Wilderness Experiences As Sanctuary and Refuge from Society

Wilderness Experiences as Sanctuary and Refuge from Society

William T. Borrie Angela M. Meyer Ian M. Foster

Abstract—Wilderness areas provide a sanctuary from human areas provide a sanctuary or refuge in which plants, animals domination, for the plants and animals that exist there and also for and visitors can freely engage with each other and potentially the visitors who come there to escape the demands and pressures of with spiritual beings or gods. In wild places, the demands and modern society. As a place of refuge and sanctuary, we have found impositions of human society are distant and less intrusive. This wilderness to allow experiences of connection, engagement and be- autonomy, or wildness, was a central purpose of the Wilderness longing. Two studies help illustrate the role of wildness (freedom from Act according to its primary author (Zahniser 1992a). Like- intentional human control) in wilderness, one focusing on gendered wise, in 1946 influential conservationist Sigurd Olson (2001) experiences of wilderness and another considering spiritual experi- suggested that the “real function [of wilderness] will always ences in wilderness. Following the intent of Howard Zahniser, architect of the Wilderness Act of 1964, we call on managers to maintain the be as a spiritual backlog in the high-speed mechanical world freedom and wildness of wilderness, lightening the burden on nature in which we live” (p. 65). and on the experience of nature. This paper explores the role of wilderness as a contrast to the highly human-modified world in which most of us live. Jack Turner (1991) suggests that while wilderness is both a concept and a place it is wildness that is the important quality. In dis- cussing wildness, it will be apparent this quality applies both Introduction______to ecological as well as experiential conditions in wilderness. The definition of wilderness used to establish the National Indeed, in contrast to a dualistic separation of humans from Wilderness Preservation System (Public Law 88-577 (16 U.S. nature, we suggest wilderness offers outstanding opportunities C. 1131-1136)) clearly places wilderness in contrast to a human for healing that separation. As a place of refuge and sanctuary, dominated location: we have found wilderness to allow feelings of connection, engagement, and belonging. Two studies are described here Sec. 2. (a) “In order to assure that an increasing popula- that examine these experiences of wilderness, one focusing tion, accompanied by expanding settlement and growing on gendered experiences of wilderness and another examining mechanization, does not occupy and modify all areas within the United States and its possessions, leaving the phenomenology of spiritual experiences in wilderness. We no lands designated for preservation and protection begin first with a discussion of wildness, noting however that in their natural condition, it is hereby declared to be to distill down the many facets and meanings of wilderness the policy of the Congress to secure for the American into any one quality, such as wildness, is problematic; there are people of present and future generations the benefits other qualities, such as naturalness, that are deeply intertwined. of an enduring resource of wilderness.” Wilderness provides a counter to modern, technological society; a society in which we continue to grow, expand and Wildness______occupy. Protected areas such as wilderness provide a space for Trying to define wildness is tricky at best. While it is quite freedom of movement, unrestrained by outside human intention, common to view it as freedom from intentional human control, not only for animals but also for visitors. As such, wilderness the process of explaining and diagramming the concept is itself a human practice of containment. Henry Bugbee (1958) has argued that, “The world does not become less ‘unknown’ … in pro- portion to the increase of our knowledge about it. We Authors: William T. Borrie, College of Forestry and Conservation, University of might be nearer the mark in saying that the understand- Montana, Missoula, MT; Angela M. Meyer, Faculty of Physical Education and Recre- ing of our position is not fundamentally consummated ation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB; and Ian M. Foster, College of Forestry and merely as knowledge about the world. The world is Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula, MT. not unknown, for example, as a secret withheld from us is unknown to us. As Marcel would put it, our ex- In: Cole, David N., comp. 2012. Wilderness visitor experiences: Progress in research and management; 2011 April 4-7; Missoula, MT. Proc. RMRS-P-66. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. perience of the world involves us in a mystery which Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 219 p.

