Geology, Frontier History, andSelected Wineries ofthe HillCountry Appellation, Central Texas

QE 168 by H55 R67 R. Rose Woodruff, 1999 Peter and CM. Jr. GEOL AGS Guidebook 25 Geology, Frontier History, and Selected Wineries of the Hill Country Appellation, Central Texas

Peter R.Rose and Charles M. Woodruff, Jr.

April 23, 2005

UNMERSrfYOFTEXAS "The sun, withall those planets revolving arounditanddependent on it,can still ripen a bunch ofgrapes as if it had nothing else in theuniverseto do."

Galileo

II Foreword

This field trip has predecessors thatdate back to 1992. Atthattime a trip wasled for the Austin Chapterofthe Society of Independent ProfessionalEarth Scientists (SIPES), the first field trip to explore the common ground between geology and winein Central Texas. The accompanying guidebook (Rose and Woodruff, 1992) gave special attention to historical sites and events along the route. Similar trips were run for the 1994 meeting of the Gulf Coast Association of Geologic Societies, and in 1997 for the 34th Annual Meeting of SIPES; the guidebooks produced were variations of the 1992 version (Rose and Woodruff, 1994;1997). In 1998, Austin Geological Society sponsored another in this series of field trips, but this excursion visited a different set of wineries, and the guidebook gave greater emphasis to geology and less on history while retaining key papers from the previous volumes (Woodruff andothers, 1998). A similartrip for GCAGS in 2002reverted to the 1997 route. Today's trip, and the accompanying guidebook represents a combination of these various previous works, and the wineriesvisitedinclude aselection from thesitesvisited during the previous field trips.

The guidebook is arranged in the following way: After a series of short topical papers, a road log presents the route taken and various geologic, geographic, and historicalnotes along the way. Using this log, the route may be retraced via automobile. At the end of the road log are brief discussions of the geologic and pedologic settings of the vineyards at each of the three wineriesvisited. Following the sitediscussions is a compilation of references onhistorical sources, wines, and geology. Andat theend of the book are appendices that include a guide to key wineterms and techniques of wine-tasting, blank "tasting forms," and on the last page, names and addresses ofcontributors tothis book and addressesand telephone numbers of the three wineriesvisited.

Acknowledgments

We are indebted to the owners and operators ofthe wineriesvisited today. We thank them for their courtesies and warm hospitality— both on the day ofthe tripand during previous visits whenthe trip wasbeing developed. These men and womenare pioneers; they are on the frontiers ofknowledge, and theyhave incurred significant financial risk. They exemplify the courage and determination typical of the Texas pioneer spirit, and we salute them.

We are indebted to geologist and ex-Shell Vice President, James E. Wilson, for kind permission to include his article on terroir, which is an excerpt fromhis book, "Terroir: TheRole Of Geology, Climate, AndCultureIn The Making Of French Wines/'. We also thank Elizabeth E. Sherry for her organizational (and computer) skills in keeping track of the various versions of manuscripts dealing with winesand geology. We thank MikeReagor, Rangeland Management Specialist in the Liano Field Office of the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service for providing maps and interpretive text from thesoil survey of Llano County. Finally, we thank Woody de Luna, of Block Distributing Company of San Antonio, publisher of the Wine Gazette, for permission to use the wonderfulcartoon by John Branch.

Charles Woodruff, Jr. Peter R.Rose Austin, Texas April 2005

111 IV Table of Contents

FOREWORD iii THE HILL COUNTRY APPELLATION REVISITED-COMMON GROUNDBETWEEN GEOLOGY AND WINE IN CENTRAL TEXAS by CM.Woodruff, Jr 1 THE BALCONES ESCARPMENT-WHEREEAST MEETS WEST by CM.Woodruff, Jr 3 GROUNDWATER, SONGBIRDS, CAVE CRICKETS,ANDLANDOWNER RIGHTS - A CONTEMPORARY TRAGEDY OFTHECOMMONS INCENTRAL TEXAS by James Sansom, Jr. andPeter R.Rose 11 FRONTISPIECE 18 FRONTIERHISTORY, LLANO UPLIFTREGION by Peter R.Rose 19 TRIBAL CONFLICT ANDVENGEANCE IN THEFRONTIER HILL COUNTRY byPeter R. Rose 27 THEY BURNEDTHE COURTHOUSEDOWN: PRAGMATIC VS. LEGALISTIC APPROACHES TO COMMUNITYHEALING by Peter R.Rose 37 FRONTIERHISTORY AND WINE by Peter R.Rose 39 GEOLOGY AND WINE byPeter R.Rose 41

THE UNIQUE FRENCH TERM TERRORby James E. Wilson 45 GEOLOGICTIME SCALE 47 ROCK UNITS ALONGFIELD TRIPROUTE 48 ROUTE MAP 50

ROADLOG by Peter R.Rose and CM. Woodruff, Jr 51 HistoricalReferences 85 Wine References 87 Geologic References 87 GEOLOGYAND SOILS OF SELECTED CENTRAL TEXAS VINEYARDSby CM.Woodruff, Jr 89 FALL CREEK VINEYARDS 89 BELLMOUNTAIN VINEYARDS 93 BECKER VINEYARDS 97 WINE TASTING NOTES FORMS 101 AFFILIATIONSAND ADDRESSES OF CONTRIBUTORSAND WINERIES 109

V "The relation between maps and wine is a very intimate one. Wine is, after all, the unique agricultural product whoseprice depends entirely on whereit comes from. The better the wine, the more exactly it locates its origin-down, eventually, to onediminutive field..."

Hugh Johnson TheWorld Atlasof Wine (Fourth Edition,1994)

VI -- TheHill Country AppellationRevisited Common GroundBetween Geology and Wine in Central Texas CM.Woodruff, Jr.

This field trip may seem to be an unconventional geologic excursion,but there is much logic behind it— beyond the sheer pleasure of tasting local wines and enjoying a bus tour of splendid Hill Country scenery. The rationale goes literally to the root of the nascent wine industry of Central Texas. As with any vascular land plant, therootsof the grape vineextract water and nutrients from the soil zone to sustain the plant. The uptake of soil moisture is ofspecial importance to a fruit-bearing plant such as Vitis vinifera, the wine grape. Clearly, wine is fermented juiceof the grape. And as succinctly noted by Johnson (1994), "Every drop of wine is rain recovered from the ground by the mechanism ofthe grape-bearing plant..." With this in mind,one can readily appreciate the connectionbetween geology and the growing ofgrapes.

Geologists are trained in recognizing the great diversity of substrate materials and the constructional and destructional processes thatacton Earth materials tocreate and altersoils, iandforms, sediments, and rocks as the Earth evolvesthrough time. Geologists also are generally familiar withthe hydrologic cycle as a keynexus of processes acting at and near the Earth's surface. This cycle includes the fate of rainwater on the land— the routing of incident rain through the circuits and buffers within soils and substrates to produce, from place to place, varying amounts of runoff,recharge, and evapotranspiration. This knowledge of Earth materials and the cycling of waters thus provides the connection between the professional concerns of the geologist and thoseof the growerofgrapes and the producer of wines.

The near-infinite site-by-site permutations between bedrock, soil, landform (including relief, slope, position on slope, and slope aspect), micro-climates associated with the varied slope conditions, and the overall prevailing climate, as well as local weather (which, of course, changes day-by-day)— all combine to impart distinctive characteristics to a vine's fruit, and tothe bottled product. Furthercomplicating theissue are the varietals, the many different kinds of grape that mayrespond quite differently to the complexities of substrate and soil and slope. The French have a word for the subtle, but inalienable, influences of the ground on the grape. That word is terroir, whichroughly translates to the English cognate, terrain. But it means more,and iteludes exact translation. It certainly includes cultivation, which in the great vineyards of France has involved centuries of husbandry. The implications of this word are discussed in this guidebook by Peter R.Rose and by James E. Wilson. Suffice it to say that the variables that contribute to the qualities of wine are many, and in the end, reductionistscience can never analyze nor fullyunderstand whatmakes agreat wine.

The rise of Central Texas as a commercial wine-producing area dates back only to the mid-19705. But notwithstanding this recent emergence of the region, Texas has a long historical wine-making tradition that goes back tothepioneer German andAlsatian settlers, who produced winemainlyfor family consumption. And even in the twentieth century, wines were produced commercially in Texas, withmore than a score of wineries in1920 (Johnson, 1994). Butprohibition killed the industry,and it took special action of the State Legislature in 1977 to allow thereemergence of viticulture and winemaking inTexas.

Texas, however, possesses an even more fundamental grape-growing tradition: As noted by Johnson (1994), the state'ssize and expanseofecological nicheshas resulted in Texas truly being America's"Vineland." Of the 36 species of the genus Vitisknown world-wide,15 are native to thisstate. And as discussed herein by Rose, a Texas-native variety of Mustang grape provided the disease-resistant root stock that saved the European vineyards from thephylloxeraepidemic in the late nineteenth century.

1 Today, the Central Texas Hiil Country is denoted as a distinct American Viticultural Area (AVA), which in America, is the formal appellation of origin. The Hill Country, however, is a vernacular name, and its boundaries are a bitfuzzy (see discussionby Woodruff, 1997). As ageologic province, it is the dissected area between theBalcones Escarpment and thecontinuous uplands oftheEdwards Plateau. In thepublic mind, the Llano Uplift is generally considered to be part of the Hill Country, although most geologists probably make a distinction between the limestone Hill Country (mostly on Cretaceous rocks), and the Llano Country withits complex terranes consisting ofPrecambrian andPaleozoic rocks.

TheHill Country Appellation includes sites on Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rocks and sediments. At this writing,Iknowof novineyards sited on Precambrian rocks,although there isnoconstraining reason for this. In fact, as we noteduringtoday's excursion, a small partofBell Mountain Vineyards overlies Precambrian granite, but no grapes are grown in that area. Ido cavil, however, at inclusion ofone vineyard within this AVA: it is located southeast ofSan Antonio-asite east of theBalcones Escarpment. As professionals, we should take a standineducating thepublic that the "HillCountry"does not extend east oftheEscarpment.

This field excursion tours the "greater" HillCountry that includes the Llano basin withits fault-bound Paleozoic strata and itscomplex assemblages of igneous and metamorphic rocks. In general, theHillCountry is a region mainly characterized by limestone uplands cut by streams and rivers of various sizes. It is the scenic heart of Texas. As will be discussed herein, vineyards visited during this excursion present a diversity in terms of geologic substrate-one ofthe fundamental controls on themulti-faceted terroirconcept. There alsoare diverse landforms-hence microclimates-atthe various sites.

As we traverse this region, we will note first-hand the varied influence of hydrologic processes on the landscape. We begin our trip in downtown Austin at an elevation of just over 500 ft above mean sea level (msl); we cross the mainline of Balcones faulting (where younger strata are downfaulted against the Edwards Group) at about 800 ft elevation, and we reach a maximum elevation just shy of 2,000 ft. All ofthe wineries visited todaylie at elevations above 1,000 ft. All ofthese wineries are situated north of the 30th Parallel. And alllie west ofthe 98th Meridian. We can note the effects of altitude and cartographic position on the grapes and the wines produced. These factors combine with substrates and soils and slopes as key elements of terroir. In time, the subtle effects ofsoil and microclimate and landform-all withprobable geologic controls-will be better understood as the vintners apply their arts and sciences and respond to trial and error and, it is hoped, to success!

References

Johnson, Hugh, 1994, Theworldatlas of wine:(Fourth edition)NewYork, Simon & Schuster, 320 p.

Wilson, J.E., "Terroir: The Role Of Geology, Climate, And Culture In The Making Of French Wines," 1998, University Of California Press, Wine Appreciation Guild. Woodruff, CM., Jr., 1997, Edwards Plateau and Hill Country - what's in a name? what's on the map? in Woodruff, CM.,Jr., coordinator, Environment and land restoration in the Central Texas Hill Country: Austin Geological SocietyGuidebook 17, p. 33-39.

2 In Praise Of Limestone

Ifit form theone landscape that we, theinconstantones, Are consistentlyhomesick for, thisischiefly Becauseitdissolvesin water. Mark theseroundedslopes Withtheirsurfacefragrance ofthyme and,beneath, A secret systemofcaves andconduits;hear thesprings Thatspurtout everywhere withachuckle, Each filling aprivatepoolforitsfish andcarving Its ownlittle ravine whosecliffs entertain Thebutterfly andthelizard;examine thisregion Ofshort distances anddefiniteplaces: What couldbe morelikeMotherorafitterbackground Forher son, theflirtatiousmale wholounges Againstarockin thesunlight,never doubting Thatforallhisfaults heisloved; whose works are but Extensions ofhispower to charm?From weatheredoutcrop Tohill-top temple, fromappearingwaters to Conspicuousfountains,from a wild toaformal vineyard, Areingeniousbutshort stepsthata child's wish Toreceivemore attentionthanhisbrothers, whether Bypleasing orteasing, can easilytake. Watch, then,thebandofrivalsas theyclimb up anddown Theirsteep stone gennelsin twos andthrees,at times Arm inarm, butnever, thankGod,in step;or engaged Ontheshadysideofasquare atmiddayin Volublediscourse,knowing each othertoo well tothink There areanyimportant secrets, unable To conceive agodwhose temper-tantrumsaremoral Andnottobe pacifiedbyacleverline Oragoodlay: for accustomedtoastone thatresponds, Theyhaveneverhadto veiltheirfaces in awe Ofacrater whoseblazingfury couldnot be fixed; Adjustedtothe localneedsof valleys Whereeverythingcan be touchedorreachedby walking, Theireyes haveneverlookedintoinfinitespace Through the lattice-work ofanomad'scomb; bornlucky, Theirlegshave neverencountered thefungi Andinsects ofthejungle,themonstrous forms andlives With which wehavenothing, we like tohope, incommon. So, whenoneof themgoes tothebad, the wayhismind works Remainsincomprehensible: tobecomeapimp Ordealinfakejewelleryorruina finetenorvoice Foreffectsthatbringdown thehouse,couldhappentoall But thebestand the worstofus... Thatis why,Isuppose, Thebestand worstnever stayedherelongbut sought Immoderate soils wherethebeauty wasnotso external, Thelightlesspublic andthe meaning oflife Somethingmore than amadcamp. 'Come!'cried thegranite wastes,

3 "How evasiveis yourhumour,howaccidental Yourkindestkiss,howpermanentisdeath."(Saints-to-be Slippedawaysighing.) "Come!"purredthe claysandgravels, "On ourplains thereisroom forarmies todrill;rivers Wait to betamedandslavestoconstructyou atomb Inthegrandmanner:soft" asthe earthismankindandboth Needto bealtered. (IntendantCaesars roseand Left, slammingthedoor.)But the reallyreckless were fetched Byanolder coldervoice, the oceanic whisper: "Iamthesolitude thatasksandpromises nothing; ThatishowIshallset youfree. Thereisno love;" Thereare only the variousenvies, allofthemsad. They wereright, mydear, allthose voices were right Andstillare;thislandis not thesweethomethatitlooks, Noritspeacethehistoricalcalm ofasite Where something wassettledonceandforall:A back ward And dilapidatedprovince, connected To thebig busy worldbyatunnel, with acertain Seedyappeal, isthatallitisnow?Notquite: Ithas a woridyduty whichinspiteofitself Itdoesnot neglect,but callsinto question Allthe GreatPowers assume;it disturbsourrights. Thepoet, Admiredforhis earnesthabitofcalling Thesunthesun,hismindPuzzle,ismade uneasy Bythesemarble statues whichso obviouslydoubt His antimythobgicalmyth;andthesegamins, Pursuingthescientistdown thetiledcolonnade Withsuchlively offers, rebukehisconcern forNature's Remotest aspects:I, too, am reproached, forwhat Andhowmuchyouknow. Nottolose time, not togetcaught, Nottobeleft behind,not, please! toresemble Thebeasts whorepeat themselves,or a thinglike water Orstone whose conductcanbepredicted, these Areour commonprayer, whosegreatest comfortismusic Which canbemadeanywhere,isinvisible, Anddoes notsmell, inso far as wehavetolookforward Todeathasa fact, nodoubt weareright:Butif Sinscan beforgiven, ifbodiesrise from the dead, Thesemodifications ofmatterinto Innocentathletesandgesticulatingfountains, Madesolelyforpleasure, make a furtherpoint: Theblessed willnotcare whatangle theyareregardedfrom, Havingnothingtohide.Dear, Iknownothing of Either, but whenItrytoimagine a faultlesslove Or thelife tocome, whatIhearis themurmur Ofundergroundstreams, what Iseeisa limestonelandscape.

May1948

W.H.Auden

4 -- The Balcones Escarpment Where East Meets West CM.Woodruff, Jr.2 Abstract

The Balcones Escarpment is the topographic break that separates dissected Hill Country/Edwards Plateau uplands from the innermost Gulf Coastal Plain in Central Texas. The escarpment formedin response to normal faulting across theBalcones FaultZone. The fault zone, in turn, is an expression ofthe buried Ouachita orogen that separates the cratonic interior of North America from the still-subsiding Gulf Coast Basin. TheBalcones Escarpment marks the social and ecological boundary between East and West in Central Texas:The Blackland Prairies that compose the innermost part of the Gulf Coastal Plain are prime cotton lands, and this has encouraged a cultural transplant of the Old South. The limestone uplands west ofthe escarpment,in contrast, have traditionally been used as range lands, thus supporting the cattle economy of the Old West. Cities have been established along this borderland so as to draw on both economies: cattle to the west and cotton to the east. These cities have also benefited by a reliable source of water provided by the great springs that issue forth fromtheEdwards aquifer along the base ofthe escarpment.

GeneralOverview

The Balcones Escarpment marks a major break in the landscape ofSouth Central Texas.It isa lineof hills that separates the coastal prairies and intervening low, wooded hills from the limestone uplands to the west. The escarpment extends along an arcuate trend from Del Rio on theMexican border,north through San Antonio, to the Colorado-Brazos drainage divide that alsomarks the Travis-Williamson County Line north of Austin. It is the dividing line between two of the grand physiographic divisions of North America: the Great Plains extend west of the escarpment; the Coastal Plain lies to the east (Fenneman, 1931). In South Central Texas, the boundary isseen inthe change fromHillCountry/EdwardsPlateau on the westto Blackland Prairieon the east. Relief withintypical 7.5-minute topographic quadrangles ranges from 50 ftto 300 ft along the Inner Gulf Coast Plain. West of the escarpment, relief generally ranges from 400 ft to as much as 1,200 ft within a typical quadrangle.

The Balcones Escarpment delineates the southeastern dissected edge of theplateau uplands that eventually merge with the contiguous High Plains, which in turn extend east of theRocky Mountains from Texas and New Mexico into Alberta, Canada. The Blackland belt extends beyond South Central Texas, skirting the entire Gulf Coastal Plain and Mississippi Embayment through Arkansas, Mississippi, and western Alabama. The Blacklands are prime cotton country, and in Texas these deep, fertile, black soils encouraged a cultural transplant of the Old South. West of the Balcones Escarpment, in contrast, traditional land use has been ranching; farming is limited largely to arable stream bottoms. In brief, the cultural outlook from the Blackland Prairies is southern; from the edge of the Great Plains west of the Balcones Escarpment, the cultural sense is western (Bybee, 1952; Flawn 1964).

TheBalcones Escarpment was so named because of its functioning as a physical barrier: an overlook without ready access from below. The physical barrier was used to good advantage during the cattle drives up the Chisholm Trail. Fertile grasslands and perennial, spring-fed streams lay adjacent to the hilly terrain that hemmed in the herds on one side. Buteven before the time ofthe cattle drives, the Balcones Escarpment was already a prime area for human habitation. Archaeological surveys have documented sites along the escarpment that were occupied by Paleo-lndians as early as 11,000 years ago (Hester, 1986). Subsequent archaeological sites cluster along the escarpment, suggesting that the dependable water supplied by springs was a major resource for early man. The springs also proved to be an understandable attraction toEuropean

1 Modified fromWoodruff (1994),and Woodruff andAbbott (2004). 2 ConsultingGeologist,711West14th St., Austin, TX78701 USA. 5 settlers; in the early eighteenth century, the Spanish located their missions and presidio at Bexar (SanAntonio) because of the arable land and springs that fed the headwaters of the San Antonio River. Later, in the mid- nineteenth century, German colonists settled in the New Braunfels area because of the rich soils to the east and the high-yield springs flowing from the base of thehills. Still later, M. B. Lamar, President of the Texas Republic, and westward-looking exponent of Manifest Destiny, choseWaterloo (later to be renamed Austin) as the new Capital ofthe Republic. Thischoice was made expressly because the site lay on the threshold of the West. Furthermore, thesite provided thekey naturalresource for asuccessful settlement -namely water.The water was there in abundance for exactly the same reasons as the dramatic landscape changes: a geologic faultzonecontrolled thetopographic andhydrologic setting. Notwithstanding such western visions, the area west ofthe Balcones Escarpment remained virtually unsettled until well into the nineteenth century. That region remained the undisputed realm of the Comanches and Apaches until the 1840's (Palmer, 1986). Only after the American Civil War did civilization come to the Hill Country and Edwards Plateau, and then the conversion occurred only haltingly. Rose (1990) has pointed out how the dissected margins of the Edwards Plateau promoted the continuation of frontier lawlessness: the Plateau uplandsprovided open land for long-distance surveillance and for rapid movement by mounted raiders - both outlaws and Indians - whereas the incised headwater canyons provided refuges for hideouts and defense. Ultimate settlement and civilization of the Edwards Plateau (as well as the rest of the Great Plains) depended on widespread employment of three technological advances:the windmill, barbed wire, and the six shooter(Webb, 1931).

Lawlessness persisted within thesephysiographic breaks wellinto the Twentieth Century: Springs issuing forth from many canyon heads supplied water for illicit whiskey stills (before, during, and after Prohibition). The deeply incised terrain and cedar brakes provided seclusion for these "moonshining" operations (see Graves, 1972).

Geologic Setting

The Balcones Escarpment marks the line of main dislocation across the Balcones Fault Zone which extends beyond the northern limitof the Balcones Escarpment to the vicinity of Hill County, between Waco and Dallas. The fault zone comprises an en-echelon system of mainly down-to-the-coast normal faults; total displacement across the zone is at least several thousand feet, and individual faults have displacements of about 1,000 ft, although many faults composing the system have displacements ranging from a few feet to tens of feet. The Balcones Fault Zone isaligned along an overall northeast-southwestorientation; in detail, however, local small- displacement faultstrend in various directions.Lower Cretaceous limestones on the west side of thefaultzone are juxtaposed against Upper Cretaceous claystones, chalks, and shales to the east. The relatively soft claystones and shaleshavebeeneroded more rapidly thanthe limestones, thereby forming low rolling prairies. The limestone strata, in contrast, have been sculpted into a rugged hilly terrain. In this way, the geological break has resulted in the abrupt change in landscape. In detail, faulting has created a mosaic of different rock types thatresults in varying localground conditions.

The Balcones Fault Zone is a near-surface manifestation of a more profound, deep-seated geologic break: Beneath the fault zone, the buried roots of the Ouachita Mountain Belt mark the boundary between the continentalinterior ofNorth America and the still-subsiding Gulf Coast Basin(Frontispiece,p.18). The Ouachita Mountains once stood tall through Central Texas, but thecomplex now extendsunderground from their present southwestern edge in Oklahoma, south beneath Dallas/Fort Worth, Waco, Austin, San Antonio, to the Rio Grande near Del Rio. From there, the complex extends westward into Trans Pecos Texas and into Mexico in the Big Bend region. This complex belt originated owing to a collision (or close encounter) between the North American continent and parts of South America or Central America during the late Paleozoic Era (some 300 6 million years ago). Subsequently, about 250 million years ago, the Guif of Mexico began to form when the continental blocks broke upand drifted apart. In Central Texas, themountains were eroded and subsided below sea level and were covered by younger sediments that compose the Mesozoic strata across the hinge zone. The arcuate shape of the fault zone and the coastward-protruding escarpment reflect the underlying structural salient where the Ouachita belt bends around the Llano Precambrian massif. The area! location and depth of the Ouachita complex is documented owing to numerous deep wells and by various geophysical data. Balcones faulting wasprobably aresultof periodic adjustments across thisburied hinge.

A majorepisode of faulting along theBalcones trend occurred during the lateEarly Miocene (Young, 1972) as evidenced by reworked Cretaceous fossils in the fluvial sandstones of the Oakville Formation (Wilson, 1956; Ely, 1957). This period of Balcones faulting is generally contemporaneous with the pervasive uplift and crustal extension associated with Basin and Range mountain-building episodes in Western North America. The Balcones Fault Zone thus marks a possible eastern boundary for this realm of major Cenozoic extensional tectonics. Hence, in yet another way, the fault zone and escarpment marks a dividing line between east and west. The Oakville Formation contains so many Cretaceous fossils thatearly geologists thought it was the site of upfaulted Cretaceousstrata. It is an anomaly amongstratigraphic units ofthe Coastal Plain, whichotherwise consist largely ofquartz sandstonesand muddy sediments. TheOakville Formation, in contrast,is a sandstone consisting of locally abundant limestone clasts. It is exposed today along the middle Gulf Coastal Plain and extends along an outcrop belt that parallels the present coast line from the vicinity of the Brazos River near Navasota, through LaGrange, and ending near the Karnes/Bee County Line in South Texas. The presence of reworked limy materials in this area has resulted in exceptionally fertile soils on rolling terrain similar to the Blackland Prairie. In brief, eroded, transported, and redeposited limestone fragments provide a means for establishing the age of the structural upheavals along the Balcones Fault Zone. Likewise, these reworked sediments result in a recurrence of the prairie terrain found at the foot of the Balcones Escarpment (Godfrey and others, 1973). West ofthe Balcones Escarpment, the limestone bedrock is resistant to erosion. Steep slopes are the norm, and major through-flowing rivers locally course through deep narrow valleys. Accordingly, tributary streams exhibit steep gradients within sub-watersheds having high drainage densities. Soils are highly erodible on this hilly terrain. Soil formed erratically because limestone weathers chiefly by chemical dissolution, leaving little residue ofsand, silt, and clay toform soils.Long-term naturalprocesses and recent land use have combinedto result insignificant soil erosion and redistribution of sediment in Hill Country watersheds; thick soils inalluvia! valleys result largely from long-term erosion of the uplands. Elsewhere, across typical uplands of the Edwards Plateau and Hill Country, rocky soils less than a foot thick are common. Given ill-advised land-use practices, including overgrazing and wholesaleclearing of plant cover on steep slopes, these thin soils may be stripped from the uplands by sheet runoff and gully erosion. East of the escarpment, bedrock strata are more erodible. Consequently, the land is of lower relief with rolling prairie country and a less dense drainage network and lower stream gradients than those common in theHill Country. Major streams meander back and forth across broad valleys cut in the soft bedrock of the Coastal Plain, and extensive sheets of river-laid sand and gravel cover parts of theBlackland Prairies as a result ofthis process. TheBlacklands, in contrast tothe Hill Country, are noted for their uniformly thick, fertile soils. The claystone substrate and the gentle slopes combine to enhance these soil conditions, although adverse land practices can result in severe soil erosion across the Blacklands just as in theHill Country.

