1.6 Amphetamine-Type Stimulants

1.6.1 Production

Global ATS production estimated at some 480 metric Fig. 98: Production estimate of amphetamines tons 500 The group of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) 410 encompasses amphetamines (amphetamine, metham- 400 354 332 phetamine), ecstasy (MDMA and related substances) 63 and other synthetic stimulants (methcathinone, phen- 54 300 242 termine, fenetylline etc.).

Based on ATS consumption estimates, ATS seizure data metric tons 200 and ATS precursor seizures, UNODC estimates total 278 291 ATS production to have amounted to some 480 tons in 100 2004 (range: 285 - 1,184 tons).28 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Fig. 97: UNODC production estimate of amphetamine amphetaminetype stimulants methamphetamine amphetamines 600 500 Sources: UNODC estimates based on UNODC, Annual Reports 480 Questionnaire Data / DELTA and INCB, 2005 Precursors, March 500 445 2006, UNODC, 2005 World Drug Report and UNODC, Ecstasy and Amphetamines – Global Survey 2003. 90 126 400 113 312 Most of the production is ‘amphetamines’ (290 tons of 300 methamphetamine and 63 tons of amphetamine), fol- 70

metric tons lowed by ecstasy (mainly MDMA, about 126 metric 200 410 tons). While these estimates are slightly higher than 332 354 those published in the 2005 World Drug Report (445 242 100 tons), they are somewhat lower than those for 2000. Following a continuous increase in ATS production 0 throughout the 1990s, production peaked in 2000, 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 before dropping off over the 2001-2003 period and regaining strength in 2004. The increase in the overall amphetamines ecstasy ATS production estimate was largely due to more production of ecstasy in 2004. Sources: UNODC estimates based on UNODC, Annual Reports Several conflicting indicators cloud the dynamics of the Questionnaire Data / DELTA and INCB, 2005 Precursors, March 2006, UNODC, 2005 World Drug Report and UNODC, Ecstasy and ATS market. This is particularly true for amphetamines. Amphetamines – Global Survey 2003. Reports of record seizures for precursors used in the pro-

28 Production of ATS can only be estimated indirectly. The methodology for establishing ATS production estimates was first outlined in Ecstasy and Amphetamines - A Global Survey 2003 (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2004).

123 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis duction of amphetamines and dismantled clandestine Thus, the most likely scenario is one of a relatively stable laboratories appear to point to an expansion in produc- or just slightly increasing production trend. This seems tion. However, declining seizures of amphetamines and to be essentially reflected in UNODC production esti- Member States reporting lower abuse levels suggest a mates for amphetamines for 2004, derived from con- stable market. As a result of these inconsistencies, the sumption, end-product seizures and precursor seizures. margin of error for the current amphetamines produc- Improved international cooperation is likely to have tion estimate is higher than it has ever been (between an increased the seizure rate of precursors. Although the estimated 227 and 978 tons). This may also explain why number of dismatled latoratories has risen, dismantling perceptions of trends regarding the development of the of so-called super-labs has actually declined. Therefore a amphetamines markets diverge, for the time being, large increase in laboratory seizures in 2004 did not nec- among experts and policy makers across the world. essarily have to indicate any significant increase in production levels. Taking drug prices and purities as a point of departure, two possible scenarios emerge. One scenario suggests a The upward trend for ecstasy is more robust. Though reduction in amphetamine production due to the large production may have well declined in the largest ecstasy scale dismantling of laboratories and the record precur- producing centre (Netherlands) and consumption defi- sor seizures. The subsequent decline in end-product nitely declined in the world’s single largest ecstasy seizures would have supported this scenario, as less pro- market (United States), there seem to be, nonetheless, duction would also mean less trafficking and thus less less discrepancies with regard to the overall upward seizures. However, if this had been the case, ampheta- trend in global ecstasy production. UNODC estimates mines prices should have risen substantially in 2004 and suggest that ecstasy production increased from between purity levels should have dropped. The available price 34 and 141 tons in 2003 to between 81 and 206 tons and purity data fail to support this scenario. in 2004. Though – theoretically – production margins are still large enough to allow for a decline in produc- The alternative scenario would have been one of large- tion, this would seem to be extremely unlikely as all scale increase in amphetamines production in 2004, underlying indicators moved clearly upwards in 2004: reflecting the dramatic rise in precursor seizures and dis- UNODC prevalence estimates rose by 22 per cent, mantling of laboratories. Under this scenario, ampheta- ecstasy seizures rose by 87 per cent and seizures of mines prices should have dropped substantially and ecstasy precursor chemicals rose by 113 per cent, largely purity levels should have increased. Again, this did not due to important seizures of 3,4-MDP-2-P (also known happen. A rather stable trend was observed for these as PMK), the main precursor for ecstasy. indicators at the global level, showing some moderate increases in purities and some moderate declines in ATS production occurs mostly in North America, East prices. and South-East Asia and in Europe

Fig. 99: ATS production estimates and potential The increasing number of countries where clandestine margins of error ATS laboratories are dismantled indicates that ATS production is spreading in geographical terms. Nonetheless, 1200 clear concentrations of ATS production can be still identified. While proportions differ depending on the 1000 specific indicator used and the specific substances analysed, all available indicators suggest that ATS pro- 800 duction continues being concentrated in North Amer- ica, East and South-East Asia and in Europe. Most of 600 500 480 445 the amphetamine production takes place in Europe;

metric tons most of the methamphetamine production occurs in 400 312 North America and East and South-East Asia and most 200 ecstasy is produced in Europe and in North America.

0 While seizures decline, the number of dismantled ATS laboratories rises 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Sources: UNODC estimates based on UNODC, Annual Reports The number of globally dismantled ATS laboratories, as Questionnaire Data / DELTA and INCB, 2005 Precursors, March reported to UNODC, increased from 547 in 1990 to 2006, UNODC, 2005 World Drug Report and UNODC, Ecstasy and Amphetamines – Global Survey 2003.

124 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Table 12: Production estimates of amphetamine-type stimulants, 2004

‘Amphetamines’ Based on (methamphetamine, Ecstasy Total amphetamine) Estimate Range Estimate Range Estimate Range Consumption 272 227-318 136 121-151 408 348-469 Drug seizures 247 204-291 98 81-115 346 285-406 Precursor seizures 541 456-978 144 96-206 685 552-1184 Average of all estimates 354 227-978 126 81-206 480 285-1184

Sources: UNODC estimates based on UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA and INCB, 2005 Precursors, March 2006.

7,028 in 2000 and to a record high of 18,532 in 2004. declined by 11 per cent in 2004 and by 41 per cent since Out of all globally dismantled laboratories, 64 per cent 2000. Seizures of amphetamines (methamphetamine produced ATS in 2004, up from 60 per cent a year ear- and amphetamine) fell by 26 per cent in 2004 and by lier, 50 per cent in 2000 and 19 per cent in 1990. 53 per cent over the 2000-2004 period. Much of the increase in the 1990s was a reflection of the The overwhelming majority of dismantled ATS labora- growth in ATS production. Whether this is, however, tories were producing methamphetamine (17,851 or 96 still the case, is less clear as the large-scale dismantling per cent of the total in 2004) and the enormous increase of laboratories may have helped to reduce, at least, the in 2004 is largely linked to the dismantling of metham- expansion of ATS production at the global level. After phetamine laboratories. having risen strongly in the 1990s, global ATS seizures

Fig. 100: Number of dismantled ATS laboratories and ATS seizures, reported to UNODC, 1985-2004

25,000 50.0

20,000 40.0

15,000 30.0

10,000 20.0 ATS seizures in tons number of laboratories

5,000 10 . 0

0 0.0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Met hamphet amine labs 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 1. 0 1. 4 1. 7 7.0 6.6 8.2 9.3 10 . 7 17 . 9 Other ATS labs 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Tot al 0.4 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 1. 1 1. 5 1. 9 7.4 7.0 8.6 9.8 11. 3 18 . 5 ATS seizures 4.7 6.1 7.1 8.9 10 . 8 4.8 5.1 8.5 6.0 7.7 7.8 11. 2 17 . 4 15 . 4 37.7 48.6 31.3 28.2 32.0 28.5 ATS seizures excluding ecstasy 3.7 5.8 6.4 7.3 9.4 4.2 4.8 3.9 5.3 6.4 6.8 9.7 15 . 2 14 . 4 33.1 43.6 26.3 21.5 27.7 20.4

Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA.

