University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Graduate School Professional Papers 2018 THE ENDURING IMPORTANCE OF WILDNESS: SHEPHERDING WILDERNESS THROUGH THE ANTHROPOCENE Patrick Ram Kelly Let us know how access to this document benefits ouy . Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Recommended Citation Kelly, Patrick Ram, "THE ENDURING IMPORTANCE OF WILDNESS: SHEPHERDING WILDERNESS THROUGH THE ANTHROPOCENE" (2018). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 11143. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/11143 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE ENDURING IMPORTANCE OF WILDNESS: SHEPHERDING WILDERNESS THROUGH THE ANTHROPOCENE By PATRICK RAM KELLY Bachelor of Arts, History, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 2001 Master of Arts, Philosophy, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 2014 Doctoral Dissertation presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Forestry & Conservation The University of Montana Missoula, MT -- May 2018 Dane Scott, Committee Chair Society & Conservation Peter Landres Aldo Leopold Wilderness Research Institute – US Forest Service Christopher Preston Philosophy Dan Spencer Environmental Studies Natalie Dawson The Wilderness Institute – University of Montana Kelly, Patrick, PhD., May 2018 Forestry & Conservation Introduction Chair: Dr. Dane Scott Introduction Wilderness and wildness have long been essential values at the heart of American conservation. Both have played critical roles in the formation of environmental ethics, providing a conceptual foundation for the belief that the non-human natural world is valuable for its own sake (Nash, 2001). After grounding and inspiring much of 20th century environmentalism, their influence in the current century has grown increasingly tentative. The arrival of what some have called the “Anthropocene epoch” – a term meant to capture the planetary scale impacts of human activity – now threatens the continued viability and relevance of wilderness and wildness to contemporary conservation. The challenges facing wilderness advocates are both physical and conceptual. Anthropogenic climate change, pollution, and the looming mass extinction crisis are all impacting the biophysical elements of wilderness areas (Stephenson & Millar, 2012; Long & Biber, 2015; Ceballos et al., 2015). At the same time, a growing chorus of “new conservationists” are calling for the abandonment of wilderness and wildness as useful values for guiding conservation (Marris, 2015; Kareiva et al., 2012). As the codification of these values into American law, the Wilderness Act and the areas it protects are on the front lines of this philosophical and political struggle. Those convinced of the continued relevance and moral value of wilderness and wildness for conservation must work to adapt these values to the physical and philosophical backdrop of the 21st century. This challenging task must be accomplished without compromising the values of restraint and humility that give wilderness and wildness their meaning and substance. The following three papers approach this challenge in several ways. The first identifies key insights in the writings of Aldo Leopold that help develop a general philosophical and ethical framework for the two papers that follow. Leopold valued wildness while also understanding the unavoidable role of management in conservation. His primary concerns were ecological ignorance and violent or overly disruptive techniques rather than the idea of management itself. The notion that wildness and management activity are potentially compatible rather than inherently oppositional – a key insight I draw from Leopold’s work – can be applied to contemporary ethical and policy issues in wilderness stewardship. This insight allows me to avoid unnecessary dichotomies and absolutist thinking that can plague wilderness management discussions. With this in mind, my second paper focuses on controversies over intervention in designated wilderness areas, while the third addresses apparent conflicts between the Wilderness Act and the Endangered Species Act. In both cases, taking a more nuanced and measured position allows for the adaptation of wilderness values without compromising the essential elements of humility and restraint. In the long run, this approach will help ensure that more landscapes are designated and protected from exploitation and degradation. This is one of the most important ways we can respond as conservationists to the unprecedented threats our species now poses to much of life on Earth. ii 1) The Lessons of “Wildness” in Aldo Leopold’s Scientific and Philosophical Journey to the Land Ethic Though only explicitly referenced a handful of times in his writings, wildness played an influential role in Aldo Leopold’s development as a conservationist, land manager, and environmental thinker. Over the years, encounters with wildness in his work as both a practitioner and observer of land management drove significant changes in his views on conservation. Leopold’s initial approach touted intense manipulation and control over the natural world, but would eventually give way to an attitude of humility and integration. Driven by lessons learned from the wildness of the non-human natural world, this evolution culminated in Leopold’s formulation of the land ethic. Offering a moral framework that re-imagined the human place in nature, this influential articulation of environmental value incorporated wildness by respecting the roles played by fellow members in the biotic community. An attitude of respectful guidance in management, as opposed to one of control and coercion, is at the heart of the land ethic. Contemporary conservationists – some of whom are now clamoring for more human control of the planet – would do well to heed this approach, lest they risk having to relearn the limits wildness places on human managerial ambition. 2) Shepherding Wilderness Through the Anthropocene: The Intervention Dilemma and the Future of Wilderness Stewardship This paper aims to restore and revitalize the relevance of wilderness and the Wilderness Act to 21st century conservation by addressing the controversy of ecological intervention. As human impacts on the naturalness of designated wilderness areas accumulate, the pressure to intervene in ecosystem processes grows. Any intervention undertaken to protect or restore the natural conditions of a wilderness area is in tension with the value of untrammeledness and the hands off approach to wilderness stewardship. Unfortunately, this tension has been mistakenly framed as a stark either/or choice between intervention and non-intervention – between either naturalness or untrammeledness. This framing has in turn fostered polarization in the environmental community, a situation that only serves to undermine the continued relevance of wilderness at a time when it is most needed. Rather than stay with this false choice between naturalness and untrammeledness, a third option is possible. Adopting a more comprehensive and balanced approach – one that sees naturalness and untrammeledness as interdependent wilderness values – will allow managers to adapt and, where necessary, to actively respond to undesirable changes while still maintaining the values of restraint and humility. 3) The Endangered Species Act and the Wilderness Act: Conflicting or Complementary Values? This paper addresses the conflicts that can and do arise when an ESA-listed species requires active agency intervention in designated wilderness. The ethical imperative and legal obligation under the ESA to protect and recover endangered and threatened species can place it in tension with the Wilderness Act when significant ecological intervention is involved. It is crucial that conservationists and wilderness advocates anticipate these conflicts and work to foster compatibility between wilderness stewardship and species conservation. Fortunately, this compatibility is possible through a comprehensive interpretation of wilderness character that includes native wildlife as an essential component. An analysis of judicial and agency iii interpretations of the issue offers the legal and conceptual foundation needed to support intervention in wilderness on behalf of endangered species. When the threat of extinction is introduced, interventions aimed at saving a species within a wilderness area are justified on the grounds that the loss of native flora and fauna is an irreversible loss of wilderness character. Fortunately, the needed interventions can be kept within the context of restraint and humility required in wilderness management. iv The Lessons of “Wildness” in Aldo Leopold’s Scientific and Philosophical Journey to the Land Ethic Patrick Kelly – PhD Candidate Franke College of Forestry & Conservation, University of Montana In 1918, at the age of 31, Aldo Leopold began his writings on wilderness preservation by confidently assuring the American public that it was unnecessary (1918). Placing full faith in the managerial prowess of Progressive Era conservation, Leopold (1918) touted the effectiveness of predator control and fire