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Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f, t and n refer to fgures, tables, and footnotes, respectively

Annual plant, 168, 222, 232, 248, A 251 B Aberrant chromosomes, 62 Anoxygenic photosynthesis, 81 Bacillus spp., 198 Abietaceae, 209 Antagonistic pleiotropy model, Bacillus subtilis (B. subtilis) Achillea, 243, 254 235 –– dormancy, 268 Achlya, 166f Antibiotic, 14, 29, 30, 35, 37, –– epigenetics, 269 Acquisition, 15, 43, 82, 91, 106, 47–50, 169, 187, 189, 252, 261, –– generalist/specialist issue, 102 122, 183 268, 280, 295, 296 –– noise and, 269 Actinomycetes, 115, 165, 167 Apomixes, 58 –– sex and adaptive evolution in, Adaptation, 10, 30, 83, 90, 142, 271 Arabidopsis, phenotypic variation, 44 Adaptive evolution 259, 260 Bacteria, 3, 3t, 4, 5f, 7, 92, 254, 271 –– in eukaryotes, 52–57, 55f Arabidopsis thaliana –– as modular organisms, 167–168 –– in prokaryotes, 42–52 –– rates of mutation, 31t –– senescence among, 228–229 Age –– senescence among, 232 –– transferable drug resistance in, –– probability of reproduction Archaea, archaeon, 3, 3t, 4, 5f, 7, 8, 47–49, 49f and, 171, 233, 234 40, 51, 77, 79, 80f, 92, 97, 115, Bacterial persisters, 266, 269 –– -specifc fecundity, 160, 219, 254, 269 Berberis spp., 210 220, 236 Architomical fssion, 221 Berberis vulgaris, 79 Agrobacterium, oncogenesis, 37 Area-restricted searching, 86 Bernstein repair hypothesis, 40 Agrobacterium tumefaciens (A. Armillaria bulbosa Bet-hedging, 151, 254, 261, 265, tumefaciens), 37, 47, 85, 189, –– longevity of, 172 267, 269, 280, 292 243 –– phalanx- and guerrilla-type Biochemical reactions, categories –– and grown gall disease, 85n2 growth of, 181 of, 70, 72f Algae, complex life cycle of, Armillaria spp., 148 Biosynthetic reactions, 71, 72f 206–208 Ascomycete, 56, 65, 165, 191, 192, Bistability, 269, 271 Alkaloids, 94 207 Botryllus, 189 Allometric, 11–13 Asexual, 19, 21, 32, 42, 44, 52–54, Botrytis cinerea (B. cinerea), 147 –– constraints/scaling, 11, 128– 56–63, 66, 80, 137, 162, 165, Botrytis fabae (B. fabae), 147 130, 155, 291 167, 171, 172, 180, 182, 184, Botrytis spp., 146, 147 Allorecognition, 187, 189, 191, 192 186, 189, 191–193, 202, 204, Brachiosaurus spp., 110 Alpinia speciosa, 177 207, 224, 226, 229–231, 236, Branching networks, 181–184 Alternation of generations, 40, 54, 248, 294 Branching systems, 165, 177 200, 201, 206, 209 –– reproduction, 17, 41, 221 Brownian motion, 83, 253 Anabaena spp., 28, 121 –– life cycle, 53 Brownian walk model, 83, 106 –– nif genes expression in, 28 –– lifestyle, 58–62, 59f, 61f Burkholderia, 52n2 Analogies, 13, 16, 22, 156, 243 –– ancient scandals, 60 Ancient fern hypothesis, 209n1 Aspergillus fumigatus, 53 Animal ecologists, xi, 143 Assembly reactions, 72f C Animalia spp., 2n1 ATP, 9, 16, 71, 73, 76, 90, 94, 105 Animal parasites, complex life Autoecism, 211, 212 Caenorhabditis elegans cycle of, 206–209 Automixis, 58 –– number of cell types and genes, Animals Autotroph(s), 15, 73, 74, 78, 105 136t –– complex life cycle of, 206 Auxotrophs, 93, 102 –– rates of mutation, 31t –– senescence among, 220–221 Azolla spp., 20, 167

© Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2017 J.H. Andrews, Comparative Ecology of Microorganisms and Macroorganisms, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-6897-8 340 Index

Caenorhabditis spp., 293 236, 239, 243, 247, 248, 254, Cryptococcus neoformans, 53, 62 Caeoma torreyae, 209n1 259, 267, 268, 278, 281, 290, Cunninghamella, 145 Candida albicans (C. albicans), 53, 293, 294 Cuppressaceae, 209 54, 57, 264 –– evolution, predominant, 59 Cyanobacteria, 74, 81, 82, 113– –– parasexuality of, 57 –– interference, 59 115, 134, 135, 198, 261, 266 –– phenotypic variation, 263 –– reproduction, 17 –– akinetes in, 121 Capture of resources, 175–184, Clonal organisms –– flamentous, 115 176f –– distinguished from modular Carbon, 72–76, 74t organism, 184–186 –– biogeography of, 79–82 –– senescence among, 225–227 D –– source, 73–75, 78–82, 80f, 82f, Coarse-grained environment, 15, 93, 94, 97, 98, 270 98, 250 Darwin’s theory, 10, 11 Caulobacter crescentus (C. cres- Cocos nucifera, senescence among, Daughter cells, 64, 65, 174, 198, centus) 222 228, 269 –– life cycle of, 199f Colonial, 18, 57, 114, 116, 118, 121, Death rate, 149, 169, 171, 215, 223, –– senescence among, 228 122, 124, 136, 154, 162–164, 228, 233 Caulobacter spp., 16, 122, 198, 278 169, 185, 186, 189, 191–193, Decomposer, 76, 105 Cell size, lower and upper limits 231, 290 Degradative pathways, 93 on, 125–127 –– invertebrates, 189, 190–191f Demicyclic, 210 Central Dogma, 9 Colony-forming unit (CFU), 18 Density relationships, 139–141, Centriole, 119 Competition, xii, 14, 56, 82, 99, 140f Centrosome, 119 102, 107, 150, 167, 172, 186– Depletion zone. See Resource Ceratocystis spp., 144 193, 228, 250, 267, 295 depletion zone Charophyte, 116, 201, 203f Complementary chromatic