125 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

However, the number of laboratories where other ATS more than doubled over the same period, from 115 in were manufactured also increased over the past five 2000 to 319 in 2004. In addition, 86 ‘ecstasy’ laborato- years, from 109 in 1990 to 419 in 2000 and 681 in ries were seized; up from 64 in 2000 and 15 in 1999. 2004. The number of amphetamine laboratories seized Most methamphetamine laboratories are dismantled in Fig. 101: Number of dismantled amphetamine North America laboratories, reported to UNODC, 1985-2004 The overwhelming majority of methamphetamine laboratories (97 per cent) were dismantled in North Amer- 600 ica, mainly the United States, and, to a lesser extent, Mexico. Methamphetamine laboratories were also dis- 500 mantled in Oceania, in East and South-East Asia, in

400 Europe (mainly Czech Republic, followed by Slovak Republic and Republic of Moldova) and in South Africa 300 (which appears to be emerging as an important local production centre). 200

number of laboratories Despite its substantial proportion of global methamphetamine production, the number of methampheta- 100 mine laboratories dismantled in East & South-East Asia continues to be low. Just 13 methamphetamine labora- 0 tories were dismantled and reported to UNODC from this region in 2004, down from 75 in 2001. Most 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 methamphetamine laboratories seized in Asia over the Combined amphetamine and other ATS 2002-2004 period were reported from China, Philip- Amphetamine pines, Taiwan Province of China, Myanmar, Cambodia (tabletting facilities only), Hong Kong SAR of China Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA. and Malaysia. For comparison, according to the International Nar- cotics Control Board, authorities in South Africa alone, dismantled 28 illicit ATS laboratories, producing either Fig. 102: Number of dismantled ‘ecstasy’ methamphetamine or methcathinone in 2004. laboratories, reported to UNODC, 1985-2004 Increasing seizures of ecstasy laboratories in North America indicate shift in production 100 Most amphetamine laboratories were seized in Europe 80 (61 per cent), mainly Russian Federation, Poland, Netherlands, Bulgaria, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Esto- nia and Lithuania while 39 per cent were dismantled in 60 North America, primarily the United States. As for ecstasy, 48 per cent of all ecstasy laboratories were seized 40 in North America (United States and Canada), 23 per cent in Europe (mainly Netherlands, followed by Bel- Number of laboratories gium and Estonia). 20 The most striking trend has been the decline of Europe in the proportion of dismantled ecstasy laboratories - 0 from 75 per cent in 2000 to 39 per cent in 2003 and 23

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 per cent in 2004. The importance of Europe as the Other substances of the 'Ecstasy group' world’s main ecstasy production centre thus appears to be declining which can be also seen in ecstasy seizure MDMA statistics: 81 per cent in 1994; 56 per cent in 2000, 53 Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data/DELTA. per cent in 2004. Some of the production has shifted to North America (mainly United States and Canada).

126 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Increasing ecstasy precursor seizures in North America cursors in 2003 had been substantially lower: no also point in this direction. In addition, there is a pro- seizures for 3,4-MDP-2P or for piperonal and less liferation of ecstasy production in other parts of the seizures for safrole (515 litres). world. Over the 2002-2004 period, ecstasy laboratories were dismantled in South-East Asia (Indonesia, China, If these seized precursors had been used for production Hong Kong SAR of China, Malaysia), in Oceania (Aus- purposes, they would have been sufficient to produce29 tralia and New Zealand), in Africa (South Africa and more than 320 tons of amphetamine-type stimulants in Egypt) and in some south American countries 2004, including some 21 tons of ecstasy (10 tons in (Argentina (2003) and Colombia (2001)). 2003), some 16 tons of amphetamine (7 tons in 2003), some 128 tons of methamphetamine (22 tons in 2003). ATS precursor seizures reach record levels, exceeding Most of the remaining precursors could have produced end-product seizures either amphetamine or methamphetamine (totalling some 155 metric tons). ATS precursor seizures reached an all-time high in 2004, which also reflects major successes in interna- Fig. 103: Seizures of ATS precursors in ATS tional cooperation, notably under Project Prism. Tar- equivalents geting ATS precursors, Project Prism is an initiative of the International Narcotics Control Board, carried out 350,000 by 126 national authorities supported by INCB, Inter- pol, the World Customs Organization, UNODC and 300,000 the European Community. 250,000 The results of increased international cooperation were reflected in strong increases in precursor seizures, as 200,000 reported by INCB:

150,000 • The main methamphetamine precursors seized in 2004 were pseudoephedrine (176 tons) and 100,000

ephedrine (15 tons). These are important quanti- precursors in kg of ATS equivalents ties, given total licit trade in ephedrine of 526 tons 50,000 and of 1207 tons in pseudoephedrine in 2004.

The quantities seized increased from 14 tons of 0 ephedrine and 18 tons of pseudo-ephedrine a year

earlier; 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 • The most important amphetamine precursors Amphetamine/methamphetamine were P-2-P (also known as BMK: 349 tons seized precursor (P2P seized in USA) in 2004 of which at least 33 tons for amphetamine Methamphetamine precursors production) and, to a lesser extent, phenylacetic (pseudo-ephedrine, ephedrine) Amphetamine precursors (P2P, acid (232 kg); seizures a year earlier amounted to phenylacetic acid, norephedrine) 5.5 tons of P-2-P and 158 kg of phenylacetic acid; Ecstasy precursos (3,4-MDP-2-P, • The main ecstasy precursors are 3,4-MDP-2P Safrole, Isosafrole, Piperonal) Trend (also known as PMK: 17 tons seized in 2004), piperonal (17 tons), safrole (5700 litres) and Sources: UNODC, Ecstasy and Amphetamines, Global Survey 2003 and INCB, Precursor and chemicals frequently used in the illicit isosafrole (no seizures in 2004, 23,400 litres manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, New reported for 2003). Overall seizures of ecstasy pre- York 2006.

29 The following conversion ratios were used: Methamphetamine: 150 kg of ephedrine or pseudo-ephedrine for 100 kg of methamphetamine Amphetamine: 200 litres of P2P or 150 kg of norephedrine for 100 kg of amphetamine; or 400 kilograms of phenylacetic acid for 100 kg of amphetamine Ecstasy: 125 litres of 3,4-MDP-2-P for 100 kilograms of MDMA 262.5 kg of piperonal for 100 kg of MDMA, or 237.5 kg of isosafrole for 100 kg of MDMA; or 475 kg of safrole for 100 kg of MDMA Source: Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the Illicit Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances: Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2005 on the Implementation of Article 12 of the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, 1988, (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.06.XI.5), New York 2006.

127 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

Fig. 104: Seizures of methamphetamine-precursors Most precursors are seized in North America, Asia and Europe

200,000 An analysis of precursor seizures for 2004, collected by 180,000 120,000 the International Narcotics Control Board shows that: 160,000 140,000 120,000 80,000 • most of the methamphetamine precursors were seized in North America (92 per cent), followed 100,000

in kg by East & South-East Asia (6 per cent); 80,000

precursors in kg • most amphetamine precursors (Phenyl-acetic acid 60,000 40,000 and P-2-P, excluding the extreme large P-2-P 40,000 seizures reported by the USA (accounting for 20,000 methamphetamine equivalents more than 90 per cent of global P-2-P seizures in 0 0 2004), were seized in Asia (72 per cent) followed by Europe (28 per cent); 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 • most ecstasy precursors were seized in East and pseudoephedrine South-East Asia (49 per cent), followed by Europe ephedrine (43 per cent) and North America (6 per cent) and methamphetamine-equivalent Oceania (2 per cent) Trend

Sources: UNODC, Ecstasy and Amphetamines, Global Survey 2003 These data tend to reflect the origin of many of the and INCB, Precursor and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, New chemical precursors in East- and South-East Asia while York 2006. large-scale ATS production takes place in North Amer- ica, East & South-East Asia and Europe. In addition, countries in South-Asia are sometimes mentioned as source countries for ATS precursors.

