Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-17954-7 — Sovereignty, International Law, and the French Revolution Edward James Kolla Index More Information

Index

In this index, “annexed” refers to territories annexed by France and “Conquest” refers to French military conquest.

active and passive citizens, 95 as precedent for Belgium, 153, 155 Adélaïde, Princess, 109–110 as precedent for conquest, 6–7 Alexander I (tsar), 271, 273n7 as precedent for Sister Republics, 208 Algeria, 159 as separate from France, 52–53, 53n53, Alpes-Maritimes department, 53n54 148–149, 197 treaty law in, 39, 61–74 Alsace. See also princes possessionnés Alsace-Lorraine, 281n30, 287–288 annexed, 2, 50–55, 75–76 Amelot, Antoine-Léon-Anne, 252–253, autonomous identities in, 30, 75–76 253n199, 257 Conseil souverain of, 51, 52–53, 65 American Civil War (1861–1865), 80, 291 Corsica as precedent for, 155 American Colonies, 27–28, 40, 171–172 departments of France established in, American Revolution, 276–277, 276n17, 54–55 277n18, 277n19 feudalism abolished in, 37, 38–39 ancien régime French respect for customs of, 51, 51n46 Bonaparte’s Italian diplomacy and, 235 French sovereignty in, 50, 50n44 Enlightenment critiques of diplomacy German unification and, 287–288 in, 26–27, 72 Germany’s annexation of, 80 financial crises of, 26–27, 33–34, governmental complexities in, 51–53 53–54 Holy Roman Empire fiefs in, 50 France’s natural boundaries/frontiers international law and, 30–31 and, 165–166 Landeshoheit (territorial sovereignty) international crises of, 27–28 in, 50n43, 50–51 international law in, 11–16 under Louis XIV, 51, 53n53 Merlin on treaty laws of, 64–67 Merlin on, 64–67 Republican reversions to diplomacy of, popular sovereignty in, 2, 20–21, 35, 194–195 37–38, 39, 55, 79, 82, 121–122, 157, revolutionary administration replacing, 208, 262–263 135–136 as precedent for Avignon, 85–86, rights of, retained by French Republic, 87–88, 122 233n111

316

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-17954-7 — Sovereignty, International Law, and the French Revolution Edward James Kolla Index More Information

Index 317

treaties made by, 11–16, 22–23, 64n87, Frances’s objectives and, 125–126n7 71–72, 72n109, 78, 80, 102–103 French alliance with, 129 war waged by, 24, 27–28 French annexation of Belgium Anghie, Antony, 293–294n60 recognized by, 157 Anselme, Jacques Bernard d’, 132–133, Italy and, 217–218, 230, 232, 232n103, 136 232n106, 251, 285–286 Aristotle, 8 peace negotiated with, 196–198, Armstrong, David, 28–29n85 231–232, 233n111, 268 army/armies of France. See also pouvoir Pope Pius VI and, 111, 113 révolutionnaire; war; specific battles; princes possessionnés supported by, specific places 39–40 coercion accusations against, 143 Prussian defeat of (1866), 285–286 decree of December 15 and, 135–138, Roman Sister Republic not recognized 145–148, 159, 228–229 by, 239–240 decree of fraternity and, 135–138 in the Schleswig-Holstein question, mission civilisatrice and, 159 286–287 National Convention on the conduct of, War of the Austrian Succession and, 41 134–135 War of the Second Coalition and, non-interference in occupied territories 225–226 and, 145, 154 Austrian alliance (1756), 72, 129 plunder by, 148–149, 160–162, Avignon 164–165, 177–179, 182–184, overview, 84–120 254, 257 Alsace as precedent for, 85–86, political clubs influenced by, 142–143 87–88, 122 requisitions imposed by, 159, 174–175, annexation opposed, 87–88, 97–98, 178–179, 254–259, 256n214, 102–103, 104–105 268–269, 283 annexation requested, 91, 91n18, Revolution resisted in territories 104, 206 occupied by, 46n29, 102, 104, 137, annexed, 3, 30n92, 84–85, 86–87, 95, 146–148, 152–153, 253, 278–280 107–108n89, 111, 114–120, 236, 1796 advances of, 228 280–281 territorial governments reorganized by, Comtat Venaissin in conflict with, 132–133, 135–136, 162, 163 91–93, 100–101 voting overseen by, 96–97, 139, 143 Comtat Venaissin united with, 87–88, war on tyrants and, 121, 243 93–94, 94n31, 163 Assembly of Notables, 44 Corsica as precedent for, 66–67, 66n96, assignats (French paper currency), 67n97, 85–86, 87–88, 122, 155 175, 257 Enlightenment in, 89–90 Aulard, Alphonse, 20, 20n60, 23–24n68, envoys sent to Paris from, 85–86, 91, 30, 30n90, 124n3, 127, 208–209 91n18, 98, 102–103 Austin, John, 293–294, 293n60, 296, famine in, 90 296n69 French characteristics of, 88–89, Austria 89n11, 203 Bavaria and, 197n136, 235 French mediators sent to, 93–94, Belgium and, 197n136 93n27, 96–97 compensations proposed for, 197n136 French national unity and, 75–76 compensations sought by, 197 French neutrality toward, 92–93 defeat of, in Alsace, 216n32 French occupations of, 90, 90n14 France at war with, 28, 111, French troops sent to, 92–93, 110 121–122n2, 130–131, 225–226, 228 independence of, declared, 95