The BalconesEscarpment is a majorinfluence on climate. West ofthis line, the climateis drier year-round and somewhat cooler in the winter. More important than average temperature and rainfall values, however, the Escarpment is a notorious weather maker. This break in the landscape generally has a relief of only a few hundred feet, but it is the first major topographic barrier inland from the Gulf of Mexico. Unstable, moisture- laden Gulf air masses are forced to rise at the escarpment. In so doing, they cool and produce phenomenal 7 storms. One of thelargest rainfall eventsever recorded in the conterminous United States occurred just east of the Escarpment near the Blackland community of Thrall, Williamson County, in September, 1921. At that time, more than 38 inches of rain fell in a 24 hour period -- compared to a usual annual rainfall in nearby Austin of about 32 inches.Other storms have produced record rainfallratesfor shorterperiods of time. TheD'Hanis flood of 1935, for example, resultedfrom 22 inches ofrain in 2hours and 45 minutes (Baker, 1975). In short, the area along the Balcones Escarpment is a zone ofclimatic hazard;it is the area of highest probability of large, flood- producing storms in the country (Hoyt and Langbein, 1955). The Hill Country is especially prone to flooding, owing to the coincidenceof extreme rates of rainfall, steepslopes, and a large number of small, high-gradient streams. During heavy rains, streams can rise in a matter of minutes and be transformed into murderous torrents.

Groundwater availability abruptly changes across the Balcones Escarpment. On the west, several water- bearing rock formations (aquifers) occur at relatively shallow depths. On the eastern side of the Escarpment, however, these water-bearing strata are downfaulted to such depthsas to make drilling wells in the Blackiands an expensive and risky venture. Commonly, deep groundwater becomes increasingly brackish and tepid within short distances east of the escarpment. It seems ironic that the prime prairie cropland has an insecure groundwater supply, whereas the Hill Country with its rocky, less arable land, commonly has ample groundwater at a reasonable depth. Of the water-bearing units along the Balcones Escarpment, the most important is the Edwards Limestone aquifer. It supplies drinking water to more than one million people, including the municipal supply for the City of San Antonio, the largest city in the United States dependent entirely on groundwater. TheEdwards aquifer is alsohabitat to a diversity of aquatic animal andplant species, some of which are found nowhereelse in the world (Longley, 1981). Moreover, the Edwards aquifer has played animportant role in theevolution of the landscape along the Balcones Escarpment. Fundamental to the development of the Edwards aquifer and the Balcones Escarpment is the fact that the aquifer host rock is limestone and thus is slowly soluble in water. For this reason, the development of the aquifer and the Balcones Escarpment are intertwined. The processes that formed the escarpment abetted bedrock dissolution, and in this waycreated cavernous porosity for the aquifer. Likewise,aquifer development diverted water via subsurface flow, thereby modifying surface erosion across the landscape. In brief, the coevolution of aquifer and escarpment involves the interactions between water and rock through space and time. Past geologic processes have shaped therocks and landforms and thus have set in motion geomorphic processes occurring today, namely the locations of recharge sites and major springs (Woodruff and Abbott, 1979,2004).

Summaryand Conclusions In summary, abrupt bedrock changes across the Balcones Fault Zone with their ancient, deep-seated controls continue to dramatically affect almost all other attributes of the land: terrain, soils, vegetation and animal habitat, surface-water and ground-water availability, weather, and all water-related processes. These environmental changes, in turn, have interacted to affect human endeavors in profound ways. The Balcones Escarpment separates the cotton culture of the Old South from the rangelands and cattle economy ofthe Old West. The geologic fault zonethus alsomarks a cultural fault.Walter Prescott Webb, inhis classictreatise, The Great Plains (Webb, 1931), denoted the beginning of the American West at the 98th meridian. His perspective for drawing this line was his Friday Mountain Ranch in the Hill Country near the Travis/Hays County line. This ranch lies a few miles east ofthe 98th Meridian, but itis also bisected by the Mount Bonnell Fault, which is the main fault of the Balcones system in the Austin area. On the basis of the sum of changes across the Balcones/Ouachita discontinuity - geological, ecological, and social -- the Balcones Escarpment provides a physical boundarybetween East and West.It is themeeting ofthe prairies and the plains.

8 References

Baker, Victor R. 1975 Flood Hazards along the Balcones Escarpment in Central Texas: Alternative Approaches to their Recognition, Mapping and Management. The University of Texas, Austin, Bureau of Economic GeologyCircular 75-5.

Bybee, H.P. 1952 The BalconesFault Zone-An Influenceon HumanEconomy, Texas Journal of Science,4:387-392.

Ely, LM. 1957 Microfauna of the Oakville Formation, LaGrange Area, Fayette County, Texas. Unpublished M.A. thesis, TheUniversity of Texas, Austin. Fenneman,Nevin M. 1931 Physiography ofWestern United States.McGraw-Hill, New York.

Flawn,PeterT. 1964 The Everlasting Land. In:Maguire, Jack (cd.), APresident's Country, Shoal CreekPublishers, Austin.

Godfrey, Curtis L,Gordon S. McKee, and HarveyOakes 1973 General Soil Map of Texas: Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Texas A&M University, approximate scale, 1:500,000.

Graves, John 1972 Hard Scrabble.Alfred Knopf, New York.

Hester,Thomas R. 1986 Early Human Populations along the Balcones Escarpment, in: Abbott, P.L., and Woodruff, CM., Jr. (eds.), The Balcones Escarpment,Geology, Hydrology, Ecology, and Social Development in Central Texas, pp.55-62. Geological Society of America Annual Meeting, San Antonio, Texas, November 1986.

Hoyt, W. G.,and W. B. Langbein 1955 Floods.Princeton University Press, Princeton.

Longley, Glenn 1981 The Edwards Aquifer: Earth's Most Diverse Ground-Water Ecosystem? International Journal of Speleology,11:123-128.

Palmer,E.Charles 1986 Land Use and Cultural Change along the Balcones Escarpment: 1718-1986. In: Abbott, P.L., and Woodruff, CM., Jr. (eds.), The Balcones Escarpment, Geology, Hydrology, Ecology, and Social Development in Central Texas, pp.153-161. Geological Society of America Annual Meeting, San Antonio, Texas, November 1986.

9 Rose, PeterR. 1980 Role of Edwards Plateau Geology in Prolonging Era of Frontier Lawlessness, West-Central Texas, * 1860-1880. Austin Geological SocietyNewsletter, 24(6):1-2.

Webb, Walter Prescott 1931 TheGreat Plains. Ginn, Boston.

Wilson, J.A. 1956 Miocene Formations and Vertebrate Biostratigraphic Units, Texas Coastal Plain. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 40(9): 2233-2246.

Woodruff, CM.,Jr. 1994 The Balcones Escarpment -Bedrock, water, and human destiny: South Texas Geological Sociel Bulletin,v. 35, no.4, p. 25-34. Woodruff, CM., Jr., and Patrick L. Abbott 1979 Drainage-basin Evolution and Aquifer Development in a Karstic Limestone Terrain, South-Central Texas,USA, Earth-Surface Processes,4(4):319-334.

2004 Coevolution of theEdwards aquifer and landscapes of the Edwards Plateau region in Hovorka, Sue, cd., Edwards Water Resources in Central Texas: Retrospective and Prospective: Symposium Proceedings (CD-ROM), Co-hosted by South Texas Geological Society and Austin Geological Society, May 21, 2004.

Young,Keith 1972 Mesozoic History, Llano Region. In Barnes, V. E., Bell, W. C, Clabaugh, S. E, Cloud, P. E., Jr., McGehee, R. V., Rodda, P. U.,and Young. X., (eds.), Geology of theLlano Region and Austin Area, Field Excursion, pp. 41-46. The University of Texas, Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology Guidebook 13.

Theunderground roads Are,as thedead prefer them, Alwaystortuous. W.H. Auden

Whenhelooked the cave in the eye Hercules Had a momentof doubt. W.H. Auden

10 Song Rights-- Contemporary Tragedy Ground Water, Birds,Cave Crickets, AndLandowner A Of TheCommons InCentral Texas James Sansom, Jr.andPeter R.Rose

Introduction

When we think about the Texas Hill Country and the Edwards Plateau region - being native Austinites and long-standing area residents -it is the water, vegetation and land thatseem to maketheregion so unique. The people of this area have become environmentally conscious in recent years. "Environment" has become a buzz-word and a basis for concern, an attitude, a war cry, a protest (as well as the basis for many new specialized college degrees!). As geologists working in this area for many years, it has been interesting to watch all thisevolve,to see how the body politicdeals withthe facts,factoids, fears, fallacies, and fantasies. As geologists we wish to share some of our thoughts concerning the environmental impact of increasing human occupation of this area on water, especially the Edwards aquifers; land, the geology and topography; and vegetation, particularlycedar3 andoak woodlandsand open grasslands ofthe Central Texas area. The Tragedyof the Commons

In Garrett Hardin's profound essay "The Tragedy of the Commons", he writes about those resources that are held in common by human societies, free and unrestricted, not owned by any individual or subgroup, but reserved for the common use. The tragedy is man's tendency to overuse and abuse "the commons" until it is depleted or irreparably damaged. There are numerous examples of man's abuse of common resources, such as depletion of aquifers; exhaustion of common pasturelands; pollution of streams, land, and air; overuse of National Parks; overpopulation ofthe planet; and so on. AsHardin points out, this fundamental problem has no technical solution, i.e., it cannot be "fixed" absent the Utopian establishment of a universal and fundamental morality and voluntary restraint.Practically, the damage to theCommons can onlybe prevented bya) rationing, in which case the Commons is no longer free, or b) converting the Commons to private ownership, in which enlightened self-interest is expected to promote careful use. A further complication is that, although some common resources are spatially fixed, and therefore can be delineated for ownership, such as land, other common resources are ethereal, such as air, or mobile, such as water, so that individual ownership is more complex or even impossible. It is clear thatthe Edwards aquifers and Barton Creek are modern-dayexamples of threatened "commons"ofthe latter class: the water moves!

Water, Endangered Species, andPrivate Property

Today environmental issues in the Hill Country center around the Edwards aquifers, endangered species of plants and animals, andtheir impact on individual property rights in the management of theseissues. Localized by the Balcones Fault zone, the Edwards aquifer system reaches -in two segments -from east of Del Rio to San Antonio and San Marcos, and thence north of Austin. This system -- partly unconfined and partly artesian - provides very large quantities of high-quality water to ranchers for irrigation west of San Antonio, municipal and industrial waterto the City of San Antonio and other cities, and water for many individual rural residences and subdivisions withinthe general area. The City of San Antonio is the largest city in the United States that depends on ground water as itssole source of water. The City of Austin utilizeslakes on the Colorado River for its watersupply. However, springflow and runoff from theEdwards aquifer (Barton Springs segment) as well as from the unconfined Edwards aquifer of theEdwards Plateau, through tributary streams such as theSan Saba,

3 Inallreferences herein thedarkgreen cone-shapedevergreencommon toour hill country iscalled (faithful tolocal vernacular)cedar, sap-cedar,orsometimes mountaincedar. Itis actuallyAsheJuniper.

11 Llano, and Pedernales rivers, and Barton Creek,allcontribute to these lakes. Other cities such as SanMarcos and New Braunfels have become less dependent on theEdwards aquifer (southern segment) by utilizing more surface water supplies such as Canyon Lake (Guadalupe River), since the extensive drought that ravaged the region in the late 1940's and early 1950's(Dobson, 1994).

Surface water in Texasis theproperty of the State; subsurface water belongs to thelandowner. Nevertheless, it is clear that the life-giving water ofthe Edwards aquifers is in a fact a common and mobile resourceon which wellover a million Texansdepend.

Federal lawsenacted in recent years protect endangered species, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is charged with species determinations, protection, and enforcement - wildlife being another resource held in common. Thishas impacted management oftheEdwards aquifers because certain endangered species in the area of the Balcones Escarpment areonly found in large springs, caves, and othersolution features withinthe Edwards Limestone. Currently there are also several additional species that are being considered for designation as endangered species in theregion. Thisaffects land development in areas outlying and adjacent to the Edwards aquifers, through restrictions imposed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (or other governmental entities) in those areas where these species have been identified. Such restrictions aim at preserving the habitat of endangered species, and in maintaining the purity of especially cherished streams such as Barton Creek. Pro-development advocates have tended to deny the accumulative impact of suburban development on the Barton Creek watershed.Political stridency by environmental activistsinjected elements of power, control, and class warfare into the conflict.Effective compromise seemed increasingly difficult to reach, until about 1998, when some political accommodation finally began to be achieved, and disparate elements of theCentral Texas community now seemto be reaching practical working accords. Restricted land development in the Texas Hill Country has also been caused through thedesignation ofcertain migratory birds as endangered species - birds that inhabit the Hill Country during the spring and summer seasons. The potential habitats for these birds cover a much larger area than just the outcrop area of the Edwards Limestone. The vegetation of the Hill Countryis animportant factor to the habitat of thesebirds,andit centers around cedar and oak woodlands.Restrictions on land development are currently in place in the Hill Country where there is habitat for the endangered birds. This includes areas in the Texas Hill Country west of Austin and northwest of San Antonio. The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service has proposed extending restrictions north and west as much as 150 miles. Thus the endangered species law and associated regulations impact individuallandowner rights very widely and are currently being discussed at all levels ofTexas government, as wellas by irate landowner groups!

All this presents a complex economic, legal, environmental, and political problem relating to uncompensated "takings" ofprivate property -temporary, partial, orpermanent -bygovernmental agencies, contrary tothe sth and 13th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution. As stated previously, under Texas law, ground water is the property of thelandowner, and withdrawalsfrom theEdwards aquifers are notregulated. However, regulations have been proposed and adopted in an effort toprotect endangered speciesby restricting water use. Theintent isto regulate theuseoftheEdwards aquifer so that there willbe continued flowin the springs -some of which alsoform the base flow for theBlanco and GuadalupeRivers - wheresome ofthe endangered species live.In the process, a minimum permanent water level would be maintained in the Edwards aquifer, a prudent safeguard for the common good. Therefore, the City ofSan Antonio- which is by far the largest water user in theEdwards aquifer system-- has begun to seek alternative sources of municipal water because theproposed regulations will require the city to reduce the amount it pumps from the Edwards aquifer. Regulation will not onlyaffect San Antonio, but allother usersas well;their use ofground water willbe limited for the first time.

12 In the Austin area, the widely held desire to maintain-- the purity of Barton Creek and Barton Springs has manifested itself in stringent development restrictions suchas theSOS ordinance ~ and ongoing attempts to maintain the area adjacent to Barton Creek in a natural state, through a variety of means: mandated habitat preservation, coerced land trades, and outright purchase of key tracts.

AFrontier TexasAnalog

Some useful perspective on the present conflict isprovided by experiences of frontiersettlers in Central Texas more than 100 years ago. When cattlemen moved into the Texas Hill Country in the early 1870's, they were attracted by unlimited free land, plentiful tallnativegrasses, and an ample watersupply -- aclassic "commons". Some of the early agronomists wrote that open grasslands were visible fromlocal hills for5 to 10 miles in the early years and that thisunspoiled rangeland could support 1 cow per 2acres. There were no boundaries and no regulations except thoseimposed by nature. As a result, early stockmen abused the land by overuse and poor range management. In their efforts to make big profits withhigh cattle prices, they overgrazed the range and did not re-seed damaged areas, discontinued the occasionalwild fires that controlled brush encroachment, and failed to establish alternative water supplies for cattle.By 1884, oak, cedar, and mesquite brush began to take over (Bentley, 1898) and the grazing capacity of the land dropped, to 1 cow per 10 acres or more! The same cattlemen who had made fortunes before now began to lose money, and the influx of sheepmen and homesteaders forced them to develop land ownership and rights, thus fencing. The depletion ofrange grasses and suppression of wild fires allowed the rapid invasion of brush and small trees onto the former grass plains which reduced effective grazing lands. Cedar, whichsuppresses growth of native grasses because it depletes the soil of water and casts dense shade, is considered to be one of the most strenuous "ground-gainers", it reestablishes rapidly after it has been cut or burned off(Bray, 1904), especially if native grass cover has been stripped away by overgrazing. Cedar woodlands commenced spreading out of the brakes of the Colorado, Blanco, Pedernales, and Guadalupe Rivers to the flatuplands wherethe grasses had been depleted (Jenkins, 1939). Range carrying capacity was drastically reduced. Today, unimproved Hill Country pastureland only supports 1cow/calf per 20 to 30 acres.

For Central Texas rangeland today, there ishope, although much work is still required. In 1898, Bentley wrote about the errors that early cattlemen had made in West Central Texas and recommended that they stop overgrazing, dig tanks and water wells for dry seasons, and plant native grasses for grazing and hay. Most of the cattlemen who heard him were ignorant of range management. Besides, as they told him, they were only interested in making money! Since then they have learned how to be better stewards of their land. Education, management practices, economic necessity, and private ownership of land have all contributed to this. The pristine climaxgrasslands are gone forever, but in most areas, range deterioration has been arrested. Periodic controlled pasture burning, rigorous rotation ofpastures, and dispersed watersources are increasinglycommon ranch practices, and native grasses are slowly recovering.

A 20th CenturyExample:The Oqallala Aquifer oftheHigh Plains The Ogallala aquifer, which lies beneath the high plains of the Texas Panhandle, provided shallow water for ranchers and settlers at the turn of the century. Later, wells were deepened steadily for irrigated farming, pursuing the declining ground-water table, for the Ogaiiala south of the Canadian River is cut off from lateral

13 recharge. Thus the Ogallala water was being mined. But during the last 20 years, aquifer water levels have stabilized, theresult ofmany factors; such as:

1. Widespread understanding of the Ogallala aquifer; 2. Rising energycosts forlifting and distributing ground water; 3. Useof water-efficientcrops and farming methods; 4. Construction ofsurface recharge features; 5. Voluntaryorganizationof users into ground water districtsto self-regulate wateruse.

The Ogallala watertable willnever return to its former level, but its decline has been arrested and withcareful management, its utility as a precious common resource willcontinue farinto the future. The Edwards Aquifers-- AnHistorical Perspective

From the time early settlers cameto the TexasHillCountry to the present, the plentiful reserves of the Edwards aquifers have been used without any regulations or restrictions. Because of their very speedy recharge characteristics, the Edwards aquifers have held up amazingly well over the past 150 years, although some springs -especially in the San Antoniourban area -have dried up.Thelargest springs -Comal, San Marcos, Barton- are still flowing, even though the population in this area has exploded since the end of World War 11. During our lifetimes the major springs along the Balcones Escarpment between Austin and San Antonio experienced serious reduced flow during the severe drought of thelate 1940's and early 19505. In thepast 15 years the region has enjoyed rainfall well above normal (Rose, 1992), but even so, water levels in Edwards aquifer monitor wells in San Antonio have reached critical low levels three times since 1984, during summer heat waves and dry spells.For the near term, it is obvious that withdrawals will continue to increase, therefore wemust expect that watersupplies in theEdwards aquifers along the Balcones Fault Zone (especially around San Antonio) willbe in critical condition when we next experience an extended dry spell comparable to the 1949-56 drought.

Nevertheless, it is clear that the community has begun seriously to address the problem. Sophisticated modeling procedures, carried out by academic and state geoscientists have helped us to understand hydraulic flow through the complex, faulted aquifer in the Balcones fault zone. Monitored experiments with tracers have provided useful dataon direction and velocityof flow through the Edwards aquifer. And various agencies have cooperated to construct amplified recharge structures to funnelmore stream runoffinto the aquifer. Programs are even being proposed to clear water-hungry brush from watershed areas to reduce transpiration and increase runoffinto the aquifer.

WhatLies Ahead?

As with any hydrodynamic reservoir, withdrawal from one location impacts the water level at all locations. However, the southernsegment of the Edwards aquifer is tilted -the western end (where most of therecharge occurs) is higher than the eastern end, where most of the discharge occurs. And the water moves, "flows downhill", west to east, where it emerges at San Marcos Springs. So excessive withdrawals harm first the springs (and GuadalupeRiver base-flow), next,cities likeSan Marcos and New Braunfels,next the City of San Antonio, and last, irrigation farmers in Uvalde and Medina Counties. Existing Texas groundwater law -- which grants the landowner all the groundwater he can capture -- is neither consistent with Nature nor equitable: upstream withdrawalsreduce water levels fordownstreamusers analogous to thebehavior ofriparian water.

14 But thereis a limit to the water inthe Edwards aquifers, just asthere wasa limitto thepristine grasslandsof the Texas plains, and a limit to water in the Ogallala aquifer. They only seemed limitless because we did not understand their natural systems. Classic resources heldin common and taken at will, they werein fact subject to depletion, and near-irrevocable change, as weeventually cameto see. Although Hill Country rangeland and the Ogallala aquifer arestill valuable resources, they will not return to theiroriginal natural state. Also, they are no longer true "commons", in thatthey are not open to everyone, and free useis restricted orrationed.

A frequent proposal, particularly by San Antonio interests, hasbeen to utilize Edwards aquifer water lower than the "spill-point" (i.e., level of the springs). However, this would invite updip invasion by hypersaline formation water across the "bad-water line". Proponents have argued that this saline water would be flushed out of the aquifer during the next wet cycle, and the "bad-water line" would retreat to its original position. More cautious observers worry aboutpermanentdamage to both aquifer and springs.

Similarly, there are legitimate concerns that Barton Creek and Barton Springs may be forever spoiled through incrementally increasing pollution fromsuburban run-offifland development is allowed tocontinue unabated. When we analyze those examples where a threatened "commons" has been rescued, we can see that four basic elements must be present inthe human bodypolitic:

1. Knowledge of natural earth systems; 2. Cooperationamongdisparate users; 3. Economicincentivesthat encourage prudent use by allparties; 4. Law (or regulation) thatis consistent withNature.

Although regulation of Edwards ground water have been a bitter pill for Texas landowners to swallow, an equitable management plan - including shifting from massive withdrawals of Edwards ground water by municipalities and irrigators to surface water supplements and sales of Edwards water rights by rural landowners to municipalities -is currently evolving. Such functional cooperation has been achieved before in Texas - for example, the improved management practices instigated by Ogallala irrigators in the Texas High Plains.

Obviously we have numerous problems to solve, but as is so often the case, the old timers have already provided us some historical warnings. Although, we are sometimes pessimistic that society williearn from the past, and overcome rampant denial and greed,it seems that in the area oftheEdwards Underground Aquifers, and an informed electorate, our political institutions have finally become effective in reaching a workable compromise. Indeed incompany with thepress, theyseem to havesuccessfully addressed the situation. From a previously pessimistic point ofview 12 years ago,the authors are now cautiously optimistic that the Central Texas community has "turned the corner" with respect to prudent management of its most important natural resource.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to CM. Woodruff, Jr., for unselfishly sharing obscure but fascinating and significant early publications he has uncovered in the course of his ongoing research on vegetation and land use in Central Texas, and extensive discussions of this complex subject with us over thepast several years. Many thanks to Elizabeth E.Sherry whotyped themanuscript.

15 References Bentley, H. L, 1898, "Cattle Ranges of the Southwest: A History of the Exhaustion of the Pasturage and Suggestions forItsRestoration", U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers Bulletin No. Bray, W. L, 1904, "The Timbers of the EdwardsPlateau ofTexas: Its Relationship to Climate, Water Supply, and Soil", U.S.Department of Agriculture, Bureauof Forestry, BulletinNo. 49. Dobson, M. and Neathery, J., 1994, "Historic Review ofthe Edwards Aquifer Crisis", presentation given at the Summer Meeting of the Texas Section of the Association of Engineering Geologists, August 6, 1995 in Austin, Texas. Hardin,G.,1963,"TheTragedy ofthe Commons", Science, Volume 162, pp. 1243-1248. Jenkins, R.8.,1939, "Cedars and Poverty", TheCattleman, Volume XXVI,No.1. McKinney, D.C., and Watkins, D. W., 1993, "Management of the Edwards Aquifer": A Critical Assessment", Center for Research in WaterResources, Rept. 244, Bureauof Engineering Research, University of Texas, Austin, 94p. Rose, P.R., 1992, "Testimony to the Texas Water Commission Hearing on the Edwards Underground River Proposed Regulations, San Antonio, Texas, June 30. Bulletin ofthe South Texas Geological Society, p. 7- -14,November, 1992.

16 "AllAmerica lies at the end of the wildernessroad, andour past is not a dead past, but still lives in us. Ourforefathers had civilization inside themselves, and wildoutside.We live in the civilizationthey created, but withinus the wildernessstill lingers. What they dreamed, welive,and whatthey lived,wedream."

T. K.Whipple Study Outthe Land

17 18 Frontier History,Llano Uplift Region Peter R. Rose

Preface

To most people familiar with Central Texas, the HillCountry is a pastoral region of hills and valleys veined by clear-water streams and lakes -a quiet, picturesque area of winding country roads, of woods-bounded fields and old stone houses,witha courthouse-squared county seat every 40 milesorso. When we think of the classic ingredients of western movies - cowboys and trail drives, soldiers and Indians, settlers, outlaws and lawmen - we tend to envision the arid landscapes of far west Texas, New Mexico, or Arizona, or theprairies of Wyoming orMontana.We donot generally think of the Hill Country as the setting for such colorful people and events. Besides - nothing so dramatic could possibly have happened so close to home! So it may come as a surprise for many to discover that the Hili Country had a rich, romantic, and often violent frontier history that easily rivals more notorious areas dramatized by Hollywood. !n fact, the Texas Hili Countrymay have provided thereal basis for many ofthe stereotypical models of the Western genre.

As geologists, we are perhaps more sensitive than others to terrain and vegetation. And that sense of landscape brings a special appreciation - an eerieimmediacy -to historical events, particularly when we can stand on the very ground-- where some frontier encounter took place. We can visualize the figures moving across the landscape indeedsometimes we almost expect to seethem appear beforeour eyes.