Asia: China, Myanmar and Philippines continue to be main methamphetamine production sites

Based on information supplied by Member States on Fig. 105: Seizures of amphetamine and ecstasy the origin of ATS, 26 source countries for the produc- precursors tion of methamphetamine could be identified for the 25,000 2002/04 period. The main countries of origin for methamphetamine 20,000 production in Asia continue to be China, Myanmar and Philippines. 15,000

10,000 • Most of the methamphetamine production in China is located in south-eastern China, in 5,000 Guangdong Province (which surrounds Hong Kong SAR of China) and, to a lesser extent in precursors in kg of ATS equivalents 0 neighbouring Fujian province, located off the coast of Taiwan Province of China. China,

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 together with India, is also one of the main source countries of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, the Ecstasy precursos (3,4-MDP-2-P, Safrol, Isosafrol, main precursor chemicals used to manufacture Piperonal) methamphetamine. Amphetamine precursors (P2P*, phenylacetic acid, norephedrine) • Significant quantities of methamphetamine are manufactured in Taiwan Province of China. In * excluding P2P seizures in the United States over the 2000-2004 2003, 10 laboratories were dismantled there; local period production, however, appears to have declined in

128 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

recent years. Fig. 106: Origin* of methamphetamine as reported • Methamphetamine production in the Philippines by Asian countries, 2002-04 appears to have increased in recent years. Four methamphetamine laboratories were dismantled in 2002, 11 in both 2003 and 2004 and 7 in China 34% 2005. Production in the Philippines may be oper- ated by local laboratory owners but seems to be Myanmar 25% closely linked to criminal groups from China and Taiwan Province of China. • Myanmar also continues to play an important role Philippines 25% as a production site for methamphetamine, as reflected in neighbouring countries reports. Illicit Thailand 6% markets in Thailand are basically supplied by methamphetamine produced in Myanmar and important parts of the Chinese market (20 per Indonesia 3% cent) are also supplied by methamphetamine produced in Myanmar. The number of dismantled Others 6% laboratories, however, has not been particularly impressive in recent years (4 laboratories disman- 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% tled in 2002, 1 in 2003, 1 in 2004 and 3 in 2005). On the other hand, Myanmar authorities have * Number of times a country was identified by other Asian countries as a source country for methamphetamine production stepped up efforts against trafficking in ATS, lead- over the 2002-04 period, expressed as a proportion of such ing to a number of immense seizures of metham- reports (N = 32) ‘Origin’ refers to the countries to which drug shipments could be traced back. phetamine tablets (12 million tablets in January 2006, four times the total seized in 2005 (3.6 mil- Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA. lion)). ATS production in Myanmar is mainly encountered in the Shan state (notably in the Wa The United States and Mexico are the main production region), bordering China, though recent reports sites in the Americas suggest that production is also taking place in areas controlled by the ethnic Chinese Kokang, The main countries of methamphetamine production the Shan State Army-South and the Kachin in the Americas are the United States, producing exclu- Defense Army (KDA). Production is sometimes sively for the domestic market, followed by Mexico and, co-located with heroin refineries. to a lesser extent, Canada. United States authorities con- • According to information provided by the Gov- tinue to dismantle the largest numbers of methamphet- ernment of Thailand, methamphetamine produc- amine laboratories worldwide (17,199 laboratories in tion has largely ceased to exist following the 2004). Methamphetamine production in the United crackdown on the market in 2003. States has been traditionally concentrated in California and several neighbouring states, but it has been spreading towards the rest of the country and has already reached most states. A large number of laboratories (sev- Most South-East Asian methamphetamine is trafficked eral hundred per state) are now being seized in rural towards Oceania, notably Australia and New Zealand, America, in several states between Texas and Illinois and and North America. The Philippines and China have along the Mississippi river. Most of the ‘super-labs’, that been identified as main source countries for South-East is, laboratories capable of manufacturing more than 5 Asian methamphetamine found on North American kg of methamphetamine in 24 hours, continue to be markets. South-East Asian methamphetamine, mostly located in California. The number of ‘super-labs’ seized from Myanmar and the Philippines, transits Thailand in the United States, has, however, shown a downward before it is trafficked to European destinations, mainly trend in recent years, from 245 in 2001 to 55 in 2004 the United Kingdom, Netherlands, France and Switzer- (-77 percent) and a further decline by 34 per cent over land. the first half of 2005 as compared to the same period a year earlier. Mexico reported the dismantling of 18 laboratories to UNODC in 2004. Most methamphetamine production takes place in northern Mexico.

129 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

Methamphetamine production in Oceania appears to … while amphetamine production continues to be have levelled off, and shows signs of slight decrease largely concentrated in Europe – and increasing

Methamphetamine production in Oceania is concen- Based on information on the origin of seized drugs, 88 trated in Australia and, at lower levels, in New Zealand. per cent of the replies concerned European countries Reported seizures of methamphetamine laboratories in over the 2002-2004 period, suggesting that ampheta- New Zealand increased from 1 in 1998 and 9 in 2000 mine production continues being concentrated in to 201 in 2003, before falling back to 182 in 2004. Si- Europe. The Netherlands, Poland and Belgium, fol- milarly, the number of ATS laboratories dismantled in lowed by Lithuania and Estonia, Bulgaria and Germany Australia rose from 10 in 1990 to 150 in 2000 and 314 are frequently cited as main sources of amphetamine. In in 2003 before declining to 245 (including 24 ecstasy terms of amphetamine laboratories seized, Europe laboratories) in 2004. Rising laboratory seizures in the accounted for 77 per cent of all such laboratories over 1990s did not have much of an impact on prices or the 2002-2004 period. The number of amphetamine purities, suggesting that production was rising. The si- laboratories seized in West and Central Europe tuation was less clear for subsequent years and in 2004, increased from 25, on average, over the 1995-99 period falling numbers of dismantled laboratories went hand to 35 over the 2000-2004 period (47 in 2004). The in hand with slightly falling purity levels, indicating that increase has been even stronger in Eastern Europe production was losing momentum. In line with (Belarus, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine) where reported increases in laboratory seizures in the 1990s, there were laboratory detections increased from 11, on average, also strong increases in the number of methampheta- over the 1995-99 period to 94 over the 2000-2004 mine consumers, suggesting increases in production. period (141 in 2004). Theses data suggest that there is However, over the 1998-2004 period, household survey a gradual shift of amphetamine production towards results showed some decline and consumption levels Eastern Europe, even though amphetamine production appear to have declined further in 2005 as shown in the in West & Central Europe continues expanding. It is, Drug Use Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) data. however, not always clear whether amphetamine or Methamphetamine production in Australia takes place methamphetamine is produced in Eastern Europe. in practically all states though it is particularly concen- Both the Russian Federation and Ukraine have regularly trated in Queensland (35 per cent of all dismantled reported seizures of ephedrine but not of P-2-P. This amphetamines laboratories in 2004, followed by New would indicate that amphetamines production in these South Wales (20 per cent) and South Australia (20 per countries is largely focussed on methamphetamine. The cent)). In addition to locally produced methampheta- largest numbers of amphetamine laboratories seized mine, there are increasing imports of methamphetamine outside Europe are found in North America. In addi- produced in South-East Asia, notably in China and the Philippines, offsetting some the decline in domestic production. Fig. 107: Origin* of amphetamine in 2002-2004

Methamphetamine production in Europe seems to be Netherlands rising, though continues to be limited… Poland 16% 25% Belgium 11% Large-scale methamphetamine production and con- Lithuania 7% sumption in Europe has – thus far - not occurred. Euro- Estonia 5% Bulgaria 3% pean methamphetamine production continues to be Germany 3% largely limited to the Czech Republic and, to a lesser Serbia & Montenegro 3% extent, neighbouring Slovak Republic, some of the Slovakia 2% Baltic states and Moldova. The number of dismantled Czech Rep. 2% methamphetamine laboratories in the Czech Republic Bosnia & Herzegovina 2% has increased strongly over the last decade, from 18 in Other European countries 9% Asian countries 7% 1995 to 28 in 2000, 188 in 2003 and 248 in 2004. American countries 4% Large numbers of dismantled laboratories were also Others 1% reported from Moldova (136 in 2004), followed by Slo- 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% vakia (12 in 2004, up from 3 a year earlier). In addition, limited imports of methamphetamine from South-East * Number of times a country was identified by other countries as a source country for amphetamine over the 2002-04 period (n = Asia (Thailand and Philippines) have been reported in 175), based on information provided by 40 countries recent years. Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.