70 USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-66. 2012 Wilderness Experiences as Sanctuary and Refuge from Society Borrie, Meyer, and Foster

can be intelligible to us only as mystery. The more we impositions of another. While wildness is conceptually different experience things in depth, the more we participate in from naturalness (Aplet & Cole 2010), it is a mandate for a mystery intelligible to us only as such; and the more natural process to operate freely. we understand our world to be an unknown world. Our true home is wilderness, even the world of every Wildness is also a characteristic of human action. That is, day” (p. 76). visitors seek a place to escape the worries of human society, a place free from external constraints and full of freedom of Just because wildness is by definition less knowable, how- movement. As Driver and others (Driver & Knopf 1977; Driver ever, does not make it any less valuable. Perhaps to understand 1983; Manfredo and others 2000) have found, wild places are wildness is to first acknowledge what science does not, and often sought, or preferred, for escape from the personal and may not be able to, know. There are some excellent discus- social expectations, pressures, and demands of everyday life. sions (such as, Landres 2010) and source writings (such as, Patterson and others (1998) described one wilderness area in Griffiths 2006; Snyder 1990; Turner 1996) that can help us which seeking challenges and decisions not faced in everyday identify the aspects of wildness worth thought and protection. life is a dominant theme of the experiences there. That is, instead of a predictive goal, a descriptive role may suf- This suggests that the idea and reality of wilderness is more fice. Our actions may need to be less grounded in predictable than spectacular scenery, more than charismatic megafauna and circumstances and more in the context of unknowable and more than outstanding challenges for one to dominate and win. presumably chaotic occurrences and consequences. A certain Instead, it is a place for the full expression of what it means to humility of unknowing and an openness to experience may be be human in a wild place. As Zahniser (1992b) suggested in important. As one of us has written elsewhere (Borrie 2004, 1955, “the true wilderness experience is one, not of escaping, p. 18), there is a, but of finding one’s self” (p. 66). In passing through wilder- “deliberate setting apart of wilderness from the forces ness, as compared to conquering and claiming it, we can find of change that are associated with modern, technologi- ourselves clearly reflected back. With a humility of action that cal society. … Wilderness is symbolic of restraint and matches the place we may experience previously unexpressed reserve, suggesting the importance of lightening the aspects of who we are. Pohl (2006) suggests that “experiencing burden of humanity on nature and upon the experience of nature.” wilderness calls upon us to develop skills, patience, openness, humility, reverence and perceptiveness to the things around The Wilderness Act of 1964 makes particular use of the word us” (p. 161-2). Freedom of being can allow greater fullness “untrammeled” in its prescription that: of life. Nelson (2001), for example, says, “I never feel more “A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man fortunate, more free, and more alive than when I am afoot in and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby the wild country of home” (p. 191). recognized as an area where the earth and its community Wildness calls for a humility of action by humans. While it is of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a place of freedom and feelings of being fully alive, we should a visitor who does not remain. “(Sec. 2. (c)) seek a relationship with other beings that does not impose on While some scholars (such as, Callicott 1991; Cronon 1995) their freedom and ability to live according to their own path. have interpreted this as a separation of humans from nature, Gary Snyder (in Ebenkamp 2010), for instance, posits that “the Zahniser (1992b) saw it differently, noting in 1955 that: wild requires that we learn the terrain, nod to all the plants and animals and birds, ford the streams and cross the ridges and “We are a part of the wildness of the universe. That is tell a good story when we get back home” (p. 26). Wilderness our nature. Our noblest, happiest character develops with the influence of wildness. Away from it we degenerate is not so much an enemy as it is a chance for kinship—to into the squalor of slums or the frustration of clinical wildness, both within and outside of ourselves. couches. With the wilderness we are at home” (p. 65). Whereas wilderness was once commonly viewed negatively, as a threat to civilization (Nash 2001), given the dominance of A trammel is a hobble or shackle used to teach a horse to modern, technological society today it is less so. Light (1995) amble. It restricts and restrains free movement. Additionally, points out that if, “Wilderness is bad, evil and cruel, it must a trammel net is a gill net in which fish are entangled and be separated from humans —it must be marked off as distinct caught in mesh. Cole (2000) in similar fashion suggests that and kept out of civilized spaces” (p. 197). But, if wilderness is untrammeled is, “synonymous with unconfined, unfettered considered a home, a place we feel comfort, connection, and and unrestrained, however, “untrammeled” actually suggests an ease returning to, then it is part of us and we no longer need freedom from human control rather than lack of human influ- separation from it. Instead of thinking of wilderness contribut- ence” (p. 78). This parallels how Ridder (2007) suggests “an ing to a separation between humans and nature, it provides a area is wild if the behavior of the nonhuman inhabitants is space in which to freely explore society’s relationship to nature wild” (p. 10), by which he means a minimal degree of rationally and how we should act ethically and wisely within it (Havlick planned human intervention or agency. As Whitesell (2001) 2006). As Vandana Shiva is quoted as saying, “the wild is not notes, “Wild is the quality of freedom from human control. the opposite of cultivated. It is the opposite of the captivated” Its geographic expression is wilderness” (p. 187). Wildness (Griffith 2006, p. 37). is uncaged, self-willed, self-governing, and not subject to the

USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-66. 2012 71 Borrie, Meyer, and Foster Wilderness Experiences as Sanctuary and Refuge from Society

Wildness thus presents a challenge for managers (Turner important, we believe the focus of much of this work on self- 1996). That challenge is to be guardians, not gardeners. Man- improvement and empowerment only captures a part of the agers should not feel the necessity to always ‘play God’ and many ways that women experience the outdoors, nature and determine the conditions under which particular species can wilderness. The study described here aims to document how flourish. Rather than modifying wilderness and other protected women, in particular gbtlq (gay, bi-sexual, transgendered, areas in compensation for outside sources of anthropocentric lesbian and queer), experience their gender and body in change such as habitat destruction, global climate change and wilderness. ubiquitous air pollution, it is a call for the reduction of those Twenty self-identified gbtlq women volunteered to partici- human actions. In addition, wildness is a call for managers to pate in semi-structured, in-depth interviews which were held cautiously reject the manipulation of wilderness for human either in private residences, quiet study rooms on campus, or preference. For instance, management should question such over the telephone. All participants had recreated or worked in practices as the stocking of fish species in wilderness for rec- wilderness. With permission, all interviews were audio-taped reation benefit, the impoundment of wilderness watersheds with lengths ranging from thirty-nine to ninety-four minutes. for downstream irrigation benefit, and the use of fire suppres- After transcription and coding, the qualitative data analysis sion and fuel reduction burns in wilderness to protect life and software MAXQDA was used to follow a grounded theory property outside the boundary. While each of these practices approach (Corbin and Strauss 2008) to identify overarching has been extensively studied, wildness fundamentally ques- themes and analytical stories present in the data. We provide tions our ability to fully understand the processes of nature here only a portion of the full analytical story. Complete details as well as our ability to know the full range of consequences can be found in Meyer (2010). of our actions. Having good intentions does not excuse failed A sense of ecological belonging represented the overarching experimentation or unanticipated outcomes (Landres 2010). To wilderness experience for most study participants. We heard be clear, the presence of humans does not negate wilderness, stories of a profound sense of connection and of how wilder- but our actions there may. Snyder (in Ebenkamp 2010) says, ness was a safe place to escape the structures, judgments and “it is a matter of how much wildness as process is left intact” technologies of society and re-connect to the body and to the (p. 12). natural world. Bodily experiences of wildness were commonly Two recent studies, while not specifically designed to in- described, mirroring the suggestions of Abram (1996) that, vestigate wilderness as a contrast and sanctuary from human “ultimately, to acknowledge the life of the body, and to affirm society, have provided illumination along the lines discussed our solidarity with this physical form, is to acknowledge our above. Each was conducted in the generalized context of op- existence as one of the earth’s animals, and so to remember portunities for experiences in wilderness. The first considered and rejuvenate the organic basis of our thoughts and our intel- how people with non-heteronormative genders and sexualities ligence” (p. 43). experience their bodies and their genders in wilderness. What As study participant Sage explained, we found were stories of freedom, refuge, safety, relationship and a sense of ecological belonging. The second documented “And when we got there—we were hot and tired and dirty and we hadn’t seen water like this in a while. And a phenomenology of spiritual experiences in wilderness. so we all just stripped off our clothes and you know Building, reinforcing and extending previous studies, we threw down our packs and stripped off our clothes and found study participants to be talking about the importance of frolicked in the water. And we felt—to me—it was like immersion in primitive and simple ways of being, escaping such perfect embodiment of—we were so animal in our information technology and their digital selves, reconnecting bodies at that point. They were our tools, they were with themselves, their gods, and their story of the land. Across our engines, they were the things that were sustaining us, they were us. And we were a community of that both studies we find the importance of wilderness as a place to together. And ah—in a way that felt like wow—I’m not fully be, a place to re-orient identities and self within relation gonna get to glimpse this kind of connection to myself to one’s environment. The essential wildness of wilderness, as and connection to others and connection to a landscape described above, thus allows a necessary refuge and sanctuary. simultaneously.” Note that wilderness does not so much offer space for Gendered Experiences in women and gbtlq to resist hetero-patriarchy as it offers space Wilderness______for creative expression and to experience engagement with other, non-judgmental things. In saying this, we recognize A significant body of research explores how outdoor experi- wilderness not as a separation from nature but a reclaiming of ences can foster empowerment for women (for example, Beale the ‘ground of continuity’ (Plumwood 1998). This reflects what 1988; Brace-Govan 1997; Burden and Kiewa 1992; Mason-Cox Gaard (1997) would describe as a different kind of “perceptual 1992; McDermott 2000; Miranda and Yerkes 1985; Scherl orienteering, a different way of locating oneself in relation to 1990). Similarly, most of the literature that looks at gender and one’s environment” (p. 17). wilderness also focuses on women and empowerment (Angell In contrast to feelings of alienation, separateness and other- 1994; Bialeschki and Henderson 1993; Hart and Silka 1994; ness that participants described in society, in wilderness they Kohn 1991; Mitten 1994; Pohl and others 2000; Powch 1994; described feelings of wholeness, integration and connection. Stopha 1994). While these studies have been insightful and In wilderness, our study participants described feelings of

