aspects of the traditional dwelling. The latter was con- At the level of the dwelling, a direct comparison be- ceived and built to be of low energy and low environ- tween the two typologies reveals quite few differences as mental impact due to its use of passive design strate- shown in Table 1 below. While those differences have an gies. The contemporary dwellings are characterised by impact on the physical characteristics of the dwelling and a lower environmental performance and higher energy the way the space is used, their effect is also extended to inputs. On the socio-cultural front, the contemporary the neighbourhood. In the traditional settlement, the fi- dwellings introduced new building forms that are alien nancial contribution and the participation in the works by to the local culture and heritage and, more importantly, the neighbours are always means of asserting a sense of their design, production methods and ways of ownership civic pride among the inhabitants of the “ksar” of Bechar, seem to have affected the traditional ways of space us- that confirms the existence of a certain relationship age with the dwelling (space hierarchy, demarcation of of togetherness among the inhabitants of the district male/female spaces) and destabilised the social bonds during social and cultural events, such as the celebra- within the neighbourhood. Some aspects of social life, tion of the prophet’s birthday or the renovation of the such as neighbours’ involvement in the running of the old mosque through community funded means in the affairs of the neighbourhood, have all but disappeared. face of being neglected by the state authorities. In traditional settlements, the neighbours participate in In the self/privately built contemporary neighbour- and run the process and the affairs of the settlement, in- hoods, social participation and solidarity have been cluding the cleaning of shared public spaces, building and Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4 127

Table 1. Comparison between traditional and contemporary dwellings

Traditional dwelling Contemporary dwelling

1. Location Along the river by the palm grove Anywhere, no specific location

2. Building cluster Compact arrangement Linear (row arrangement)

3. Rooms layout/features A. More than two rooms multi-purpose depending on the A. Individual rooms and with specific function number of family members B. Western style appliances, refrigerator and larder B. Storage room C. A compartmentalised kitchen with modern C. The kitchen as an open space with natural ventilation appliances D. Entrance “skifa” leading to courtyard D. Entrance hall or corridor directly in contact with the E. Distribution by central courtyard outside public space F. All rooms are opened to the courtyard E. Hall or corridor G. Walls: stone, clay, and sand more than 300 mm thick F. Compartmentalised rooms accessed from corridor H. Roof: flat heavy construction of palm branches and timbers, G. Walls 250–300 mm thickof concrete blocks clay and straw H. Roofs made of reinforced concrete, bricks and I. External walls are covered with earth-based renders of vivid mortar colours and textures I. Glazed ceramic tiles, cement render and paint J. Alcoves for wall decorations on internal walls J. White plaster

4. Thermal comfort A. Built with the climate in mind, for passive strategies A. Designed without due concern of local climate, B. Use of thermal mass (earth, water and trees in the inadequate position and orientation of openings courtyard) B. Lack of thermal and acoustic comfort C. Ventilation through wind catchers and windows towards the D. Air turbulences from windows on outside walls courtyard C. Mechanical heating in winter E. Passive heating from solar radiation on thesouth eastern D. Mechanical cooling using air conditioning led to façade reducing daily temperature fluctuations F. Passive cooling by compact urban pattern providing self- shading and the use of high thermal mass in internal walls

5. Social responsibility and sustainability A. Dwelling responsive to user’s physical, physiological and B. Social dimension of sustainability weakened due to cultural needs rearrangement of dwellings A. Heritage/culture inspired dwelling that promotes family B. A western style dwelling introducing an alien bonds socio-cultural model 128 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4

maintenance of public facilities and celebration of social/ courtyard-enabled natural ventilation and the minimi- religious occasions. These aspects of social and cultur- sation of exposed external surfaces, which contribute al life no longer exist and, as a result, the social bonds to the passive cooling strategy. within the neighbourhood are reduced to people greeting The other important feature of the traditional dwelling is the each other in the street or socialising over a drink in the building envelope. The use of almost blind façade, except neighbourhood café. for the odd small openings, reduces heat gains and ensures While change is an inevitability and a necessity, be that privacy. The use of locally sourced materials is another fea- to the dwelling, neighbourhood or the city, it needs to be ture of the envelope. In the case of the “ksar” of Bechar, the sensitive to the context (physical, social, cultural, eco- materials used include timber (from palm trees), natural nomic, etc.) and attempts to learn from what worked in fibres and straw, combined with earth for the construction the traditional setting and consider if any of it could be of roofs. Adobe, clay mortar and stone are used for walls, used in a contemporary reinterpretation. The urban ex- floors and foundations. These materials provide thermal periments of the new “ksour” of the M’zab Valley (Boug- mass, much needed for the passive cooling strategy. dah and Djermouli, 2018; Daoudi et al.,2013) have clearly If traditional houses have proven their performance as demonstrated that the combination of community driven a form of dwelling that managed to militate against the and led initiatives backed by public finances to develop harshness of the local environment, preserve the cul- new models of urban settlements have yielded success- tural values of the local heritage and strengthen the so- ful examples inspired by values from the local heritage. cial bonds between the neighbours, the same cannot be said of the contemporary houses with their poor thermal performance in a hostile climate. Furthermore, the Conclusion introduction of the contemporary dwellings, without due reference to the context has produced a new form of Global production methods, new materials and services urban dwellings that does not reflect the heritage (both as well as global culture have been competing against tangible and intangible), which in turns affected the so- traditional generators of values such as family and socie- cial bonds within the neighbourhood. This goes to show ty. With the gradual abandonment of the traditional ideals that in a hot arid climate, such as that of the Sahara, of extended family and integration of the house into its traditional construction techniques and methods (pa- immediate natural environment (source of the resources tio, narrow streets and local materials such as adobe, for the construction and servicing of the dwelling) to pro- stone, palm, palm fibre, clay, etc.) are environmental- vide shelter from a hostile climate, the concept of dwell- ly friendly, economically viable and socially significant ing is changing from the big family house to the nucleus and relevant. A lesson to be learned here is that it is family house or apartment. necessary to combine some of these traditional con- The traditional dwelling is known for its environmen- struction practices with contemporary methods, ma- tal suitability and socio-cultural relevance. This is due terials and design approaches in order to minimise to a number of design features. Its layout is character- the excessive energy consumption in the use of use of ised by a high level of compactness, where the rooms air conditioning, reduce overall environmental impact open onto a central courtyard. This layout makes use of and produce culturally and socially relevant dwellings.