adap- Descendants, 10, 11, 14, 17, 21, 22, Chemoheterotroph(s), 75, 81, 105 tation, 81 58, 67, 87, 125, 142, 147, 148, Chemolithotrophs, 75, 105, 125 Complementation, 186–193 170, 204, 230, 268, 287, 296 Chemoorganoheterotrophs, 74t, Complex life cycle (CLC), 12, 79, Deschampsia cespitosa, 180 75 104, 165, 206–215, 208f, 238, Determinate growth, 184, 186 Chemostat monoculture, 90 275, 291 Deterministic searches. See Sys- Chemotaxis, 85, 92, 279 –– defned, 206–208 tematic searches Chemotroph(s), 15, 71, 73, 75, 78, Complexity, 4, 11, 30, 33, 70, 72, Detritivore, 75, 88 80, 105, 113, 114 75, 76, 93, 105, 106, 111, 114, Detritus chains, 75, 76 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, 118, 116, 118, 119, 125, 134–137, Developmental, 11, 12, 18, 20, 54, 118f 140, 141, 153–155, 167, 199, 63, 66, 95, 104, 116, 118, 121, Chlamydomonas spp., 118, 294 201, 205, 207, 210, 214, 225, 122, 136, 142, 155, 160, 161, Chlorella spp., 81, 82f 246, 253, 263, 266, 271, 279, 167, 168, 170, 188, 191, 199, Chromid, 52n2 286, 291, 292, 296 201, 204, 212–214, 217, 221, Chromosomes, 2, 28, 30, 33–37, –– of size, 134–137, 135f, 136t, 223, 232, 238, 243, 256–259, 39, 47, 57, 65, 95, 137, 221, 137t 265, 267, 272, 279, 286, 288, 231, 261 Conchocelis phase, 207 291, 295 –– aberrant, 62 Condition-dependent sex, 61 –– plasticity, 257 Chrondromyces crocatus, myxobac- Conjugation, 8, 34, 40, 43, 44, 46, Diatoms, senescence among, 230, terium, 122, 123f 47, 66 295 Chrondromyces spp., 123 Conjugative plasmids, 44, 45, 47f Diauxie, 95, 103 Chronological time, 138–139 Conservative site-specifc recom- Dictyodora, 177 Chrysomyxa spp., 212 bination, 34 Dictyostelium, 36, 278 Chthamalus anisopoma, 257 Constraints, 10–12, 16, 32, 86, Difusion, 12, 83, 119, 126, 131, Circadian rhythm, 266, 280, 288 112, 125, 127, 130, 134, 155, 134, 155, 181, 253 Cis-regulatory elements, 270 183, 184, 194, 199, 205, 212, Difusion of the left wall, 125, 137 Cladistics, 2, 211 226, 258, 272, 277, 286, 290, Dikaryon, 54–57, 192, 193, 202, Clonal, clone, clonality, 8, 16–18, 294, 296 211 20, 21, 52, 53, 58, 59f, 61–64, Convergent evolution, 192 Dikaryosis, 66, 165, 206 67, 86, 110, 111, 120, 122, 148, Cope’s rule, 124, 125, 155 Dimorphic, 116, 122, 143, 144, 181, 154, 155, 161–165, 167–175, Copiotrophs, 80 199, 254, 263, 264 177, 179–181, 183–187, 193, Cost of meiosis cost of sex Dioecy, 17 = = 194, 217, 221–227, 230, 231, cost of producing males, 41 Dionaea muscipula, phenotypic variation, 259 341 A–E Index

Diplohaplonts, 174n4 Ecotype, 58, 254, 255, 280, 292 Epulopiscium fshelsoni, 7 Diploid, 21, 32, 40, 46, 53 Efector-triggered immunity (ETI), Equisetum (horsetail), 33 Diplontic selection, 174 100 Escherichia coli (E. coli), 7, 9, 72f, Diplosoma listerianum, senescence Efciency, 16, 76, 81, 87, 89, 91, 84, 293, 294 among, 231 92, 98, 126, 136, 137, 151, 175, –– environmental sensing and Dispersal, 16, 17, 64, 91, 111, 140, 183, 185, 286, 296 gene regulation in, 96 142, 144, 162, 165, 167, 172, –– of energy intake, 88 –– epigenetics, 270 179, 182, 194, 205, 210, 212, Elastic similarity, 131 –– generalist/specialist issue, 213, 227, 229, 250, 265, 267, Electra pilosa, 186 101–102, 103 272, 273, 275–279, 281, 285, Electron donor, 73–75, 79, 81, 82, –– growth rate of, 90, 91 288, 294 105, 114 –– horizontal gene transfer, 50, 51, –– units, size of, 146–148 Embden-Meyerhof pathway, 73 51f Distributed genome hypothesis, Embryogenesis, 120, 162, 172, –– life cycle of, 202t 48– 187, 205, 272 –– lower and upper limits on size, Ditylum brightwellii, senescence –– somatic, 63–64, 288 126 among, 230 Embryophytes, 116, 200, 201, 203f –– metabolic complexity, 93 Diurnal, 247 Endogenous retroviruses, 36 –– nutritional versatility, 93, 94 DNA, 6, 22, 26–28, 30–40, 43–46, Energy, 9, 15–17, 70–76, 74t, –– persister phenomenon, 268 50, 52–54, 63, 65–67, 71, 95, 78–83, 87–91, 94, 96, 102, 105, –– phenotypic variation, 263 97, 122, 137, 140, 148, 201, 106, 114, 122, 132, 139, 175, –– random walk of, 84f 221, 229, 231, 239, 252, 255, 184, 186, 237, 258, 266, 278, –– rates of mutation, 31t 268, 270, 271, 290 290 –– senescence among, 229, 230 –– haploid, 134 –– biogeography of, 79–82 –– sex and adaptive evolution in, –– junk, 39 –– resources of, 79–82, 80f, 82f 45 –– methylation, 37, 38, 96 Environment, 8–10, 15, 16, 18, 21, –– silent mutation in, 33 –– -only transposons, 34 26, 29, 30, 40, 41, 43, 47, 53, 57, –– size, and environmental varia- –– plastid, 35 70, 72, 78–81, 86, 91, 93, 95, 98, tion, 254–255 –– replication, 40 101, 102, 104, 107, 111, 112, –– transferable drug resistance in, –– restructuring, 37t 119, 120, 125, 126, 131–133, 47 –– selfsh, 35 142, 144, 148, 150, 153, 155, Eucalyptus, 97–98, 170 –– superhelicity, 32 162, 170, 179, 181, 183, 191, Eudorina spp., 118 DNA–DNA hybridization, 140 194, 211, 213, 214, 221, 227, Eudorina elegans, 118, 118f Dormancy, 8, 16, 17, 64, 91, 142, 238, 242–280, 286–289, 291– Eukarya