130 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants tion, significant numbers of amphetamine laboratories Netherlands and 3 in Belgium. In addition, the US are seized in Oceania and a few in East & South-East authorities (the USA constitutes one of the biggest Asia. ecstasy markets worldwide) reported that the proportion of ecstasy found in the USA, originating in the Nether- Markets in Africa and South-America mainly supplied lands, has declined substantially in recent years. by diverted licit ATS The decline of ecstasy production in Western Europe, Overall production of ATS continues to be limited in however, appears to have been offset by increasing levels South America and in Africa. The main exception here of ecstasy produced in other countries, including other is South Africa where ATS production, notably produc- European countries, countries in North America tion of methamphetamine and methcathinone, has (United States and Canada), in the Oceania region and increased substantially in recent years. South Africa used in East and South-East Asia. The number of dismantled to report, on average, the dismantling of one laboratory ecstasy laboratories in North America rose from 11 per per year over the 1995-1999 period. This figure year over the 1995-1999 period to 24 per year over the increased to 17 over the 2000-2004 period. Including 2000-2004 period (41 in 2004); in South-East Asia as methcathinone, 28 illicit laboratories were reported (to well as in the Oceania region the corresponding num- INCB) as having been dismantled in 2004 and this bers rose from practically zero to 9 per year over the number is expected to have further increased in 2005. 2000-2004 period (24 in the Oceania region in 2004), also indicating that a shift towards ecstasy production Though domestic production of ATS is very limited in outside the ‘traditional’ production centres in Europe is both Africa (with the exception of South Africa) and gaining momentum. South America, drug use surveys conducted in countries of South America and Africa suggest, that ATS use is far Most of the precursors for the manufacture of MDMA, from negligible. All of this points to ongoing supply of notably 3,4-MDP-2-P (PMK) originate in Asia. The these markets with diverted licit ATS. Chinese authorities were, however, successful in seizing substantial amounts of PMK (5,300 litres or 31 per cent While Netherlands and Belgium remain the most of global PMK seizures). In addition, piperonal (a pre- important sources, ecstasy is also produced in regions cursor for PMK) has gained in importance. 78 per cent: other than Europe of global piperonal seizures took place in China in 2004. Moreover, safrole, another precursor for PMK, is Over the 2002-2004 period a total of 33 ecstasy pro- increasingly used as a pre-precursor for MDMA; accord- ducing countries were identified by UNODC member ing to INCB, 97 per cent of all safrole seizures also took states. As in previous years the Netherlands (39 per place in China in 2004. cent), followed, by Belgium (10 per cent) have been cited by Member States as the main countries of origin for ecstasy imports over the 2002-2004 period. Fig. 108: Origin* of ecstasy in 2002-2004 Together, the Netherlands and Belgium accounted for Netherlands about half of all mentions. But their importance as the Belgium 10 % 39% Germany 6% main source countries for ecstasy is declining. In 1999 United Kingdom 4% the corresponding proportion of the two countries – Canada 2.3% USA 2.3% using the same methodology - was still 60 per cent. Bulgaria 2.3% There are additional indications that the position of the Estonia 2.3% Netherlands and Belgium as the world’s main source Poland 2.3% Lithuania 2.0% countries for ecstasy are waning, reflecting intensified South Africa 2.0% efforts by the authorities in these countries to address Hungary 1. 6 % Spain 1. 6 % the problem. While in 2001 99 per cent of all 3,4- Serbia & Montenegro 1. 2 % MDP-2-P (PMK, the main ecstasy precursor) seizures Bosnia & Herzegovina 1. 2 % China 1. 2 % took place in the Netherlands and Belgium, the pro- Thailand 1. 2 % portion declined to 60 per cent in 2004 (37 per cent in Other European countries 13 . 3 % the Netherlands and 23 per cent in Belgium in 2004). Other Asian countries 3.9% Other American countries 1. 6 % The number of ecstasy laboratories dismantled in the Netherlands and Belgium declined from 29 (41 per cent 0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% * Number of times a country was identified by other countries as of the world total) in 2001 to 17 (20 per cent of the a source country for ecstasy over the 2002-2004 period (N = 256) world total) in 2004, including 14 laboratories in the based on information provided by 60 countries Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.

131 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

Methamphetamine continues to most widely seized ATS, followed by ecstasy

Over the 2000-2004 period, methamphetamine accounted for 62 per cent of all ATS seizures, amphetamine for 14 per cent and non-specified stimulants (including amphetamine, methamphetamine, meth- 1.6.2. Trafficking cathinone and other synthetic stimulants) 7 per cent. Substances of the ecstasy group accounted for the remaining 17 per cent. In 2004, the proportion of After huge increases in the 1990s, ATS seizures continue ecstasy as part of overall ATS seizures increased to 28 per to decline in 2004... cent and the proportion of amphetamine to 21 per cent. Seizures of ATS declined by 11 per cent in 2004 to 28 While methamphetamine and amphetamine are, by far, tons (in kilogram equivalents), mainly reflecting lower the two most important substances in the ampheta- seizures made in East and South-East Asia. The decline mines group, trafficking in methcathinone is signficant is even more marked over the period 2000-2004 over in a number of CIS countries (where it is known as which seizures decreased by 80 per cent. Nonetheless, ephedrone), in some parts of the United States, and, as even now ATS seizures are almost 4 times higher than a a rather recent phenomenon, in South Africa. Meth- decade earlier and 6 times as high as in 1990. cathinone is usually domestically produced and trafficked. ...due to lower seizures across East and South-East Asia Trafficking in fenetylline (captagon) continues to be The proportion of seizures made in East and South-East considerable in the Near and Middle East. Fenetylline is declined from 73 per cent in 2000 to 25 per cent in often produced in clandestine laboratories in South- 2004. Strong declines in ATS seizures over the 2000- Eastern Europe (mainly Bulgaria) and trafficked via 2004 period were reported from China (-86 per cent), Turkey to Syrian Arab Republic, Jordan and Saudi Singapore (-86 per cent), Brunei Darussalam (-73 per Arabia. cent), Thailand (-79 per cent), Hong Kong Special In contrast to the ATS precursor trade which is interna- Administrative Region of China (-76 per cent), Myan- tional, trafficking in amphetamine and in methamphet- mar (-69 per cent), Malaysia (-48 per cent), Japan (-46 amine continues to be largely intra-regional, although per cent), Philippines (-26 per cent) and Indonesia (-16 there are some exceptions (notably trafficking of per cent). Seizures in the Lao PDR remained stable and methamphetamine from South-East Asia to Oceania). increased in Cambodia, Viet Nam and Republic of Korea. The overall decline of seizures in that subregion Most ecstasy continues to be trafficked in Europe but suggests a sizeable reduction in production and traffick- with the development of illicit markets for the substance ing, possibly as a consequence of improvements in law in other regions, trafficking of ecstasy to other regions enforcement cooperation. has increased. However, of late production of ecstasy has been reported from North America, Oceania and Seizures of some 20 tons of amphetamines (metham- South-East Asia. If ecstasy production in regions outside phetamine, amphetamine and other synthetic stimu- Europe rises, it is likely that, like for other ATS, ecstasy lants) were reported for 2004 of which most were made trafficking will become (again) increasingly intra- in the United States (15 per cent of total), followed by regional in nature. China (14 per cent), Belgium (13 per cent), Thailand (10 per cent), United Kingdom (8 per cent)30, Bulgaria Trafficking in methamphetamine (7 per cent), Mexico (5 per cent), Philippines (4 per cent) and Netherlands (3 per cent). Despite decline in seizures, most methamphetamine Some 8 tons of ecstasy were reported seized in 2004. continues to be trafficked in East and South-East Asia Canada and Belgium both account for 19 per cent of the seizures made, followed by Australia (17 per cent), Global seizures of methamphetamine fell by 70 per cent the Netherlands (13 per cent) and United Kingdom (8 between 2000 and 2004 to 11 tons. This decline was per cent)31. entirely due to lower methamphetamine seizures made in East and South-East Asia (-82 per cent). This decline