Many ofthese frontier episodes spanned several years and took place over broad areas of the Central Texas landscape. Butour field tripconfines us to a discrete route, so wemust deal only in historical fragments -- what happened at each place, and when. But, as you will see, many of the these fragments willlink up as the trip progresses, somewhat akin to movie flashbacks.We hope this willprove to be tantalizing rather than frustrating to thereader.

All historical comments in the field trip guidebook appear in this italic font.References are provided for those interested in learning more.

Historical Background

The historical events describedherein occurred mostly inthe period1840-1885 -the time of the Central Texas frontier. Indigenous Indians were mostly Lipan Apache. Nomadic raiders of the Southern and Northern Comanche and Kiowa tribes appeared periodically, sweeping southward from the upper Colorado and Brazos Valleys and theHigh Plains. From Mexico came renegades riding eastward across the Edwards Plateau; they were Lipan, occasionally Mescalero Apache and, after 1865, Kickapoo. Booty and captives seized in these Indian raids eventually found their way to the High Plains, especially to that mercantile fraternity known euphemistically as the "Santa Fe traders", amoral and mercenary merchants of the worst kind - the Comancheros.

By 1865, the hostility between RedMan and White (primarily Anglo-Celtic) was well established. Without doubt, treacherous and deadly acts by the invading white man had contributed to the enmity. In Texas, two particularly reprehensible incidents stand out. The first was the Council House fight, in which Comanche Chief Muguara and twelve other chiefs were murdered, along with about 30 other Comanche warriors who had come to San Antonio in 1840 under a flag of truce to bargain for the release of white captives. The second was the battle of Dove Creek, on thenorth edge of theEdwards Plateau, a gratuitous and unsuccessful attack by Confederate

19 home guardsmen upon the Kickapoo Indians in early 1865, when that tribe was peacefully skirting the settlements, emigrating to a permanent refuge in Mexico. Meusebach's peace treaty with the Southern Comanche, signed in March 1847, on the San Saba River, was moderately well observed by both sides for nearly 15 years, which does suggest that the Indians did have some degree of reliability in their interactions withothergroups.-Of course, Meusebach wasa respected leader whoseorders weregenerally followed by the German colonists who also tendedto beless vengefulthan the Anglo-Celts.

Even so, those historians who are now predisposed to justify Indian violence cannot ignore the facts: settlements along the Central Texas frontier represented a compelling target for theft and violence, and settlers wholived there were under continual threat of sudden and deadly attack by Indian raiders. To the Comanche, Kiowa, Lipan and Kickapoo Indians, such forays only continued their cultural traditions - and such raids had been carried out against their Indian neighbors long before the coming of Spaniards and Americans. In any case, by 1865, the enmity between Indians and Whites was irreconcilable. Quarter was neither asked nor granted by either side, and the violence visited upon each by the other was appalling, even by the extreme standard of late 20th-centuryguerrilla warfare.

The Germans came to the Hill County beginning in 1845. They came by the thousands to Indianola on the coast, where many died, then on to New Braunfels. From there, they fanned out through the Hill Country. Fredericksburg wasestablished in 1846, with apopulation ofabout 1,000. In 1846 Fredericksburg wasn'ton the Texas frontier - it was beyond the frontier! Figure 1 shows the location and establishment dateof the frontier forts that defined and protected -- after a fashion -- the Texas frontier. All of them were founded after Fredericksburg!

Figure 1 also shows the main "highway" network as it existed in the 1855-1880 period. The main westward route to El Paso and California lay on the upper coastalplain alongthe southern edge of the Edwards Plateau. At San Felipe Springs (present Del Rio), it veered northwest along the western edge of the plateau to Fort Lancaster, and then turned west again to Comanche Springs (Fort Stockton) and El Paso. The only other main westwardroute skirted the Edwards Plateau on the east, from San Antonio through Comfort, Fredericksburg, Fort Mason, FortMcKavett, and Fort Concho and then turned southwesttoward Fort Stockton, ElPaso, and on to California.This route wasused from 1868 on, whenIndianraids became too prevalent on thesouthern route. There were,of course,preferred routes for more local travel: to get from Austin toFredericksburg, you traveled through Dripping Springs, whatlater became Johnson Ctty, and Stonewall, the present route of US 290. To get from Austin to Llano, most people went through Georgetown, LibertyHill, Bertram and Burnet (the present route of US 183 and Texas 29) because the deep Pedernales Canyon made a "through route" to Llano much more difficult.

In any case, theEdwards Plateau, and its eastern fringe or "Hill Country", were isolated and lateto be civilized. Figure 2 shows "Law and Ordercontours", based on the earliest permanentsettlements. Again,it is clear that the Edwards Plateau wasa barrier to civilized permanent settlement, prolonging frontier conditions in Central Texas.

The reason for this was geological and hydrological: the Edwards Plateau consists of highly porous and permeable carbonate rocks resting on less permeable claystones and sandstones of the Trinity Group. So rain water falling on the Plateau sinks into the cavernous limestone, and accumulates in the basal part of the Edwards, forming a permanent unconfined aquifer, perched upon the Glen Rose and/or Hensel Formations. The result is a broad tableland withoutpermanent water which remained a virtual wilderness until the 1880's precisely because the absence ofpermanent water prevented settlement. Along the deeplydissected margins of thePlateau, however, arosecopious spring-fed streams like the San Saba, Llano,Pedernales,Blanco, and

20 21 22 Guadalupe. And small settlements such as Menard, Junction, Fredericksburg, Blanco, Mountain Home, Kerrville, and Comfort arose in thoseriver valleys.

These east-flowing streams were attractive settings for frontier settlers in the Hill Country. They provided permanent water,arable floodplains, and timber.But theeastward-reaching interfluves -the limestone-capped divides, like bony fingers extending eastward from theuninhabited Edwards Plateau into the heart of Central Texas, served as wilderness highways for marauding Indians. Later, because permanent settlement had been retarded by the Indian threat, the dark and secluded coves and hollows around the margins of the Edwards Plateau, withtheir ease of escape onto the adjacent vacant plateau, became refuges for organized clans of outlaws conducting wholesalelivestock theft, stagerobbery, and related activities.

Indian attacks in Central Texas increased dramatically in theearly 1860 Js, when Federal troops were removed to Union territory. The Confederate Government did not re-garrison the frontier forts, and Indian raiders- took advantage of the vulnerable- settlements. Following Appomattox, returning Confederate veterans mostly of Scotch-Irish descent began to gather the wildcattle that had been increasing steadily throughout the 1850's and 1860's. Markets began to be established in Kansas and Missouri in the late 1860's. Early trail drives traveled on the coastal plain, along the eastern edge of theHill Country, but by 1876, the preferred trail had become the "Western Beef Trail", passing from Bandera through Kerrville, west of Mason, to Brady and northward towardRed River and beyond.

In 1870-1880, Burnet, Lampasas, Llano, Mason, McCulloch, Kimble, Kerr, San Saba, Gillespie, and Blanco Counties were open rangeland. The most common industry was the gathering of wild cattle by local ranchers and their neighbors, to supply the livestock for entrepreneurs filling beef contracts. Such herds were trailed northward to Kansasrailheads for markets in the industrial eastern U.S.

As the Confederate veterans moved their cattle-gathering activities into western Llano County, northern Gillespie County, and southeastern Mason County in the early 1870's, they encountered the cattle of the German settlers - who had already been there since the 1850Js.Meusebach's peace treaty with the Southern Comanches had given the Germans a chance to become established. These German settlers were by no means timid immigrant settlers by now; they had long ago "paid their dues". They would not be intimidated, and they stuck together.

In addition to the strongcultural differences between the ex-Confederates and "the Dutch", there were profound political differences. The Germans had come to Texas before the Civil War to escape conscription and the unceasing military conflicts associated withearly attempts to unify Germany.They owned no slaves, and their allegiance naturally was to the United States, not Texas.Their inclinations were Unionist, but what they really wanted wasonly to be left alone with respect to the conflict between North and South. And then there was the unsettled grudge stemming from the vicious slaughter in 1862 by Confederate home guard militia of about 35 youngGerman men on their way to Mexico, fleeing Confederate conscription. Thismassacretook place on the headwaters ofthe West Nueces River between whatis now Rocksprings and Brackettville. And, following the Nueces Massacre, the Texas state government condoned the operation of a band of guerilla partisans in the Fredericksburg region, "the Waldrip Gang", who preyed unconscionably upon German settlers until the end of the war.

After 1865, the Germans enjoyed a substantial recovery, financed by their own industry and protected by the reconstruction government. In January, 1874,GovernorE.J. Davis and the carpetbaggers were formally kicked out of the state and Governor Richard Coke took office. Southern pride was rekindled. Coke's first act was to reform the Texas Rangers and establish the Frontier Battalion under Major John B. Jones. Their original 23 purpose was-to guard the western frontier from Indian attacks. But within a year, the Rangers had a new responsibility to keep order among the various factions of the settlers along the Texas frontier. One of the most dramatic conflicts was the "Hoo-Doo War", in 1874-76, between German immigrants and Anglo-Celtic- cattlemen and settlers. The name was derived from the prevalent activities of hooded night-riders called "Hoo-Doos" -fromboth factions. Similar unrest persisted widelythrough Central Texas untilabout 1882, when the Frontier Battalion, local law enforcement officers - and an ambivalent, inconstant citizenry - finally prevailed. It isno coincidence thatthe coming oflaw and order coincided withthe passing oftheopen range.

In the Texas Hill Country, it was not just barbed wirethat brought about the end of the open range. The other development was the windmill (Webb, 1931), which could lift water from the aquifer underlying the Edwards Plateau, to reliably provide water for livestock - and for permanent settlers. Theplateau wasquickly occupied by ranchers. The wildernesshighways were closed. The frontier period wasconcluded.

24 Revenge is a kind ofwild justice,whichthe more man's nature runs to, the more ought law to weed itout. FrancisBacon

To ride,shoot straight,and speak thetruth-- This was the ancient Law ofYouth. Old times are past, old days are done; But theLaw runs true, 0littleson! Charles T.Davis

To be sure,we wantto live in a society framed by the rule ofLaw, and not of Men.But before we can establishLaw wemust first establishOrder. Sadly,the courageous, purposeful men whomwe call on to bring Order often fitonly uncomfortably intotheLawful society that follows. P.R.Rose

25 26 Tribal Conflict And VengeanceIn The Frontier Hill Country Peter R.Rose

Tribal behavior has been described as "treating people outside the group much differently than people inside the group." Although generally perceived as a primitive trait, tribal patterns of behavior occur even in our early 21st century world, even in societies perceived to be civilized and advanced. Often it is the tribal elders who command ordefine the attitudes thatbeget tribalism, whereasit is the young men, the warrior class, who carry out violencebetween tribes.

During the middle 1870's, frontier conflicts in the Texas Hill Country involved three diverse groups, whose behavior was, inmost respects, tribal. Only one of the groups wasnative American, and it actually consisted of many tribes.

The lifestyles and cultures of all three groups - and thus the character of their conflicts - were strongly influenced by the geology, hydrology, and geography of central Texas. Two geologic features dominate the region: the Balcones Fault Zone to the east and south, and the Edwards Plateau, an immense semi-arid tableland covering about 25,000 square miles, on the west (Fig. 3). Headward-cutting streams dissect the Plateau, creating deep canyons and complex topography around its margins, with springs from the Plateau aquifer feeding eastward-flowing tributaries and small rivers. The high interfluves are held up by resistant Edwards Limestone. This dissected landscape is a characteristic one which we know as the Texas Hill Country.

North and east ofthe EdwardsPlateau, in Central Texas, liecomplex terranes of theLlanoUplift, withcommon sandy soilsderived frombasal Cretaceous and Cambrian sandstones, andPrecambrian granite andgneiss, as well as carbonate soils based upon Pennsylvanian, Ordovician and Cambrian arkosic limestone (Frontispiece). Farther to thenorth are rolling prairies underlainby Carboniferous sandstone, shale, and redbeds. Therolling prairies extend northward across Red River into southern Okiahoma. They are bounded on the west by the Caprock Escarpment, the eastern edge oftheLlano Estacado.

This physiography and hydrology exerted a profound influence on the frontier history of the Central Texas region. Early settlement of the Hill Country depended upon reliable water, arable land, and protection from Indian attacks. Theabsence of permanent wateron theEdwards Plateau prevented agriculture and settlement there until the utilization of the windmill in the 1880's and 1890's. Before 1880, the Edwards Plateau was an uninhabited savanna whose high-standing interfluves reached far eastward into the established settlements of Central Texas, forming wildernesshighways used by bands of marauding Comanchescoming down from the High Plains, and by renegade Lipans and Kickapoos raiding eastward from protected villages in Coahuila and NuevoLeon.

As the Indian danger diminished in the 1870s, the Edwards Plateau began to harbor outlaws, especially in those locations which previously had been most vulnerable to Indian attacks. Desperados were attracted to such communities by (1) the sparseness of permanent inhabitants; (2) the absence of organized county governments (and thus law); (3) the abundant hiding places provided by the dark, well-watered coves and hollows around the dissected margins of the Plateau; and (4) the adjacent wilderness of the Plateau proper, into whichtheycould flee whenlawmen did ventureinto the region.

Contributing to this pattern of lawlessness was the advent of the range-cattle business, in which free-ranging livestock were gathered on the open, unfenced range foreventual shipment to Kansas railheads. A vague and lenient state range-law actually promoted conflict by making theft easy within the course of conventional gathering, branding, and droving. 27 Many Hill Country communities were long delayed in becoming organized and law-abiding (Figure 2). Different ethnic groups, behaving tribally, found themselves on opposite sides of the law. Vigilance committees sprang up wheregenerally law-abiding citizens hadlost patience and faith with legal authorities, and they abused the very law they preferred andprofessed to uphold. Othergroups,especially those involved with cattle-gathering, skirted and abused an ill-defined range-law, but otherwise maintained lawful God-fearing societies. In some cases, families and confederations ofoutlaws actually outnumbered lawful citizens, and even gained control of county governments through intimidation and collusion. In many counties, such as Burnet, Lampasas, Liano, Mason, Menard, and Kimble, stable, law-abiding government and society were only established after extended power struggles, which usually, as in this case, required repeated intervention by the Texas Rangers. This paper is a narrative account, based upon documented contemporary reports, of such a frontier conflict. Readers willnote thatmany ofits themeshave become classicscenarios of Hollywood'swestern moviegenre. ***

Therehas been a cemetery beside MillerCreek for nearly as long as therehas been a MillerCreek community in central Blanco county. Among the earliest gravestones is the one commemorating the final resting place of Thomas Felps and his wife, who were murdered by Comanche Indians in July, 1868, while fishing nearby on Cypress Creek. A fewyards away is a flat slab,marking the grave of Scott Cooley, Texas Ranger, born 1855, died 1876.

Most of the recorded names in the Miller Creek Cemetery,especially the olderones, are ofAnglo-Celtic origin --Felps, Mattox, Conn, Bates, Burleson, Morgan. Onlyone Cooley.Those early Blanco County settlers arrived in the Texas Hill Country by wayof the traditionalsouthern migration route, spanning three or fourgenerations -Virginia,Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Missouri.They brought withthem characteristic cultural attributes -- clannishness, fundamentalist religion, afierce and stubborn independence, old-testament vengefulness, fervent loyalties, and traditions of cattle droving and whiskey making. Yeoman farmers mostly, with few slave-holders among them, but otherwise strongly Southern in outlook. Most ofsuch folk who fought in the Civil War wore Confederate gray.

The Hill Country was mostly open then, a climax grassland, rolling and well-watered, with timber along the draws and streams. A new settler could locate upon an alluvial terrace, plant a corn patch and a kitchen garden, draw water from nearby springs, build a stake cabin from local timber, and run cattle in the adjacent hills. In time, he could sink a shallow well, and set up stake-and-rider fences or stone walls close by the homestead. Otherwise, there were no fences. The thick turf,diverse tallrange grasses, and temperate climate appeared to makethecountry ideally suitedfor the raising of beef cattle.

When the surviving Confederate veterans returned in 1865, many began to gather the wild cattle that had multiplied in their absence, and to deliver them, by overland droving, to emerging new markets at Kansas railheads. Those who did not join the trail herds made it their business to supply those entrepreneurs and contractors who did. ***

Fredericksburg was settled by German immigrants in 1846. By 1861, when the Civil War began, German settlers had spread out, northwest to Fort Mason, northeast to Llano, east to whatis now Stonewall, 20 miles west of Miller Creek. At the time Fredericksburg was founded, it lay about 60 miles west of the frontier. By 1861, however, theline of westernmostpermanent settlements had caught up and even moved a littlebeyond.

28 The German immigrants were farmers, mostly. They came not as new Texans but as new Americans. They came for land,and to escape military conscription and ongoing political unrest connected withearlyattempts to unify Germany.They were religious, predominantly Lutheran and Catholic, and they had a unifying language and strong cultural traditions. They were relatively well educated, and they formed a cohesive and separate community. Following their leader Johann yon Meusebach, they made a treaty with the Comanche tribes, which was mostly honored for a generation or more. Nevertheless, they formed their young men into local militiabands,called "minutemen," to guard and patrol their settlements. By 1861 they had adapted to the country. The stock farmers among them had begun to improve their herds through the introduction of European bloodlines. Very fewof them wereslaveholders.Many, in fact, held strong moral views against slavery, and many wereUnion sympathizers. But inrespect to the approaching Civil War, it was not theirfight, and most simply wantedto be left alone.

In 1862 the Confederate military authorities in San Antonio wantedrecruits. Conscription wasaninstitution the German immigrants had already fled once. Now it had reappeared, and for a cause most found abhorrent. The young German men gathered andheaded for Mexico, wheremany sat out the war.Butabout 35 didnot make it across theRio Grande --they were set upon by a thinly disguised partisan "HomeGuard" on the West Nueces in August, 1862 and massacred. Afterward, the Confederate military authorities condoned the operation of guerilla bands intheHill Country,whopreyed viciouslyupon German settlements.

But Appomattox finally came. Afterwards, for eight years, a harsh Federal military occupation supported carpetbagger state governments, who remembered and rewarded loyal unionists. The Germans thrived. The returned Confederate veterans watched and waited. Finally, in early 1874, Democrat Richard Coke defeated theRepublican incumbent Governor E.J. Davis. Theera ofreconstruction wasover. ***

The third contingent inourstorycomprised manytribes. Indigenous Lipan Apaches, whogradually withdrewto Mexico and transPecos Texas from which they - and some Mescatero Apaches -- raided eastward. Comanches » Penatakas, the southern group, whose ranges lay just north of the Hill Country, and the even fiercer Northern Comanche, especially the Kwahadis and their Kiowa cousins, who raided southward and eastward from the High Plains, and periodically, from government-sanctioned safe-havens in southern Oklahoma. They came like ghosts, using the elevated eastward-reaching limestone interfluves of the empty Edwards Plateau as warpaths into the vulnerable Hill Country settlements. AndKickapoos, after 1865, raiding northeastward from protected enclaves in Nuevo Leon, in revenge for the perfidy of irregular Confederate home-guard attacks during the Kickapoos' peaceful migration to permanent settlement in northern Mexico. Even the German settlersbegan to suffer lossesfrom Indianraids. Raiding was a major cultural activity of the Plains Indians. It had been going on for centuries between the various neighboring tribes, and against Mexican settlements deep into Mexico. The influx of frontier Texas settlements provided yet anothertarget during the middle 19th century. Raiding was the special purview of the young men, the time-honored way by which the young braves could demonstrate their manhood. And the booty, including horses and captives, represented not only negotiable wealth, but tangible evidence of masculine courage and prowess as well.

Frontier defense was substantially weakened during the Civil War. Indian-raiding forays multiplied, especially against the Anglo-Celtic Texians. The frontier line wavered, fragmented, and retreated eastwardly. Thedeath toll from Indian raids skyrocketed. First the Confederate government dithered, making feeble defense efforts. Then the Carpetbagger governments dithered while influential Quaker activists and their sponsored 29 bureaucrats protected Comanche and Kiowa tribesmen in intermittently occupied government reservations in southern Oklahoma. The Anglo-Celtic settlers suffered, and seethed. Andwaited. ***

One of the very first acts by incoming Governor Richard Coke in early 1874 was to establish the Frontier Battalion of the TexasRangers -sixcompanies of 40mounted, well-armedpolicemen, each commanded by a Captain, with a Lieutenant, one or two sergeants and several corporals. Major John B. Jones organized and oversaw the Frontier Battalion, reporting to William Steele, the Adjutant General. Its primary purposes were to guard the western frontier, from the Rio Grande to Red River, and to pursue and punish Indian war parties who raided frontiersettlements.

Concerted military action by the U.S. Army in late 1874 and early 1875, especially thePalo Duro campaign of Col. RanaidMackenzie, put an end to much of the Comanche raiding into Central Texas, although occasional forays continued through 1876 from Oklahomaand 1878 fromMexico.

So, beginning in late 1874 the FrontierBattalion began to turn its attention eastwardly, to theorganized outlaw bands who had gathered and consolidated in various settlements along the frontier. Many were engaged in wholesale livestock theft, some through an informal relay system (called the "chain gang") by which stolen horses and cattle found their way to Mexico or to Comanchero traders on the High Plains. Other simply gathered loose cattle from the open range, without regard to ownership or brand marks,and delivered them to herdsbound for Kansas. This pattern repeated all along the frontier. Prominent among suchrustlers in Central Texas was the A.G. Roberts gang, operating primarily in Burnet, Lampasas, Llano, Mason, Blanco and Gillespie counties. Another repeated pattern in response to such lawlessness was the formation of several vigilance committees, whichsprang up spontaneously to counter it. ***

Company D was a Blanco County outfit, captained by old Indian-fighter Rufus Perry. Dan Roberts (no known relation to A.G. Roberts) was Lieutenant. N.O. ("Maje") Reynolds was sergeant. They were up to full complement by May,1874, and took up stationon theSanSabaRiver, west ofMenard. One of the young men inCompany D wasScott Cooley,then 19 yearsold, listed as a corporal.

Cooley's early history is obscure. Born in Arkansas, hewasof part-Cherokee descent, and his parents were in Jack County,Texas, by 1857, when Scott wasabout two years old (Johnson, 2003). Jack County was a rough place;it was at that time at the edge of the frontier, and Indian raids werecommon place. Fort Belknap, twenty miles west, founded in 1851, provided some measure of protection to the neighborhood. Fort Richardson, a mile south of Jacksboro, was founded in1866, and became theadministrative center for Indian affairs in Texas for about a dozen years, as well as the site of several notorious Indian trials. It became the nucleus of the frontier town ofJacksboro.

There wereat least threeolder Cooley brothers and one sister. They have been described as "agutsy bunchof frontiersmen" (Ledbetter, quoted by Johnson, 2003). Matthias Cooley,Scott's father, was killedin a cowcamp altercation in 1872, and his killer was in turn avenged by Scott's older brother JimCooley, afew days later. In retrospect, these events may have been a vivid lesson to the 17-year old Scott in frontier vengeance. The Cooley brothers were active Indian-fighters during the period 1871-73; young Scott presumably took part in their adventures. He was also working as a cattle drover; he shows up in one of the prominent Kansas cowtowns, Ellsworth, in 1873. It was probably in Ellsworth that he met Tim Williamson, a cattle drover from

30 central Texas, who wasabout 13 years his senior. Scott Cooley made at least twotrips upthe trail to Kansas withWilliamson (Gillett, 1976), whohad moved fromBurnet County toMason County in about1871. It is said that, probably after his first trip up the trail with Tim Williamson, Scott Cooley returned home withhis older friend to Texas, where he fell ill with typhoid fever and was nursed back to health by Williamson's wife, Mary (nee Johnson), who also came from a family with deep frontier roots. One of Mary Johnson's brothers had been killedby the same Comanche raiding party that had killed Thomas Felps and his wife,in 1868, and a younger brother had been captured, but rescued days later near Fort Mason. And only a few months earlier, four Johnsonrelatives had been killed andmutilated by 15 Comancheraiders, takenfrom their homes in Legion Creek valley along the Llano-Gillespie county line.

Scott Cooley forgot neither his gratitude nor his admiration for the Williamson family. Tim Williamson became his foster father and mentor. Considering this background, we are also safe in surmising that young Scott Cooley,of warrior age and inclination, was thoroughly familiar withIndians- and loathed them.

One ofthe first actions involving Company D and CorporalScott Cooley was a 2-day pitched battle inlateJune, 1874, near Jacksboro. Thebattle ofLost Valley pitted 35Texas Rangers -most frontiersmen in their lateteens and early 20's -under the direct command of Major John B. Jones, against about 250 Comanche and Kiowa warriorsunder theKiowa war chief, Lone Wolf. TheRangers got the worst ofit, with two men killed and many wounded, plus the loss of half their horses. But young Scott Cooley collected a tangible war-trophy, a strip of hide from a dead Indian, tannedit, and thereafter used it as a razor-strop. Some of his fellowrangers thought Cooley's trophy wasbarbaric; others found it less objectionable. Two ofCooley's Lost Creek Ranger comrades, Lt. Dan Roberts and Sergeant Maje Reynolds,may have been among the latter.

Scott Cooleymustered out of Company D in December, 1874, with an honorabledischarge, rented a small farm along the San Saba River and began ranching,gathering loosecattlefor himselfand/orhis employers, whoever they were. So far as weknow, his activities there were entirely legal and above-board. ***

Cattle rustling,primarily involving theA.G. Roberts gang of Llano andBurnet Counties, as well as looselyallied associates and imitators, was getting out of hand. German ranchers in Llano and Mason counties had complained repeatedly during 1872 and 1873 to both state and county authorities, to no avail.Llano andBurnet County law officers wouldnot honor Mason County complaints.

Finally, by early 1874, the German faction had elected a young and militant German, Daniel Hoerster, as County Hide Inspector, and his friend, John Clark, as Sheriff. Clark's background is obscure, but he probably was an ex-Confederate officer who came to Texas from Missouri after the Civil war (Jerry Ponder, pers. comm.).They began to crack down on the cattle gatherers. In late July, 1874, Clark, Hoerster, and a large posse of young German minutemen surrounded and captured A.G. Roberts and 10 members of his gang of rustlers along theLlano-Mason county line and carried them to Mason where they were confined in a tiny jail during high summer for several days. Then they werebrought before the Justice of the Peace, tried, and found guilty ofillegally driving cattle. Theircattle were confiscated. Themen werenot releaseduntilmoney could be brought from Burnet to pay their sizable fines. Thenthey were publicly humiliated - hooted outof Mason by a jeering mob composed primarily of German ranchers, minutemen, and townsfolk. John Baird and his brother Moses were two of these Burnet County cattlemen. It is possible that Tim Williamson wasalso among them. Certainly he knewthem.