spp., 3, 3t, 4, 5f 144, 166, 172, 194, 199, 227, 293, 296 Eukaryote(s), 3, 4, 8, 9, 26, 33–35, 248, 261, 265–267, 280, 288, –– bistability, 269, 271 38–40, 50, 65, 66, 71, 72, 93, 291, 292, 294 –– coarse-grained, 15, 98, 250 112–114, 116, 117, 120, 122, Double-strand break repair, 43 –– dormancy, 265–268 124, 134, 137, 154, 168, 194, Drosophila melanogaster –– epigenetics, 270–271 198–200, 238, 269–271, 290, –– eye facets, 247 –– fne-grained, 15, 98, 251 297 –– life cycle of, 203t –– genetic diferentiation, 255–256 –– attributes of, 97t –– rates of mutation, 31t –– genotypic variation, 254–263 –– dikaryosis, 54–57 –– somatic variation, 63 –– life span and growth form, –– environmental sensing and –– transposable elements and infuence of, 247–249, 249f gene regulation in, 95–96, 96f hybrid dysgenesis determi- –– noise, 271 –– life cycle, 53–54 nants, 35 –– organisms interaction with, –– multicellular, 114 Drug resistance 243–249, 243f, 245t, 246f, 249f –– parasexuality, 57 –– infectious, 48 –– phenotypic variation, 254–263 –– rates of mutations, 31 –– transferable, in bacteria, 47–49, Environmental grain, 15–, 249–251 –– sex and adaptive evolution in, 49f Environmental stress, 229, 242, 52–57, 55f 270 –– transposable elements, charac- Environmental variation, organism terization of, 28 E size and, 251–254 –– unicellular, 114 Epigenetic inheritance, 37 Eukaryotic cell, as pivotal develop- Ecology, viii, x, xi, 3 Epigenetics, 269–272 ment, 122, 123f –– macroecology, xi, xii –– and gene regulation, 37–39, 38t Eukaryotic gene expression, 38t –– microbial, xi, xii Episomes, 47, 50 Eutrophic zone, 15, 16, 81, 105 342 Index

Evolution of dispersal, 272–279 –– phenotypic variation, 254–258, Genome, defned, 26 Evolutionary genetics, 6 280f Genomic imprinting, 37, 270 Evolutionary theories of senes- –– sex and adaptive evolution in, Genomic island, 42 cence, 232 52–57, 55f Genomic plasticity, 35, 37, 48 Exogenous retroviruses, 36 Fusarium, 144, 147 Genotypic, 2, 3, 37, 59, 62, 64, 243, Extinction, 9, 60, 100, 124, 140– 252, 253, 254, 255, 257, 259, 142, 276, 295 261, 263, 273, 279 Extrinsic, 9 G –– plasticity, 62, 253, 255, 273 –– variation, 254–259 Gamete, 20, 22, 31, 53, 62–66, 194, Geobiochemistry, 112–114 F 200–202, 202t Geometric similarity, 131 Gametophyte, 21, 32, 173, 200, Geometrician, organism as, Fecal pellet, 80 201, 203 127–132 Fecundity, 119, 160, 169, 179, 215, Ganoderma spp., 166 Globin gene, evolution of, 30 219, 220, 222, 223, 233, 236, Ganoderma applanatum, 166 Gloeothece, 121 238, 239, 291 Gene, 6, 8, 21, 26–30, 32, 34–37, Glycolysis, 71, 73, 76, 80, 81, 90 Fick’s law, 126 48, 51, 93, 99, 134, 201, 202, Gonium spp., 118 Filamentous cyanobacteria, 115, 259, 269, 270, 290 Gonium pectorale, 118f 198 –– contraction, 30 Grazer chains, 75, 76 Filamentous fungi, senescence –– duplication, 30 Growth form, 115, 156, 159–194, among, 228–229 –– expansion, 30, 265, 277 248, 267, 279, 288, 289, 292, Filobasidiella neoformans, 62 –– loss, 30 296 Fine-grained environment, 15, 98, –– number, 134 –– infuence on environment, 250, 279 –– regulation, epigenetics and, 247–249, 249f Fission 37–39, 38t Growth network systems, architec- –– architomical, 221 Gene-for-gene (GFG) interaction, ture of, 178f –– paratomical, 221 99–101, 99f Guerrilla, 16, 179–181, 289 Fitness-associated sex, 61 Generalist(s), 97, 98, 101, 102, 106, –– architecture, life history strate- Five kingdom, 5 214, 254 gies of, 179t Flavonoids, 94 Generation time, 47, 59, 67, 138, –– habit, 179–181 Fluid movement, 132–134 142, 149, 151, 228, 248, 249, –– clonal morphology of, 180f Fomes, 148 259, 267, 277, 279, 296 –– microorganisms, 181 Foraging, 14, 16, 18, 70, 83, 86–88, Genet, 19, 20, 21, 62, 65, 67, 164, Gut, 85, 89, 93, 128, 189 91, 92, 97, 98, 106, 120, 156, 165, 170, 171, 175, 193, 224, –– microbiome, 293 166, 176–178, 183, 191, 207, 226, 248, 291 249, 250, 259, 285, 287, 290, Genetic, 3, 6–9, 18, 20–22, 28, 37, 296 52, 58, 67, 155, 171, 189, 201, Frameshift mutation, 30 231, 254, 288, 290, 296 H Fueling reactions, 71, 72f, 90 Genetic diferentiation, 250, 255 Habitable site, 272, 273, 275, 276, Fungi, 2n1, 3, 7, 8, 16–18, 20, 21, Genetic mosaicism hypothesis, 278, 281 35, 40, 52–54, 56, 57, 60, 61, 173 Habitable space, 194, 273, 276, 63, 65, 66, 74, 80, 85, 86, 91, Genetic variation, 25–67 277, 281f 94, 106, 116, 122, 123, 128, –– asexual lifestyle, 58–62, 59f, 61f Habitat, 11, 44, 52, 62, 79, 81, 85, 143–148, 160, 162, 165–167, –– epigenetics and gene regula- 91, 120, 140, 141, 147, 179, 180, 181, 186, 189, 191–194, tion, 37–39, 38t 184, 206, 207, 244, 250, 261, 200, 206, 207, 209, 212, 213, –– eukaryotes, sex and adaptive 264, 267, 274, 275, 294 227, 229, 231, 239, 257, 258, evolution in, 52–57, 55f Habitual sites, and evolution of 261, 263, 264, 270, 278, 280, –– genomic plasticity, 37 dispersal, 272–279 289–291, 295 –– mutation(s), 27–33, 33t Haemophilus spp., 93 –– dikaryosis, 54–57 –– prokaryotes, sex and adaptive –– sex and adaptive evolution in, –– flamentous, senescence evolution in, 42–52 43 among, 228–229 –– recombination, 33–37 Haploid, 8, 21, 31, 32, 34, 40, 52, –– life cycle of, 53–54, 203, 207, –– sex and meiotic recombination, 53, 54, 57, 118, 134, 155, 192, 210 39–41 198, 200, 201, 203f, 204, 205, –– as modular organisms, 165– Gene transfer, 8, 21, 22, 30, 43, 44, 206, 207, 226 166, 166f, 191–192 46f, 49, 50, 51f, 112 Hayfick limit, 221, 222 –– parasexuality of, 21, 53, 57, 65 –– horizontal, 22, 50–51 Hemoglobin, 32 343 A–L Index