72 USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-66. 2012 Wilderness Experiences as Sanctuary and Refuge from Society Borrie, Meyer, and Foster kinship, neutrality (in that nature does not seem to care about to eat… or go do whatever I’m doing. Go climb to the gender or perceived sexuality) and comfort. For instance, study top of this summit. So it’s very day to day—moment participant Beatrice said, by moment—which is very different from how our society is structured.” “Wilderness is a place away from society… kind of at times away from reality. It’s a place for me where In some ways, our findings mirror the ecotheology scholar- I can be comfortable being myself and not fitting into ship of Susan Bratton (1993; 1998) in which she describes a anything and really a way just to get away from life, thousand year monastic tradition of reciprocity in wilderness. get away from everything—just relax… And early on Early Christian experiences in wild areas are shown to be I didn’t know what it was. I didn’t know what I was feeling. I didn’t know why I felt comfortable. And really providing freedom from secular and worldly concerns and the I think a big part of it was I was just really comfortable opportunity to practice Christian virtues such as simplicity, in not having to look at myself as male or female or fellowship, love, contemplation, faithfulness and harmony. straight or gay or lesbian or bisexual. It didn’t matter. The second study described below further explores spiritual It really didn’t matter. I was just another creature out experiences in wilderness. in the woods.” In wilderness, notions of being watched or monitored are replaced largely by positive feelings of vulnerability (predator- Phenomenology of Spiritual prey relationships, heightened senses and awareness of sur- Experiences in Wilderness______roundings, connection as animals in an ecosystem) in contrast In this study, thirty-two semi-structured interviews were to a gendered vulnerability (fear of rape, violence, judgment, conducted in-situ with overnight visitors to a U.S. water-based discrimination or shame). At the heart of this vulnerability is wilderness to update and add to our understanding of the spiritual control, and in wild places humans are no longer in control. aspects of experiences in wilderness. Previous work (Young As an example, when asked what it feels like to be physically and Crandall 1984; Stringer and McAvoy 1992; Fredrickson immersed in wilderness, Zara expressed, and Anderson 1999) was also set in such a wilderness. Along “The places I go are usually pretty high risk. You know with other work (Ashley 2009; Ellard and others 2009; Fox god forbid I’d ever have to shoot or spray at anything. 1997; Heintzman 2000, 2010; Marsh 2007; Schmidt and Little But you know if I was without protection then that 2007), this provides a basis for saying that natural settings have puts a whole different aspect on it. ‘Cause then all important characteristics that support spiritual experiences. of a sudden it’s the hunter-prey and you’re prey and you’d better watch your butt…. So—for me going by Within the peak visitation season of July and August 2010, myself in the backcountry and like say an area of high respondents were approached late afternoon/early evening in concentration of grizzlies. To me—that’s exciting. You their campsite. These campsites were randomly selected on know and it’s scary ‘cause you could die and I think each of six wilderness lakes (three lakes being closer to the that’s the allure of it to me. It’s because you’re not in periphery of the wilderness area and three more internal). control of everything as we are in this society. The rules change. The games change.” At each campsite, after reading the recruitment script, the person with the most recent birth date was specifically asked Across our sample, people distinguished between society to participate. In two exceptional cases, two respondents were and wilderness not solely on legal designation, but also on interviewed at once but each was asked to tackle each inter- features of wildness such as unpredictability, boundlessness, view question. All interviews were conducted in-situ a short potentiality, exploration, lawlessness, and unpatrollability. distance away from the center of the campsite, either lakeside Being immersed in such wildness was described as providing or just above the camp. opportunities to touch what is wild within us. As study par- As in the first study described above, these interviews were ticipant Sophia-Margeaux describes, “It supports the wildness voluntary and were tape-recorded for later transcription. Both that’s beyond human culture within me”. idiographic (individual-level) analyses along with nomethetic In wildness, we can find a freeing of social systems, struc- (overall pattern) analyses were conducted using the techniques tures, and rules. As Margret says, of grounded theory (Corbin & Strauss 2008). A phenom- “It’s in part an escape from society and from you know enological study such as this aims to situate comments made social definitions or interactions… It’s this kind of in the moment (lakeside, inside the wilderness, in this case) escape… I guess I go into wilderness because for me within the life-world of the respondents. Thus, we were able it’s like a more pure existence and it makes me feel to identify important characteristics of the wilderness setting, more alive.” as well as a comparison of wilderness settings with other In wilderness, participants also described finding unpredict- locations of spiritual practices and processes. Themes of the ability, challenge, and a way to live in the moment. Sasha, for role of spiritual experiences in wilderness within a person’s example, explains, life surfaced in the data, with a particular contrast to the heavy imposition of information technology outside of wilderness. “I think it feels very freeing. I think there’s a content- The themes presented here are a selection and summary of the ment or satisfaction that comes from you know being present or just feeling like you know today I have to full study. More details can be found in Foster (2011) and in chop wood or today I have to build a fire. Now I have Foster & Borrie (2011).

USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-66. 2012 73 Borrie, Meyer, and Foster Wilderness Experiences as Sanctuary and Refuge from Society

For the respondents, wilderness means different things to The idea is that visitors go to wilderness to gain perspective different people. For some, wilderness was just another place, on their lives. A common phrase was “recharging their batter- just slightly different from their regular fishing location; for ies”. Wilderness was a means towards being more grounded. others, it is a wholly different world; and for yet others the area Words with a re- prefix were common (re-center, re-focus, is not even true wilderness, given that it is possible to paddle re-discover, re-consider, re-define, and re-develop). Wilder- the tracts of wild country immediately north without seeing ness allows a remembering and a reinvestment in identity and people for weeks. relationship. However, a majority of respondents explained their at- The data contain numerous mentions of a desire to disconnect tachment to wilderness as comparable to no other place. The from the information society, feeling free from technology’s wilderness context provides unique opportunities and potential grasp and stressing the growing importance of escaping rou- for spiritual experiences because of its naturalness, its pristine- tines that are choreographed by information technology. Many ness and its remoteness. Sometimes on their own, but often in participants highlighted the freedom that exists in wilderness, combination, the solitude, roughness, beauty, intricacy, and/or particularly the freedom to choose what to pay attention to and the calmness or fierceness of the weather offered conditions very when. As one explained, different from the ordinary. The activities of paddling, carrying “I feel that I can be myself more; you know, with friends canoes, and daily routines of gathering firewood, filtering and and stuff. I just kind of have to—I don’t know—pay carrying water, and cooking in the open all provide or provoke attention all the time, I have to be involved in everything the opportunity for contemplation and acknowledgement of that is going on. Up here, I can be involved as much as different ways of being. Fewer distractions, more immediate I want. I can just sort of wander off and be on a rock concerns, direct and unambiguous feedback for actions, and alone. And I like that.” the general sense that larger forces are at play, all contribute to In wilderness, visitors can leave behind their ‘digital selves’ a lessened sense of individual power and control. Wilderness and not feel the necessity to maintain their online presence and provides a window into a powerful, mysterious unknown. As image, as well as leave behind the stresses and expectations of one participant explained, “This environment is … you are right the digital world. Nearly three-quarters of study participants there—God has total control over you, the wind, the waves, mentioned the joy of disconnecting from communication the weather, all of that. That isn’t bad, it is pristine. When you technology (phones, emails, texts, tweets, and status updates). leave God alone, it is pristine.” For example, one of the participants said, Spiritual experiences are understood as complex and mul- tidimensional, but our interviews particularly revealed the “I guess I just turn off everything else and just soak in what is around me and take time to be thankful for it. importance of rituals in facilitating spiritual experiences and (pauses) Hmm, I guess I don’t think about these things development. Many of these rituals, such as rising early in the much unless I am here and have the time—I am just able morning and seeking solitude and silence a little ways from to be thankful that I am here and it is here.” camp, are learned from mentors and become quite habitual. These results highlight the importance of wilderness in al- Several study participants mentioned a relative or family mem- lowing for unplugging and leaving behind the intrusions of ber taught them the beauty of doing things the ‘right way’. modern, technological society. The isolation, freedom, and