31 The rustling continued. In February, 1875, Clark and Hoerster, with another posse captured six rustlers on Brady Creek, justnorth of Mason County, including Charley Johnson (Tim Williamson's brother-in-law), and a young boy, and brought them back to Mason where all except the boy were jailed. Several nights later, a hoodedmob relieved Clark's deputy John Wohrle of the jail keys, removed all five prisoners, and escorted them to a liveoak grove about a milesoutheast ofthetown square and proceeded to hang them.

A rescue party made up of townspeople, accompanied by Lieutenant Dan Roberts (who happened to be in Mason), followed close behind. A shooting melee took place in the darkness and three of the five prisoners, already strungup, were shotand killed by the lynch mob. Onerustler, strangling at the endof his rope, wascut down and saved, and later released. The fifth, Charley Johnson, escaped in the confusion. Theparticipants in the lynch mob were never identified, but it was common knowledge that they included most of the German activists in the community. "kirk

Beginning in the late 1860's, Johann yon Meusebach began to colonize and develop a community onhis land at Loyal Valley, about halfway between Fredericksburg and Mason. Most of the settlers whoestablished the small homesteads there were Anglo-Celts, involved in cattle-gathering. One such family was Tim and Mary Williamson and their two young children, who took up a lot there in about 1872. Another cowboy named George Gladden was one of their neighbors. One John Ringo -- later of Tombstone, Arizona infamy, and a friend ofthe Bairdbrothers- was aconstable inLoyal Valley.

In March, 1875, Williamson wasserved with a complaint, accusing himof driving offsomeoneelse's cow. Bad blood arose in this affair, when Sheriff Clark rodeto Loyal Valley to serve his warrant, found his quarry absent, and verbally abused Williamson's wife, Mary. Williamson came to Mason on his own accord and unsuccessfully attempted to settle the matter. Dan Hoerster volunteered to serve as his bondsman, but surrendered his bond in early May, 1875. A fewdays later, just before the spring term of District court, Deputy John Wohrle, acting on Sheriff Clark's orders, went to the ranch of Karl Lehmberg, about 10 miles east of Mason, where Williamson was working as foreman, and arrested him, to deliver him for trial the next day in Mason. Williamson did not resist. When they had ridden a few miles west, in the area of the Leifeste community, they were met by a hooded mob who relieved the complaisant Deputy Wohrle of his prisoner. Pleading for hislife, Williamson wasshotdown in coldblood. Again,mob members werenever named,but they were generally understood to have included Karl and Peter Bader,and other loca! German settlers. And it was alsounderstood that Wohrle was part of the plot, having shot Williamson's horse out from under him. Shortly afterward, DeputyWohrle left the service ofthe Sheriffs office.

News of the murder of Tim Williamson, a widely known and popular cattleman, spread like wildfire among the Anglo-Celtic community. Word soon reached Scott Cooiey, ranching about 50 miles west on the San Saba River. Within days, Cooiey had come to Mason, where he was not known. He listened to the inconsequential court inquiry into Williamson's death.He hung around the saloons and livery stables, unobtrusively listening to thetown talk. He got hisrevolver repaired by thelocal gunsmith. Afterseveral weeks,hehadheard enough. He wentback to the San Saba valley, wherehequietly settledup his affairs, andthen dropped out ofsight.

kick

In early July a party of German cattlemen headed by Fritz Kothman werecamped on Bluff Creek in western Mason County. They wereprobably hunting cattlerustlers. An unknown gunmanshot into the group clustered around the campfire, and killed Henry Doell, probably by mistake. (Kothman wasprobably the intended target.) The assailant was never found. A few days later, Scott Cooiey reappeared in Mason, inquiring as to the whereabouts of Deputy Sheriff John Wohrle. Told that Wohrle was cleaning out a well about a mile west of 32 town, Cooley rode to the well site, where he drew down on the Deputy, curtly informed him of his vengeful mission, shot theman down, scalped him,stabbed him four times witha knife (the letter"W") and disappeared. A few days later, in company with two compatriots, George Gladden and John Baird, Cooiey appeared in eastern Mason County, in the Leifeste community, where they murdered Karl Bader. The trio ofgunmen once again dropped out ofsight.

Scott Cooley's vengeful purpose was now widely recognized, and the Mason County War was fully joined. Armed bands of hooded night-riders - "Hoo-Doos" - of both factions now roamed the region, looking for trouble. Shootings were frequent. Twice the town was occupied briefly by a small army of gun-bearing cowboys. Sheriff Ciark and his German combatants wereapparently absent both times. In early September a Masongambler named Turk Chancy wassent by Sheriff Clark to Loyal Valley with a message designed to lure Gladden to Mason. A posse ofmore than 40 young German minutemen,led by John Clark and Dan Hoerster, ambushed Gladden and John Baird's brother Moses at Keller's store on the Llano River on the road between Loyal Valley and Mason. Moses Baird was killed. Though severely wounded, George Gladden escaped and survived. While he wasrecuperating at Loyal Valley, Scott Cooley,John Baird, and John Ringo rode boldly up to the front porch ofTurk Chaney's house in Mason town and shot the gambler downin front of his wife and family, then repaired to the Mason Hotel where they casually ordered breakfast. Sheriff John Clark made no attempt to arrest them.

By now TexasAdjutant General William Steele wasalarmed. He instructed Major Jonesto take acompany of the Frontier Battalion to Mason and restore order to the community. Before theRangers could arrive, however, Scott Cooley, John Baird, and the partly recovered George Gladden rode into Mason, and crept into an alleyway across from the Southern Hotel, from which they ambushed and assassinated Dan Hoerster on the main street in broad daylight. An extended gun fight ensued, between Cooley and his partners and several of Hoerster's German colleagues. It ended when Cooley and Baird, holding their weakened partner in his saddle, rode out of town in a hail ofgunfire. ***

That afternoon, September 21, 1875, Major Jones and 40 Texas Rangers rode into Mason. They had already experienced a near-fatal encounter with Sheriff Clark and his German minutemen the day before at Keller's store, where the Rangers had been mistaken for a band of cowboys on the warpath, and nearly ambushed. TheRangers set up camp at oldFort Mason, just southof town, and began sending out patrols,restoring order to the area. Major Jones began interviewing townspeople and ranchers, trying to reconstruct the events. Within a few days, things began to settle down, and some of the Rangers wereordered to return to their company in Kerr County. Their places were taken by Rangers from Company D, Scott Cooley's old company, led by Lieutenant DanRoberts.

For days, Major Jones sent out numerous details, searching for Cooley and his friends, but it seemed they could not be found. One young Ranger who stopped for dinner in a cow camp west of Mason found Cooley quite by accident, but wasdisarmed and sent back to Mason by the wanted man atgunpoint. Before starting him on his way,however, Cooley gave the embarrassedRanger a package to deliver to "his old bunkie, Maje Reynolds," who openedit in camp, in company with his Ranger friends.Thepackage contained the crusty scalp of Deputy Sheriff John Wohrle.

Impatient with the lackofsuccess in apprehending Cooley, Major Jonesfinally insistedthat his men either carry out their duty, or resign. Three men stepped forward and mustered out. One of them was Sergeant N.O. Reynolds. LieutenantDanRoberts wassentback to Menard, to resume patrolling for Indians.

33 The Frontier Battalion never did capture Scott Cooley, or any of his compatriots, who were sheltered, fed and hidden by sympathetic friendsand allies.Itseems probable thattheRangers didn't look too hard.

However, Major Jones did force the resignation of Sheriff John Clark in October, 1875. Clark had lost the confidence of the local Justice of the Peace, and his support by the German community had begun to wane. The Rangers escorted him quietly out of the country, and out of sight. One of the enduring mysteries ofthe Hoo-Doo War is the fate of ex-Sheriff Clark; most probably, he removed back to Missouri where he died of natural causes in 1888 (Jerry Ponder, pers. comm.). He wasdespised by the Anglo-Celtic faction as a traitor. From thedistance of 130 years, hedoes appear to have been an inconstant and treacherous law officer.

Finally, in November, 1875, Cooley and John Ringo were captured by Burnet County Sheriff A.J. Strickland near Kingsland and jailed inBurnet. Localmassdemonstrations threatened to liberate the prisoners, so Sheriff Strickland arranged to have them transferred to a more secure jail in Austin.Later both outlaws were moved to the Lampasas jail awaiting trial there in District Court. But a friendly mob, mostly composed of John Baird's Burnet Countycolleagues, liberated Cooley and Ringo from theLampasas jail in early March,1876. Cooley was next seen briefly in Mason County, then went into hiding, probably near Fredericksburg. But in early June he showed up deathly ill, before dawn at the home of Wid Felps, about 20 miles east of Fredericksburg, near what is now Hye post office. He had apparently been given a bottle of arsenic-laced whiskey "for the road" by a vengeful German barmaid at the Nimitz Hotel saloon, who recognized him. Wid Felps and his wife put Cooley in their wagon,covered him withblankets and drove him to the home of their kinsman, Dan Mattox, at the Miller Creek community, about 20 miles farther east in Blanco County. A local doctor,James Odiorne,attended him, withoutsuccess.

Scott Cooley died on or about June 12, 1876, aged 21 years. His friends buried him among their families and neighbors in the Miller Creek Cemetery, which lies just north of U.S. Highway 290. His gravesite, for years obscurely marked, wasmemorialized in the 1940's by descendants of the Miller Creek settlers. Today Scott Cooley's gravestone is surrounded by monuments recording the earthly time of Felpses, Mattoxes, Conns, Bateses, Burlesons, Morgans, and many others in the well-kept, peaceful little cemetery. The grave of Dr. James Odiorne, whoattended his last hours,is nearby.

itick

For more than four months after Dan Hoerster'smurder, Peter Baderhad been in hiding somewhere in Mason and Llano Counties. Finally in January, 1876, while Scott Cooley and John Ringo were in the Austin jail, George Gladden and JohnBaird got wind ofhis whereabouts, laid in wait for himalong theroad from Llano to Castell, and killed him from ambush. Baird scalped his victim, and then recovered - by amputation -- the gold ring of his late brother Moses, whomBader had killed at Keller's store. It was the last official killing of theHoo- Doo war. Scott Cooley's sworn vengeance wascompleted by hisfriends.

Baird then left the country, and went to New Mexico, where he was killed a few years later in a gunfight. In December, 1876, George Gladden wastried inLlano and convicted of Peter Bader's murder. He served eight years in Huntsville prison before being pardoned. Gladden then relocated to southern Arizona, where he was briefly involved in another range war (the Grass Valley War) but left the country before the struggle climaxed. Later hetended bar in an El Paso saloon frequented bygunfighters such as John Wesley Hardin, John Selman, andBass Outlaw. He disappeared from viewabout 1890.

Major Jones and the Frontier Battalion finally succeeded in bringing law and order to the TexasHill Country. They cleaned the rustlers out of Llano County in 1876 and Lampasas County in 1877, and then moved west 34 where they repeated the process in Kimble County in1877-1880. Maje Reynolds had reenlisted a few months after his resignation, and he led the Lampasas and Kimble County campaigns as Lieutenant of Company E. His comrades described him as "Reynolds, theIntrepid".

"kick

Indian raids in the Hill Country had ended by 1878. But thelatent hostilitiesof the Mason County War lingered for generations, rekindled by anti-German sentiment during World Wars Iand 11. Even though theold difficulties are long past, and the two communities, Anglo-Celts and German, are now essentially integrated, some relict separateness still lingers, and most Hill Country folks prefer not to talk about the Hoo-Doo War in open company.

Tribalism dies hard.

References

Austerman, W.R., 1985, Sharps Rifles and Spanish Mules, The San Antonio-El Paso Mail, 1851-1881: Texas A&M University Press, CollegeStation, 367 p.

Biggers, D.H., 1925, German Pioneers in Texas: Fredericksburg Publishing Co., facsimile cd. by Eakin Publications, Austin, 1983, 230 p.

Caro, R.A., 1981, The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Vol. I, The Path to Power: Vintage Books, a Division of Random House, New York,882p. DeVos, J, 1982, Mason County's Unsettled Years 1860-1880: TheEdwardsPlateau Historian, Vol. VII, 1978- -1982,Edwards PlateauHistorical Associationp. 18-25.

Fehrenbach, T.R., 1968, Lone Star, a Historyof Texas and the Texans: Collier Books, a Division of MacMillan Publishing Co.,New York, 761 p.

Fisher, 0.C., 1937, It Occurred in Kimble: Anson Jones Press, Houston; second edition 1984, Talley Press, San Angelo, 239 p.

Johnson, D., 2003, Scott Cooley, A Byword for Terror: Quarterly of the National Association for Outlaw and Lawman History,Inc., vol. XXVII,no. 2, p.5-20.

Hunter, J.M., 1925, The Trail Drivers of Texas: CokesburyPress, facsimile cd. by University of Texas Press, Austin,1985, 1085p.

King, 1.M., 1967, John D. Meusebach, German Colonizer in Texas: University of Texas Press, Austin, 1987 edition, 192p.

Lien, G.E., 1981, The German Texans: The University of Texas, Institute of Texan Cultures, San Antonio, 240 p. Newcomb, W.W., Jr., 1961,TheIndiansof Texas from Prehistoric to Modern Times: UniversityofTexas Press, Austin,404p.

35 Oatman, W., 1970, Llano,Gem of the HillCountry: A Historyof Llano County, Texas:PioneerBook Publishing, Inc.Hereford, Texas,100 p.

Roberts, D.W., 1914, Rangers and Sovereignty: Wood Printing & Engraving Co., facsimilecd. by State House Press, Austin, 1987,190 p.

Roberts, Mrs. D.W., 1928, A Woman's Reminiscences of Six Years in Camp with the Texas Rangers: Yon Boeckmann-Jones, facsimilecd. by State HousePress, Austin, 1987, 64p.

Rose,P.R., 1988, TheHoo-Doo War: unpublished manuscript, 520 p. Rose, P. R. and E. E. Sherry (eds.), 2003, The Hoo Doo War: Portraits of a Lawless Time: Mason County Historical Commission, 130 p.

Sonnichson, C.L.,1957, TenTexasFeuds:University of New MexicoPress, Albuquerque, 248 p.

Sowell, A.J., 1900, Texas Indian Fighters: B.C. Jones Publisher, facsimile cd. by State House Press, Austin, 1986, 861p.

Texas Adjutant General's Files, 1874, 1875, 1876: Official Correspondence and Texas Ranger Monthly Reports.

Webb, W.P., 1931, The Great Plains: Ginn and Company, facsimile cd. by University of Nebraska, Bison Books,1981, 525 p.

1935, The Texas Rangers, a Century of Frontier Defense: Houghton Mifflin, facsimile cd. by University of TexasPress, Austin,1977, 584 p. Wilbarger, J.W., 1889, Indian Depredations in Texas: Hutchings Printing House, facsimile cd. by Eakin Press, State HousePress, Austin, 1985, 691p.

...theLaw spoke too softly to be heardin such a noise of war. Plutarch

36 They Burned The Courthouse Down: Pragmatic vs. Legalistic Aproaches To Community Healing Peter R.Rose

The Mason County Courthouse burned to the ground during the night of January 21,1877. Cause of the fire was officially unknown. Unofficially, every adult in Mason County knew, as a moral certainty, that the cause wasarson, bypersons unknown. Subsequent historicalresearchdoesnot change thatview.

In addition to some of the county land records, thecourthousecontained all notes andrecords amassed by Mr. Henry M. Holmes, County Attorney since the preceding February, on the complex events of the recently concluded Mason County War (1874-1876), or "Hoo-doo War." Also incinerated were (1) the records of the November 1876 Grand Jury, which indicted a dozen citizens belonging in equal part to the German and "American" factions, (2) Mr. Holmes' preparatory materials for prosecuting those indicted the preceding November, in trials scheduled to commence in about two weeks, and (3) additional derivative information and testimony scheduled to be employed in a second round of Grand Jury investigation and testimony in early February, that wasexpected to lead to more indictments. Now that order had been restored -- imperfectly - by Major John B. Jones and the Frontier Battalion of the Texas Rangers in late 1875, and sheriffs of neighboring counties (supported by Ranger detachments and an aroused citizenry) were capturing and incarcerating the lawless, things really were beginning to settle down in the Texas Hill Country. Since the establishment ofMajor Jones' Frontier Battalion in early 1874, Indian raids had essentially ceased. The Rangers were now directing their attention to a substantial lawless element all along the frontier, and theirrecently distributed "Fugitives List" wasproving effective. Order had been restored -now it was time for theLawto meteout Justice.

No one has doubted that the courthouse fire constituted arson, or that the act had its desired effect: after October 1876, no one wasever brought to trial in Mason County for offenses committed during the Hoo-doo War. Granted, most of the active combatants were by then mostly dead (John Wohrle, Karl Bader, Moses Baird, Daniel Hoerster, Peter Bader, Scott Cooley), exiled (John Clark, John Baird, John Ringo, Charley Johnson, A. G.Roberts, Marshal Thomas),or in prison (George Gladden).

Similarly, no one has doubted that there was plenty of guilt to go around, among elders of the German community, as well as theirsons, whomade up theMason County Minutemen, a frontier ranging company that existed ostensibly for protection against Indian raiders, but which found similar employment against the "American" settlers from time to time. And there was ample guilt as well among mature Scotch-Irish ("American") settlers and their young men, many of whom were employed in the indiscriminate gathering of cattle - including livestock owned by German settlers -on largely unfenced rangeland in Mason and adjacent counties (Gillespie, Llano, Kimble, Menard, and McCulioch). During the spring and summer of1875, hooded bands of night-riders -- "Hoo-doos" -- from both factions had terrorized ranches and homesteads throughout Mason County.

Finally, now that the outlaws were diminishing and the main partisans were gone, no one doubted that the remaining non-combatants had a perfect right to live in Mason County,to conduct their lawfulbusiness, and to pursue their lives peacefully, within the bosoms of their families and friends. Most of the less prominent participants intheHoo-doo War weren'tgoing anywhere either--they werestaying in Mason County.

So most people in Mason County did not welcome the impending trials and further indictments, which would only re-open community wounds that were justbeginning to heal. Futureconsequences looked grim - families would be deprived of menfolk,incarcerated for violencecommitted during what amounted to alocalcivil war,or 37 fled to escape subsequent embarrassment and punishment. Huge legal expenses would be incurred, by the County in prosecution, and by loyalfamiliesand friends in legal defense or fines.

So the Mason County community accepted the burning of their courthouse as a provisional gift, a pragmatic alternative to a series ofaggravating further legal actions. But this provisional gift wasmade permanent by the forbearance of three wise men of the law -District Judges W. W. Martin and W. A. Blackburn, and Mason County Attorney, Henry M.Holmes. Judges Martin and Blackburn insistedneither thatHolmes re-gather all the pertinent information and testimony requisite to the first indictments and trials, nor reconvene Grand Juries to re-indict Mason County citizens. And Henry Holmes was content to accept their judgment not to pursue the matter, thus to allow all his painstaking legal work of 1876 to go unused. Effective and long-tenured County Sheriffs kept things undercontrol. Andso thecourthouse fire served as acommunity catharsis.

It wasa uniquely Americansolution to a fundamental community problem. In the short run, the Mason County War continued as a simmering, slowly receding, generally non-violent conflict dividing the two main ethnic groups in Mason County for two generations or more. In the long run, the breach between the two groups appears healed today, even though the separate vestiges of the two groups still linger. Time does heal. But not quickly.

"And Noah, he oftensaidto his wife When he sat down to dine, 'Idon't care where the watergoes Ifit doesn't get intothe wine." G. K. Chesterton (1874-1930)

38 Frontier History And Wine Peter R.Rose

It would be fitting, somehow, if the existence today in Central Texas of significant commercial wineries could truly be laid to the cultural traditions of the German immigrants who came there 150 years ago. Although the German settlers did, in fact,haveintimate knowledge andappreciation ofthe vineyard and of winemaking, they appear to have directed their oenological efforts mostly toward supplying their own family and community needs, rather than for thecommercial market.

Gilbert Jordan, whosegrandparents were German immigrants whosettled in Mason County recites (1979) his father's recipe for making wine:

Crush the ripegrapes bypounding them with a woodenplunger in a tub. Pourthe crushed mass into anupright barreluntilit is three-fourths full.Nowplaceclean cloth ontop and cover thebarrel withthe lid. A hole must be drilled on one side as close to the bottom as possible and closed with a removable plug. Fermentation willbe finishedin two to four days. Now tilt the barrel so that the juice willpour into the tub when the plug is removed. Strain out the seeds and hulls and pour the juice into a forty-four gallon fermentationbarrel that is lyinghorizontally. Pour twenty-two gallons of the new-winejuice into the barrel and add eighty-eight pounds ofsugar. To obtain additions for pouring later, take seventeen to eighteen gallons of water, dissolve one-third or one-halfof the eighty-eight pounds ofsugar in it, pour this sugar- water intothe graperesidue leftin the firstbarrel, andstir thoroughly.Repeat fermentation and pouring as above. Then addtherest ofthesugar, stir thoroughly, and pourthisjuiceinto thebarrel, untilit is full. Now the main fermentation willbegin, andit willtake several weeks. Keep thebarrel fullto overflowing byadding the remaining juice.Leave the hole open and add juice as long as any wasteis expelled. After ten to twelve days, the entryofairshouldbe preventedbut the gassesstillpermitted to escape. Onlyafter the completion of fermentation should the hole be closed. To make possible the escape of the carbon dioxide without the entry ofair and vinegar germs, insert a smallU-tube and immerse the outside end in water. Around Christmastime, put the winein anotherbarrel. It will fermentagain inspring and turn slightly brown. Thenitshouldbe drained offinto anotherbarrelorinto bottles forstoring.

But, in fact, the establishment of commercial wineries in the Llano Uplift area is a relatively recent business development, a regional expression of the developing American interest in wine and winemaking. There isno long-standing tradition, European or otherwise, from which this spate of Central Texas wineries sprang. One reason, of course, is that wine was not a strong- or even significant aspect of the Scotch-Irish culture which dominated theregion's history ofsettlement the Scotch-Irishpreferred whiskey, and beer, which the Germans knew even more about than wine! Books by Giordano (1984) and English (1989) describe modern wineriesin Texas.

For that reason it isironic that a Scotch-Irish Texan -Thomas V.Munson - played a major role in saving the wineindustry of France, using primarily native Texas mustang grape root stock. All this transpired during the 1880's -toward theend of the frontier period describedhere. As described by McClurg (1977) the 18th and 19th century French vineyards consisted almost entirely of Vitis vinifera rootstock. About 1870, Phylloxera vastatrix, a plant louse, was accidentally introduced into Southern France from the United States. The pest attacked the native French rootstock, spreading steadily northward withdevastating results. The French vineyards were decimated, with serious economic repercussions affecting France, and indeed,much ofWestern Europe as well.The economic loss to France alone has been estimated at approximately $2 billion, a staggering sumin the1880's.

39 The American native grape rootstock was Vitis labrusca, which was resistant to Phylloxera. And Thomas Munson, who established and operated a thriving nursery in Denison, Texas, was recognized as the leading authority on native American grapes. So France sent an emissary, M. Pierre Viala to Denison, to work with Munson in about 1886. Viala returned to France the following year, and through him, the entire French wine industry began anew, by grafting the various well-tested French vinifera fruit woods onto resistant American Vitis labrusca root stock -primarily mustang grape plants from Central Texas! And Thomas V. Munson was awarded the Chevalier dv Merite Agricole ofthe Legion of Honor on January 1, 1889, for his significant part in saving the vineyards, and wineries,of France.

"Alonso of Aragon waswont tosay in commendation of age,that age appearsto bebest in four things -oldwoodbest to burn,old wineto drink,old friendstotrust,andold authors to read" SirFrances Bacon (1561-1626)

40 Geology and Wine Peter R. Rose

Bedrock Typeand Wine Quaii

Geologists tryto relatealmost everything to geology. Given thegreat variety ofgrape and wine varieties, it isan almost irresistible temptation to look for connections between bedrock types and wine types. Moreover, the coveted "Appellations d'Origine controlee" boundaries of France are fixed according to combined criteria which are geological, topographical, andpedological. Surely theremust be firm relationship betweenbedrock geology and wine types or wine quality!

A!as, an objective review of the recent literature on the subject indicates it is not so, at least not directly so. Authorities suchas Sequin(1986) list thefollowing factors that impact wineconstitutionand quality: 1. Climatic conditions; 2. Heat/light aspects ofmicroclimaterelative to thetraining system; 3. Thecultivarandrootstock; 4. Annual Yieldof the vines; 5. Topography; 6. Mineralnutrition (especially nitrogen) of the vine; 7. Water supply to the vine; 8. Soil characteristics, primarily soil structure.

In Europe, "Grand Cm" vineyards and wines are located on all the main rock types. According to Sequin(1986, p.862) "not one single soilconstituent or element may be said to be an absolutely decisive character in wine quality". Other authorities agree. Pomerol writes (1989, p. 246), "in general, the nature of the underlying geology does not seem to have a decisive influence on the quality of wines in the Bordeaux region". Thus vineyards producing the best red wines may grow their vines on soils developed upon bedrock lithologies as diverse as Quaternary alluvial gravel and sand, echinoid limestone, or even local very argillaceous outcrops. Conversely,the same source rock may give rise to wines which vary markedly in quality between wine-growing regions.

Schuster (1989) hasthefollowing to say:

Of course soilis important. However, its significance is much more for growers as a basisfor successful vine growing thanit is for drinkers in terms ofrecognizing and enjoying what is in theglass. Thegrowerneeds toknow what vinesare bestsuited to thesoilhehasin theregion wherehelives;but from one wine-growingcountry to another, thereislittlecorrelationbetween individualsoilandqualityofwine oritsparticular characteristics. Received wisdom is that sand produces light, quickly maturing wines; chalk yields supple wines with an exalted varietal character; gravelprovides finesse; clay, a heavier firmerstyle. Thisistrue inonly themostgeneral way.And whereasIcandip mynose into aglass and take pleasure inrecognizing a Cabernet style andflavor, beit fromBordeaux, Bulgaria orChile (and ifIknow the property, there is added enjoyment to be had from associations with the place, people and occasions), Ivery rarely say to myself, 'that brings back memories ofcalcareous clay with an overlay of limestone... Mmmmmm'. Ido sometimes make a more general comment about an "earthy" or"minerally" characterinthe winethough.