30 UK data refer to 2003. 31 UK data refer to 2003.

132 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Fig. 109: Seizures of amphetamine-type stimulants, Fig. 110: Breakdown of ATS seizures, by substance, 1980-2004 2000-2004 (N = 34 tons p.a.)

ecstasy 50,000 17% methamphetamine 62%

40,000 non-specified amphetamines 30,000 7%

20,000 amphetamine 14% kilograms equivalents* 10,000

- Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data / DELTA 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Ecstasy group**: MDMA (Ecstasy), MDA, MDME • from Myanmar to Thailand and to China, or from Myanmar to Lao PDR, for transport to Thailand Methamphetamine, amphetamine, methcathinone or Cambodia or Viet Nam; smaller amounts also and other synthetic stimulants appear to leave Myanmar for India for local use in the north-eastern provinces; • from China to Hong Kong SAR of China, Philip- * Seizures reported in kilograms and in units; pines, Malaysia, Republic of Korea, Japan; A unit (pill) of ecstasy was assumed to contain on average 100 mg from Hong Kong SAR of China, to Japan, Aus- of MDMA; a unit of amphetamine/ methamphetamine was • assumed to contain 30 mg of amphetamine/methamphetamine tralia and Guam (United States); ** up until 1999 ‘other hallucinogens’ are also included; the • from the Philippines to Republic of Korea, proportion of ecstasy in the total seems to have exceeded 90 per Malaysia, Brunei Darussalam, Taiwan Province of cent in most years (data for 2001-2004: 91 per cent-96 per cent of such a total) China, Japan, Australia, United States (including Guam) and Canada; Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data / DELTA • from Thailand to Malaysia, to Taiwan Province of China, Republic of Korea, and to markets outside the region. appears to have been a reflection of an underlying The most financially lucrative methamphetamine decrease in trafficking following the crack-down of sev- market in the region remains Japan. There are indica- eral ATS markets (notably Thailand in 2003), some tions that methamphetamine continues being smuggled improvements in international precursor control, and into Japan from China, Philippines, Taiwan Province of better cooperation among law enforcement agencies China as well as from Indonesia. US sources indicate across the region. A number of regional initiatives may that there have also been methamphetamine shipments have also contributed to stem the upward tide experi- from the United States as well as several shipments from enced in East and South-East Asia in the 1990s. Though Canada to Japan. While there are still suspicions that the proportion of methamphetamine seizures made in some of the methamphetamine found on the Japanese East and South-East Asia declined from 89 per cent in market emanated or was trafficked via the Democratic 2002 to 76 per cent in 2003 and 58 per cent in 2004, People’s Republic of Korea (reported to UNODC in global trafficking in methamphetamine remains con- 2002/03), no new evidence emerged in 2004 or 2005. centrated in this area. Methamphetamine trafficking is rising in North Most methamphetamine in South-East Asia is trafficked America within the region and some to Oceania and North America. Methamphetamine from outside the region is The proportion of North America in global metham- only rarely seized. Authorities in the Republic of Korea phetamine trafficking has been rising in recent years, identified the United States as a source country, in 2003 from 10 per cent in 2002 and 21 per cent in 2003 to 38 and 2004. The important trafficking routes are: per cent in 2004. Methamphetamine seizures increased

133 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis from 1.6 tons in 2002 to 4.6 tons in 2003 before falling mine seizures in 2004 - 20 European countries reported slightly to 4.1 tons in 2004. such seizures in 2004, up from 11 countries in 2000. Trafficking in North America is mostly targeting the United States methamphetamine market. The bulk of the methamphetamine used in the United States is Trafficking in amphetamine domestically produced and authorities in the United States sees a decline in the domestic supply. However, it appears that large laboratories have emerged in Mexico Most amphetamine continues to be seized in Europe which are essentially supplying the United States market. The increase of methamphetamine seizures Amphetamine seizures increased to 6 tons in 2004, up along the along the US Mexican border (1.1 tons in from 5.7 tons a year earlier and 3.1 tons in 2000. 2002, 1.7 tons in 2003 and 2 tons in 2004) would con- Throughout the 2000-2004 period amphetamine firm this trend. Mexico reported to UNODC that 99 seizures made in Europe accounted for more than 90 percent of local production in 2004 were destined for per cent of the world’s total (96 per cent in 2004). How- the US market. To a lesser extent, the United States ever, this proportion for Europe may not be realistic as market is also supplied from Canada. a number of countries outside Europe classified their amphetamine seizures under the broader category of Increasing seizures are reported – though from lower ‘amphetamine-type stimulants’. levels – in other regions Europe’s amphetamine seizures increased between 1980 Methamphetamine seizures in Oceania, in Europe, in and 1997, then declined until 2000 before rising again the Near and Middle East and in Africa have shown an and exceeding by 2004 the previous record high of upward trend over the last few years – albeit from low 1997. This pattern seems to reflect underlying traffick- levels. In Oceania, on the other hand, methampheta- ing activities as seen in a number of additional indica- mine seizures declined in 2004, which appears to be tors, suggesting that amphetamine trafficking is, once associated with some reductions of methamphetamine again, increasing in Europe. trafficking in Australia. Though methamphetamine Though amphetamine seizures increased in West and seizures in Europe are still very small - Europe Central Europe in recent years, the proportion of these accounted for just 2 per cent of global methampheta- seizures as part of global reported amphetamine seizures declined, from 86 per cent in 2000 to 67 per cent in 2004. Most of the increase took place in South-East Fig. 111: Breakdown of methamphetamine seizures Europe, with seizures rising from 7 per cent of the in 2004 (N = 10.9 tons) world’s total to 26 per cent in 2004. This increase was mainly due to rising seizures reported by Bulgaria. There have also been increases in seizures reported by Poland Other while seizures in the Netherlands declined from their 0.2% Europe peak levels in 1998 and have been fluctuating at lower 2% Oceania levels over the 2001-2004 period. 2% The Netherlands and Poland remained the most frequently mentioned source countries for seized amphetamine in 2004. This was, in particular, the case in West East and South- North America and Central Europe. In South-East Europe, in contrast, East Asia 38% this position is held by Bulgaria although Bosnia and 58% Herzegovina as well as Serbia and Montenegro appear to have emerged as source countries in this subregion as well. Most neighbouring countries of the Netherlands and Belgium identified the two as the main source countries. The same is true for Poland which is named as a primary source by most of its neighbours. All of this Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data / DELTA indicates that there are currently several production centres in Europe - producing for the local market and supplying amphetamine, primarily, to neighbouring countries.

134 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

The United Kingdom continues to be Europe’s largest Bulgaria (24 per cent), the Netherlands (10 per cent), amphetamine market. It has the largest number of Germany (9 per cent), Sweden (7 per cent), Poland (4 amphetamine users in Europe (as a rate and in absolute per cent), Norway (4 per cent) and the Russian Federa- terms) and for the past twenty years, most amphetamine tion (3 per cent). seizures have been reported from the United Kingdom. Over the 2000-2004 period, important quantities were also seized by the Netherlands and Bulgaria (11 per cent each of the world total), Germany (8 per cent), Sweden (6 per cent), Poland (4 per cent) and Belgium (4 per cent). Seizures for 2004 have not yet been reported by the United Kingdom. Assuming similar levels as a year earlier, the United Kingdom is likely to have topped the list again (some 26 per cent of the total) followed by

Fig. 112: Breakdown of amphetamine seizures* by sub-region in 2004 (N = 6 tons)

other Asia 0.3% 4% East Europe 3%

West & Central Europe Southeast Europe 67% 26%

* in kilogram equivalents, assuming a dose/unit to be equivalent to 30 milligrams

Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.