318 Index

Avignon (cont.) French alliance with, 229–230 international law and, 30–31, 86–88, French domination of, 245–247, 91, 92–93, 113, 118–120 249–250 international status of, 87 French hypocrisy addressed by, papacy and, 84–85, 88, 89–90, 91, 246–247n169 96–97, 104–105, 116–117, French military occupation of, 221, 285 218n39, 219 popular sovereignty in, 3, 10, 20–21, indemnities and requisitions imposed 25, 83, 87, 92–93, 101–108, on, 219, 254 114–116, 117–118, 127–128, 206, Map 5.1, 215 262–263 negotiating with France, 245–247 as precedent for Belgium, 155 pouvoir révolutionnaire and, 218–219 as precedent for conquest, 3–4, 6–7, price controls imposed on, 257n217 108–116 as Sister Republic, 208–209n5 as precedent for Nice, 135 state status of, 241, 265–266 as precedent for Rauracian Bates, David, 76n120, 186n94, Republic, 212 186–187n96 as precedent for the Rhineland, 162 Battle of Fleurus, 156–157, 163–165, as precedent for Savoy, 135 217–218 as precedent for Italy, 208, 230–231 Battle of Jemappes, 131, 138, 157–158 Robespierre on, 92–93 Battle of Neerwinden, 149, 156–157 secession and, 98–99 Battle of Rivoli, 231 self-determination in, 85, 108, 118, Battle of the Nations, 283 119, 281, 282 Battle of Valmy, 130–131, 157–158 in the Seven Years’ War, 90 Battle of Waterloo, 273–274n8 Treaty of Tolentino and, 238n128 Bavaria, 197n136, 230n93, 235 uniﬁcation of, 93–94 Beauharnais, Alexandre de, 173, violence in, 84–85, 86, 93 198n140 voting in, 93–94, 95–98, 112, 121–122, Beauharnais, Eugène de, 264 138, 208 Beaulac, Stephane, 13n31 Azerbaijan, 290–291 Becker, Carl L., 284n36 Belgium Baker, Keith, 16n44, 29n87, Alsace as precedent for, 153 191n113 ambivalence of, toward Bangladesh, 290–291 annexation, 3–4 Barère, Bertrand, 57, 72, 86n6, 141, annexation rejected by citizens 152–153 of, 139 Barnave, Antoine, 59–60 annexation requested by citizens of, Barrin, Viscount de, 46–48, 46n29, 139–141 47n30, 47n31, 47n32 annexed, 121, 140, 141, 156, 157, Barthélemy, François-Marie, 193–194, 159, 227 193n122, 196, 200–201 assignats as required currency in, 175 Basel, 211–212, 222–224, 226n77, 287 Austria and, 197n136 Batavian Republic. See also the Avignon as precedent for, 138–141, Netherlands 143, 152 assignats as required currency in, 257 Corsica as precedent for, 155 constitution of, drafted by France, dynastic rulers of, 128–130, 221 219–220 envoys sent from Paris to, 145 establishment of, 204, 207, 218, 254 envoys sent to Paris from, 138, exploitation of, 204–205 139–140