41 Even ifyou know the soil of a given vineyard, what you see on the surface is a very limited reflection of the complex underlyinggeology. Although the relationship between vine roots and their habitatis acrucial one, and certainly accounts in part for differences in style and quality, for all the ink expended on it, the precise link between soilquality and flavor is not easyto identify in the wine.

TheTerroir

This brings us to the nebulous concept of "the Terroir", a vague French term that comprises all the natural factors that affecta particular vineyard:

soil,subsoil and host bedrock; drainage; slopeand exposure tosun and wind; microclimate, including temperature and rain. The concept is important but mysterious and essentially subjective: although subtle elements of wine taste and character may be unique to certain vineyards,it does not seem to be possible- to determine (or isolate) which factor of the terroir produces which effect. In addition, the human impact especially cultivation procedures, plus rootstock and cultivar origins -as well as natural weathervariations alsoimpact winetaste, character and "personality".How can they be separated?

In most wines and vineyards, they cannot be discriminated, especially in a predictive way. Wecan only note a generally characteristic taste and "personality" of wine froma specific vineyard, and ascribe them -knowingly, ofcourse -to the "terroir".

Jim Wilson'sexcellent short note on Terroirs followsthis article, and should be consulted to get the full flavorof thissubtle and complex topic.

Conclusions

So can we say anything about the relationship between bedrock geology and wine? There are indeed some indirect patterns, some general attributes which characterize better vineyards and vintages, aspects of "Terroirs" whichare almost universal requirements:

1. Most quality vineyards are located on sunny hill-slopes, not on valley floors; locations promoting warmdays and coolnights are preferred. 2. Optimum soils are well structured and moderately well drained, but they do have thecapacity to retain water forsignificant periods oftime. 3. Preferred soils are not too fertile, or deep, and they commonly have an appreciable lime content (this is often enhanced by chemical additives). 4. Certain cultivars apparently prefer certain parent materials in some districts, but in other districts, these patterns do not hold. Sequin (1986, p. 863) points out that the Chardonnay cultivar has an affinity for marly soils, and in Beaujolais, Gamay fruitwoodgrown on crystalline and metamorphic bedrock produces better wines thanon marly limestone.

42 5. It is important to have a consistent but not excessive supply of water to the roots, especially during the first part of the growing season, before the grapes begin to redden. Afterward, conditions of mild drought seem to improve wine quality, by stressing the plants somewhat. Although irrigation is used in the production of "commercial" table wines in France, the "Grand Cru" appellations forbid irrigation. However, fine wines are produced in Australia, Chile, California,andTexas under carefullymonitored irrigation. 6. In some French wine processing districts, there are subtle differences in "personality" or "character" of winesgrown on differing bedrock types.However, these vary from year to year, and they cannot be quantified. Theyare a part ofthe overall art of wine making.

Sequin(1986, p.871)provides agood summary:

It seemsthat in theBordeaux area, the chemicalproperties ofsoils, whichmay be modified by chemical fertilizersorsoilimprovements, donot have a definiteinfluence on the quality ofharvests and wines. Certainly, thecharacteristics are differentaccording to thenature of theparentmaterial and soils (calcareous or siliceous, clayish orgravelly) but the qualityof terroirs is perhaps better explained by considering the physical properties of soils (architecture, structure, porosity, permeability, and so on) and their consequences forroot development and on regulationof watersupply to the vine.

All fourof the vineyards we shall visit on this field trip are developed on sandy soils. Two (Fall Creek and Bell Mountain) are located on soils developed upon Upper Cambrian calcareous sandstones and sandy limestones of the Upper Hickory and Lower Cap Mountain members of the Riley Formation. The other two vineyards (Becker and Grape Creek) are located on recent alluvial soils; these two vineyards both lie above Lower Cretaceous Hensel Sandstone bedrock. Thesoils of the latter two locations are deeper and more permeable than theFall Creekand BellMountainsoils.

Common Grape Varieties White: Chardonnay Red: Cabernet Sauvignon Riesling PinotNoir Semillon Syrah Chenin Blanc Merlot SauvignonBlanc Cabernet Franc Gewurztraminer Nebbiolo Muscat Grenache and manyothers Gamay Zinfandel and many others

43 On the Artand Ceremonies of Wine-tasting

The followingsummary is abstracted from Michael Schuster's (1989) excellent "Beginner's Guide toUnderstanding Wine".

The Glass: Should be larger at thebottom than at the top, so as to concentrate the aroma, should hold about 1/4cups when full.

Appearance: Note - (1) clarity (indicates absence of excessive sediment), (2) brightness (reflects acidity), (3) viscosity ("tears" or "legs" on side of glass indicating higher alcohol or sugar content), (4) color ("rim" -- width proportional to age and juice/skin ratio - and "eye" - deeper hues indicate more robust flavors;) also, with age, red winesbecome browner, white winesgain in color.

Smell: Different patterns (short & sharp sniffs; deep & prolonged; short & gentle; prolonged & gentle); also smell when wineis still, thenafterswirling, then after shaking. A catalog of aromas: floral, fruity, spicy, nutty, woody, animal, vegetal, mineral, balsamic, chemical, charred,etc.

Taste: Four basic tastes: sweet,acid, bitter, salty,also-astringency,body, "texture".

Procedure for Testing: Look at appearance, swirlaround, then smell(shake if wine is "dumb" =no aroma), then take several tablespoonfuls (enough for several small swallows), swish around in mouth, observe sensations on tongue, nose, swallow a little, note aftertaste and length of finish, then spit out remainder; make notes on appearance,aroma, taste,etc.

Describing"Style": Important factors are: 1. Acidity-ex: "flat,soft, lively, firm,hard"; 2. Alcoholcontent -11%to 12% best; ex:"weak, medium-bodied, ample, heady, heavy"; 3. Tannin - more texture in mouth than taste; ex: "fine, supple, dry, chewy, rough, astringent; 4. Flavor -- ex: "fruity (what kind?), spicy (whatkind?), mineral impressions (earthy, chalky, flinty, etc.),other flavors (honey, caramel, butter, nutty, etc.)"

Evaluating "quality": Important factors are: Cleanliness(no faults); 1. Balance (of acidity, alcohol, tannin, flavor); 2. Finish(length, complexity and aroma ofaftertaste); 3. Secondary aspectsofquality: a.refinement(intensity and concentration vs. delicacyand finesse); b.texture (ex:smooth, round,silky, angular,coarse, rough); c.completeness (satisfies eye, nose, palate, withgood finish).

"Sparkling andbright in liquidlight does the wineour goblets gleam in; withhue as red asthe rosybed, whicha bee wouldchoose to dream in" C.F. Hoffman (1806-1884)

44 The Unique French Term Terroir JamesE. Wilson Denver, Colorado Terroir is aFrench winelandterm for which there is nosimple translation,norisitsconcept easily grasped. It is the total physical environment of a vineyard -the vine, soil, subsoil, siting, drainage, and microclimate. The natural scientist would call it an ecosystem, but terroir has an additional dimension. There is a human element about terroir-- an aura ofhistory, the joys,the heartbreaks,the sweat, thefrustrations -- attributes withoutmeasure.

The use of terroir is not yet commonplace in American wine vocabulary, but it is beginning to appear more frequently in English-language writings.The name slips easily into {or through) the reading vocabulary, but if one wishes to pronounceit, it is tair - wahr. Because terroir is such a meaningful word and is used frequently in this book, Ishallrelate how others definethe concept.

In his Making Sense ofBurgundy, Matt Kramer (1989) makes an eloquent effort to explainthe notion of terroir. To understand the wines of the Cote dOr, Kramer maintains that one must understand the concept of terroir. He points out that the physical attributes are not too difficult to comprehend, but he suggests there is also what he calls a "mental aspect". His explanation of "mental aspect" is that wine growers feel that each terroir should be allowed to be itself and produce the wine for which nature endowed it. The winemaker's "signature" (vinification style) is permissible, so long as it doesnot substitute for terroir. That is, vinificationshould not make the wine taste significantly different than the "natural" wine. This might be interpreted as a vinous equivalent of "vive la difference".

Hugh Johnson (1987) says it a littledifferently: "in terroir, the land chooses the crop that suits it best. Otherwise, why didnot all French winegrowers settlefor the same grape,the same techniques, the same idea of what a good wine should be?" A sense of place, an awareness of terroir, is the key to understanding the wines of France. Johnson suggests that knowing side streets, lanes, and history intensifies the sense of place. (Does not the geology ofa vineyard give it a special identity?)

Gerard Seguine (1986), the Bordeaux enologist, laments that there are no in-depth studies of the ecosystem of terroir, and suggests itisbecause ofthe many factors involved.

Daniel Querre (1971), a grower in Saint-Emilion and onetime General Attorney for the Jurade de Saint-Emilion, questions any attempt to explain a particular terroir where only its obvious physical conditions are described. He points out that the vines find something "precious - almost sacred" in their deep rooting. He compares the deep rooting ofvines to thatofthe incense tree in the arid limestone country of Somaliland.He admits that many might shrug their shoulders at this "something", but he asks how else can we explain the sensory differences between two winesthat are grown underthe same physical conditions. Without the mystery of the "unknown something", Querre says, "Icannot explain how, simply by smelling it,one can distinguish a 'Chevel' froma 'Figeac'." In a less exotic example, the British magazine, TheEconomist (Faith, 1983), describes how the concept of terroir has been usedbythe French to counter efforts bythe European Economic Community to deal with wine simply as a "brand" (a class of goods) in international trade.TheFrench contend that good (and great) winecan come only from the certain severely limited environments -the terroirs. The terroir pinpoints the geographical location of a vineyard with a specific climate, soil, and exposure. In other words, a wineis not just a commodity, but a distinct product from a unique place.

Terroir maysound pedantic, strange, and certainly"foreign". Why not justusethe more familiar word "vineyard" -- especially in a book directed toward the English-speaking public? (As a matter of fact, I'm afraid t am guilty in 45 numerous instances of using terroir and vineyard synonymously. If I told an inquirer that Iwas writing a book on the geology of French terroirs, the reaction would most probably be a polite, butpuzzled "Un-huh". IfIwerelucky he might ask "what is a terroir?" To avoid the appearance of pedantry, Iuse vineyard in most of my outside discussions, but Ithink that many times Terroir is the better word. Ihope there will be a mutual Franco-American tolerance for mylackofconsistency). Hopefully, this annex will acquaint the reader with the term and its meaning so that it slips comfortably into rather than through thereader's vocabulary.

References

Nicholas Faith, "Wine Survey,A DifficultVintage", TheEconomist Dec. 24,1983, p. 90.

Hugh Johnson, The Wine Atlas ofFrance (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), Introduction. Matt Kramer, Making SenseofBurgundy (New York:WilliamMorrow and Co., 1989), p. 39.

Daniel Querre, LeTerroir, Revuedv Yin deFrance No. 232, March-April. 1971. Gerard Sequin, "Terroirs" and Pedology of Wine Growing, Experimenta 42, 1986, Birkhauser-Verlag, CH. 4010, Basel, Switzerland, p.861.

James B.Wilson, "Terroir: The Role Of Geology, Climate, And Culture In The Making Of French Wines.", 1998, University of CaliforniaPress, Wine Appreciation Guild.

We are indebted to ex-Shell geologist and Vice President, James E. Wilson, for his permission to include the foregoing article, whichappears in his book about wineand geology, Terroir.

Thethirsty earthsoaks up the rain, Anddrinks and gapes for drink again, Theplants suckin the earth and are With constant drinkingfreshand fair. Abraham Cowley (1618-1667)

46 Geologic Time Scale

ERA PERIOD M.Y.AGO IMPORTANT GEOLOGICEVENTS

CENOZOIC Quaternary 0-2 Ice ages; riseof Homosapiens

Tertiary 2-65 Uplift of RockyMountains;main activity ofBaicones Fault Zone;riseofmammals

MESOZOIC Cretaceous 65-140 Depositionofrocks intheAustin area; demiseof the dinosaurs

Jurassic 140-190 Vast salt stratum deposited across Gulf Coast Basin; first birds

Triassic 190-250 Opening of Atlantic Oceanand GulfofMexico;first dinosaurs

PALEOZOIC Permian 250-280 Final uplift ofAppalachians; thick salt depositsin West Texas;massive extinctions

Pennsylvanian 280-310 OuachitaMountainsformed; first reptiles

Mississippian 310-345 Vast inlandsea coveredNorth America;amphibians dominant

Devonian 345-395 Ongoing uplift of Appalachians; first amphibians; first insects

Silurian 395-440 Firstland plantsand air-breathing animals

Ordovician 440-500 First stagesof Appalachian uplift; vast inland sea acrossNorth America; first fishes Cambrian 500-570 Abruptriseofmajor groupsofinvertebrates

PRECAMBRIAN 700 First multicellularlife (sponges,jellyfish,worms) 1100 Granites emplaced inLlano Uplift

2000 First nucleated single-celled organisms

3000 First blue-greenalgae 4500 Continentsand oceans form

47 RockUnits AlongField TripRoute (modified from Barnes,and others,1972)

ERA SYSTEM GROUP/ SERIES FORMATION

CENOZOIC Quaternary Alluvium andterrace along stream valleys

MESOZOIC Lower EdwardsLimestone Cretaceous Glen RoseLimestone Hensel Sand Cow CreekLimestone Hammett Shale Sycamore Sand

PALEOZOIC Pennsylvanian Atoka Smithwick Shale Morrow Marble Falls Formation

Mississippian Chester BarnettFormation

Devonian (Sevenformations - approximately 30 feetof section)

Ordovician Ellenburger Group HoneycutFormation GormanFormation Tanyard Formation

Cambrian MooreHollow Group Wilberns Formation San Saba Member Point Peak Member Morgan Creek Member Welge SandstoneMember RileyFormation LionMountainSandstoneMember CapMountainLimestone Member Hickory SandstoneMember

PRECAMBRIAN Igneous Llanite (QuartzPorphyry Dikes) Sixmile Granite Oatman CreekGranite TownMountainGranite

Meta-igneous Metagabbro andMetadiorite Red MountainGneiss Big BranchGneiss Coal Creek Serpentine Mafic igneous rocks

Metasediments Packsaddle Schist LostCreek Gneiss ValleySpring Gneiss

48 Cartoon byJohnBranch; Courtesy oftheWine Gazette

49 ROUTEMAP

50 Road Log Peter R.Rose and CM. Woodruff, Jr.

Mileage Comments

Road log starts at intersectionof 6th and Congress,downtown Austin.

0.0 Travelwest on 6th Street.Thispartof the downtownarea of Austin isbuilt upon Colorado River alluvial gravels resting on Austin Chalk bedrock. Traveling weston West 6th Street we will traverse a seriesof small, down to theeast normal fault blocksofthe Balcones fault system. Thenet stratigraphic effect is to encounter successively older formations tothe west.

In1870, Austin was a small townofa few thousandpeople. The railroad didnot arrive until 1871. Themajority ofAustin's buildings weremade oflogs or rough lumber;most of the attractive old native limestone buildings that distinguish the citytodayhad yet to bebuilt San Antonio was the area's city, and theregionaltrade center. Public travel wasmostly bystage coach, horseback, or "shank's mare". East of Austin lay the open coastalplain; the region to the westand south was open-range country containing large numbers of wild Spanish cattle. There were no large fenced tracts in Central Texas until the late 1880's, when barbed wire made its appearance, and windmillsprovided a permanent watersupply to fenceduplandpastures.

0.7 Intersection ofWest 6th Street andLamar Boulevard; continue west on West 6th Street.

1.4 Low outcrop ofGeorgetown Limestone onright.

1.8 Intersection of West 6th Street and Loop1 (Mopac Blvd.); turn left (south) on Loop1.

2.0 Cross Colorado River;large houses to right are situated on bluff of Edwards Limestone, overlooking TownLake and the Cityof Austin.

2.6 Intersection of Loop 1 and RM 2244 (Bee Caves Road). Turn right and proceed west on RM 2244. Road cuts innext 2miles are inrechargezone of EdwardsLimestone.

4.0 Onright, gentledip in Edwards strataare related toBalcones faulting.

5.0 Intersection of RM 2244 and Camp Craft Road. Although there is no surface expression of faulting here, the main fault of the Balcones System (the Mount Bonnell Fault) passes from south to north through this intersection. To the east is Edwards Limestone; to the west is Glen Rose Formation. Throwof thefault here is inexcess of500feet.

TheEanes family settledin this vicinity in 1872. Until the 1940's the generalarea was occupied mostlyby poor whites, engaged primarily in cutting cedarposts used for railroad ties and fence posts. Vance (1992) describesa seriesof violentskirmishes over territorialtimbering rightsfought from1870 to 1890. Somerequired active interventionbytheLaw.

6.4 Cross under Loop 360,continue westwardon RM 2244.Outcrops are in GlenRoseFormation.

7.2 GlenRoseon right.

51 8.1 "Razordivide" between Barton Creekdrainage on left, Colorado River drainage (Lake Austin) onright. Flat surface on skyline to north istop of JollyvillePlateau.

9.1 Road cut outcrops are GlenRose limestones andmarls.

14.0 Intersection of RM 2244 and Texas 71 at Bee Caves, turn right. Note flat fields to right, which represent probably alluvial soils from a relict drainage way, possibly an ancestral course of Barton Creek.

Therehas been a community here since 1871 when the three Johnson brothers established a tradingpost androadhouse at thissite, withcattlepensandbarns forlivestock onits way to and frommarket.Note thatthe name stillpersists.

14.6 Intersection of Texas 71 and RM 620; continue northwesterly on 71, Entire landscape developed on alternating carbonates andmarls ofGlen Rose Formation.

Many Texas highways follow the routes ofmigratingIndiannomads, ofearly explorers, oreven of game trails. TexasHighway 71is an exception -there wasno "through"highwaybetween Austin, MarbleFails, andLlanointhe 1850-1880period primarilybecause of the difficulty ofcrossing the deep Pedernaies Canyon. Indeed, Texas 71 only was constructed after WWII, based upon a networkofoldcountryroads.

15.8 Intersection of Texas 71 and RM 3238 (leads westwardto Hamilton Pool and Hammett's Crossing of thePedernales River);continue northwesterly on 71.

16.3 Characteristic Glen Rose landscape exhibits second-growth junipers ("cedars") and well-developed native range grasses. Compare with nextlandscape in roadlog.

16.7 "Goatscape"onleft indicates severeovergrazing,

17.2 On left, another overgrazed pasture; note high, well-developed browse-line on oak trees, marking verticalreachof browsing goats anddeer. Thefirstsettlers in theHillCountry foundarolling short-grass climaxprairie withathick sod hiding thin, fragile soils (thick stands ofnative oak and juniper were concentrated in the draws). Early cattlemen quickly overgrazed it, allowing thick growths ofjuniper ("cedar") andmesquite to take over former grasslands. The settlers also prevented the occurrence ofperiodic range fires, which killed young seedlings, eliminated excess dry sod and preserved the prairie character of the landscape. We knownow thatsuch firesserve a beneficialpurpose,not anegativeone.

17.7 Noteproperly cared-for pastureland withadequate cover ofrange grass onleft.

18.1 We are crossing the drainage divide between Barton Creek to left, and Colorado/Pedernales (Lake Travis) to right; note change in terrain as we leave the high, roiling edges of the Barton Creek watershed.

19.0 Deep valley ahead is in Colorado/Pedernales drainage system; note more severely dissected topography andincreased relief.

52 19.4 Toleft, Shingle Hills,displaying classic bench-and-slope ("stairstep") topography characteristic ofGlen RoseLimestone.

20.6 CrossBee Creek,aColorado tributary flowing intoLake Travis.

21.7 To right, note scenic overview of dissected landscape of Colorado River (Lake Travis) drainage system.

23.2 Cross divide with Pedernales drainage to left (west) and Colorado (Lake Travis) drainage to right (east).

23.7 Start descent into Pedernales River drainage system; proceed downward through middle and lower GlenRose beds.

24.6 Glen Rose/Hensel contact. The Hensel Sandstone grades into lower Glen Rose beds. The Hensel is animportantregional aquifer in this partoftheHillCountry.

25.3 Paleface Parkcutoff to right. Noteoutcrop ofredHensel Sandstone to right.

25.5 Cross Pedernales River. Rimrock bluffs are Cow Creek Limestone; lowerslopes near lake level are Hammett Shale.

29.7 Note overgrazed pastureland to right; GlenRose/Hensei contact.

30.7 Large valley ahead on skyline is topographic basin coincidentwith geologicLlano Uplift.

32.0 Outcrop to left isHensel Sandstone.

32.5 Intersection of Texas 71 and Spur 191,leading eastward to Spicewood.Continue northwesterly on 71. Slope aheaddescends into valley of Cypress and Sycamore Creeks; fields in valley are developed in alluvial soils derived from Sycamore Sandstone (basal Cretaceous elastics). The Sycamore Sandstone is part of the original Travis Peak Formation of basal Cretaceous conglomerates and sandstones. The subsurface Travis Peak and Hosston Formations are important gas producers and occupy analogous stratigraphic position in EastTexas, but are somewhatolder.

33.1 Cross CypressCreek.

33.6 Hilis on skylineto left developedon Glen Rose Formation.

35.1 Scattered gray limestone cobbles and boulders in field to right are Lower Pennsylvanian (Morrow) Marble Falls Formation. We are in the Llano Uplift, traveling along the regional unconformity-surface between thePaleozoic and Cretaceous.

Early geological surveys of theLlano Uplift were superficial reconnaissance reports. Charles D. Walcott ofthe USGS visited the region in 1884 and 1886, producinga generally correct summary of the Precambrian and Lower Paleozoic stratigraphy, Walcott's findings were contradicted by Theodore Comstock oftheDumble Survey,in 1889. ButE.O. UrichandBailey Willis ofthe USGS showed in 1902 that theLlano Uplift succession wassimilar to that of the Arbuckle and Wichita Mountain of Oklahoma. In 1907, the USGS began detailed mapping of the Llano Uplift, which 53 culminated in SidneyPaige's "Llano-BurnetFolio",published in 1912. Paige verifiedthat Walcott's basic conclusions were correct.

More than any other geologist, the late Virgil Barnes is identified with the Llano Uplift. He was associated withthe Texas Bureau ofEconomic Geology formore than 50 years, and the superb work ofBarnes andhis variouscolleagues produced a rare depth ofunderstanding andset a high standardofquality. 35.3 Gray limestone bedrock inlow roadcut shoulders isMarbleFalls.

37.8 Doublehorn Creek. In the1950's Barnes discovered several thinremnant formations of Devonion age near here.

41.1 Intersection of Texas 71and US 281; turn right (north) on 281, proceed northward over carbonates of theHoneycut Formation,Ellenburger Group (Lower Ordovician).

Shovel Mountain lies 3 miles south. There, in 1870, the redoubtable Rufus Perry, Indian Fighter, in company with 30 Texas Rangers, engaged an estimated 125 Comanche Indians embarked on ahorse-stealing raid. TheRangersseparatedtheIndians fromtheirhorseherdandkilled the chief plus several others, whose bodies were carried awayby theirtribesmen. The Rangers suffered one dead and several wounded, but recovered 100 horses, which were duly returned to their respective owners. The three Bird brothers were conspicuous in this action, one brotherbeing killedand both ofhistwobrothers wounded.In 1873 apartyof youngmen fromRoundMountain, including thetwo survivingBirdbrothers, plus future Ranger CaptainDanRobertsand his brother, engaged a band of 27 Comanches on Deer Creek, west of Round Mountain. Joe Bird was woundedagain, as wereboth theRoberts brothers. The Indians were thought to have lost 4men. Once again, Rufus Perry got into the act, trailing theretreating Indian raiders to the southwest, toward the empty andprotective vastness of the Edwards Plateau, before the trail became too cold(ordangerous?) to follow.

The enmity of the Blanco County men towards Indians hadbeen strongly fed by several brutal Indian raids during the late 1860's. In February, 1868, Comanches raided Legion Valley, in northwestern Blanco County, where they captured and carried away three women and four children. The womenand twoyoungest children weremutilatedand murderedduring the Indians' retreat, and the two surviving older children were notrecovered formany months. Five months later, Comanche raiders killedMr. andMrs. ThomasFelps on Cypress Creek.

42.0 Roadcut in fault-shatteredEllenburger carbonates. Interest in outcropping Ellenburger carbonates of the Llano Uplift increased dramatically after oil wasdiscovered in theEllenburger atBigLakeFieldin1928, Before that, allPermianBasin oil was thought to occurin the "BigLime", a field termapplied to massive Permian dolomites of various ages (San Andres, Clear Fork, Wolfcamp, etc') in different parts of West Texas. The same company-Texon OilandLandCompany-thathadfirst found oilin the "BigLime"atBigLake in 1923 (Santa Rita No. 1) subsequently drilled what was in 1928 the deepest wellin the world (8,525 feet). They found anew deep pay in theLower OrdovicianEllenburger "Lime". This set off a new wave ofdeeper exploration, focused on the Central Basin platform, which proved to be spectacularly successful. Indeed, a substantial part of the University lands mineral wealth has come from theEllenburger, secondonly to the San Andresasaprolific West Texas reservoir. The 54 landmark UTBureau ofEconomic GeologyReportNo. 4621on theEllenburger Group byPreston Cloud andVirgilBarnes(1948) responded to intenseIndustryinterestintheEllenburger. 43.2 Quarry/roadcut on leftin Ellenburger; roadcut ahead is also in Ellenburger.

44.2 On right,note J.M. Hubert Co. quarry, where, high-purity (99+% CaCO3) stone is extracted from the Honeycut Formation of the Ellenburger Group. This is the only underground limestone quarry in Texas; you can see adits at thebase of theslope alongthenorth side ofthe quarry.

44.8 Roadcut in north-dipping Marble Falls Limestones.

45.2 Overlook ahead and to left into Colorado River valley, with town of Marble Falls, and Granite Mountain.

The town of Marble Falls was established in 1887, in part because of the new quarrying operations to supplygranite stone for construction of the Texas State Capitol. However, settlers had been in the vicinitysince thelate 1840's, and the falls themselves were a wellknown scenic attraction, as described by Noah Smithwick. From 1851 to 1853, there was a Mormon colony a few miles northeast ofMarble Falls on Hamilton Creek, where they built a water-powered mill to supplypower forafurniture factory. TheAnglo-Celtic Texiansviewed theMormons withsuspicion and hostility, so they moved on to Gillespie County, where the Germans proved to be more tolerant

45.4 Cross Lake Marble Falls; bluffs are Marble Falls Limestone; proceed northward through town of MarbleFalls.

46.4 At intersection of US 281 and RM 1431; turn left on 1431, proceed west. Granite Mountain lies ahead on skyline.

47.5 On right, "Marble Falls fault" juxtaposes steeply dipping Marble Falls limestone (on east) against Precambrian TownMountain Granite (on west). Approximate throwis 3000 feet(all of Ellenburger and Cambrian section are faulted out). Time of faulting is approximately middle Pennsylvanian (Dcs Moinesian, perhaps Missourian; Texas equivalents are Strawn and Canyon). Amsbury and Haenggi (1993) believe that such near-vertical faults are probably strike-slip faults related to Ouchita compressional forces, not normal (extensional) faults. This interpretation may change some basic ideas about Precambrian relationships in theregion.