Fig. 113: Amphetamine seizures in Europe, 1980-2004 10000

8000

6000

4000 kilogram equivalents 2000

0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Amphetamine not specified amphetamines Amphetamines

* in kilogram equivalents, assuming a dose/unit to be equivalent to 30 milligrams

Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data.

135 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

Fig. 114: Global seizures of amphetamines*, 1994 - 2004

30 tons c 20 Metri

0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

* Excluding 'Ecstasy'

Year 1994 1995 19961997 19981999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Metric tons 6 7 10 15 14 33 44 26 21 28 20 * metric ton equivalents. 1 unit assumed to be equivalent to 30mg.

SEIZURES OF AMPHETAMINES (excluding 'ecstasy') in % of world total and kg- HIGHEST RANKING - 500 1,000COUNTRIE 1,500S - 2004 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500

USA 15% 3,139 China 14% 2,746

Belgium 13% 2,540 Thailand 10% 2,116

United Kingdom* 8% 1,530

Bulgaria 7% 1,456

Mexico 5% 953 Philippines 4% 756 SEIZURES OF AMPHETAMINES (excluding 'ecstasy') in kg Netherlands 3% 589 and % - BY REGION - 2004

Germany 3% 564 West & Central Europe 6,741 (33%) Japan 3% 511 East and South-East Asia 6,659 Sweden 2% 446 (32%)

Jordan 300 North America 4,141 (20%)

Norway 294 Southeast Europe 1,814 (9%) Myanmar 252 Near and Middle East /South-West Asia 438 (2%) Australia** 248 Oceania 279 Poland 236 East Europe 197 Russian Federation 165 South Asia Turkey 153 91

Syria 118 Central America 15

Finland 109 North Africa 3

Malaysia 105 South America 0

* data refer to 2003 ** total seizures reported by national as well as State & Territory law enforcement agencies which may result in double counting.

136 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Fig. 115: Interception of Amphetamines, 1994-2004

AMPHETAMINES (excluding 'Ecstasy') AMPHETAMINES (excluding 'Ecstasy') INTERCEPTED WORLD - 1994-2004 INTERCEPTED ASIA - 1994-2004 50 40 45 35 40 30 35 30 25 25 20 20 metric tons metric tons 15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

AMPHETAMINES (excluding 'Ecstasy') AMPHETAMINES (excluding 'Ecstasy') INTERCEPTED AMERICA - 1994-2004 INTERCEPTED EUROPE - 1994-2004 5.0 10 4.5 9 4.0 8 3.5 7 3.0 6 2.5 5 4

metric tons 2.0 metric tons 1.5 3 1.0 2 0.5 1 0.0 0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

AMPHETAMINES (excluding 'Ecstasy') AMPHETAMINES (excluding 'Ecstasy') INTERCEPTED AFRICA - 1994-2004 INTERCEPTED OCEANIA - 1994-2004 0.5 1.0 0.4 0.9 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.5

metric tons 0.2 metric tons 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

137 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis (countries reporting seizures of more than 10 kg.) of more seizures (countries reporting Map 20: Seizures of amphetamine-type stimulants (excluding ecstasy) 2003 - 2004: extent and trends of amphetamine-type stimulants (excluding ecstasy) 2003 - 2004: extent and trends Map 20: Seizures

138 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Only three regions have not yet filed reports of ecstasy seizures with UNODC: Central Asia, West & Central Africa and East Africa.

European share in global ecstasy seizures continues to Trafficking in Ecstasy fall as production starts in other regions

Ecstasy seizures rise to record high in 2004 The proportion of Europe in global ecstasy seizures declined over the last decade, from 81 per cent in 1994 Reported seizures of ecstasy increased by 87 per cent in to 51 per cent in 2004; in 2003, Europe still accounted 2004 and reached a new record of 8 tons (expressed in for 58 per cent of global seizures. Together with other kilogram equivalents), topping even peak levels information, this suggests that, over the last decade, the recorded in 2002 by 20 per cent. expansion of ecstasy has been stronger in markets outside Europe. The proportion of ecstasy seizures rose Seizures of ecstasy rose across all sub-regions, with the between 1994 and 2004: strongest increases reported from Southern Africa (+385 per cent) and the lowest in South America (+12 per • From 17 per cent to 22 per cent in North Amer- cent). Over the last decade, ecstasy seizures rose almost ica; 7-fold or 21 per cent per year, a far higher growth rate • From 0.3 per cent to 17 per cent in Oceania; than for most other drugs. • From 0.2 per cent to 5 per cent in East and South- East Asia; and Most ecstasy continues to be trafficked in Europe, • From 0.01 per cent to 2 per cent in southern followed by North America Africa. However, there was no linear upward trend in these Out of total seizures of 8 tons, 51 per cent were made regions. Notably in North America, the proportion of place in Europe (mostly West and Central Europe), 22 ecstasy seizures, after having increased from 17 per cent per cent in North America, 17 per cent in Oceania and of global ecstasy seizures in 1994 to 33 per cent in 2000, 5 per cent in East and South-East Asia. In addition, fell to 22 per cent by 2004 reflecting an overall declin- ecstasy seizures were reported – in order of importance ing ecstasy market in North America in recent years. - from Southern Africa, South-East Europe, the Near The importance of the Netherlands and Belgium, tradi- and Middle East, South America, the Caribbean, East tional source countries for ecstasy appears to be declin- Europe, North Africa, Central America, and South Asia. ing, as production in other European countries grows. Fig. 116: Breakdown of ecstasy seizures* by sub- Outside Europe, ecstasy production has been reported region in 2004 (N = 8.1 tons) from, inter alia, the United States, Canada, Australia, China, Indonesia, Hong Kong SAR of China, and South Africa. Other 3% The intra-regional distribution of ecstasy within Europe Southern Africa - like trafficking in amphetamine - seems to be carried 2% out by a large number of relatively small drug traffick- East and South- ing groups that purchase the substance in the Nether- East Asia lands and Belgium and traffic the drugs to local 5% West & Central Europe re-distribution centres across Europe. Oceania 51% 17% Trafficking of ecstasy from Europe to North America and some other regions has been – for years - controlled by criminal groups of Israeli origin, sometimes with links to Russia, other European countries and the USA. North America 22% Israeli citizens have been part of international ecstasy trafficking networks in source, transit, and distribution countries and were found in several European countries to serve as brokers and transporters of ecstasy to the United States. These trafficking groups operate mainly * in kilogram equivalents, using a conversion ratio of 100 mg for an ecstasy pill outside Israel, though in some instances, they have been Source: UNODC, Annual Report Questionnaire Data / DELTA also involved in trafficking ecstasy from the Netherlands

139 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis and Belgium to Israel. scale laboratories, with precursors imported from Asia, mostly China. In addition, some ecstasy seized in Aus- Criminal groups from the Dominican Republic con- tralia also appears to originate from Asia. In 2004, Aus- tinue to be involved in shipping ecstasy in significant tralian seizures of ecstasy exceeded those of the quantities from Europe, often via the Caribbean to the Netherlands (13 per cent of global seizures in 2004). United States as indicated by recent reports from Europol. The strongest expansion in recent years, however, has been among Asian criminal groups, shipping precursors from China to Belgium and the Netherlands for manufacture into ecstasy, and then trafficking the end-product to Canada for further shipment to the United States; more recently such Asian groups, have started trafficking precursor chemicals from China and produce the ecstasy in Canada, to supply major markets in the United States. These groups are now also in the process of building nation-wide distribution channels in the United States, and are attempting to crowd out the Israeli/Russian groups who controlled much of the ecstasy business so far. The emergence of these trafficking networks may also explain why Canada, for the first time ever, reported most ecstasy seizures worldwide in 2004, accounting for 19 per cent of global ecstasy seizures, marginally ahead of Belgium. Most of these seizures were made in the process of detecting such clandestine laboratories.