Herbivore, 75, 77, 88, 170, 185, Indeterminate, 21, 54, 116, 161, Law of similitude. See Two-thirds 206, 232 184, 186, 193, 221 (2/3) power law Heritable variation, 62–65 Individual, 18–22, 67, 219, 221– Ledum, 212 Hermaphrodism, 17 222, 224–228, 232, 233, 236, Legionella pneumophila (L. pneu- Heterochromatin, 66 239, 242, 247, 248, 250–253, mophila), 273, 274 Heteroecious rust, 211 255, 263, 271, 273, 277, 279, Legionella spp., 274, 275 Heteroecism, 211, 212 288, 290, 292, 296 Legionellosis, 273 Heterokaryon, 56, 189, 192 –– ecological sense of, 20f, 21 Legionnaires’ disease, 273 Heterokaryosis, 54, 65 –– genetic sense of, 20–21, 20f Lemna spp., 20, 161, 167, 170 Heterothallic, 54 –– numerical/quantitative sense Leuconostoc mesenteroides, 93 Heterothallism, 17 of, 19, 20f Leucothrix, 167 Heterotrophic microbial loop, Infectious drug resistance, 48 Levels of comparison, 285–286, 77, 105 Input/output system, 13, 287, 296 296t Heterotrophs, 73, 74, 76, 78–80, Insertion sequence (IS), 30, 34, 35 Lévy walks, 83, 84, 89, 106, 177 94, 105 Integron, 42 Life cycle, 7, 12, 17, 18, 20–22, 32, Hexagonal, 177 Intrachromosomal recombina- 53, 57, 67, 103, 110, 119, 138, Hibernation, 17, 265 tion, 28 154, 160, 192, 198–201, 205, High frequency of recombination Intra-genomic parasites, 35 207, 210, 212, 226, 238, 248, (Hfr), 45–46 Intrinsic, 8, 142, 149, 153, 168, 188, 265, 277, 281, 291 Histoplasma capsulatum, 263 215, 216n, 218, 219, 224, 227, –– adaptive interpretation, 214– History of life, 137, 137t 233, 247, 273, 286 215 Holcus mollus, size and longevity Invertebrates –– alternation of generations, of, 172t –– colonial, 189, 190–191f 200–201, 202–203t, 204f Homeostasis, 134, 191, 252, 253 –– senescence among, 220–221 –– complex, 207–216 Homologies, 13, 112, 154, 296 Isometric, 127, 128, 130, 186 –– developmental constraint Homologous recombination, Iterative (growth), 175, 193 interpretation, 215–216 33–34 Iteroparity, 17 –– dimorphic, 199f Homoplasies, 6, 13 Iteroparous plant, 222, 223, 224f, –– general considerations for, Homoplasy, 6 225, 237 198–199 Homo sapiens –– optimization and constraint in –– estimated maximal instantane- molding, 214–216 ous rates, 149t J –– origin of, 198–199, 200f –– rates of mutation, 31t –– phylogenetic constraint, 206– Homothallic, 54 Jacob-Monod operon model, 97 207 Homothallism, 17 –– rust fungi, 210–214 Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), 22, –– senescence, 216–238 50–52, 51f K –– simple, 207 Humicola, 146 –– single-cell stage, centrality of, Hutchinsonian ratio, 284 Karyogamy, 21, 53, 191, 200, 202 204–205 Hydra, 63, 170, 175, 216 Klebsiella pneumoniae, horizontal –– staging, 259 Hydractinia spp., 165, 188, 189 gene transfer, 51, 51f Life history, 111, 139, 148, 150, Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus, Krebs cycle, 71, 80 152, 153, 179, 218, 220, 226, 190–191f K-selection, 90, 91, 148, 150, 151, 232, 248, 284, 287, 297 Hyphae, 53, 54, 85, 144, 148, 161, 156, 289 Life span, 138, 229, 249, 250 165, 166, 175, 181, 187, 188, K-strategists, 149–154, 151t, 152t –– infuence on environment, 191, 192, 202, 207, 264, 288 249–250, 251f Hyphal growth unit, 165, 166f Linkage disequilibrium, 59, 60 Hyphomonas, 122 L Lithoheterotrophs, 114 Lithotroph(s), 15, 73, 79 Lamarckian evolution, 271 Logistic, 149, 150, 153, 289 Larger organisms, evolution of, Lolium spp., 169 I 124–125, 124f Lomatia tasmanica, size and lon- Larrea tridentata, size and longev- Immigrant amplifcation, 277 gevity of, 172, 172t ity of, 172, 172t Immortality, 171, 239 Long-cycled (macrocyclic) rust Last Universal Common Ancestor Incompatibility, 55, 56, 191, 192 fungi, 210 Indel mutation, 30 (LUCA), 4, 5f 344 Index