Index 319

France’s national/cultural boundaries Blanning, T. C. W., 78n126, 124n3, and, 199, 203 125–126n7, 135–136, 157–158, French adherence to principles and, 160–161, 165n10, 191n113, 266–267 230n96 French agents in, 139, 142, 143, 143n66 Blauw, Jacobus, 245 French commercial policies imposed in, Bodin, Jean, 13, 16, 77, 78 175–176 Boissy-d’Anglas, François-Antoine French conquest of, 4 de, 182 French loss and reconquering of, Bologna, 109, 229, 230–231, 231n97, 156–157, 177 249n180 French military control of, 151–152 Bonaparte, Elisa, 264 French view of, as inferior, 155 Bonaparte, Jérome, 264 independence from the Netherlands, Bonaparte, Joseph, 237–238, 264 284–285 Bonaparte, Louis, 264 international law and, 30–31 Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon popular sovereignty in, 5, 10, 122, 145, Bonaparte 152–153 Bos, Maarten, 7n10 pouvoir révolutionnaire in, 145–148, Bosnia, 291 149–155, 208, 241n148, 242n149 Bossuet, Jacques-Bénigne, 16 as precedent for conquest, 6–7 Boswell, James, 36n2 as precedent for Italy, 228–229 Bouche, François Charles, 92, as precedent for Sister Republics, 208 102–103, 104 as precedent for the Netherlands, 217 boundaries of France. See natural rebellions and revolutions in, boundaries/frontiers of France 128–130 Bourbon dynasty, 13–14n33, 22, 90n14, requisitions administration in, 177 239, 240, 260n233, 272, 283–284. secession and, 138 See also Family Compact state status of, 5–6 Brabant Revolution, 128–130, 157 voting in, 121–122, 138–140, Brierly, James Leslie, 7, 8, 8n16, 9 142–143 Briez, Philippe Constant Joseph, 179 war in, 121 Broers, Michael, 94, 259, 259n228, Belissa, Marc, 26n74, 28–29n85, 56n63, 262n240, 263 72n109, 107–108n89, 192n118 Broussy, Antoine, 208–209n5 Bentham, Jeremy, 293, 293n57 Brumaire coup. See Coup of 18 Brumaire Berg (Holy Roman Empire duchy), 1–3, Brune, Guillaume, 223, 225–226, 25, 167–169, 264 247–248, 252–253, 253n199 Berlin Conference (1885), 297, 297n74 Brunswick Manifesto (1792), Bernadotte, Jean, 264 124–125, 137 Bernard, Alphonse-Timothée, Burke, Edmund, 21, 214, 217–218, 296n69 112–113, 237 Bush, George W., 279 Bernard, Hyacinthe, 238–239 Buttafuoco, Matteo, 45 Bernis, Pierre, François-Joachim de Pierre, 109–110 cahiers de doléances (Estates General lists of Berthier, Louis-Alexandre, 238, 250 grievances), 44, 49, 104–105, 105n80 Biafra, 290–291 Caillard, Antoine Bernard, 216, 218, Bignon, Louis Pierre Édouard, 218n38 225–226 Cambon, Pierre-Joseph, 135–136, Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, 172–173, 173n40 212 Carnot, Lazare, 136–137, 173, 187, Bismarck, Otto von, 80, 286–287 200–201, 228, 232n103