Fig. 117: Seizures of ecstasy in % of world total and kg - highest ranking countries – 2004

Canada 19% 1,632 Belgium 18 1,500 Australia 16% 1,335 * Netherlands 13% 1,087 United Kingdom ** 8% 673 USA 4% 326 China 4% 300 France 3% 213 Germany 2% 205

South Africa 2 195

* total seizures reported by national as well as state & Territory law enforcement agencies which may result in double counting.

** data refer to 2003

The third largest ecstasy seizures worldwide were reported from Australia in 2004, accounting for 17 per cent of the total. Most of the ecstasy found on the Aus- tralian market used to come from Europe. However, of late, production of ecstasy in Australia appears to have increased, as reflected in the dismantling of several large-

140 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Fig. 118: Global seizures of ecstasy*, 1994 - 2004

9,000

8,000

7,000 ** 6,000 lents a 5,000 uiv q 4,000 m e a 3,000 Kilogr 2,000

1,000

0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

* Reporting on 'Ecstasy' seizures only started with the new ARQ in 2001; before, Ecstasy seizures were included under the category of 'hallucinogens other than LSD'. Trend data shown above refer to this broader category. In 2004, Ecstasy accounted for 95% of the seizures in this group. ** 1 unit is assumed to be equivalent to 100mg of MDMA.

SEIZURES OF ECSTASY in % of world total and kg - HIGHEST RANKING COUNTRIES - 2004

- 200.00 400.00 600.00 800.00 1,000.00 1,200.00 1,400.00 1,600.00 1,800.00

Canada 19% 1,632

Belgium 18% 1,500 * Australia 16% 1,335

Netherlands 13% 1,073

United Kingdom** 8% 673

USA 4% 326

China 4% 300 France 3% 213

Germany 2% 205 South Africa 2% 195 SEIZURES OF ECSTASY (KG and %) - BY REGION - 2004

Indonesia 2% 130 West & Central Europe 4186 (49%) Ireland 117 North America 1958(23%) Estonia 95 Oceania 1340 (16%) Turkey 85 Spain 80 East and South-East Asia 541 (6%)

Bulgaria 73 Southern Africa 195 (2%) Japan 47 Southeast Europe 162 (2%) Italy 40 South America 39 Poland 38 * total seizures reportedIsrael by nationa31l as well as State &Ne Territorar and Middley law enforEast /South-Westcement ag Asienacies whi32 ch may result in double counting. ** data refer to 2003. Hong Kong SAR, China 28 Caribbean 15

27 Switzerland East Europe 14

* total seizures reported by national as well as State & Territory law enforcement agencies which may result in double counting. ** data refer to 2003.

141 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis t drug flows. (countries reporting seizures of more than 10 kg.) of more seizures (countries reporting Map 21: Seizures of Ecstasy (MDA, MDEA, MDMA) 2003 - 2004: extent and trends of Ecstasy (MDA, MDEA, MDMA) 2003 - 2004: extent and trends Map 21: Seizures of illici rather general indications of the directions but are not necessarily documented actual routes, Note: Routes shown are

142 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Highest annual prevalence rates of amphetamines use at a the subregional level are reported from Oceania, followed by East and South-East Asia and North America. The Americas, notably North America, are the second largest market for amphetamines, with more than 4 million users.

Amphetamine use widespread in Europe; 1.6.3. Abuse methamphetamine use limited

Europe is home to an estimated 2.7 million of amphet- The group of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) amines users. Although declines have been reported, the encompasses amphetamines (amphetamine, metham- United Kingdom continues to be the largest ampheta- phetamine), other synthetic stimulants (methcathinone, mine market in Europe. Methamphetamine use contin- phentermine, fenetylline etc.) and substances of the ues to be largely limited to the Czech Republic, ecstasy group (MDMA and related substances such as Slovakia, Estonia and Latvia. Some reports suggest the MDA). emergence of methamphetamine use in the United Kingdom, albeit at very low levels. Amphetamines and other synthetic stimulants South Africa emerging as ATS market

The main emergent ATS market in recent years, has Most methamphetamine is used in South-East Asia and been South Africa, where both methamphetamine and North America methcathinone are produced and used. Otherwise, amphetamines in Africa, like in South America, origi- Some 15 million people or more than 60 per cent of the nate mainly from the diversion of various central nerv- world’s amphetamines users live in Asia, most of whom ous stimulants from licit sources. are methamphetamine users in East and South-East Asia. The highest methamphetamine prevalence rates Fenetylline, locally known as ‘Captagon’, smuggled into worldwide have been reported from the Philippines. For the region from South-East Europe, continues to play many years, Thailand reported the highest prevalence an important role in several countries of the Middle figures for methamphetamine use, but this has changed East. following the market crack-down in 2003.

Table 13: Annual prevalence of amphetamines use, 2003-2005

in % of population No. of users 15-64 years EUROPE 2,700,000 0.5 West & Central Europe 2,185,000 0.7 South-East Europe 180,000 0.2 Eastern Europe 335,000 0.2 AMERICAS 4,320,000 0.8 North America 3,190,000 1.1 South America 1,130,000 0.4 ASIA 15,250,000 0.6 OCEANIA 610,000 3.0 AFRICA 2,000,000 0.4 GLOBAL 24,880,000 0.6

Above global average Below global average Around global average

Sources: Annual Reports Questionnaire data, various Government reports, reports of regional Bodies, UNODC estimates

143 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

Fig. 119 : Breakdown of amphetamines users by Fig. 121: Twelve-year drug use trends, as perceived region by expert: ATS

Africa Europe 2% 8% 105 11%

Americas 104 17% 103

102

101

100 Asia 62% 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Europe Americas Asia Oceania Africa Africa Americas Asia Europe

Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, Government reports, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP), EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports and local studies. Global ATS market driven by Asia in methamphetamine use have been reported. The Expert perceptions of drug use trends, suggest that most ongoing fall in reported violations against the Japanese of the increase of ATS use - at the global level - was Stimulants Law seem to confirm this view. linked to higher use in Asia. The increase was particularly pronounced over the 1992-2002 period, but has Further declines were also reported by the Government since lost momentum. Nonetheless, the perceived drug of Thailand. After a concerted effort against drug traf- use trend suggests that ATS use in Asia is still rising at ficking in 2003, significantly lower rates of metham- higher rates than in any other region. phetamine use were reported. Even if official household survey data of 2005 reflect some under-reporting as a However, Japan appears to be an exception, as declines result of the severity of crack-down on methampheta-

Fig. 120: Reported violations against the Stimulants Law in Japan, 1950-2005

55,664 24,022 25,000 32,140

19,937 19 , 15 6 20,000

15,267 15,332 15,000

13,300 10,000

5,000

- 1950 1954 1955 1960 1965 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Arrests 2,917 55,6 32,14 299 152 1,618 2,63 4,70 8,301 5,919 8,218 10 , 6 7 14 , 4 4 17 , 7 4 18 , 2 9 19 , 9 2 22,0 23,3 23,3 24,0 22,9 21,05 20,6 20,3 16 , 8 6 15 , 2 6 16 , 3 3 15 , 3 1 15 , 4 9 14 , 8 9 17 , 3 6 19 , 6 6 19 , 9 3 17 , 0 8 18 , 2 8 19 , 15 17 , 9 1 16 , 9 6 14 , 7 1 15 , 2 9 13 , 3 0

Trend 458 794 1,715 3,22 4,83 6,33 7,35 8,95 11, 2 2 14 , 0 7 16 , 5 9 18 , 5 2 20,16 21,58 22,7 23,2 23,2 22,5 21,64 20,5 19 , 17 17 , 6 5 16 , 4 3 15 , 8 3 15 , 5 2 15 , 6 2 16 , 15 17 , 4 0 18 , 3 9 18 , 7 7 18 , 5 0 18 , 3 5 18 , 2 1 17 , 6 6 16 , 7 3 15 , 7 3 15 , 3 3 14 , 6 5

Sources: Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, National Police Agency of Japan, UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data and Statement of the National Police Agency of Japan to the Commission on Narcotics Drugs, March 2006.