48.2 STOP #1 (Rolling Stop): Granite Mountain Quarry. Roadsidepark overlooking Granite Mountain, site ofquarry operations since 1880's, and source of pink granite stone used in building Capitol building in Austin. Thisquarry is cut into an exfoliation dome withinthe Granite Mountain pluton. Thedome was formed owing to the unloading ofseveral miles ofoverlying rock by uplift and erosion. The onion-skin- like sheets are a response of the rock's attempt to readjust to the low pressures at the earthsurface, in contrast to the confining pressures under whichit formed. Quarrymenuse the sheeting in extracting the stone. They also use the natural, through-going vertical joints (trending roughly NE-SW, and NW- SE) to minimize blasting inremoving therock.

The rock is afairly typical granite; its most distinctive attributes are its pink colorand the large crystals ofthe potassium feldspar, microcline. It was emplaced into the pre-existing metamorphic rocks about 1.05 billion years ago. Depth ofemplacement is estimated to have beensto 7 miles.Uplift to near sea 55 level wascomplete by aboutone-half billion years ago,and since thattime the granite has been within about ahalf mile ofsealevel(Volker Gobe!, oral communication, April 9,1983).

The Town Mountain Granite provides an interesting lesson in the economics of mineral production. Some minerals have high intrinsic value and will be extracted almost anywhere they are found in sufficientamounts. Oilis agood example. Oilfrom theNorth Slopeof Alaska wasworth thecost of the pipeline across that huge state, simply because we need the resource and are willing to pay for it. Such a mineral is said to possess a high "unit value". Stone on the other hand, has low unit value. Instead, its value is determined by its proximity to a market, or by the availability of cheap transportation to market. Such materials aresaid to have ahigh "place value". Thegranite that wesee quarried here was virtually worthless until therailroad line wasbuilt, allowing the stoneto beshipped cheaply to market. Here's how it happened:

During the 1880's thenew(present) Capitolbuilding wasbeingconstructed. Stone for thebuilding wasextracted from aquarry in what is now Oak Hill.It wasa layerof thick-bedded, buff-colored limestone from the Glen Rose Formation. This stone is what we see today in many of the buildings along Sixth Streetin Austin.But the quarry layastride theMountBonnellFault, a major break with displacement of several hundred feet. During initial construction of the Capitol, the desired layerof limestone wasdepleted, and another source wassought. Someone suggested using thefamous stone from Bedford, Indiana. Fora discussion ofpolitics inpost-Civil War Texas and the controversy ofpossibly using "Yankee" stone in the Texas Capitol, see Baumgardner (1988).

During this crisis, some enterprising folks fromMarble Fallsmade the State an offer:builda rail linefrom Austin toMarbleFalls,provide labor, and allthe granite that is needed forthe Capitolis free for the taking. Therailroad was built, convict labor was employed, and today we have a Capitolof thedistinctivepink granite -not ofbuff-colored limestone as was theinitialdesign.

Large rough blocks of the granite werealso transported to Galveston where they were used in jettiesas wellasthesea wall.Thisquarrycontinuestoproduce decorativeand industrialstone.

Note also some large blocks of brown sandstonehere at the roadside park, having distinctive turbidite bed forms.These came from outcrops of Pennsylvanian Smithwick/Strawn formations along Hamilton Creek,about5 mileseast ofhere. 49.4 Note flat terrain with dominant oak/mesquite flora growing on deeply weathered granite soil ("grus"). Except for a few areas - Enchanted Rock and Granite Mountain being notable examples -- the Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks seem to weather and erode more rapidly than the (mostly limestone) strata composing the overlying systems. Hence, the Llano Uplift forms a topographic basin. The broad expanses of weathered granite (grus), noted here are sites where the granite has apparently broken down in place into a rubble of quartz and feldspar crystals. This material is excavated as a decorative aggregate material, and it is used (for example) on the Town Lake hike and bike trailin Austin.This granite gravel formed by the selective weathering of the dark, less resistant iron- and magnesium-rich minerals: biotite and hornblende. Once these minerals are weakened,a major partof the connective frameworkofthe granite is gone, and the remaining material becomes the easily excavated gravel - not what we think of as typical hard granite bedrock. This weathering characteristic and the relatively low-reliefterrane of theLlano Precambrian complex, have indicated that thegranite weathersmore rapidly than nearby Paleozoicstrata. 56 That thegranite weathersand erodesmore rapidly than the nearby sedimentary rocksis counter- intuitive,infact, it'sprobably incorrect. An examination ofanygraveyard willprovide evidence that the granite is, in fact, much lessprone to being weatheredanderoded than is a typicallimestone. Granite headstones show little or no wear, whereas limestone and sandstone markers of the same age are commonly deeply etched by the elements. The observed facts - that the Precambrian terrane stands in low relief, and thepresence oflocally thick grus deposits - are probably testimony to the enormous amounts of time during which the processes of weathering and erosionhave actedon thePrecambrian rocks. The granites, as mentioned, formedmore than one billionyears ago. Andeversince about a half-billion yearsago, this crystalline rock hasbeen within a few thousand feet of sea level. There is no wayof knowing the vast expanses of time during which these rocks were exposedto the elements during thishalf-billion years. That huge time interval, however, provided thekey ingredient for allowing weathering and erosion that has formedthe landscapes we see today

51.2 Entering "town"of GraniteShoals; aheadon skyline at 1o'clock, is PacksaddleMountain,an outlierof Upper Cambrian(partly fault-bound)on eroded Precambrian terrane.

Granite Shoals sprang up as a recreational service community in the early 1950's entirely in responseto the constructionof thedam whichimpoundsLakeLBJ.

53.1 Toleft, Cold Spring Granite Company recently opened a new quarry here.

55.7 Prominent ridge ahead and on right is Backbone Ridge, a fault-bound structural graben of resistant Cambrian rocks that forms a topographic high.

56.0 Cross railroad track.

This is therouteofthenarrow-gaugerailroad which wasbuiltin1885 specifically to carryquarried granite from the Granite Mountain site to connect with themain railheadin Burnet, and onwardto the State Capitol. The railroad alsoprovided much needed transport for cattle to markets in the southandmidwest.

56.3 Cross fault, ascend Upper Cambrian section in Backbone Ridge graben-block, from Hickory Sandstone, through CapMountain Limestone,intoLionMountain Sandstone.

56.7 STOP #2: Hoover Point Overlook, To east, roadcut in green glauconitic sandstones of Lion Mountain Member overlain by reddish/brownish Welge Sandstone Member, Morgan Creek, Point Peak, and San Saba Members are present upslope toward the top ofthe ridge. In Lion Mountain roadcut face, note lenses of calcarenite consisting of skeletal "hash", mostly trilobite and inarticulate brachiopod fragments. Note also small-scalefaulting andfolding. Thebluffs below road level down to the lake are composed of CapMountainLimestone.

57 Scenic overlook:Look westward across Colorado River and Llano River (Lake LBJ). Note Packsaddle Mountain, an erosional remnant consisting of Hickory, Cap Mountain, Lion Mountain, Welge, Morgan Creek, Point Peak and San Saba formations, resting on the old exhumed Precambrian erosion surface.

Fisher and Miller were two land promoters who obtained a huge grant of land from the Texas Republic in 1842, intending to colonize it withEuropean immigrants. Theirgrantlay between the Llano and Colorado rivers; the western boundary was vague, but lay far to the west, in West Texas. Fisher and Miller sold their rights to the Adelsverein, the original society promoting German immigration to Texas under the sponsorship of Prince Solms. By the time more than 2000 German familiesarrivedinCentral Texasin 1847, theydiscovered that1) FisherandMiller's licensehad alreadyexpired when the deal wassigned;and 2) theirnew "grant" lay in theheart of - the Southern Comanche hunting range! In 1847, several colonies - some communistic were founded on the north bank of the Llano in what is now western Llano County. All failed except Castell. John Meusebach (who took over the leadership of the German community from the incompetent Prince Solms) and Samuel Maverick (the original) persuaded the Texas State Legislature in 1852 to make good allGerman land claims, andpermanent German settlements followed shortly in Llano and Mason Counties, mostly led by a newly-formed sect of German EvangelicalMethodists.

At the south end of Packsaddle Mountain, where the lower part of the Cambrian Hickory Sandstone rests unconformably on thePrecambrian metamorphicrocks, areperhaps ahalfdozen old prospect pits, shafts and adits that represent intermittent efforts to assess and develop commercial mining operations here during the Spanish colonial period. This area of mineralization, "Los Almagres", a series of gossans, was discovered in 1756 by Bernardo de Miranda yFlores,a Spanish officercharged withevaluating themineralpotentialoftheregion.

Recent collaborative work by University of Texas archaeologists, historians, and geologists portray a fascinating picture ofrepeated but generally unsuccessful expeditions and ventures to find andmine silver from disseminatedlead ores inbasal Cambrianrocks during theperiod 1752 to 1830 as reported in a recent Austin Geological Society guidebook (Kyle, 2000). Itisprobable thatthis earlyprospecting led to aseries ofromantic legends about a lost silver mine, collectively known as the Lost San Saba Mine, or the Lost Bowie Mine (after one of its more notorious seekers, James Bowie, whomounted an unsuccessful expedition to search for it in 1829, which was driven back to San Antonio by Comanche Indians after a pitched battle at Calf Creek in McCulioch County).

The range ofhills due west of Packsaddle Mountain is called the Riley Mountains, on the east face of which are two deep vertical shafts, the first dating from the Spanish colonialperiod, the second, called the Boyd shaft, which was dug in 1910. The Boyd venture was promoted and financed by historically-minded Central Texasinvestors following the old Spanish records. The venture faded awaya few yearslater.

In 1855, the Reverend JonasDancer settled withhis familyat the headwaters ofHoney Creek, in the Riley Mountains. Hebecame head ofa substantialMethodist congregation in the vicinity.In May1859, while waiting fora partyofneighbors to assistin building a road, Dancer wasattacked and killed by Indians. His body was found the next day, riddled with arrows, scalped and otherwisemutilated.

58 Packsaddle Mountain was the site of the last substantial Indian fight in the Llano Region. In August, 1873, eightsettlers, ledbyJamesR.Moss fought a bandofabout 20Lipan Apaches. The settlers had trackedthe Indianraiders about 25 milesin anortheasterly directionbefore engaging themon top ofPacksaddleMountain. ThreeIndians werekilled andfoursettlers were woundedin a fierce fight, after whichtheIndians slippedawayto the southwest, presumablyback towardsthe EdwardsPlateau, and onward toMexico. Hunting and gathering of wild cattle reached its peak in Llano County in the 1870-1875 period, and the countryside before you was the natural territory of early ranchers such as the Moss Brothers, John Oatman, and theJames Rileyfamily, settlers who werebythen wellestablishedin the area. But in addition, aggressive groups weremoving in from the east, such as A.G. Roberts' outfit from Burnet County, which had close ties to rough characters like the Olney and Baird brothers, John Ringo (later of Tombstone, Arizona fame), the Pearlfamily, and the Pink Higgins outfit of Lampasas County. Roberts' outfit was known to gather cattle without regard to establishedbrands, and drive them away to market. Theirreputation forviolence tendedto protect themfrom prosecution.

56.7 Continue northwesterly on RM 1431.

57.0 Cross western boundary faultof Backbone Ridge graben, descend onto Precambrian outcrop.

57.8 Cross Colorado River (north arm of Lake LBJ) andenter town of Kingsland.

Kingsland is an early settlementatthe junctionofthe Colorado andLlano Rivers, it wasoriginally called Kingsville,-- but the south Texas town of that name hadpriority, so thelocal citizenry settled on Kingsland close enough.l Two wanted young men, gunmen and cattle rustlers, were captured here by Burnet County Sheriff A.J. Strickland in November, 1875. Their names were Scott Cooley and John Ringo. Sheriff Strickland carried them to the county jailat Burnet, which was so unreliable that Strickland hadthem transferredto the more secure jailat Austin. We will hearmoreofCooleyandRingo as thefield trip proceeds. By 1890, Kingsland had a generalstore, a saloonandseveral residences whentheHouston and Texas CentralRailroad decided to develop a recreationalproperty here at the confluence of the ColoradoandLlano Rivers. In 1892, theH&TCbuilt asmalldepot, cattleholdingpens andloading chutes, and a 5,400 square foot luxury hoteland spa, "The Antlers Hotel". ThePost office was chartered in 1893.Kingsland was athrivingresort forabout 25years, withan outdoorpavilion and entertainment shipped infrom AustinandHouston. Cattle wereshipped ontheH&TC railroad until the 19205.

58.0 Old AntlersHotelto right about one blocknorth ofhighway. 58.8 Intersection ofRM 1431 and RM 2900; continuenorthweston RM 1431. 59.5 Intersection ofRM 1431 and RM 2545; continuenorthweston RM 1431. Joe Olney, one ofa group of alliedcattledrovers (? rustlers ?)hada ranch about 5 miles east of here,on the westside of the ColoradoRiver. Olney's confederates includedthe Bairdfamily and theA.G. Roberts outfit. Thefugitives Scott CooleyandJohnRingo came toOlney's ranch afterthey wereliberatedfrom the LampasasjailinearlyMay1876by JohnBairdandhisassociates,

59 60.6 Note suburban wastelandon western outskirts of Kingsland.

61.4 Long Mountain is to theright, another high-standing Paleozoic graben block.

64.4 Intersection ofRM 1431and TexasHighway 29; continue northwestonRM 1431.

66.4 At intersection of RM 1431 and Texas 261; turn left (north) on 261. Lake Buchanan lies ahead; Buchanan Dam at 2o'clock. Note small exfoliationdome of Town Mountain Granite. Baringer Hill, a pegmatite in Precambrian granite, contains rare-earth minerals,but the deposit now lies beneath the waters ofLake Buchanan.

Buchanan Dam iscurrently ownedby theLower Colorado River Authority (LCRA), but its construction predates theLCRA.

Thedam wasbegun in 1926 under the aegis ofthe Central Texas Hydro-Electric Company, but work stoppedlater that yearowing to financialproblems. Reconstruction byLCRA began in 1935, andthe dam wascompletedin1938.

Thedam is a concrete arch and gravity structure witha maximum height of 150 feet and a total length of 11,200 feet. The reservoir was firstfilled by the flood of July 1938. Reservoir capacity is 992,000 acre-feet; contributing Colorado River watershedis approximately 19,350 mi2. The dam contains three 11,250 kW generating units. Also 840 cfs of water can be pumped from theBuchanan tailrace back into Buchanan Reservoir. Thepump is driven by a 14,500 hp motor, whichoperates at off-peak times whenelectricpower can be purchased at a lower rate than during times ofgreatestdemand.

70.4 AcrossLakeBuchanan, at about 2o'clock, is Morgan Creek.

JohnA.and CharityPearlsettledin1860 at "PearlBend"ontheeast sideof the Colorado Riverat themouth ofMorgan Creek. This was earlyin the open-range cattle-gatheringperiod. There they raised afamily of 13 children. The Pearls' "ranching"establishment wassituated adjacent to the Liano/Burnet Countyline (Colorado River). This convenientlocation facilitatedescape across the Colorado River into Llano County, whenever Burnet County hide inspectors and peace officers came around. The Pearl settlement wasin fact a notorious hangout for cattle thieves and other outlaws, and someofthe cattlerustling thatprecipitated theHoo-Doo Warundoubtedly originated from PearlBend. MajorJohnB. Jonesbrought the FrontierBattalion, TexasRangers, in to clean up Llano County in late 1875. As things got too hot for the Pearls, they moved farther west to London, in northeastern Kimble County, halfway between Mason and Junction, where they and various kinsmen and hangers-on found a compatible environment in which to continue their nefariousactivities foranother 10 years. One of thePearldaughters (Adeline) marriedanotorious outlaw and cattle thief, Rube Boyce, who was indicted in 1879 for his part in a series of stagecoach robberies at Peg Leg Crossing, between Mason and Menard (the Army payroll for FortsMcKavitt and Concho was the target). These robberies were carriedout in company withthe Dublin and Potter brothers, notorious outlaws of Kimbie County. Rube Boyce wascaptured in 1881, but made a spectacular, gunfire-punctuated escape on horseback from the Austin cityjail the next year, after Adelinesmuggledasix-shooterinto hiscell,hidden inhis cleanlaundry. Mack Potter, andRole andDellDublin were convicted in 1882 and served 15 years in Joliet Federal Prisonfor their crimes.

60 71.7 Flat pastureland with dominantflora of live oak, post oak and mesquite growing on deeply weathered granitegrus.

72.9 Intersection ofTexas 261 andRM 2241 atBluffton. Turnright and proceed northward on 2241,riding on deeply weatheredgranite soils developedon TownMountain Granite.

Bluffton wasmoved here in1938 whenthe originalsettlement, foundedin1854 byBillyDavis and IkeMaxwell, wasfloodedbyLake Buchanan. In 1862, Captain Williams purchasedaherdofcattle at Bluffton, intending to drive them to his ranch in San Saba County. About 6 miles northwest, near Babyhead Mountain, his party was set upon by a band of about 10 Indians, who killed Williams andayoungcowboynamedKing, who wasmountedon a balkymulethathe wasunable to motivate. Twoothercowboys escaped.

76.6 Intersectionof RM 2241 and RM 3014;continueon 2241heading northwest.Gentledownslope ahead marks northeast-southwest fault line juxtaposing Precambrian Town Mountain Granite (on southeast) and Upper Cambrian Hickory Sandstone (on northwest). To the north, hills on skyline are Upper Cambrian/Lower Ordovician limestones and dolomites (San Saba/Ellenburger).

77A Lake Buchananon right, across lake, hills on far skyline are sandstones and limestones of theUpper Cambrian Riley Formation.

77.8 TowPostOffice; continue northward onRM 2241. Billyand Wilson Tow(rhymes with "cow",not "low")settledhere in 1852.

78.4 Church ofChrist at fork in road, bearleft onLlano CountyRoad 272, and continue northward. 79.1 Road curves to right; scarp to north marks east-west fault line juxtaposing Wilberns Formation on north and RileyFormation on thesouth.

79.8 Vineyards ofFall Creek winery on right.

80.0 Gateway ofFall Creek winery,established 1975.

80.1 STOP #3: FALL CREEK WINERY » Ed and Susan Auler, owners;Vineyards established in 1986 (see Geologic Setting). Winery lies in the outcrop of the stratigraphic transition between Hickory Sandstone and Cap MountainLimestone. The vineyards are situated on sandy soils on broad,gently sloping terrain. The site is likely to benefit from proximity to Lake Buchanan, giving local favorable microclimate.

80.1 Return to bus,depart Fall Creek winery, retrace route back toBluffton.

87.4 Intersection ofRM 2241and Texas 261 at Bluffton; turn right,head weston 2241.

91.8 Llano Basin landscape to southwest: Packsaddle Mountain at 9 o'clock, Smoothing-iron Mountain at 10 o'clock.Tonortheast at 3 o'clock,hills on skyline are Cambrian Wilberns Formation.

92.3 Village ofLone Grove.

61 92.7 Cross Little Llano River. Note deep alluvial soils in valley southwest of river. Route crosses into outcrop ofPrecambrian Packsaddle Schist.

93.8 Note dominant mesquite flora, characteristic of clay-rich soils developed from Packsaddle Schist bedrock. 95.0 The only recorded active underground hardrock gold mine in the Llano Uplift was the Heath mine, located about 1 milenorthwest of this point. All the small gold deposits in theLlano Uplift occur either in Precambrian metamorphic rocks, oras lean placers in sand-choked creeks draining such outcrop areas, as Little Llano River, orSandy Creek,farthersouth.

Gold wasdiscovered on theHeathproperty in the early 1890's, andundergroundminingbeganin 1896 (Evans, 1975). In about 1902 theBawsheeda Mining Companypurchasedtheproperty and erected a plant, offices, and other structures and proceeded to evaluate the prospect, but the venture faileda few yearslater. A secondroundofdevelopment began in 1908 by the Llano Gold and Rare Metal Mining Company, and USGS geologist Sidney Paige (1911, 1912) located 7 shafts (one 600 feet deep), 5 trenches, many underground drifts and crosscuts, and about 60 prospectpits.

Gold wasrecovered from the Precambrian metamorphic bedrock as wellas from weatheredsoil and subsoil overlying bedrock. The natural habitat ofthe gold appearsto be quartz dikes, veins, and stringers.

TheHeath mine continued in operation from 1910to 1916, with3more shafts opened anda 40- -ton amalgamation millbuilt.

96.2 Entering outcrop area of Valley Spring Gneiss.

98.2 Intersection of RM 2241 and Texas 29; turn right (west) on 29. Complex of deeply weathered Precambrian bedrock in this area. 99.6 Coming into town ofLlano; note stoneworks to right.

99.8 Intersection of Texas 29 and Texas 16 on north side of Llano; turn left, proceed southward through town on Texas16.

100.0 Llano, thecounty seat ofLlano County, was establishedin 1857. Gathering of wildcattle was the principalindustryin the 1860's, 70% andearly 80s. There wasa mining boomhere in the 1880's and the town reached apopulation of7,000 in 1890, when the railroadarrived. Onright, historic Badu House, built in 1891 by "Col"Badu, French mineral collector; diversity ofpolished stone types decorate the building. It isnow a bed and breakfast facility, with a passable restaurant Badu wasone ofseveral internationalspeculators who flockedhere during the mining boom, in whichnorthern capitalistsinvestedabout $300,000inironmining ventures.

100.2 CrossLlano River.

62 100.5 Llano townsquare onright, withCountyCourthouse,built in 1881. This was not the building at which took place one of the landmark early trials in Llano. In December 1876, a jury convicted George Gladden of the murder of Peter Bader the previous January. Gladden andhis partnerJohn Baird had ambushed Bader on the road along the Llano River at themouth of SanFernando Creek,about 4miles westofLlano. He wasshot twice with a shotgun andscalped. This wasthelast knownkilling oftheHoo-Doo War, andthe first to bedealt withlegally.

Gladden and Baird were compatriots ofScott Cooley, who was in jailin Austin (along withhis sidekick, John Ringo) at the time of the murder. The three men had murdered Peter Bader's brother KarlinAugust 1875, following Cooley's murder ofex-Deputy Sheriff John Wohrle, both in vengeance for the death of Cooley's friend and mentor, Tim Williamson, in May. Both Bader brothers were thought to have taken part in a mob attack on Williamson, who was supposedly under the protection of Mason County Sheriff John Clark, through his deputy Wohrle. In September, 1875, Peter Bader killed John Baird's brother Moses after a shoot-out in which George Gladden was severely wounded,butescapedandrecovered.

It is reported that after Peter Bader killedMoses Baird, he removed a goldring from the dead man's handbyamputation, andthat John Bairdrecoveredhisbrother's ringinlike manner on San Fernando Creek four months later. John Baird avoided capture by leaving the country for New Mexico, wherehe waskilledtwo yearslaterina gunfight. By late 1875, Llano County had become such ahotbed of cattle rustlers and outlaws that Major JohnB. Jonesstationeda detachment ofabout 20 TexasRangershere formore than 6monthsto break up the gangs. George Gladden wasone of the outlaws captured by peace officers in that campaign. He served8 yearsofa life sentence, waspardoned, andmoved to Arizona.

101.3 Intersection of Texas 16 and Texas 71; continue straight on Texas16. We are riding onPrecambrian Packsaddle Schist. At 9 o'clock Sandstone Mountain, a domal granite hill; at 11 o'clock Riley Mountains on skyline, a fault-block containing a complete Paleozoic succession (Hickory sandstone through Smithwick Shale). 102.6 Peak to left at 10 o'clockis SharpMountain.

105.0 Flat-topped hillto rightat 2 o'clock isHickory Mountain. 107.8 Prominenthill ahead and to right at 1o'clock isYearling-head Mountain.

109.2 Roadcut exposes outcropsof Packsaddle Schist.

109.8 Roadcut outcrops of Hickory Sandstone, caught in a narrow east-west graben-slice.

110.8 Oxford Cemetery, Oxford is located on outcrop of Precambrian Valley Spring Gneiss.

The Oxfordsettlement was foundedin1880 byAJ.Johnson, Confederate veteran (of whommore later). Buriedhere are early Llano County settlers, including Johnson and James R. Moss, who tookpartintheIndian fight onPacksaddle Mountainin 1873.

63 Francis A. (FrankorPancho) Hamer, born 1884, spent his childhoodyears inSan Saba County, andmoved to Oxford withhis familyin 1894 wherehe workedat his father'sblacksmith shop. At age 17he wasinvolvedin an altercation withatroublemaking neighbor, whomHamer finally shot andkilled. Acquitted, he movedto Trans-Pecos Texas wherehe workedas acowboy and gained recognition in that frontier region as a superb marksman and reliable man in a fight. Hamer enlisted as a private in the Texas Rangers in 1906, serving along the Mexican border. After 5 years, he resigned and served as a peace officerin Navasota and Harris counties, but rejoined theRangersin 1915. He servedbriefly as aprohibition officerin1919-1920 before returningagain to the Rangers, wherehe rose to therank ofSenior Captainbefore retiring in1932. Retained later as a special agent, he organized the successful manhunt foroutlaws Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow, whom he and his posse killed in 1934. Subsequently Hamer worked as a private investigator forvarious oilcompanies. In 1948he again answered thecall, this time toaccompany his old friend ex-Governor Coke Stevenson, as bodyguard, in contesting suspect electionreturns inDuval Countyat the climax of the controversialU.S. Senate race between Stevenson and the eventual winner, "Landslide"Lyndon Johnson,later36thPresident of theU.S.

Frank Hamer wasone of the premierlaw enforcement officers ofhis time, a genuine relict of the frontier times from which he sprang, and a fearless and effective lawman. He legitimately represented mortaldanger to lawbreakers, of whomhepersonally dispatched between 40 and 50 in the callofduty, according to historian T.R.Fehrenbach. Hamer diedinAustinin 1955.