Visitors also remember and draw upon spiritual practices simplicity of being in wilderness allow a different pace and a from prior memories and experiences. It is mentioned that they different focus, which in turn allows space for renewing and revisit and search out the feelings and emotions that they had reinforcing relationships. We found frequent mention of the experienced. The meaning of those experiences is then explored, intimacy and privacy that wilderness provides, which in turn discussed and shared and then folded into their personal and strengthens communication and attention whether they be social worlds. One participant, for example, described her to self, to other species, or with higher beings. Wild places perspective saying, teach and remind what it means to be human in relation to “I definitely feel more connected to my girls and feel the natural world. Escaping daily routines, demands, inter- more connected to—I feel more stationed in my life. I feel ruptions and expectations into a time and space of refuge and like being out here gives you more time to think about sanctuary allows exploration of our place in the wider world. your goals and what is actually important to you. So I guess I feel more sturdy and planted in what I believe.” In wilderness, we found that social constraints are lessened. The cultural information to be processed is limited, immediate Participants underscored that through immersion in the practices are common, and unfiltered or raw encounters with primitive and simple we remember basic needs, life support- the natural world more frequent. In these conditions, the hu- ing practices and remember the core of our being. While the man relationship with the larger wild can be kindled, stoked, notion of primitivism may be problematic (Borrie 2004; Potter and sustained. 2010), our participants described the clarity and simplicity that wilderness practices allow. One noted that, Discussion______“Whatever sorts of problems you may have in your everyday life, you can come out here or reflect on While wilderness managers may feel challenged in their here, and realize how unimportant they really are; this ability to provide opportunities for spiritual experiences in is definitely a place for me to let go and be myself.”

74 USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-66. 2012 Wilderness Experiences as Sanctuary and Refuge from Society Borrie, Meyer, and Foster wilderness, our respondents reinforced the importance and References______significance of those experiences. Furthermore, while managers Abram, David. 1996. The spell of the sensuous. New York: Vintage Books. 352p. frequently limit their intrusions into wilderness, they are still Angell, Jean. 1994. The wilderness solo: An empowering growth experi- potential conduits or facilitators for such intrusions. Interac- ence for women. In: Cole, Ellen: Erdman, Eve; Rothblum, Esther D., eds. tions with rangers (and researchers!) inside the wilderness can Wilderness therapy for women: the power of adventure. New York, NY: interrupt the tone and rhythm of visitor experiences, setting up Haworth Press: 85-100. Aplet, Greg; Cole, David N. 2010. 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Wilderness, a spiritual antidote to the everyday: A phenom- ceptance of unpredictable fallibility. enology of spiritual experiences in wilderness: relating self, culture, and Both the studies mentioned here demonstrate the role wilderness. Thesis. University of Montana, Missoula. wilderness can play as a haven or sanctuary from modern Foster, Ian.; Borrie William T. 2011. A phenomenology of spiritual experi- society. Much as the notion of wildness can mean freedom ences in wilderness: relating self, culture, and wilderness. In: Wickham, T. D., ed. Proceedings of the 2011 northeastern recreation research sym- from human domination for the plants and animals there, so posium. General Technical Report NRS-P-XX. Newtown Square, PA: U.S. too should wilderness provide a respite for humans from the Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. demands and pressures of modern society. 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