Longevity, 17, 147, 152, 168, 172t, Microorganisms, x, 7–9, 161, 286 Molecular evolutionary clock, 286 175, 225, 231, 244 –– comparative ecology of, 292– Monera, 2n1 Lotka–Volterra model of interspe- 296 Monoecy, 17 cifc competition, 289 –– guerrilla, 181 Monokaryon, 55, 56 Lycopodium (club mosses), 33 –– life cycle of, 202–203t Monostroma, 122 –– modular, 163f Monotropa, 148 –– multicellular, 115–125 Morphogenesis, 120, 166, 186 M –– phalanx, 181 Mortality, 152, 184, 211, 216, 218, –– phenotypic variation, 261–263, 219, 223, 226, 233, 237, 281 Macrocyclic rust, 210 264f Motile/motility, 16, 84, 85, 119, Macroecology, xi, xii –– rates per sexual generation, 32 126, 133, 162, 167, 199, 249 Macroorganism(s), x, 7–9, 161, 288 –– as r-strategists, 148–154, 149t, Movement, 34, 84, 87, 131, 170, –– comparative ecology of, 292–296 151t, 152t 277 –– ecologists, ix –– senescence among, 225–229 –– in fuid, 132–134 –– life cycle of, 202–203t –– trophic structure of, 76–79 Mucor, 146 –– modular, 163f –– unicellular, 115–125 Muller’s ratchet, 60, 66, 230 –– multicellular, 115–125 MicroRNAs (miRNAs), 38 Multicellular/multicellularity, 30, –– rates per sexual generation, 32 Microsatellites, 171n2 95, 106, 114–124, 135, 137, 138, –– senescence among, 219–225 Microtubule organizing center, 119 154, 155, 160, 167, 187, 193, –– unicellular, 115–125 Migration, 16, 17, 56, 119, 167, 199, 216, 238, 263, 271, 294 Mahonia, 210 267, 277, 279 –– condition, 119–120 Maintenance, 15, 17, 32, 70, 90, Mimosa pudica, phenotypic varia- Mus musculus, rates of mutation, 105, 152, 237, 267, 296 tion, 261 31t Marine snow, 80 Missense conservative mutation, Mutation(s), 10–11, 27–33, 39, 41, Maximin strategy, 251 29 48, 57, 64, 90, 120, 171, 172, Megalodonta beckii, phenotypic Missense nonconservative muta- 174, 191, 225, 239, 270, 291 variation, 260f tion, 29 –– defned, 27 Meiotic recombination, 34, 39, Mixotrophy, 75, 78 –– extent of, 29–30 66, 173 Mobile/mobility, 15, 19, 28, 35, –– frameshift, 30 Metabolic rates, 8, 70, 94, 105, 265 42, 49, 67, 106, 131, 154, 160, –– impact on organisms’ stage of Melampsora lini, 99 162, 170, 187, 249, 279, 285, development, 29 Meselson efect, 60 288, 290 –– indel, 30 Messenger RNA (mRNA), 95, 253 Mode of nutrition, 69–107 –– missense conservative, 29 –– polycistronic, 96 Modular, 16, 19, 62, 65, 110, 151, –– missense nonconservative, 29 Metabolic rates, 70 160–162, 164, 165, 168–170, –– nonsense, 29 Metabolic rules, 70 183, 193, 194, 225, 285, 288, –– rates of, 30–32, 31t Metabolic versatility, 106, 252, 290 291 –– silent, 29 Metabolism, overfow, 90 Modular organisms, 12, 163f –– in somatic cells, 29 Metabolites, 71t –– attributes of, 162t Mutational meltdown phenom- Methicillin-resistant Staphylococ- –– bacteria as, 167–168 enon, 174 cus aureus (MRSA), 48, 49f –– capture of resources, 175–184, Mycobacterium smegmatis, 269, Methylation, 37, 38t, 66 176f 271 Methylococcus, 98 –– design of, 161–165 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 268 Microbes, xi, 7–8, 14, 16, 18, 20, 21, –– distinguished from clonal Myxobacteria, 115, 122, 198 26, 32, 64, 73, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, organism, 184–186 Myxococcus spp., 14, 123 90–95, 98, 102, 105, 106, 115, –– fungi as, 165–166, 166f –– natural selection and multicel- 123, 126, 131–133, 136, 139, –– individual growth, 168–169 lular condition, 120 140, 143, 150, 153, 165, 167, –– life histories of, 168–193 Myxococcus xanthus, life cycle of, 187, 219, 224, 226, 259, 261, –– longevity, 172t 262–263, 262f 265, 268, 275, 277, 279, 281, –– occupation of space, 175–184, Myxomycota, 116 286, 293–295 178f, 179t, 180f, 182f Microbial ecologists, xi, 160, 293 –– phenotypic plasticity, 169–170 Microbial ecology, xi, xii –– population size, 168–169 N Microbial loop, 77f –– potential immortality, 171 –– heterotrophic, 77, 105 –– somatic mutation, 171–175 Natural selection, 9–11, 16–18, 22, Microbiology, 7 –– somatic polymorphism, 170 27, 35, 47, 63, 65, 67, 72, 82, Microcyclic, 210, 211, 212 Molecular clock, 32–33, 65 83, 86, 100, 116, 119–120, 125, 345 A–P Index

127, 135, 136, 140, 147, 148, Optimal foraging theory (OFT), 16, Perennial, 17, 53, 162, 166, 168, 151, 155, 170, 171, 174, 184, 82–92, 106 199, 219, 222, 223–226, 239, 185, 212, 214, 215, 226, 232, –– and digestion, integration of, 292 234, 236, 237, 242, 243, 251, 91–92, 92t Phalanx, 16, 83, 179–183, 194 258, 267, 272, 277, 279, 281, –– as economics model, 86–89 –– architecture, life history strate- 285–287, 292 –– optimal digestion, 89–91, 89f gies of, 179t –– constraints on, 11–13 –– search of resources, 83–86, 84f –– clonal morphology of, 180f Negative senescence, 216 Optimal reproductive tactics, 17 –– habit, 179–181 Negligible senescence, 216 Organism –– microorganisms, 181 Neisseria, sex and adaptive evolu- –– as geometrician, 127–132 Phellinus spp., 166 tion in, 42, 43 –– as input/system, 14f Phellinus weirii, longevity of, 172 Net primary production (NPP), 76 –– size, and environmental varia- Phenotype, 6, 22, 27, 47, 51, 63, 65, Net rate, 88 tion, 251–254 66, 86, 98, 101, 112, 170, 207, Neurospora crassa, life cycle of, –– size, lower and upper limits on, 243, 247, 256, 258–260, 261, 202t 125–127 268, 270, 271, 274, 280, 292, Neurospora spp., 293 Organizing life, 2–7 293, 295 Noise, 247, 271 Organoheterotroph/organotroph, Phenotypic fexibility, 257 Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), 38 15, 73, 75, 114 Phenotypic heterogeneity, 247, Non-evolutionary theories of Organoheterotrophs, 114 268, 279 senescence, 229–231 Organotrophs, 