320 Index

Carpentras (Comtat Venaissin capital), Comtat Venaissin 91–92, 101, 107 annexed, 84–85, 104–106, 105n80, 107 Carr, Edward Hallett, 8, 73n112, 79 Avignon in conﬂict with, 91–93, Casoni, Philippe, 91–92 100–101 Catalan Rebellion, 274 Avignon united with, 87–88, 93–94, Catherine the Great (empress), 113 94n31, 163 Catus, Charles-Ignace-Pons Bouder Corsica as precedent for, 105–106 de, 220 counter-revolution in, 91–92 Cesari, Colonna, 45 envoys sent to Paris from, 107 Championnet (Jean Étienne Vachier), 239, famine in, 90 239n135, 244, 250, 250n187 French culture of, 88–89 Charitas (papal bull of Pius VI), 110 French neutrality toward, 92–93 Charlemagne (Frankish ruler), 39, 264 papal loyalties in, 91–92, 96–97, Charles I (king), 275n13 105–106, 107–108n89, 152 Charles IX (king), 89 as papal territory, 88, 88n8, 89–90 Charles Martel (Frankish ruler), 102 Pope Pius VI’s loss of, 116–117 Chaussard, Jean-Pierre-Baptiste popular sovereignty in, 100–101, 107, (Publicola), 218–219 123–124, 152 Châtelet, Duke de, 60 Representative Assembly of, 91–92, Chayes, Abram, 9–10, 9n19, 29n86 104–106, 107 China, 290–291 Treaty of Tolentino and, 238n128 Cisalpine Republic violence in, 84–85, 86, 93 Austrian military threats to, 253–254 Concordat (1516), 109 Bonaparte’s manipulations in, 258–259 Condorcet, Nicolas de, 23–24n68, French artillery sold to, 258–259 26–27 French commissioners in, 253–254, Congress of Rastatt (1797–1799), 253n199 197–198 French system of government instituted Congress of Vienna (1814–1815), 116–117, in, 247–248 283–285, 288–289, 293–294, 295 French troops housed in, 254n206 Connaught, Republic of (Irish Sister ministers of, chosen by Bonaparte, 252 Republic), 266 nomenclature of, 233n109 Constituent Assembly (1789–1791), proclaimed, 249–250 17n47, 66n94 republics consolidated into, 232–233 Constitution of 1791 territorial demarcations of, 251–253 declaration of peace in, 23–24n68 Cispadane Republic, 230–231, 232–233, Louis XVI’s acceptance of, 84, 94 249n180 popular sovereignty and, 1–2, 18, 18n53 Cisrhenan Republic, 200–201, 204, 211, wars of conquest rejected in, 23–24n68, 232n103, 233n109, 266. See also the 103–104, 105–106 Rhineland. Constitution of Year III, 210–211, Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 92–93, 219–220, 245 109–110, 152–153, 236 constitutions of Napoleon’s Brother Clarke, Henri-Jacques-Guillaume, 231, Kingdoms, 264, 264n251 232–233, 235, 239–240 Corberon, Nicolas de, 51 Clausewitz, Carl von, 124n3, 230n96 Corsica Cobban, Alfred, 16n44, 127, 281, Alsace compared with, 66–67, 66n96 289–290, 291–292 ancien régime inﬂuence in, 45 Colonna, Yvan, 81n132 annexed, 2, 30n92, 36–37n3, 42–49, Committee of Public Safety, 145, 44n24, 57, 75–76, 79, 278–279 163–164, 178–179, 193–194, 245 Assembly of Notables and, 44 communism, 280–281 autonomy of, 75–76

Index 321

Comtat Venaissin and, 105–106 Cromwell, Oliver, 275 constitution of, 36n2 Custine, Adam-Philippe, 168–170, 174, Consulta of, 41, 81 174n46 Corsu language of, 82, 82n133 in the Estates General, 44, 45 Dahbour, Omar, 119n127 feudalism abolished in, 38–39 Danton, Georges, 165–166, 190 French military administration of, David, Jacques-Louis, 267–268 36, 46 Declaration of Independence (U.S.) (1776), Genoa as overlord of, 36, 39, 40–41, 61 41, 276–277, 276n17, 277n18 Great Britain, 41, 41n10, 44, 61, 81 declaration of peace to the world (1790), 23, identities within, 30, 80–82, 81n130, 23–24n68, 103–104, 111–112, 181 81n132, 82n133 declarations of the law of nations, intendants in, 43n19, 45, 46n29 210–211, 211n12, 292 international law and popular Declaration of the Rights of Man and sovereignty, 30–31 Citizen (1789), 1–2, 18, 29n86, Merlin on, 66–67 260–261, 260n229, 293, 295 National Guard of, 36, 45–48 decree of December 15 (1792) peasantry exploited in, 44, 44n23 abandonment of, 203–204 popular sovereignty in, 2, 10, 20–21, Brussels’s rejection of, 153–155 25, 35, 36, 37–40, 44–45, 48–49, vs. the decree of fraternity, 135–138, 59–60, 59n76, 79, 82, 121–122, 168, 172–173, 206 127–128, 157, 208, 262–263 deﬁnitions and characteristics of, as precedent for Avignon, 85–86, 86n6, 135–138, 148, 172–173, 173n40, 87–88, 122 228–229 as precedent for Belgium, 155 enforcement of, 139, 142 as precedent for conquest, 6–7 French army and, 135–138, 159 as precedent for Sister Republics, 208 levies imposed in advance of, 174–175 in rebellion against Genoa, 36, 40–41 military requisitions prevailing as a republic, 36 over, 173 self-determination in, 282 Mons’s rejection of, 153–154 Spain and, 41n10 Napoleonic empire and, 263 uprisings in, 36, 38–39, 45, 46n28, vs. pouvoir révolutionnaire, 135–136, 47–48, 47n31, 48n33, 61, 79, 172–173 290–291 vs. unworthy citizens, 144 counter-revolution decree of fraternity (November 19, 1792) Alsace and, 63n85 and Berg, 3–4, 167–169 Avignon and, 102 conquest vs., 3–4 in the Comtat Venaissin, 91–92 vs. the decree of December 15, Liège and, 130 135–136, 168, 172–173, 206 popular vs. dynastic sovereignty and, deﬁnitions and characteristics of, 115–116 134–136 and Rome, 109–110 enforcement of, 139 in the Vendée, 170–171, 216n32, 270 French military control of Belgium and, writers advocating, 296n69 151–152 Coup of 18 Brumaire (1799), 6, 6n8, international affairs and, 25 267–268, 267n262 limited to territories at war with Coup of 18 Fructidor (1797), 200–201 France, 168 Covell, Charles, 17n46 military requisitions prevailing over, 173 Crimea, 291–292 Neapolitan Republic and, 250