144 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Fig. 122: Twelve-year ATS use trends as perceived by Map 22: Primary methamphetamine/amphetamine experts: Asia admission rates by State: 1994-2003 (per 100,000 population aged 12 and over)

107 106.2 106

105 104.7

104

103

102

101

100

98 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Asia Global

Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, Government reports, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP), EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports and local studies. mine, all other available indicators (including treatment data and arrest data) point to sizeable drop in the number of ATS users in the country.

Use of ATS in the Americas reported stable but treatment demand has grown In 2004, expert perceptions of ATS use indicated a fairly stable trend for the Americas. In the United States, school surveys, an important indicator of emerging drug use problems, have shown declines and general population survey indicate a stable market. However, treatment demand for methamphetamine abuse has increased dra- matically. Against the background of such diverging indicators, it is difficult to gauge the direction in which the methamphetamine market in the United States is actually moving. What is, however, evident is that there is an ongoing geographical spread of methamphetamine across the country. While this used to be a localized problem in the West of the United States (California, Nevada and Oregon), abuse has gradually spread east- wards over the last decade.

Source: Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS), 1993-2003.

145 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

Fig. 123: Twelve-year ATS use trends as perceived by methamphetamine and methcathinone abuse in recent experts: Americas years, coming mainly from local clandestine manufacture.

107 Fig. 124: Twelve-year drug use trends as perceived by experts: Europe 106

105 107 104.7

104 106 104.7 103 105

104 102 104.3 101.0 103 101 102 100 101 99 100 98 99 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 98 Americas Global 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, Europe Global Government reports, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP), EMCDDA, Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, CICAD, HONLEA reports and local studies. Government reports, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP), EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports and local studies.

ATS drug use in Europe perceived to be growing

ATS use in Europe is mostly amphetamine use. After strong increases in the 1990s, the overall use level has Fig. 125: ATS use trends as perceived by experts: been relatively stable and below the global average. This Africa may, however, change soon, as increases in ampheta- 107 mine use have been reported since 2002. This reflects 106 ATS use in Germany, Italy and a large number of Cen- 105 tral and East European countries, while a number of 104.7 other West European countries, including the United 104 Kingdom, France, the Nordic Countries as well as Spain 103 and Portugal reported stable or declining levels. 102 101.7 101 ATS use in Africa remains constant – except for South Africa 100 99 ATS use does not seem to be a growing problem in 98 Africa. It grew in the 1990s, up until 1996, but seems to have been rather stable in subsequent years, possibly 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 a reflection of some improvements in the control Africa Global regimes of a number of countries to prevent diversion of Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, licit ATS on to the market. The main exception here is Government reports, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP), EMCDDA, South Africa which reported growing levels of both CICAD, HONLEA reports and local studies.

146 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

In Oceania, ATS use is perceived to be declining (Drug Use Monitoring in Australia) show a fairly stable significantly trend for 2005.

Although Oceania continues to have the highest ATS Ecstasy use is still concentrated in Europe, though prevalence rate of any region, use of amphetamines have gaining in importance in other regions shown significant declines over the past four years. Data based on the testing of arrested persons across Australia There are more than 3 million ecstasy users in Europe, accounting for almost 40 per cent of all ecstasy users Fig. 126: Twelve-year ATS use trends as perceived by worldwide. The annual prevalence rate of ecstasy use is experts: Oceania highest in West & Central Europe (0.9 per cent of the 107 population age 15-64), exceeding that of North Amer- ica (0.8 per cent), reflecting the decline of ecstasy use in 106 North America over the last few years. While drug use 104.7 105 trends in most of Western Europe are largely stable, 104 ecstasy use continues to rise in several East and South- East European countries as well as Italy. 103 Prevalence rates for ecstasy are still highest in Oceania 102 100.9 (3 percent) and increases have been reported from that 101 region. While prevalence of ecstasy continues to be low 100 in the whole of Asia (0.1%), East and South-East Asia has been the main emerging ecstasy market over the last 99 few years. In addition, some countries in South Amer- 98 ica have reported rising levels of ecstasy use.

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Ecstasy use declines strongly in North America Oceania Global The most impressive decline in ecstasy use has been Sources: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data, Government reports, UNODC Field Offices, UNODC’s Drug Abuse reported from countries in North America. Following Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (DAINAP), EMCDDA, CICAD, HONLEA reports and local studies. strong increases in the late 1990s, school surveys in both

Table 14: Annual prevalence of ecstasy use, 2003-2005

in % of population No. of users 15-64 years EUROPE 3,177,000 0.6 West & Central Europe 2,815,000 0.9 South-East Europe 196,000 0.2 Eastern Europe 167,000 0.1 AMERICAS 2,686,000 0.5 North America 2,165,000 0.8 South America 522,000 0.2 ASIA 2,990,000 0.1 OCEANIA 616,000 3.0 AFRICA 191,000 0.04 GLOBAL 9,660,000 0.2

Above global average Below global average Around global average

Sources: Annual Reports Questionnaire data, various Government reports, reports of regional Bodies, UNODC estimates

147 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

Ontario, Canada, and in the United States showed significant declines in the levels of ecstasy use since 2000. The decline seems to have been associated with a lower availability of the drug, due to lower levels of ecstasy trafficking from Europe, as well as with the perception of an increased risk of potential users of the health haz- ards related to ecstasy use.

Fig. 127: Ecstasy use among high-school students in the USA and in Canada (Ontario)

9.2 10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 5.8 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.9 4.0 2.9

annual prevalence 3.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Ontario (Canada), 7-11th graders USA, 12th graders

Sources: NIDA, Monitoring the Future – Overview of Key Findings 2005 and CAMH, Drug Use among Ontario Students, Toronto 2005

148 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants

Map 22: Use of amphetamines in 2004 (or latest year available)

Level of Abuse (Annual prevalence)

> 1% of population < 0.1% of population 0.5 - 1% of population Data not available 0.3 - 0.5% of population Main manufacturing areas 0.1 - 0.3% of population

Map 23: Ranking of amphetamine-type stimulants in order of prevalence in 2004 (or latest year available)

Sources: UNODC Annual Reports Questionnaires data, National Household Surveys on Drug Abuse, UNODC Rapid Assessement Studies, Council of Europe, ESPAD.

149 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis

Map 24: Use of ecstasy in 2004 (or latest year available)

150 1. Trends in world drug markets Amphetamine-type stimulants Findings of the Asian Multicity Epidemiology Workgroup, National Household National Workgroup, Epidemiology of the Asian Multicity Findings International Narcotics Control Strategy Report;Bundeskriminalamt (BKA) and other Law Report;Bundeskriminalamt Strategy Control Narcotics International Map 25: Changes in abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants (excluding ecstasy), 2004 (or latest year available) Sources: UNODC Annual Reports Questionnaires data, UNODC (Regional Centre Bangkok) Epidemiology Trends in Drug Trends in Asia ( Trends in Drug Trends Epidemiology Bangkok) Centre data, UNODC (Regional Questionnaires UNODC Annual Reports Sources: Affairs) and Law Enforcement Narcotics for International (Bureau Department of State States submitted to UNODC, United Surveys Reports. Enforcement

151 World Drug Report 2006 Volume I. Analysis Findings of the Asian Multicity Epidemiology Workgroup, National Household National Workgroup, Epidemiology of the Asian Multicity Findings International Narcotics Control Strategy Report;Bundeskriminalamt (BKA) and other Law Report;Bundeskriminalamt Strategy Control Narcotics International Sources: UNODC Annual Reports Questionnaires data, UNODC (Regional Centre Bangkok) Epidemiology Trends in Drug Trends in Asia ( Trends in Drug Trends Epidemiology Bangkok) Centre data, UNODC (Regional Questionnaires UNODC Annual Reports Sources: Surveys submitted to UNODC, United States Department of State (Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs) and Law Enforcement Narcotics for International (Bureau Department of State States submitted to UNODC, United Surveys Reports. Enforcement Map 25: Changes in the use of ecstasy (MDA, MDEA, MDMA), 2004 (or latest year available)

152