74 Phenotypic plasticity, 169–170, Nonhomologous end-joining, 34 Origin of earth, 112–114, 113f 256, 256t Nonphotosynthetic phototrophs, Orobanche, 148 –– benefts of, 258t 78 Overfow metabolism, 90 –– costs of, 258t Nonretroviral retrotransposons, 34 Ovigerous, 220, 221 –– limitations of, 258t Non-senescence, 216–218, 218f Ovigerous reproduction, 222 Phenotypic variation, 254–264 Nonsense mutation, 29 –– fungi, 263–264, 264f Nostoc, 121 –– microorganisms, 261–263, 264f Nuclear migration, 54, 211, 213 P –– plants, 261–262, 262f Nutritional, 22, 92, 94, 102, 146, Phenylketonuria, 29 148, 153, 255, 274, 275 Pace, 87, 138, 223 Phosphorylation Nutritional versatility Pando clone, 175 –– electron transport, 105 –– as ability to adjust rapidly, Pandorina, 118 –– substrate-level, 105 94–97, 96f, 97t Paramecium, senescence among, Photic zone, 15, 81, 105, 119, 146, –– as ability to do many things, 149, 229, 230 266 92–94 Parameiosis, 40 Photoautotroph(s), 75, 76, 105, Paranais litoralis, 219 116, 261 Parasexuality, 8, 21, 53, 65, 66, 290 Photolithoautotroph(s), 75, 78, 94 O –– of eukaryotes, 57 Photolithotroph(s), 74, 75 Parasite, 16, 17, 21, 34, 41, 61, Photoorganoheterotroph(s), 78 Occupation of space, 175–184, 64, 66, 76, 79, 86, 98–101, Photoperiod, 257, 259, 266, 280 178f, 179t, 180f, 182f 103–106, 147, 170, 205, 207, Photophosphorylation, 75 Oligotrophy, 80n1 209, 210, 212, 213, 215, 238, Photosynthesis, 16, 73, 75, 79, Ontogenetic constraints, 11–13, 248, 255 121, 122, 147, 183, 244, 259, 20, 136 Parasitic DNA, 148 260, 266 Oomycetes, 54, 181 Paratomical fssion, 221 –– anoxygenic, 81 Operon, 28, 38, 51, 95, 96, 101, Pareto front, 90 Phototroph(s), 15, 71, 73, 75, 102, 261, 269 Parochialism, xi 78–82, 84, 105, 113, 114, 266 Ophiostoma, 144, 263 Parthenogenesis, 58 –– nonphotosynthetic, 78 Optimal, 8, 11, 14, 16, 17, 83, Pavona cactus, phalanx -and Phylogenetic, 2, 4–6, 8, 10–13, 33, 86–89, 91, 92, 98, 106, 119, guerrilla-type growth of, 181 47, 52, 59, 60, 62, 65, 66, 112, 120, 134, 149, 156, 176, 177, Pectinia paeonia, phalanx -and 115, 117, 120, 134, 137, 140, 183, 230, 237, 252, 266, 290, guerrilla-type growth of, 181 155, 166, 200, 210, 213, 223, 293, 296 Peformistic development, 63 243, 267, 286–288, 296 Optimal digestion, 89–91, 89f Pelagibacter, 78 –– benchmarks, 112–114 Optimal digestion theory, 16, 17 Pemphigus, 212 –– constraint, 206–207 –– systematics, 2 346 Index

–– trees, 5–6 150, 156, 169, 170, 173, 194, Random walk, 84, 137 –– trends, 116–117, 117f 198, 215, 228, 231, 232, 237, Ranunculus repens, 161, 179 Phylogeny of specialization, 250, 255, 281, 287, 289, 291 Rattus norvegicus, rates of muta- 103–104, 104f Programmed Cell Death (PCD), tion, 31t Phymatotrichum, 148 100, 101 Recombination, 8, 17, 21, 26–28, Physarum polycephalum, 86 Prokaryote(s), 3, 4, 5f, 7, 9, 30, 33, 30, 33–37, 39–43, 45, 48, 50, Physiological time, 138–139 34, 36, 39, 40, 53, 59, 66, 71, 75, 52, 53, 55–57, 59–63, 65, 66, Phytobiome, 293 82, 91, 93–95, 106, 110, 112, 135, 173, 194, 210, 231, 265, Phytoplankton, 75–78, 80, 81, 130, 115, 117, 121–125, 130, 134, 278 143, 146 135, 137, 139, 140, 154, 155, –– general/homologous, 33–34 Pinus longaeva, 248 198, 226, 237, 266, 269, 271, –– intrachromosomal, 28 Plantae, 2n1 290, 291 –– meiotic, 34 Plant parasites, 99–101, 99f –– attributes of, 97t –– site-specifc, 28, 34–36, 42n2 –– complex life cycle of, 209–210 –– conjugation, 44–46 Regulon, 271 Plant(s) –– environmental sensing and Repair, 17, 28, 33, 34, 40, 50, 66, –– ecology, x–xi gene regulation in, 95–96, 96f 239 –– phenotypic variation in, 259– –– sex and adaptive evolution in, Replicative cell senescence, 232 260, 260f 42–52 Reproduction, 10, 13, 15–18, 20, –– senescence among, 221–223, –– transduction, 44 21, 28, 32, 39, 41, 42, 52, 58, 224f –– transformation, 43–44 60, 61, 66, 70, 86, 91, 105, 111, Plasmid(s), 3, 8, 35–37, 40, 42–49, –– transposable elements, charac- 119, 120, 131, 138, 139, 147, 53, 65, 66, 189, 276 terization of, 28 150–152, 156, 165, 166, 169, –– conjugative, 44–45, 46f Protista, 2n1 171, 179, 184, 194, 198–200, –– transfer of, 47 Prototrophs, 93 205, 207, 212, 217, 222–224, Plasmodial, 86, 116 Protozoa, senescence among, 229 226, 230, 232, 234, 236–239, Plasmodium, 209 Pseudomonas, 43, 96, 98 278, 287, 289, 296 Plasticity –– sex and adaptive evolution in, –– asexual, 17 –– developmental, 257 43 –– clonal, 17 –– genomic, 37 Pseudomonas syringae, sex and –– ovigerous, 221 –– phenotypic, 169–170, 258, 258t, adaptive evolution in, 42 Reproductive value, 160, 236 260t Pteridium aquilinum, 110 Resource, 13–18, 22, 42, 70, 73, 75, Pleiotropy, 101, 103, 226, 235, 239, –– size and longevity of, 147, 172t 76, 79, 81–83, 85, 89, 91, 95, 258t, 271, 272, 295 Pterula gracilis, 166f 98, 99, 105, 106, 119, 123, 128, Pleodorina californica, 118f Puccinia asparagi (P. asparagi), 210 132, 144, 147–151, 153, 154, Ploidally antagonistic selection, Puccinia