322 Index

decree of fraternity (cont.) positivism in, 296 origins of, 134–135n33 with the princes possessionnés, 68 renounced in Sister Republics, 258 with Prussia, 195–196 retreat from, 135–136 re-opening of, 204 revoked, 190 the Republic’s existence not negotiable in Switzerland, 212–213 in, 193–194 decree of non-interference (1793), 190, with the Sister Republics, 207–208, 203–204 251–252 Delacroix, Charles-François, 183, 255 of Switzerland, 220–222 Delacroix, Eugène, 255 Diplomatic Revolution (1756), 129 Denmark, 286–287 diplomats Derby, Jean, 226–227 on the army’s conduct in occupied Derché, Jean Joseph, 180n69, 183, 185, territories, 135 185n88 chosen by National Assembly vs. the Desmoulins, Camille, 26–27, 28, 31n93, king, 21–22 34n103, 129–130, 270–271 decree of fraternity and, 168 Desportes, Felix, 223, 223n56, 227 immunity of, 30, 30n91, 198n140 destabilization of European boundaries, National Assembly and, 106 74–79 National Convention and, 134–137, Diet of the Holy Roman Empire. See Holy 140–141 Roman Empire pouvoir révolutionnaire pursued by, diplomacy 224–225 in Alsace, 37, 65–66 Directory (1795–1799) with Austria, 129–130, 197–198 Barthélemy removed from, 200–201 author’s scrutiny of, 26 Batavian Republic charter drafted by, Avignon and, 103–104, 106, 114–115 219–220 with the Batavian Republic, 245–247 Bonaparte promoted by, 228 of Bonaparte in Campo Formio Bonaparte’s regimes and, 260, treaty, 235 260n229 breakdown in, 171–172 Carnot removed from, 200–201 conflicting imperatives in, 1–2, 157, on compensation for First Coalition 202–203 sovereigns, 235 conquest and, 182–184 conquered territories under, 5–6 Corsica and, 43–44, 82 conquest reconsidered by, 192–193, crises dictating behavior of, 292 192n118 of the Directory, 267 corruption in, 262 dynastic control and operations of, 276 end of, 5–6, 6n8, 267 Enlightenment critiques of, in ancien Faipoult as agent of, in Genoa, 236 régime, 26–27, 72 Neapolitan Republic and, 239n135 of France in the Cisalpine Republic, popular sovereignty and, 271 251–252, 251–252n192 the Republic’s survival and, 202–203 of France vs. the Holy Roman the Revolution’s wars and, 28–29n85 Empire, 37 Sister Republic requisitions required with free governments only, 218 by, 256 with Genoa, 60–61, 79 Swiss unification imposed by, national unification and, 293–294 225–226 as a necessity for the Republic, 204 unification aims of, 270–271 in the Netherlands, 217 war on Rome declared by, 238 with the papacy, 110–112, 237 doctrinal writers on international law, popular sovereignty and, 292–297 292–297