Reference Anand S., Gupta A., Tyagi S.K. (2013) Simulation studies of re- Banham R. (1975) Age of the Masters: A Personal View of Mod- frigeration cycles, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Review, ern Architecture.London, Architectural Press. 17(2): 260-277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.09.021 Barbara M. L. (2006) Housing and Dwelling: Perspectives on Arslan Z.D. (2008) Türkiye’deSürdürülebilirMimari (Sustainable Modern DomesticArchitecture, Routledge. Architecture in Turkey), Mimarlık. Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4 129

Barbero-Barrera M.M., Gil-Crespo I.J., Maldonado-Ramos L. Diafat A., Madani S. (2019). Tafilalt in the Mzab Valley - Algeria. (2014) Historical Development and Environment Adaptation A sustainable urban project in arid environment. urbe. Revista of the Traditional Cave-Dwellings in Tajuña’s Valley. Build En- Brasileira de Gestão Urbana, 11, e20190023. Available online at: vironment, Madrid 82(2): 536-545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. https://doi.org/10.1590/2175-3369.011.e20190023 buildenv.2014.09.023 Djermouli A. (2019) Post-independence urban dwellings in Al- Ballalou Z. (2008). Revitalisation urbaine pour la sauvegarde geria through an architecture-culture lens, PhD Thesis, Univer- du patrimoine, cas de la vallée du M’Zab. Retrieved in 2020, sity of Brighton, UK. November 3, from http://openarchive.icomos.org/1401/9/ Farzaneh S., Mehdi S., Seyed M. M.(2016) Traditional Iranian zouhir%20ballalou.pdf [ Links ]. Courtyards as Microclimate Modifiers by Considering Orienta- Benslimane N., BiaraR.W. (2017) Stratagems of Popular Homes in tion, Dimensions, and Proportions.Frontiers of ArchitecturalRe- the Desertic ClimateNow, in the Process of Perdition, AIP Confer- search.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2016.02.0022. ence Proceedings, 1814 (1).https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4976256 Fathy H. (1966) Notes on Nubian Architecture, in Contemporary Benslimane N., Biara R.W., Benslimane A.(2020) Influence of Egyptian Nubia. A Symposium of Social Research, Center of the the Prospective Technology in the Facade’s Disfiguration of the American University in Cairo, Fernea (Ed.), Cairo. Historical Houses; Case of the Old “ksar of Bechar”, Internation- Gülmez N.U., Uraz T.U. (2007) Vernacular Urban Fabric as a Source al Journal Of Conservation Science11, (1): 61-74. of Inspiration for Contemporary Sustainable Urban Environments: Bodach S., Lang W., Hamhaber J. (2014) Climate Responsive Mardin and the case of ‘Mungan House’.International Conference, Building Design Strategies of Vernacular Architecture in Ne- Sustainable Urban Areas, Rotterdam: 25-28 June 2007. pal.EnergyBuild81(1): 227-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.en- Hadjri K. (1997) Appropriate urban design approaches for Alge- build.2014.06.022 ria achievable with the no-fines method. Urban Design Interna- BougdahH. (2016) The courtyard house: can a sustainable tional 2, 109-122. https://doi.org/10.1057/udi.1997.16 future learn from a context relevant past. Environmental Sci- HaniA. (2002) Béchar et sa région entre histoire et legendes, ence and Sustainable Development 1(1): 83-95. https://doi. Oran, Dar El Gharb. org/10.21625/essd.v1i1.17 Hărmănescu M., Cristina E.(2016) Vernacular and Technol- Bougdah H., Djermouli A. Urban Dwellings in Post-Colonial Al- ogy In Between.Procedia Environmental Sciences32: 412- geria: From a housing crisis to a crisis of identity The case of 419.Available online at www.sciencedirect.com. https://doi. Algeria. Proceedings of the Alternatives to the present Confer- org/10.1016/j.proenv.2016.03.047 ence, Cleveland, November 2018. Helena C. (1998) Bioclimatism in Vernacular Architecture.Re- Chaline C. (1996) Les villes du monde Arabe, Colin, Paris. newable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2(1): 67-87. https:// Champault D. (1969) Une oasis du Sahara Nord-Occidental: Ta- doi.org/10.1016/S1364-0321(98)00012-4 belbala, Edition CNRS, Paris. HeideggerM. (1951) The building, Dwelling, Thinking, London, Cerasella C., Maria B.D. (2014) Planning and Designing Sustain- Routledge. able and Resilient Landscapes.Springer Science & Business Pagand B., Saadi N, Gerroudj T., Mahmour K. (2003) ‘L’Algerie Media11 (3):262. Contemporaine’ In: Algérie, traces d’histoire: architecture, ur- Daoudi N. S., Lamaraoui S., Boussoualim A., Mestoul D., Adolphe banisme & art de la préhistoireà l’Algérie contemporaine, École L., Bensalem R. (2013). Social responsible resilience to climate d’Architecture de Grenoble, Centre d’étude sur les réseaux, les change as path to sustainability: Trends in Algeria’s vernacular transports, l’urbanisme et les construction publiques, Lyon settlements. SB13 Conference - Advancing the Green Agenda France. (In French). Technology, Practices and Policies, Dubai, United Arab Emir- Meir I.A., Pearlmutter D., Etzion Y. (1995) On the Microclimatic ates. 8-10 December 2013. Available online at: https://www. Behavior of Two Semi-Enclosed Attached Courtyards in a Hot irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB_DC26905.pdf Dry Region. Build Environment30 (4): 563-572. https://doi. Deluz J. J (2010) Le tout et le fragmnent, Edition Barzakh, Alger org/10.1016/0360-1323(95)00018-2 (in French). Mallett S. (2004) Understanding Home: A Critical Review of the Dergisi F. (2012) TMMOB Mimarlar Odası Yayınları, Mimarlık. p 340. Literature. The Sociological Review14 (6):202-211. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.2004.00442.x Després C. (1991) TheMeaning of Home: Literature Review and Directions for Future Research and Theoretical Development. Mortada H. (2003) Traditional Islamic Principles of Built Environment, Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. pp.8(3): 96-115. London, Taylor, and Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203422687 130 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2020/76/4