graminis (P. graminis), 162, 166, 169, 170, 175–177, 201 53, 210 181, 183, 194, 213, 214, 229, Podospora anserina, senescence Puccinia graminis tritici, 21, 79 237, 249–251, 259, 265, 267, among, 228 Puccinia malvacearum (P. malva- 278, 279, 285, 287, 289, 291, Poikilotherm, 129, 132 cearum), 210 293–296 Point mutation, 26, 39, 62, 102 Puccinia spp., 213 –– interference, 103 Pollen, 147, 194, 203, 224, 291 –– utilization, 16 Polymerizations, 72f Resource depletion zone (RDZ), Polymorphism, 48, 257, 261 Q 16, 175, 176, 176f, 179–181, –– somatic, 170 183 Polyphenism, 256, 257 Quantum speciation, 30 Restriction fragment length poly- Populus tremuloides, 170, 171 Quercus douglasii, 248 morphism, 31 –– senescence among, 224 Quiescence. See Dormancy Retinitis pigmentosa, 29 –– size and longevity of, 172, 172t Retrotransposon(s), 27, 34 Potential immortality, 171, 216, 238 –– nonretroviral, 34 Precursor metabolite, 71, 81, 90, 94 R –– retroviral-like, 34 Predominant clonal evolution, 59 Retroviral-like retrotransposons, Preformistic, 63, 162, 172, 206 r/K theory, 289 34 Primary producer, 75, 77 Radioactive decay process, 33 Retrovirus, 27, 35, 36, 65, 67 Prochlorococcus, 81, 266 Ramet, 8, 19, 63, 164, 171, 174, –– endogenous, 36 Progenote, 112 175, 180, 206, 225–228, 237, –– exogenous, 36 Progeny, 10, 13, 14, 17, 22, 41, 44, 248 Reynolds number, 132–133, 255 45, 58, 62, 63, 70, 87, 102, 148, Random searches, 83, 84f R factor plasmid, 47 347 A–S Index

Rhizobium spp., nitrogen-fxing Schizophyllum commune, life cycle –– origin of, 40–41 capability, 47 of, 200, 202t –– parasexuality, 21, 57 Rhizomorph, 131, 148, 172, 263, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, –– prokaryotes, 42–52 288 senescence among, 229 –– reproduction, 66 Rhizopus nodosus, 146 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Phalanx- Shape, 6, 13, 16, 61, 76, 86, 127, Rhizopus spp., 146 and guerrilla-type growth of, 131, 134, 136, 153, 167, 169, Rhizopus stolonifer, 181 183, 185, 194, 242, 243, 261, Phalanx- and guerrilla-type Scribble, growth pattern, 83, 162, 278, 285, 288 growth of, 181 165, 167, 176, 177, 179, 186, –– large, 120–122, 121f Rickettsia tsutsugamushi, 207 263 –– multicellular embellishment of, RNAs, 9 Scrophularia nodosa, 179 116 –– interference, 38–39 Search, 82, 83, 86, 89, 106, 131, –– primordial, 115 –– microRNA, 38 176, 177–179, 178f, 183, 194, Shigella fexneri, horizontal gene –– mRNA, 95, 96, 253 277, 290–292 transfer, 51, 51f –– noncoding, 38 Seasonal dimorphism, 267 Shigella spp. –– short-stranded, 112 Self-compatibility, 54, 57 –– horizontal gene transfer, 51 –– small interfering, 38 Selfsh DNA, 34, 35 –– transferable drug resistance in, –– splicing, 97 Semelparity, 17 48 r-selection, 120, 151, 156, 289 Semelparous, plant, 222–224, 233 Short-cycled (microcyclic) rust r-strategists, 148–154, 149t, 151t, Senescence, 17–18, 160, 162, 171, fungi, 210 152t 175, 193, 198, 199, 215–239, Sickle cell anemia, 29 Runs (bacterial movement), 84, 85, 288, 291, 292, 295 Signal, 59, 83, 100, 257, 259, 267, 88, 134, 138 –– defned, 216 271, 280 Rust fungi, 53, 207, 213, 238, 291 –– demographic considerations Silent mutation, 29 for, 216–221 Similitude, 126, 128, 129, 291 –– evolutionary theories of, 233 Simple Life Cycle (SLC), 206, 239, S –– Fisher’s seminal observation of, 291 232–233, 234f Single-cell stage, 203–204 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevi- –– manifestations of, 217f Single Nucleotide Variants (SNVs), siae), 293 –– mathematical models on 63 –– epigenetics, 269 demography, 218–220, 220f Site-specifc recombination, 28, –– natural selection and multicel- –– Medawar’s insight of, 233–235, 42n2 lular condition, 119 235f –– conservative, 34 –– phalanx- and guerrilla-type –– negative, 216 –– transposition, 34–36 growth of, 181 –– negligible, 216 Size, 7, 8, 11–13, 16, 18, 22, 30, 32, –– phenotypic variation, 264 –– non-evolutionary theories of, 33, 41, 47, 48, 52, 75, 76, 78, –– rates of mutation, 31t 230–232 86–88, 90–93, 109–156, 160, –– senescence among, 227 –– non-senescence, 217–219, 218f 165, 169, 171, 172, 179, 183– –– sex and meiotic recombination, –– at population level, 211–212 186, 193, 194, 201, 218, 221, 41 Sequoiadendron giganteum, 110 225, 229, 230, 233, 249–251, Saccharomyces paradoxus, 61 Sequoia sempervirens, 244 253, 256–258, 273, 275–277, Saccharomyces spp., 294 Serratia marcescens, horizontal 279, 284–286, 288–290, 292, –– Ty and mating type elements gene transfer, 51, 51f 295, 296 of, 35 Sessile, 16, 83, 122, 146, 161, 162, –– benefts of, 142–146 Salmonella enterica, horizontal 165, 169, 175, 180–187, 193, –– changes in, 112–125 gene transfer, 51f 194, 198, 199, 208, 212, 227, –– complexity of, 134–137, 135f, Salmonella spp. 239, 250, 261, 279, 289, 292 136t, 137t –– horizontal gene transfer, 51 Sex, sexual, 17, 30, 34, 53, 57, –– costs of, 142–146 –– sex and adaptive evolution in, 42 60–62, 91, 291 –– density relationships, 139–141, Salmonella typhimurium, silent –– condition-dependent, 61 140f mutation in, 33 –– defned, 39 –– of dispersal units, 146–148 Salvinia molesta (Kariba weed), 20 –– dimorphism, 17 –– ecological consequences of, Salvinia spp. (water ferns), 20, –– eukaryotes, 52–57, 55f 142–146, 143f, 145f 167, 168 –– ftness-associated, 61 –– implications to reproductive Schistosoma, 79–80 –– maintenance of, 41 potential, 138f –– meiotic, 39–41 348 Index