Index 323

Dombes (territory in France), 118 England. See Great Britain Doppet, François Amédée, 132 Englund, Steven, 230–231, 233n109, Doyle, William, 36–37n3 235n112, 261n235 Dubois, Laurent, 32n97, 33n100 Enlightenment, 26, 26n74, 28–29n85, 33, Ducos, Roger, 267 72, 89–90, 166n16, 282n33 Dufourny de Villiers, Louis-Pierre, 99, Erignac, Claude, 81 99n52, 106, 116, 119–120, Eritrea, 290–291 280–281, 292 Eschassériaux, Joseph, 189–191, Dumont, Jean, 55–56 190n109 Dumouriez, Charles-François Estates General, 44, 45, 75n117, 76 on Avignon and war, 114 European boundaries’ destabilization, battles won by, 130–131 74–79 in Belgium, 130, 145 exploitation. See military indemnities and defection of, 149, 155 requisitions feudal rights and obligations, 63n85 Faipoult, Guillaume-Charles, 232, 236, on French-Belgian national 240, 258, 260 differences, 199 Family Compact, 22–24, 72, 114 in the Netherlands, 216 Ferdinand III (grand duke), 240–241n145 on popular sovereignty, 20 Ferdinand IV (king), 239, 240 Duphot, Léonard Mathurin, 237–238 Ferri, Marco, 258–259 Dutch Crisis, 27–28 Festival of the Federation, 134–135n33 Dutch Republic, 214–216 feudal rights and obligations abolished Dutch Revolt (1568–1648), 128, 274 in Alsace, 37, 38–39, 61, 71, 73, 74–75, 78–80 Edelstein, Dan, 28n84, 147n79, 150–151, in Corsica, 74–75 151n97 Dumouriez on, 63n85 Edelstein, Melvin, 95n35 in France, 37, 53–54, 54n58, 61, Ehrlich, Eugen, 8 74–75, 109 Ehrlich, Thomas, 9–10, 29n86 in Germany, 77 Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648), Merlin’s rationales for, 64–77 128, 214 Montmorin on, 63 Elba, 262–263, 273–274n8 popular sovereignty and, 74–75 elections. See voting princes possessionnés and, 37–38, 55, electoral assemblies. See also voting 63n85, 67–71 in Avignon, 87, 91 Roman Catholic Church and, 109 in Belgium, 138, 139–140, feudal territorial holdings, 76–77, 142–143 101–102, 106, 114–115 in Corsica, 44 First World War (1914–1918), 85, 264, discredited, 232 281, 284–285, 288–289, in Italy, 232 290n52, 298 Jacobin manipulation of, 157 Flotte (French agent in Genoa), 56–58, in Monaco, 136–137 60–61, 61n81 in Nice, 142–143 Foreign Ministry of France (ancien popular sovereignty and, 232 régime), 11 in the Rhineland, 162, 168–170 Fouché, Joseph, 257 in Savoy, 142–143 France in 1789, Map 1.1, 38 Elliot, John, 274n11 France’s Eastern Boundaries in 1792, Enghien, Louis Antoine, Duke d’, Map 3.1, 123 272–273 Francis I (king), 89, 109

324 Index

Francis II (archduke and emperor), general will, 63, 80, 142, 150n95, 121–122n2, 124, 172, 196–197, 231, 167–168, 271. See also Rousseau, 233–235, 264 Jean Jacques Franck, Thomas, 10n21 Geneva, 226–227, 227n82 Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), Génin, Jean-François, 156–157 287–288 Genoa Frankfurt, 174 Consiglietto of, 57 Frederick William II (king), 124 Corsica controlled by, 40–41, 236 Fredrick the Great (king), 188 Corsica’s rebellion against, 36, 40–41 French Republic French intervention in, 236, 244 ancien régime rights retained by, Great Britain and, 57, 58, 61 233n111 Holy Roman Empire and, 57 Avignon and Comtat Venaissin ceded as an independent city-state, 40 to, 116–117 Ligurian Republic in, 236 Belgian unity with, 155 requisitions imposed on, 256 dignity of, in peace, 201 Spain and, 56–57 establishment of, 5, 131 Genoa-France treaty (1768), 36, 42–49, holdings of, on the left bank of the 55–61, 73, 79 Rhine, 195–196, 195n130 George III (king), 81 independent republics’ formation Georgia, 290–291 encouraged by, 200–201 German Confederation, 286, 287 King of Sardinia’s concessions to, 157 Germany made universal, 241 Great Britain vs., 285–286, 285n38 monarchs recognizing, 240–241n145 feudal relationships within, 76–77 motherhood metaphors applied to, 144 as Francis II’s compensation, 196 natural boundaries/frontiers of, French occupation in, 174 negotiated, 193n122, 194–195 national uniﬁcation of, 284–285, Netherlands incorporated into, 207 286–289, 293–294 Pope Pius VI’s concessions to, 116–117 Nazi Germany, 280 recognition of, as absolutely requisite, peace negotiated with, 232n102 193–194 in the Schleswig-Holstein question, Savoy’s incorporation into, 132 286–287 survival of, 202–203 Switzerland and, 222–223 Fréteau, Emmanuel-Marie-Michel- treaty law in, 77–78 Philippe, 73, 73n114 war against Napoleon in, 270 Frey, Linda and Marsha, 198n140 Girondins (political faction), 125–126n7, Fronte di Liberazione Naziunale Corsu 211n14 (FLNC), 81, 81n130 Gladstone, William Ewart, 288, 288n46, frontiers of France. See natural 293–294 boundaries/frontiers of France Gobel, Jean-Baptiste, 152 Furet, François, 17, 21n62 Godechot, Jacques, 160–161, 254n206 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, Galeazzini, J.-B., 45, 48 130–131 Gallo, Marzio Mastrilli, Marquis of, 233 Gou, Leonard de, 208–209 Garat, Dominique, 59–60 Great Britain Gardener, John, 293 American Revolution and, 276–277, Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 285–286 276n17 Garran, Jean-Philippe, 184, 188–189 Congress of Vienna and, 284 Gauthier, Florence, 134–135n33 Corsica and, 41, 41n10, 44, 61, 81