Mortada H. (2011) Traditional Islamic Principles of Built Envi- Rana S., Nastaran P., Maryam B., (2015) Climate Comfort Com- ronment, Routledge Curzon, New York, pp.62-89. parison of Vernacular and Contemporary Houses of Iran.Proce- Moore J. (2000) Placing Home in Context. Journal of Environ- dia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 201 (2015) 49 - 61 https:// mental Psychology 20 (2): 207-217. https://doi.org/10.1006/ doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.118 jevp.2000.0178 Saljoughinejad S., Rashidisharifabad S. (2015) Classification Mohamad M.S., Mazlan M. T., HodaS., Honey A., Fereshteh M. of Climatic Strategies Used in Iranian Vernacular Residences (2011) Relation of Cultural and Social Attributes in Dwelling, Based on Spatial Constituent Elements. Build Environment Responding to Privacy in Iranian Traditional House.e-Bangi6(2): 92(2): 475-493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.05.005 273-287:ISSN:1823-884x. Sayigh A. (2014) Sustainability, Energy and Architecture: Case Omer S. (2010) Islam and Housing, A.S. Noordeen, Kuala Lum- Studies in Realizing Green Buildings, 1st ed.; Academic Press, pur, Malaysia. Oxford, UK. Ola A., Mahmoud B. (2016) Nubian Vernacular architecture & Singh M. K., Mahapatra S., Atreya S. K. (2009) Bioclimatism contemporary Aswan Buildings’ enhancement.Alexandria En- and Vernacular Architecture of North-East India. Building and gineering Journal. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2016.01.002. Environment 44 (5): 878-888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.build- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2016.01.002 env.2008.06.008 Rakoto-Joseph O., Garde F., David M., Adelard L., Randria- Susorova I., Tabibzadeh M., Rahman A., Clack H., Elnimeiri M. manantany Z.A. (2009) Development of Climatic Zones and (2013) The Effect of Geometry Factors on Fenestration Energy Passive Solar Design in Madagascar.Energy Conversion and Performance and Energy Savings in Office Buildings. Energy Management50(4): 1004-1010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.en- Build 57(2) 6-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.10.035 conman.2008.12.011 Tarek A., Ghada M.R. (2016) The Impact of Sustainability Trends Rapoport A. (1972) Pour une Anthropologie de la Maison, Edi- on Housing Design Identity of Arab Cities. Housing and Build- tion Dunod, Paris. ing National Research Center. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. hbrcj.2013.03.002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hbrcj.2013.03.002

This article is an Open Access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 (CC BY 4.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).