114.3 Cross Sandy Creek, so named because it is choked with quartzand pink feldspar clasts derived from the aforementioned weathering ofgranite. Thisis a braided stream: typical of a stream that has more sediment supplied to it thanit can transport. Sandy Creek is anintermittent stream and is dry most of the time. When it does flow, the sediment will be rearranged and moved downstream, but local changes in channel slope, and in water flow will cause the deposition of bars in various parts of the channel, forcing the water to be diverted around the bars into numerous small channels. In this way, the anastomosing, braided pattern is maintained. Sandy Creek is known to be the site of scattered, low-grade gold placer deposits, and periodic prospecting and mining attempts took place here from 1880 to 1930.

Note the U.S. Geological Survey stream gage that was housed in the small shed on the side of the bridge. Data from this gage show the average discharge of Sandy Creek to be 61.8 cubic feet per second (cfs). The peak discharge on record is 27,500 cfs, on July 16, 1981. At that time, the gage height was17.63 ft.

114.7 At 9o'clock, isLone Mountain,partof the western sideof theRiley Mountains; cliffsare CapMountain limestone. To east,note gap cut by Sandy Creek through theRiley Mountains.

Just west ofthegap ofSandy Creek throughRiley Mountains wasthe frontiercommunity ofLegion Valley (now abandoned), located upon alluvial soils where Legion Creek runs into Sandy Creek. The Legion Valleysettlement was foundedin 1860 by A. J. Johnson;it was the site ofa brutalIndianraid in 1868 - morelater.

115.0 Intersection of Texas16 and RM 965,leading westwardtoEnchanted Rock; continuesouth on 16.

116.8 Town Mountain Granite on right.

118.1 Gillespie/Llano CountyLine; Ragged Mountainonright.

64 119.2 CrossLegion Creek.

Legion Creek Valley, a fertile alluvial area about 4 miles northeast of here, was settledmostly by Anglo-Celtic frontiersmen and their families, including A. J. Johnson andhis family, about 1860. In February 1868, womenfolk from theFriend and Johnson families gatheredat theFriendranch while their men were away. Fifteen Comanche Indians fell upon the house, severely wounded Matilda Friend, and carried away three Johnson women andfour children,including Mrs. Friend's 8-year old son, Temple. MatildaFriend wasshot withseveralarrows, scalped, andleft for dead. After theIndians hadgone, Mrs. Friend,eight monthspregnant, made her waythrough thesnow to aneighbor'shouse abouta mile andahalfaway, from whichalarms were spread. Miraculously, she didnotlose thechild she carried. Thenext day, a searchparty followed the Indians southward, and found, in succession along the trail, the savagelymutilatedbodiesofthe twoJohnsonbabiesandall threeJohnson women. A thirdchild, Malinda Caudle, remained a captive for about 8months before being rescued byU.S. dragoonsin Kansas. TempleFriend was not recoveredfor 5 years, never successfully re-adapted to his originalculture, and faded away, dying within 2 A1 years ofhis return to his family MatildaFriend was the daughterof theReverend Jonas Dancer, who himselfhadbeenkilled byIndiansin 1859on Honey Creek, justacross the Riley Mountains to the east ofLegion Valley. Andanother Johnson relative, Frank Johnson, was killed byIndiansin 1867in the Saline Valleyofeastern Kimble County (about 60miles west), after whichhis wife, Betsy, andher young children returned to live with their kinfolk inLegion Valley. The three Johnson women who were killedin theLegion Valley Indianraid were grown daughters ofBetsy Johnson, who thuslost a husband, three growndaughters, and two grandchildrento Indianraiders withinlessthanone year.

About six months after theFriend/Johnson raid, and after murdering Thomas Felps andhis wife on Cypress Creek, about 20 miles to the southeast, a second Comanche raiding party killed another Johnsonrelative, ayoungman about 21years old, and carried awaya12-yearoldJohnson boy, who wasrecoveredtwodayslaternearFortMasonbyapartyof15pursuingsettlers.

The Johnson familyseemed star-crossed. Before the 1868 tragedies, one ofthe youngerJohnson girls, Mary, married Tim Williamson, a localcattleman. He wasassassinatedinMay 1875, in one of the more brutal acts perpetrated by the German faction during the Hoo-Doo War, when a crooked deputy sheriff, one John Wohrle, declined to protect his prisoner from the mob and indeedprevented Williamson from escaping by shooting his horse out from under him. Wohrle wasaUnion veteran whohadmarriedAnna Geistweidt, daughter ofa prominent German familyin Mason County. The murder of Williamson, apopular man, inflamed the Anglo-Celtic faction, and brought the Hoo-Doo War to a climax in late September 1875, with the official intercession by Major Jones andthe TexasRangers, first atMason, and laterat Llano. Earlier, inFebruary, 1875, MaryJohnson'sbrother Charley hadbeentaken fromtheMasonjailbya Germanmob, along with four other rustlers, and lynched. Charley Johnson managed to escape, but three of his companions died in the affair, during a shooting melee between the mob and a rescue party. Johnson may also have beeninvolved in the murder of KarlBader during the Hoo-Doo War. In anycase, he wasin andout oftrouble for thenext severalyears beforehe finallydriftedout ofthe country.

65 Scott Cooleyhad served as a Rangerin1874 withCompany D,FrontierBattalion, under Captain Rufus Perryandhis iieutenant, Dan Roberts, and washonorably dischargedin December 1874. CompanyD wasmade upmostlyofBlanco Countymen. Cooley avenged Tim Williamson's death by murdering and scalpingDeputy Wohrle and severalof the German mobsters in August 1875. In late September 1875, assisted by George Gladden and John Baird, Cooley also shot down DanielHoerster, the Mason CountyHide Inspector andleader of the German faction, on themain street of Mason. An extended gun battle followed with Hoerster's friends. It was this event that brought inMajorJohn B. Jones and the TexasRangers, who(strangely enough!) seemed unable to apprehend their formercolleague, Scott Cooley.

Cooley wasfinally captured byBurnet County Sheriff A.J. Strickland late in 1875 nearKingsland. He was jailed in Austin, then transferred to the Lampasas jailin company with John Ringo. A friendly mob liberated both men from theLampasas jailin March, 1876. Cooley then went into hiding,probablynearFredericksburg. He diednear Johnson City in June 1876, probably from an arsenic-lacedbottle of whiskey he purchased "for the road" from a vengeful German barmaid in the Nimitz Hotel Saloon - an early example of the trouble caused by drinking whilst traveling. Cooley is buriedinMillerCreek Cemeterysoutheast ofJohnson City.

122.0 Domal hillonright at 3 o'clock is Mount Nebo. 122.9 Road intersection on right. Flat-topped ridge on left at 10 o'clock is Bell Mountain, an outlier of the Edwards Plateau formed by resistant limestones of the lower Fort Terrett Formation (Lower Cretaceous Edwards Group).

123.2 Outcrop area of Hensel sandstone. If you look back to your right at about 4 o'clock, you can see the broad pink dome of Enchanted Rock; at 3 o'clock, the flat surface on the skyline is an outlier of the EdwardsPlateau formed by Lower Fort TerrettLimestone.

In 1841, while conducting a land survey in the area, Captain John C. (Jack) Hays became separated fromhis party. Detected andpursued bya large band ofComanche Indians, Hays led hishorse to the top ofEnchanted Rock andtook coverin asmallpothole there.Equipped withhis rifle and thenew 5-shotColt's revolvingpistols, he held off the attacking Indians, killing between 5 and 10, until the rest ofhis party, hearing the shots, came to his relief. "Captain Jack" and his horse were unscathed. Indians were particularly hostile towardland surveyors, recognizing that theiractivities leddirectlyto permanentsettlements anddiminutionoftheirhunting range.

123.4 Pipeline Right-of-Way (ROW) and Pump Station. This ROW is theroute of the ShellRancho 24-inch pipeline and theExxon 18-inch pipeline, both transporting crude oilfrom fields in the Permian Basin to the refinery complex around the Houston Ship Channel. After more than 5 years of litigation and Environmental Impact Statements, the Exxon pipeline (now Longhom Partners) apparently has now been approved for converting to a gasoline pipeline, with flow to be reversed so as to deliver fuel to the ElPasomarket.

123.9 Cross fault intoHickory Sandstone.

124.0 Turnleft (east) on graded road to BellMountain Vineyards;note sign.

66 STOP #4: BELL MOUNTAIN VINEYARDS -- Bob and Evelyn Oberhelman, owners/operators (see Geologic Setting).

The vineyards aretheprimaryvineyards oftheBellMountain ViticulturalArea, the first Texaswine growing appellation to be formally recognized (in 1986) by the Federal regulatory agency. The intent of Federal recognition is to follow the "appellation controllee" laws whichhave governed European wine growing nations for generations. A formally recognized appellation recognizes specific districts which, because ofunique soilconditions andidealclimates, can produce quality wines.

124.5 Depart BellMountain Vineyards, retrace route back to Texas16.

125.0 Intersection of BellMountain Vineyards Road and Texas 16;turn left (south) on Texas 16.

125.8 Intersection of Texas 16 and RM 1323 at Eckert; continue southwestward on 16. Riding on Hickory Sandstone outcrop.

There was anotherbrief and ill-fatedgold-mining venture that took place about 7miles east of Eckert during the late 1930's (Evans, 1975). The Central TexasMining Company prospected in complex Precambrian metamorphic terranes of Packsaddle Schist and Big Branch Gneiss, as described byBarnes(1952).

126.7 Cross Willow Creek; fieldsto right are underlain by Hickorysandstone.

127.8 Road curves to right and passes upward into Lower Cretaceous Hensel Sandstone outcrop and thence into basal Edwards Group, with top of hillformed by Fort TerrettLimestone.

130.4 Crest of divide formed by Fort Terrett limestone. Ahead, at 12 o'clock, view issouth across the valley of the Pedemales River. The flat surface on the southern horizon is the Edwards Plateau, the divide between the Pedernales and Guadalupe drainage systems, formed by the Fort Terrett and Segovia Formations oftheEdwards Group. It was these flat upland divides that Indian war parties used as "wilderness highways" for their raidsupon thepioneer settlements.

130.9 We are riding on Hensel sandstoneoutcrop. Toleft at 11o'clock,note dense tree-line, mostly Spanish oak trees (a.k.a. Texas oak or red oak). This is characteristic of the porous zone at the base of the Edwards Group, where seeps provide permanent moisture to support this vegetation, visible on air photos as a prominent dark band marking the basal Edwards throughout theEdwards Plateau region. 132.0 Fort Terrett hilllies to left.

132.3 Fields aredeveloped on upper Henselsoils.

133.7 CrossMarshall Creek;Precambrian graniteoutlier adjacent to road on left.

134.9 CrossPalo Alto Creek;hills ahead at 12o'clock are Fort Terrettoutliers.

67 68 OutlawsAndCasualtiesInTheHoo-DooWar

69 70 GermanFeudists,Hoo-DooWar

71 72 ProminentTexasRangersOfTheFrontierPeriod

73 136.1 Pass between outlier-knobs ofFort Terrettlimestone. 137.1 Fredericksburg city limits.

The first geologist to visit Central Texas was Ferdinand yon Roemer, who joinedMeusebach in Fredericksburg early in 1847 and then traveled on northward withhim to the San Saba River. There, onFebruary 11, 1847, the German colonists executed a treatyofpeace withtheSouthern Comanche, ledbySatanta, BuffaloHump andMopi Chokopi. Fornearly15 years this treaty was reasonably effective, until U.S. Army troops abandoned the frontier forts at the start of the Civil War.

Roemer identified the Cretaceous limestones of the region, as well as the older Paleozoic ("Transitional") sedimentary rocks and Precambrian crystalline rocks. He recognized that the basal Cambrian sands as well as the basal Cretaceous sands had been derived from eroded Precambrianterranes.But Roemernever didfigure outthegeology oftheBalcones FaultZone. Roemer describedFredericksburg in January 1847: "Fredericksburg is situated on a gently rising plain about six miles north of the Pedernales Creek, between two small creeks which form a juncture immediately below the city. The western one, Meusebach Creek (note: now Baron's Creek), is the larger ofthetwo. A dense, uniform oak forestcovered the area on whichthehouses werenow beingerected. This forest extendedover almost the entire surrounding country withthe exception ofa small strip ofopen prairie, whichran parallel withthelarger creek. The stumps in the streets wereby no means allremoved. Thecity liessoutheast bynorthwest whichis also the direction ofthe principalstreetabout twomiles inlength. The main street,however, didnotconsist ofa continuousrowofhouses, butofabout fifty housesandhuts, spacedlong distances aparton both sides of the street. Most of the houses werelog houses for which the straight trunks ofthe oaktrees growing round about furnishedexcellent buildingmaterial."

"Most of the settlers, however, were not in possession of such homes, since they required so much labor, but they lived in huts, consisting ofpoles rammed into the ground. The crevices between the poles were filled withclay and moss, while the roof was covered with dry grass. Someeven livedinlinentents whichproved veryinadequate during these winter months."

"When following the main street, one comes to the market square which appears to be large enough to accommodate a city of ten to twelve thousand inhabitants, but whichat this time was still covered with trees. Several laborers were, however, engaged in felling trees. On the other side of the square, a little log house was being erected which was a humble beginning of the beautifulpublic andprivatebuildings whichthe founders ofthecity visualized."

138.7 On left, note small cottage behind main house. Such small cabins were known as "Sunday Houses", used to house ranch families whocameto town on weekends for market and church services.

138.9 Intersection of Texas 16 and US 290 in center of Fredericksburg; turn right (west) on the main street, proceed westerly VA blocks, pull to right in parking bay beside reconstructed Vereinskirche (Union Church).

74 139.0 STOP #5: ("Rolling Stop") Vereinskirche (north) andOld Courthouse (south).

This structure replicates the original community building erected by first German immigrant settlers here in 1847, under the leadership ofJohn Meusebach. The original building waslocated in themiddle of Main Street at the intersection with Texas 16(now the Kerrville highway). The Vereinskirche served as community meeting house, school, and as church-house for Catholic, Lutheran, andMethodist congregationsin the earlyyears. John Meusebach wasan educatedand highly cultivatedman andaleader ofgreat courage, skill,integrity,and wisdom.

The classic oldlimestone building to the south wasGillespie County'ssecond courthouse, built in 1882. It wasdesigned by architect Alfred Palmer Giles, who also designed many of the public buildings inSan Antonio during thisperiod. Thiscourthouseremainedinuseuntil 1939, when the "modern" replacement next door was finished. The old courthouse, now restored, is a museum andpublic library. The third Gillespie Countyjail,locatednear the oldcourthouse, was the site in 1866 ofan attackby German citizens on fourimprisoned members ofthe Waldrip gang, whohad, as partisan guerrillas condoned by the Confederate government, preyed mercilessly upon German settlers in the region during the Civil War. Two of the prisoners were killed, and two others wounded. The fourth jail,built in1874, was burneddownin 1884byBillAllison, one ofthe Kimble County outlaws and a sidekick ofRube Boyce. Allison hadbeen jailed, with these other outlaws, for themurder ofa Fredericksburg saloon keeper, John A. Braeutigam. He apparently attempted toescape byburninghis wayout ofjailandincineratedhimselfin theprocess!

139.0 Continue westwardonMain Street (US 290).

139.3 Turn left on North Orange Street, go one block and pull to side of road beside old stone church building.

139.5 STOP #6: ("Rolling Stop")Marienkirche.

77?/slimestone churchbuilding wasbuiltin1861by German Catholic settlers, anduseduntil1906, when replacedby thenew churchbuilding adjacent to the west. The squared vaulted dome on top of the church tower represents a unique frontier architectural solution to dome construction, in which corbelled (upward-successive, gradual inward-stepping stone masonry) courses converge upward to form the squared dome of the tower. This was one of the first stone buildings in Fredericksburg, and certainly the most impressive stone building along the entire Central Texas frontierat thetime.

139.5 Turnleft (east) on West SanAntonio Street.

139.8 Intersection of West San Antonio Street and Texas16. Turnleft.

140.1 Turnright (east) on Main Street (US 290).

75 John 0. Meusebach, was the widely respected leader of the Central Texas German community. Thisphoto was takenin 1887, whenhehadreturned and wasliving atLoyal Valley, halfwaybetweenFredericksburg andMason.

76 140.5 STOP#8: ("Rolling Stop") Nimitz Hotel.

This landmark frontier hotel, established in 1846, was widely known as the last outpost of civilization for the westbound frontiertraveler from 1850 through the 1880's. Itserved the military road connecting U.S. Armyheadquarters at Fort SamHouston (San Antonio), with the chain of frontier forts guarding the western frontier of Texas, such as Fort Mason (est. 1851), Fort McKavett (est. 1852), andFort Concho (est. 1867). Becauseofsevere and persistentproblems with Apache and Kickapoo Indian attacks on stage coaches and private parties traveling the southernroute (San Antonio-DelRio-Ft Stockton-El Paso), thenorthern route(now US 183 from Comfort to Mason)became thepreferredhighwayafter1867. TheNimitzHotel was thelaststage- stop betweenFredericksburg andthe various forts to the west and north andthus constituted the last and first civilizedhospitality for west-bound and east-bound travelers, respectively Note the distinctive architecture ofthe mainhotelbuilding. Northward, adjacent tothemain building, lay the barns andstone corral(stillpresent) protecting horsesandmulesof travelers. Afterbeing indicted by a Gillespie County grandjuryin 1866 and fleeing the country, J.P. Waldrip, ex-leader of the Waidrip gang of guerrilla renegades that terrorized the German community during 1862-1865, unaccountably returned toFredericksburg in 1867.He wasrecognized, pursued through townand shot todeath byanavenging mob in front oftheNimitzHotel. No one wasindictedforhis murder.

140.6 Turn left, go westtoLincoln Street, turn left,return to US 290.

140.8 Intersection ofLincoln and US 290, turnleft and continueeastward on US290.

143.0 On left, historical marker commemorating Fort Martin Scott, short-lived (1847-1853) US Army post established to protectearly German settlementshere. Ambitious community efforts are nowunderway to restore and reconstruct this fort (the first U.S. Army post founded on the Western Texas frontier) and severalof the post buildings have been replicated.It was first occupied by companies D and H of theFirst Infantry Division andlater bythe 2nd Dragoons, horse-mounted infantry.

Fort Scott wasmade redundantby theestablishment farther west ofFort Masonin 1851andFort McKavett in 1852, andit was formally abandoned in1853. In 1870, John W. Braeutigam bought the property and turned it into a saloon/race track/dance hall establishment. Braeutigam was murderedby BillAllisonandhis cronies in1884 inan attemptedrobbery. As notedpreviously, Bill Allisonburned himselfto death whenhe set thejailon fireinan escapeattempt 143.2 Leave Fredericksburgcity limits(east side).

145.5 CrossBaron's Creek; Hensel Sandstone outcrop area.

77 Main Street Fredericksburg looking west with the Steamboat Hotel onthe right.

NimitzHotel Fredericksburg, Texas inabout 1875.

The Saloon oftheNimitzHotel 78 146.3 Historicalmarkeronright commemorating Fredericksburg traditionofthe "Easter Fires".

An enduring Hill Country legend came about as a continuation of an old German tradition onto which theMeusebach-Comanche negotiations were grafted. While John 0. Meusebach and his men were traveling into the Indianhunting lands to sign a peace treaty(according to the popular HillCountry stories), the Indians themselves placed guardsaround the town of Fredericksburgto ensure against the whiteman's treachery. They builtsignal fires on the hills overlooking the town. As longas the firesblazedhigh, the tribesmen in thedistantcampsknewthatailwaswell. The children in the German settlement were frightened when they saw the fires, but a pioneer mother fabricated a story that it was only the Easter rabbit at work -- boiling eggs in great cauldronsand thendying them with wildflowersgathered from the hills. The custom of the annual fires, prevalent in many parts of Europe, has been continued at Fredericksburg in a colorful pageant enactedbydescendants ofthepioneers. (Lich, 1981, p. 188).

147.3 CrossPedernales River.

148.3 intersection ofUS 290 withRM 1376 leading southward to Luckenbach; continueeastward on 290.

153.0 Cross South GrapeCreek.

153.1 Entranceto Grape Creek Vineyardsand Winery. This was a promising new vineyard until 1996, when the vines were decimated by Pierces disease, carried byinsects which seem to thrive indamp low places, such as along the creek. Like manyagricultural ventures, wine-making isalso subject to considerable risk fromsuch pests, as wellasbadclimatic years,competition, etc. Vernacular names often provide clues about local environmental conditions. It seems to be a coincidence that two wineries of the Central Texas appellation are sited along a creek of this name. As noted byJohnson (1994), "Texas has aspecialplacein thehistory ofthe vine, ifnot of wine. Itis...the region withmore native grape species than anyother on earth. Of 36species of thegenus Vitisscatteredaround the worldno fewerthan 15 are Texannatives..."

155.2 Intersectionof US 290 and JenschkeLane (Elgin-Behrends Road on sign); turnright (south). 156.5 Past radio-navigation beaconon right, and past vineyard, turnright onto Beckerproperty.

157.6 Turn right to winery.

STOP #9-BECKER VINEYARDS -Dr. Richard and Bunny Becker, owners/operators; The first vines wereplanted in 1992(see Geologic Setting).

157.7 Turnaround and retrace route back to U.S.290.

159.5 As we approach the highway, note hills on skyline to the north, which are capped by Cretaceous Edwards (Fort Terrett) limestone beds. Turn and proceed east on U.S. 290.

79 162.9 Intersection of US 290and RR1,leading northward toLBJ Ranch. Continueeastward onUS 290.

Wilhelm Feller lived on Dry Creek, about 5miles north of here, withhis wife Clara and their 7 children.Feller wasan outspoken critic ofslavery. In about 1863, he was taken fromhishome by members ofthe Waldrip gang andlynched, along withtwoother German men. Thismob also shot andkilledPeterBurg during the sameepisode.

163.9 Intersection of US 290and RR1623 in town ofStonewall; continueeastward on US 290.

Stonewalloriginated in 1870as astage stationandpostoffice operatedbyMajorIsraelP. Nunez. It wasnamed for T.J. "Stonewall" Jackson, Confederate WarHero. The town wasrelocated to its present sitein 1882.

165.2 On left,note two reconstructed frontier-style log cabins, eachwithcentral open breezeway("dog-run").

165.6 Intersection of US290 and TexasPark Road 52 on left; entrance to LBJHistoricalPark.

165.8 Bear right at intersection.

165.9 LBJ HistoricalPark Visitor Center onleft. 166.0 "Living History Farm"on left This is a facsimile working farm typical ofHill Country agriculture of the early 1900% complete withfarm animals -arealeye-opener formoderncity folk! 166.1 Loop-bear right; note buffalo inopen fieldahead and to right. 166.3 Complete loop and returnto Park Road 52.

166.5 Intersection; turn right on Park Road 52, proceed north, turn right(east) onRR 1. 166.8 Intersection ofPark Road 52 andRR1;PedernalesRiver.

North, across RRI andthePedernales River is the LBJRanch. Thisproperty waspurchased by Lyndon B. Johnson after his rise to power -it wasnot part ofany original family land. Johnson made theLBJRanch hispermanenthome, andlived there afterretirement untilhisdeath in 1973. TheLBJRanch was deeded to the Federal Government, which turned it into aNationalHistoric Site.

Robert Cam's extensive(4volumes) biography ofLyndon B. Johnsonis clearly the mostaccurate andprofound account of LBJ's life, times, and origins, "warts and all", witness the Johnson family'snon-cooperation withCam'sproject.

167.7 On right, Trinity LutheranChurch.

Sen/ices have beenconducted on this sitesince 1902. The presentpressed-metalGothic revival style churchbuilding wascompletedin1928.

80 168.2 Park Road 49 enters on left; continue eastward on RR 1 (note entrance to LBJ Ranch HQ on north side ofPedernales River.

169.8 Cross Williams Creek.

170.0 intersection ofUS 290 andRRI,turn left.Continueeastward on US 290.

170.4 HyePost Office.Post Officebuilding rests onLowerGlen Roseoutcrop.

Named for early settler Hye Brown, and founded about 1900. The fugitive Scott Cooley, after being poisoned in Fredericksburg, made it to a ranch near here owned by his friends, the Wid Phelps family, where he collapsed. Cooley was carried to the home of Dan Mattox, on Miller Creek southeast of Johnson City, where he died afew days later, on oraboutJune 12, 1876. He was21years ofage.

171.8 Intersection of US 290 andRM 1320. Continue eastward on US 290. On left, panorama overlooking Llano Basin to north.

172.0 CrossRocky Creek, running in GlenRoseoutcrop.

175.9 Glen Rose outcrop inroadcut.

179.9 Johnson Citylimit; countyseat ofBlanco County.

CiceroRufus Perry wasborninAlabama in 1822 andcame to Texas withhisparents in1833.He gravitated early to military affairs;he was presentat age 13 at BenMilam's siege ofBexar, and subsequent engagements ofthe TexasRevolution.Afterward he tookpartinmanyexpeditions by the Texians against both Comanches andMexicans. He wasan associate ofBig Foot Wallace, RipFord,Benjamin Highsmith, Samuel Walker, andthe McCullochbrothers, BenandHenry.

In1844, he joinedthe famous TexasRanger companyheaded by Captain John C. (Jack) Hays, and was severely woundedby Indiansin a fight in the Nueces Canyon.Rufe Perrycontinued to take part in ranging expeditions against the Indians during the 1850's and 1860's. Settling in Blanco County, heledfrontiersmen at the ShovelMountain fight in1870.

The final assignment ofhis career as an Indianfighter wasin 1874, as Captain of Company D, Frontier Battalion, TexasRangers underMajor JohnB. Jones. Rufe Perry's lieutenant was Dan Roberts; one of the young rangers under his command was Scott Cooley, later to become notorious forhis actions in theHoo-Doo War. CompanyD was stationednear Menard. Several squadsofRufePerry's CompanyDRangers,including Scott Cooley,participated withRangersof other companies in the Battle ofLost Valley in Jack County, where 35 Rangers fought a 2-day pitched battle withabout 250 Comanche and Kiowa warriors underthe Kiowa Chief, Lone Wolf. The Ranger force wascommandedby Major Jones;Rufe Perrydid notparticipate. The Rangers got the worst ofit, with two men killed andmany wounded, plus the loss ofhalf their horses. In December 1874, Rufe Perry resigned his commission and Dan Roberts succeeded him as CommanderofCompanyD.