–– lower and upper limits on, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, 79, 80f Tree of life 125–127 Sulfolobus spp., 15, 98 –– open, 4 –– and metabolic implications, Super-difusive motion, 83 –– universal, 4 131–132 Surface area law, 12, 13, 115, 120, Trifolium repens, 161 –– organism, and environmental 121, 125–128, 130, 134, 146, Trophic level, 75 variation, 251–254 155, 185, 186, 259, 260, 286, Trophic structure, of microorgan- Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), 38 290, 291 isms, 76–79 Solidago canadensis, 180 Surface tension, 131, 155, 290 Tsuga mertensiana, longevity of, Somatic, 22, 29, 36, 55, 57, 58, Survivorship, 215, 219, 222, 223, 172 67, 117–119, 162, 164, 165, 225, 279 Two-thirds (2/3) power law, 13, 187–189, 191, 192, 194, 204, Synechococcus, 81 126, 127, 128t, 129f, 155, 291 205, 221, 225, 231, 237, 291 Syntrophy, 93–94 –– embryogenesis, 63–64, 288 Systematic searches, 83 –– genetic variation, 172 U –– hypermutation, 28 –– mutation, 171–175 T Ulva, life cycle of, 202t –– polymorphism, 170 Unitary organism(s), 12, 16, 20, –– variation, 62–65 Taxaceae, 209 21, 65, 151, 167, 216, 220, 222, Space, 12, 16, 20, 42, 81, 103, 113, Tay-Sachs disease, 29 228, 230, 238, 239, 248, 267, 125, 134, 135, 143, 146, 167, Teleomorph, 62, 207 279, 286, 292, 296 175, 177, 180, 183, 187, 200, Teliospore, 208, 210, 212 –– attributes of, 162t 247, 249, 250, 252, 272, 273, Telomere, 221, 231, 232 –– capture of resources, 175–184, 275, 276, 280, 287 Terpenoids, 94 176f Specialists, 97–103 Thermal vent, 78, 105, 114 –– design of, 160–161 Specialization, phylogeny of, Thermophile, 51, 114 –– individual growth, 168–169 103–104, 104f Thiomargarita namibiensis, 111f –– life histories of, 168–193 Sporophyte, 201, 204, 206 Thiomargarita spp., 125, 126 –– longevity, 172t Stabilizing, 251 Thiospirillum jejense, 84f –– occupation of space, 175–184, Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) Time, chronological versus physi- 178f, 179t, 180f, 182f –– asexual lifestyle of, 58 ological, 138–139 –– phenotypic plasticity, 169–170 –– methicillin-resistant, 48 Totipotent, totipotency, 63, 67, –– population size, 168–169 –– transferable drug resistance in, 117, 118, 120, 162, 206, 223, –– potential immortality, 171 48 288 –– somatic mutation, 171–175 –– vancomycin-intermediate, 49f Tracheophytes, 201 –– somatic polymorphism, 170 –– vancomycin-resistant, 49f Trade-ofs, 11, 14, 61, 85, 91, 98, Universal Ancestor (UA), 112–113 Staphylococcus spp., 93 101, 106, 107, 119, 141, 148, Universality of cellular biochem- –– sex and adaptive evolution in, 150, 170, 184, 223, 226, 237, istry, 71 43 272, 287–289, 294, 296 Urediospore/uredospore, 208 Starvation, 91, 106, 219, 227, 265, –– rate versus efciency, 89–91, 268 89f Stenostomum, 222 Transduction, 43–45, 49, 66, 101, V Stoichiometry, 70 114, 259, 270 Stolon, 180, 181, 188 Transferable drug resistance, 47, Vancomycin-intermediate S. Streptococcus pneumonia (S. pneu- 49 aureus (VISA), 49f moniae) Transformation, 8, 34, 39, 43, 44, Vancomycin-resistant S. aureus –– sex and adaptive evolution in, 46 (VRSA), 49f 44 Transitions, major evolutionary, Vegetative growth, 58 –– transferable drug resistance in, 137, 154, 198, 255, 264, 290 Venturia inaequalis, phalanx- and 48 Transposable, 28, 30, 34, 37, 64, guerrilla-type growth of, 181 Streptococcus spp., sex and adap- 256 Versatility, 35, 56, 92, 94, 97, 106, tive evolution in, 43 Transposition site-specifc recom- 247, 252 Streptomyces spp., antibiotic bination, 34–36 –– as ability to adjust rapidly, synthesis, 47 Transposon(s), 27, 28, 30, 34–37, 94–97, 96f, 97t Stromatolites, 113 42, 48, 49, 65, 204 –– as ability to do many things, Substrate, 73 Transversion, 29 92–94 349 A–Z Index

Verticillium, 144 Vibrio spp., 52n2, 78 X Z Virulence, 41, 48, 50, 63, 99–101, Xenorecognition, 187 Zea mays, life cycle of, 202, 202t 103, 187, 191, 264, 274 Zygote, 17, 19–21, 39, 62, 65, 110, Viscosity, 131, 133, 155, 253, 290 122, 161, 164, 169, 170, 172, Vitreochlamys, 118 173, 194, 198, 200, 204, 205, Volvocine green algae, 117–119, Y 209, 215, 226 118f Yeasts, senescence among, Volvox aureus, 118f 228–229 Volvox carteri, 118, 118f Yersinia enterocolitica, virulence, Volvox spp., 117, 118, 236 increased, 47 Yersinia pestis, horizontal gene W transfer, 51, 51f Water economy, translocation, 30, 62, 136, 183, 194 Weight, 4, 127, 128, 130, 131, 135, 139, 141, 142, 153, 257, 258, 286 Weismann doctrine, 62, 67