81 In his declining years, RufusPerry livedalone, taking his meals witha family wholivedalong the Pedernales River. Also boarding there was a youngschool teacher, Sam E. Johnson, father of Lyndon B. Johnson, whorecalled hearing old CaptainPerry's tales of frontier adventures around the supper table (Caro, 1981).

Rufus Perry died in 1898 at Johnson City. His body bore more than 20 scars from bullets or arrows. A museumcontaining memorabilia ofhis life andtimes openedherein2001.

180.4 In center of Johnson City;LBJ familyhome to right, one block south.

Johnson City was founded in 1878-1879 by earlysettlers, forbears ofthe last PresidentLyndon B. Johnson. Blanco was the main town and county seat then but Johnson City eventually (1891) became the Countyseat Boyhoodhome ofLBJlies 1block southofMain Streetin themiddle of town. The familymoved toJohnson Cityin 1913.

180.9 Intersection of US290 andUS 281 in Johnson City;turnright (south). A mile and half to thenorth, US = 281 crosses thePedernales River(Pedernales "Chert" inSpanish).

At thislocation on the Pedernales River, a stream-gauging station monitors a watershed of 901 mi2 (Gandara and others, 1997). During the 57-years of record (1939-1996), the annualmean discharge was 189 cfs. Maximum instantaneous discharge was 441,000 cfs recorded 11 September 1952. This extraordinary discharge event is more than 2,000 times the annualmean rate. This flood wasresponsible forlarge cypress trees being truncated about 12 to 15 ft above the low-water crossing of thePedernales atHammett Crossing. This truncationpresumably was causedbythe saltation ofboulders carriedin thisflood. In comparison, thispeak flowrate is more than three times the instantaneous peak discharge of theBrazos River at Waco (periodofrecord-1898-1996). There, the Brazoshas a drainage area approximately 20 times larger than thePedernales! The annual mean discharge of that Brazos stationis 2,334 cfs, avalue12 times thatof thePedernales (Gandara and others, 1997-b). These datanicelyillustrate the "flashy"behavior ofHillCountrystreams.

182.9 On right, "Seven Sisters", 7rounded hills on skyline formed of resistant lowerFort Terrett limestone, marking divide between the drainage systems of the main Pedernales River and its tributary, Miller Creek.

184.6 Pass in upper Glen Rose, withlow Fort Terrett knolls on right side. Plateau on southern skyline is divide between MillerCreek and Blanco River drainage systems.

186.2 Cross Miller Creek.

186.3 Intersection of US 290 eastbound and US281 southbound.Turnleft andproceed easterly on US290. The"Corbula bed", a prominent marker-horizon used by Lozo and Stricklin to separatethe Glen Rose into Upper and Lower mapping units, crops out at road level in the southeast corner of the intersection.

82 189.1 On left, Miller Creek cemetery; frontier burial ground for early pioneer families of the Miller Creek community.

Buriedhere are ThomasPhelps andhis wife, murderedbyIndians while fishing on Cypress Creek inJuly 1868, andalso Scott Cooley, ex-TexasRanger andnotoriouspartisan-gunman inHoo-Doo War (1874-1876).

191.2 Twoimposing ornamental ranch entrances. On right, huge Glen Rose limestone slabs form gateway to "Clear Rock Ranch".

195.4 Note entrance toPedemales Falls State Park, Park Road 3232.

196.0 Ascending divide between Pedemales watershed to north and west and Onion Creek watershed to south and east. At9o'clock, overlook to north intosoutheasternpartof Llano Uplift.

Henley, establishedin the1880!s as a waystationon the roadbetween Austinand Johnson City. Lou Conway Roberts (Mrs. Dan W.), recounts an example of frontier travel in 1876, when a downpour forced them to stop near here on their return to Austin from Mason. A passing boy directed the Robertsparty to his home nearby,but when they arrived there was no food andno vacant beds, so they "camped" in the hack, but nearly froze to death whena blue northerblewin during thenight They wererevivedby relatives inDripping Springs bymid-morning the following day, witha warmfire andheartybreakfast.

204.1 Center, town ofDripping Springs.Intersection ofUS 290 and RR12; continue eastwardon US 290.

DrippingSprings wasestablished asa stage-stop on the Austin-Fredericksburgroadin1875.

205.6 Pipeline ROW crosses US 290. Once again, the Shell (Rancho) 24"line and the Exxon 18" linefrom west Texas.

211.0 Toleft (north), Barton Creek watershed; to right (south) SlaughterCreek watershed.

211.3 Nutty Brown road in Cedar Valley.

216.1 Entering WilliamsonCreek watershed.

217.4 On right, CampBen McCullochroad (RM 1826) to Driftwood.

Ben McCulloch was an early Indian fighter, Texas Ranger, and veteran of the Mexican War of 1845-1848. He wasa colleague of Jack Hays, Samuel Walker (the "Walker Colt" revolver), Rip Ford,andRufusPerry. BenMcCulloch wascommissionedaBrigadier Generalin the Confederate army andwaskilled in theBattle ofElkHornin1862. His body wasreturned to Texasandburied withmilitaryhonorsin theState CemeteryinAustin. 217.8 Intersection ofUS 290 and Texas 71.Continueeast through Oak Hill onUS 290. 218.2 GlenRose exposed in bluffs to right.

83 218.3 Cross Mt.Bonnellfault, mainfaultof Balcones Fault zone. Aboutone-half mile south ofhere is thesite of the old Convict Hill quarry, where stone wasextracted that wasinitially used in the construction of the Texas Capitol(see note for Granite Mountain Quarry;48.2 mileage).

220.8 Intersection of US 290 and Loop 1 (Mopac). Turnleft on Loop 1.As we cross this flat terrain we are traversing the drainage divide between Barton and Williamson Creeks. Substrate along this divide is alluvial gravelsand caliche, composing theSaint Elmo Terrace.Thisrelictalluvia! deposit thatextends from here to the vicinity of Austin-Bergstrom International Airport, was the result of a former, high valley of Barton Creek. Stream piracy likely caused the diversion and incision of Barton Creek intoits presentnorth-trending lower course.

221.2 Cross Games Creek.

221.7 Cross Barton Creek. Bluff ahead at 12 o'clock is GeorgetownLimestone. 222.3 Intersectionof Loop 1andLoop 360. Continue northeastward onLoop 1.

224.4 Intersection of Loop 1and West sthStreet, turn right(east)on West sth Street.

226.2 Intersection ofWest sth Streetand Congress Avenue.END OF TRIP

84 Historical References Anonymous, 1993, History of Fort Martin Scott, information handout from Visitor's center, Fort Martin Scott, Fredericksburg, Texas.

Austerman, W.R., 1985, Sharps Rifles and Spanish Mules, The SanAntonio-El Paso Mail, 1851-1881:Texas A&M University Press, College Station, 367 p.

Beuershausen, M., 1993, Two articles in theKingsland Picayune weeklynewspaper, vol. 3, no. 34 andno. 40.

Biggers, D.H., 1925, German Pioneers in Texas: Fredericksburg Publishing Co., facsimile cd. by Eakin Publications, Austin, 1983, 230p.

Branda, E.S.,1976, TheHandbook of Texas, Vol. Ill:Texas State Historical Association, 1145 p. Caro, R.A., 1981, The Years of Lyndon Johnson, Vol. I,The Path to Power: Vintage Books, a Division of Random House, New York,882 p.

DeVos, J., 1982, Mason County'sUnsettled Years1860-1880: The EdwardsPlateau Historian, Vol. VII,1978-1982, Edwards PlateauHistoricalAssociationp.18-25.

Dobie, J.F., 1930, Coronado's Children, Tales of Lost Mines and Buried Treasures of the Southwest: Southwest Press, Dallas, 367 p.

Eckhardt, C.F., 1982, TheLost San Saba Mines:Texas MonthlyPress, 171 p.

Fehrenbach, T.R., 1968, Lone Star, a History of Texas and the Texans: Collier Books, a Division of MacMillan Publishing Co.,New York,761 p.

Ferguson, W.K., 1969, Geology andPolitics in Frontier Texas:UniversityofTexasPress, Austin, 233p.

Fisher, 0.C., 1937, It Occurred in Kimble: Anson Jones Press, Houston; second edition 1984, Talley Press, San Angelo, 239 p.

Greer, J.K., 1957, Colonel Jack Hays, Texas Frontier Leader and California Builder: Texas A&M University Press, CollegeStation, 438p. (2nd edition).

Handbook ofTexas, 1952, Walter Prescott Webb, cd., Texas State Historical Association.

Hunter, J.M., 1925, The TrailDrivers ofTexas:Cokesburg Press, facsimile cd. by University ofTexasPress, Austin, 1985, 1085p.

Johnson, D., 2003, Scott Cooley, A Byword for Terror: Quarterly of the National Association for Outlaw and LawmanHistory, Inc.,vol. XXVII,no. 2, p.5-20.

King, 1.M., 1967, John D. Meusebach, German Colonizer in Texas: University of TexasPress, Austin, 1987 edition, 192 p.

85 Kyle, J.R., 2000, Geology and Historical Mining, Llano Uplift Region, Central Texas, J.R. Kyle, cd., Austin Geological Society Guidebook #20.

Lich, G.E., 1981, TheGerman Texans:The Universityof Texas, Institute of Texan Cultures, SanAntonio, 240 p.

Marks, P.M., 1989, Turn Your Eyes Toward Texas, Pioneers Sam and Mary Maverick: Texas A&M University Press, College Station, 323 p.

Newcomb, W.W., Jr., 1961, The Indians of Texas from Prehistoric to Modern Times: University of Texas Press, Austin, 404 p.

Oatman, W., 1970, Llano,Gem oftheHill Country:AHistoryofLlano County,Texas:Pioneer Book Publishing, Inc. Hereford, Texas, 100 p.

Owen, E., 1975, Trek of the OilFinders: American Association ofPetroleum Geologists, Memoir 6, Tulsa, 1647 p.

Roberts, D.W., 1914, Rangers and Sovereignty: Wood Printing & Engraving Co., facsimile cd. by State House Press, Austin, 1987,190p. Roberts, Mrs. D.W., 1928, A Woman's Reminiscences of Six Years in Camp with the Texas Rangers: Yon Boeckmann-Jones, facsimile cd. by State House Press, Austin, 1987, 64 p.

Roemer, F.V., 1935 (1849), Texas, withParticular Reference to German Immigration and thePhysical Appearance ofthe Country: translated from the German by OswaldMueller: Standard Printing Co., San Antonio, 301p. This is atranslation fromRoemer's diary, published firstin Germany in1849. Rose, P.R., 1988, The Hoo-DooWar: unpublished manuscript, 520 p.

Rose, P.R.and E. E.Sherry (eds.), 2003, TheHooDoo War: Portraits of a LawlessTime: Mason CountyHistorical Commission, 130 p.

Smithwick, N., 1900, The Evolution of a State, or Recollections of Old Texas Days: H.P.N. Gammel Publisher, facsimilecd. by UniversityofTexasPress, Austin, 1983, 264 p. Sonnichson, C.L.,1957, Ten Texas Feuds: Universityof New MexicoPress, Albuquerque, 248 p.

Soweli, A.J., 1900, Texas Indian Fighters: B.C. Jones Publisher, facsimile cd. by State HousePress, Austin,1986, 861p.

Texas Adjutant General's Files, 1874,1875,1876: Official Correspondence and TexasRanger Monthly Reports.

Vance,L., 1992, Eanes 120th: Series ofarticlespublished inthe Westlake Picayune, Austin.

Webb, W.P., 1931, TheGreat Plains: Ginn and Company, facsimile cd. by University of Nebraska, Bison Books, 1981,525p.

,1935, The Texas Rangers, a Century of Frontier Defense: Houghton Mifflin, facsimile cd. by UniversityofTexas Press,Austin, 1977, 584p.

86 Webb, W.P, and H.B. Carroll, 1952, The Handbook of Texas:Texas State Historical Association, Austin, vol. I, 977 p. and vol.11, 953 p.

Wilbarger, J.W., 1889, Indian Depredations in Texas: Hutchings Printing House, facsimilecd.by Eakin Press, State House Press, Austin, 1985, 691p.

Zesch, S., 2004, TheCaptured:St. Martin'sPress. 350p.

Wine References

Dittemore, W.H., and J.E. Allison,1979, Soil Survey of Blanco and Burnett Counties, Texas: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, incooperation withthe Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, 116 p.

Dittemore, W.H., and J.L.Hensel, 1981,Soil Survey of Kendall County, Texas: U.S. Department of Agriculture,soil Conservation Service,in cooperation withthe TexasAgricultural Experiment Station, 87 p. English,S.J., 1989, The Wines of Texas, Eakin Press, Austin.

Giordano,F.,1984, Texas Wines and Wineries, Texas MonthlyPress, Austin.

Jordan, G.J., 1979, Yesterdayin the Texas HillCountry:Texas A&MUniversity Press, College Station, 171 p.

McCiurg, A., 1979, The Texan Who Saved the French Vineyards: Journal of the International Wine and Food Society, v. 4, no. 2,p. 13-18.

Pomerol, C, 1989, History, Wines and Soils, in The Wines and Winelands of France, Geological Journeys, C. Pomerol, cd., p. 5-12;Second edition,Robertson McCarta, London (English translation),370 p.

Schuster,M., 1989,Beginner's Guideto Understanding Wine: Simon and Schuster,New York,140 p.

Sequin, G., 1986, Terroirs1 and the Pedology of Wine Growing: Experientia, Birkhauser Verlag CH-4010,Basel, Switzerland, v. 42,p. 861-873.

GeologicReferences

Allison, J.E., G.W. Dittmar, and J.L Hensel, 1975, Soil Survey of Gillespie County, Texas: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conversation Service, in cooperation withthe Texas AgriculturalExperiment Station, 80 p. Amsbury, D.L., and W.T. Haenggi, 1993, Middle Pennsylvanian Strike-Slip Faulting in the Llano Uplift, Central Texas,Houston Geological SocietyBulletin, vol. 35,no. 10, pp. 20-23,56-58.

87 Barnes, V.E., 1952, Blowout Quadrangle, Gillespie and Llano Counties, University of Texas, Bureau of Economic Geology,Geological Quad.Map 5,scale1:31,680.

,1981,Llano Sheet: TheUniversityof Texas at Austin, Bureauof Economic Geology,Geologic Atlasof Texas,scale 1:250,000.

Barnes, V.E., W.C. Bell, S.E. Clabaugh, P.E. Cloud, Jr., K. Young, and R.V. McGehee, 1963, Field Excursion Geologyof LlanoRegion and Austin Area: University of Texas, Bureau ofEconomic Geology,Guidebook No.5, 131 p.

Baumgardner, R.W., Jr., 1988, Granite in the Texas Capitol: A Sentinel of Eternity in Woodruff, CM., Jr., coord., Congress Avenue, Austin, Texas, Lessons in Economic geology, Architecture, and History: Austin Geological Society,Guidebook 12,p.5-13.

Cloud, P., and V.E. Barnes, 1948, The Ellenburger Group of Central Texas: University of Texas, Bureau of Economic Geology, Report No. 4621, 473p.

Evans, T.J., 1975, Gold and Silver in Texas:University of Texas, Bureau of Economic Geology, Mineral Resource CircularNo.56,36 p.

Kyle, J.R., 2000, Geology and Historical Mining, Llano Uplift Region, Central Texas. J.R. Kyle, cd., Austin Geological Society Guidebook #20.

Paige, S.W., 1911, Mineral Resources of the Llano-Burnet Region, Texas: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 450, 103 p.

Paige, S.W., 1912, Description of the Llano and Burnet Quadrangles: Geological Atlas, Llano-Burnet Folio, U.S. Geological SurveyNo. 183,24 p.

Rose, P.R., 1972, Edwards Group, Surface and Subsurface, Central Texas, Texas Bureau of Economic Geology Reportof Investigations #74, 194p.

,2004, Regional Perspectives on The Edwards Group of Central Texas: Geology, Geomorphology, Geohydrology and Their Influence on Settlement History in Edwards Water Resources in Central Texas: Retrospective and Prospective: sponsored by South Texas Geological Society and Austin Geological Society, Bureau ofEconomic Geology,18 p. Woodruff, CM., P.R. Rose, and J.W. Sansom, Jr., 1988, The Hill Country Appellation: Austin Geological Society Guidebook 18, 56 p.

88 Geology And Soils Of Selected Central Texas Vineyards CM. Woodruff, Jr.

Fall Creek Vineyards

Fall Creek Vineyards occupy the western shore of the upper reaches of Lake Buchanan, the uppermost impoundment of the Highland Lakes chain of the Colorado River. Elevations of the vineyards range from about 1,035 ft above mean sea level(msl) to slightly greater than1,060 ft msl. The site is situated onnearly flatto gently rolling terrain and is drained by two unnamed tributaries to Lake Buchanan. The lake almost certainly affects microclimates of the vineyards.

The geologic setting of the site is simple, with a single bedrock unit, the Cambrian Hickory Sandstone, mapped across the entire tract (Barnes, 1981). In fact, the gentle slopes and proximity to the Colorado River suggest that parts of the site are underlain by Quaternary terrace deposits laid down by former courses of the Colorado River. The presence oflocalalluvial materials are furthersuggested by the texture, composition, and thickness of soilunits onsite;as noted below, onlyone ofthe fourmapped soilunits typically formson sandstone bedrock.

The Hickory Sandstone is a Middle Cambrian rock unit that represents diverse environments within transgressive marine conditions. No bedrock is exposed on the site of the winery, and this further suggests the presence of a Quaternary alluvial veneer. Elsewhere, the Hickory consists of quartzose sandstone and conglomerate strata containing local ventifacts, which suggests an alluvial fan deposited under semi-arid to arid conditions. Iron oxide stains and cements are common. Northeast-trending faults are mapped nearby (Barnes, 1981), the prominent hills visible to the north result from erosion where the resistant San Saba Member of the Wilberns Formation is downfaulted against the Cap Mountain Limestone and Hickory Sandstone. The Cap Mountain Limestone is mapped immediately adjacent to thenortheast border of thevineyards.

All soilunits mapped on site are thick, well-drained, and loamy. All but the Pontotoc fine sandy loam typically form on alluvialsubstrate. The four units occurringon the vineyard site include theLuckenbachclay loam,0 to 3percent slope, theNuvalde clayloam, 0 to 3percent slopes, thePedernales finesandy loam, 1 to 3percent slopes, and the Pontotoc fine sandy ioam, 1 to 5 percent slopes. TheLuckenbach clay loam extends to depths locally greater than 80 inches and consists of well-drained calcareous clay loams and clays of moderate to low permeability. The Nuvalde clay loam is greater than 60 inches thick and consists of well-drained, moderately permeable clayey and loamy soils formed on limy alluvium. Pedernales fine sandy loam soils consist of well-drained loamy calcareous materials, including sandy clay,sandy loam,and sandyclay loam; this soil unit maybe more than 60 inches deep, and exhibits moderately low permeability. The Pontotoc fine sandy loam unit consists of well-drained, moderately permeable, sandyloam to sandyclay loam formedon sandstone bedrockat depths typicallygreater than 60 inches.

89 Bedrock-vicinityof Fall Creek Vineyards (fromBarnes, 1981); topography fromTow Quadrangle, contour interval =20ft.

90 Soils-vicinityofFall Creek Vineyards (from unpublished soil survey maps for Llanocourtesy of USDA/NRCS) of topography from TowQuadrangle, contourinterval =20 ft.

91 92 Bell Mountain Vineyards

Beli MountainVineyards comprise twodisjunct areas that are situated withinfault blocks where Hickory Sandstone is juxtaposedto the west against TownMountain Granite ofPrecambrian ageand tothe east against CapMountain Limestone. Although all vineyard plantings are on Hickory Sandstone, the northwest corner of the main vineyard tract encompasses a small area underlain by Town Mountain Granite. Off-site nearby are other dramatic geologic contacts: the overlap of basal Cretaceous sandstone strata (Hensel Sand) above granite basement rocks, and local high-standing outliers of the once-continuous Edwards Plateau (for example, Bell Mountain, a promontory to the north that gives the winery its name and that straddles the drainage divide separating Pedemales River Basin from theLlano River watershed).

The diversity in geologic structure and bedrock substrate in the vicinity of Bell Mountain Vineyards results in a complex array of soils and landforms. Although Hickory Sandstone is the sole bedrock unit supporting the vineyards, the local complexity of this Middle Cambrian rock unit gives rise to a diverse array of wine-growing environments. The site comprises gently sloping terrain with elevations ranging from about 1,750 ft msl to ap- proximately 1,820 ft msl. The tracts are drained by headwaters to Knott Branch, a south-flowing tributary toWillow Creek, which eventually contributes toPedemales River viaNorth Grape Creek.

Soil units beneath Bell Mountain vineyards include Cobb fine sand loam, 1 to 5 percent slopes, Demona fine sand, 1 to 5 percent slopes, Oben stony fine sandy loam, 2 to 5 percent slopes, Pedemales fine sandy loam, 1 to 3 percent slopes, Topia clay, 1 to 3 percent slopes, Vashti loam fine sand, 1 to 5 percent slopes, and Vashti fine sandy loam, 1 to 3 percent slopes (Allison and others, 1975). Thisdiverse assemblageof soils correlates roughly with the structural alignment of bedrock units. The Cobb fine sand loam unit is typicalofareas underlain by Hickory Sandstone, it is moderately deep (up to 36 inches deep) and consistsof sandy loam withsandy clayloam at depth; it iswell-drained with moderate permeability. The Demona unitconsists of loamy and sandy materials formed on sandstone substrate. It consists of moderately well-drained soils up to 63 inches thick, with moderate to low permeability; wind erosion poses local problems. The Oben series consists of shallow well-drained sandy loams and sandy clay loams on well-cemented sandstone;permeability is moderate, and runoffrates are low to medium. The Pedemales fine sandy loam is a thick well-drained soil formed on limy substrate, commonly alluvium. The Topia clay consists of moderately deep, well-drained, clayey soils typically formed on limestone. The VashtiSeries includes two units-loamy fine sand,and fine sandy loam, both of which are moderately deep to deep soils formed on sandstone. On this site, the fine sandy loam unit is mapped along the drainage courses that traverse the vineyards.

93 Bedrock-vicinity ofBellMountain Vineyards (fromBarnes, 1981); topographic map-Willow City Quadrangle;contourinterval = 20 ft.

94 Soils-vicinity ofBellMountain Vineyards (from Allison and others, 1975); topographic mapis from Willow City Quadrangle;contour interval = 20ft.

95 96 Becker Vineyards

Becker Vineyards occupies a single bedrock unit, the Hensel Sand. The western edgeof thetract is blanketed by an alluvial deposit associated with the floodplain/terrace complex of South Grape Creek. Despite the apparent simplicity of geologic substrate, the Hensel Sand presents considerable diversity in terms of local changes in sand (and gravel) texture,bedforms, and degree ofcarbonate cementation. Also,since theHensel Sand composes thebasal unit of the Cretaceous section in this part of the state, it includes localdepositional environments thatare mapped elsewhere as Cow Creek, Hammett, and SycamoreFormations, which generally pinch out against older rocks in this area. In fact, the pre-Cretaceous surface is exposed nearby along U.S. Highway 290.

The diversesubstrates contained withinthis singlebedrock unit is indicated by the fact that Becker Vineyardsof the sites visited on today's field trip, occupies the most diverse setting in terms of soils. Twelve soil units are mapped across the tract (Allison and others, 1975). These soils, typically deep sandy and soil serieson gentle slopes include the following soil units: Altoga silty clay, Bastrop fine sandy loam, Frio silty clay loam, Guadalupe/Frio soils, Heatly loamy fine sand, Lewisville clay loam, two varieties of Luckenbach clay loam, Pedernales fine sandy loam, Purves soil, Tobosa clay, and Topia clay. In addition, local circular, undrained depressions are noted on the soil map. Owing to the alluvial origin of theHensel Sand, the geologic map may overlook more widespread extent of relict Quaternary alluvial surfaces, and this would help account for the diversity of soils on this site. The pedologic diversity of this site offers rich potential for studying the intimate effects on specific grapequality as related to thisgreat varietyof soil conditions.

This locality occupies nearly flat, to broad, gently rolling terrain, with elevations ranging from 1,570 ft to about 1,470 ft msl. The site is drainedby two unnamed tributaries toPedernales River, which lies about 2 miles to the north. The western boundary of the tract is delimited by South Grape Creek. This site occupies convex foot slopes below thelimestone hills that begin less than one-half mile south of the winery. Bedrock there is Glen Rose Limestone, whose alternating hard and soft strata give rise to the stair-step hills typical of the Central Texas Hill Country. The limestone hills also afford sources oflimestone alluvium notedin places along the tract. Microclimate effects are provided by elevation, and by proximity to the north-facing Glen Rose hills and to thePedernalesRiver.

97 Bedrock-vicinityofBecker Vineyards (fromBarnes, 1966-Stonewall Quadrangle);contour interval = 20ft.

98 Soils-vicinity of Becker Vineyards (from Allison and others, 1975).

99 100 Wine Tasting Notes (winery, year) NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPEVARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME, YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME, YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish . Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: _ Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

101 102 WINE-TASTING NOTES (winery,year). NAME, YEAR PRICE GRAPEVARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol % Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPEVARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness

Brightness Balance s Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol % Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol % Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS:

103 104 WINE-TASTING NOTES (winery,year). NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: - Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol % Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPEVARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity ■ Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME, YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS:

105 106 WINE-TASTING NOTES(winery,year)_ NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPEVARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% . Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol % Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS: NAME,YEAR PRICE GRAPE VARIETY Appearance: Taste: Quality: Clarity Cleanliness Brightness Balance Style: Viscosity Acidity Finish Color Alcohol% Refinement Smell: Tannin Texture Flavor Completeness

COMMENTS:

107 108 Affiliations And Addresses Of Contributors Peter R.Rose Certified Professional Geologist Telegraph Exploration, Inc. 3405 Glenview Avenue Austin,Texas 78703

James Sansom, Jr. 3495 County Road 258 Liberty Hill, TX78642

JamesE. Wilson 4248 South Hudson Place Englewood, Colorado 80110

CM. Woodruff, Jr., Consulting Geologist 711West 14th Street Austin,Texas 78701

Wineries Visited

Becker Vineyards (Dr. Richard &Bunny Becker) P.O. Box813 Stonewall, Texas78671 (830) 644-2681 BellMountain Vineyards (Bob &Evelyn Oberhelman) HC 61, Box 22 Fredericksburg, Texas 78624 (830) 685-3297

Fall Creek Vineyards (Ed Auler/officein Austin) 1111 Guadalupe Street Austin, Texas 78701 (512)476-4477

109 110