Index 325

deprived of trade in Europe, 242 Sardinia and, 131–132 France’s conquered territories and, Savoy in, 138 188–189 Harouel, Jean-Louis, 211n14, 280n26 Genoa and, 57, 58, 61 Helvetic Republic. See also Switzerland vs. Germany, 285–286, 285n38 cantons reluctant to join, 258, 258n223 international law violations of, 273 establishment of, 207, 225 Italian national uniﬁcation supported failure of, 208–209n5 by, 285–286 French appointment of directors Italy and, 227, 239 in, 252 Napoleon’s blockade of, 265n253 French commissioners in, 253 the Netherlands and, 214, 217–218, French constitutional basis of, 248 217n36 French domination of, 247–249 in the Nootka Sound crisis, 22 French troops crossing territory of, 252 popular sovereignty and, 61, 61n81 Map 5.2, 221 Prussian accusations against, 197 state status of, 241, 265–266 republican governments of, 275, the Vendée and, 268–269, 270 275n12 Hemmerle, Oliver, 210, 262n241 on the Revolution’s conception of Henkin, Louis, 10n21, 278–279 liberty, 172 Henrichemont (principality in Russia and, 188–189 France), 118 at war with France, 171 Hinsley, Francis Harry, 19 Great Fear, 53–54 Hirschman, Albert O., 25n72 Greece, 284 Hobbes, Thomas, 14–15n37, 106, Grégoire, Henri, 136, 161–162, 185–186, 185n90, 186n94, 187n98 166n16, 210–211, 211n12, Hoche, Lazare, 187, 200–201, 232n103 211n13, 292 Hoensbroeck, Prince-Bishop, 130 Grewe, Wilhelm G., 12n28, 29–30n89, Hofmann, Joseph, 169–170, 170n27 85n4, 165n12, 288–289 Holland. See the Netherlands Grisons (Swiss canton), 258, 258n223 Holy Roman Empire Grotius, Hugo, 13–14, 154, 185–186, abolition of, 229n91, 264 185–186n90, 275n13, 294, Alsace annexed from, 37 296n72 Alsatian ﬁefs of, 37, 50, 52–55 Guasco, J. B., 48 Avignon annexation rejected by, 3 Guernes, Jean Joseph Marie de, 42 Belgium within, 128 Gulick, Edward Vose, 19n57 Diet of, 55, 67n97, 68–71 Gustav III (king), 124–125 France as threat to, 196n135 Guyot, Joseph-Nicolas, 64 French invasion of, 162 Guyot, Raymond, 235n112, 267 French national unity and, 75–76 Genoa and, 57 Haiti, 32. See also St. Domingue as multi-state empire, 162 Hamilton, Alexander, 22–23n65 princes possessionnés and, 39–40, Habsburg empire 62, 68 Alsace and, 37 sovereignty and, 43–44, 50–51 Austria as head of, 39 at war with France, 67n97 Belgium in, 128, 138, 163 Holy See. See popes; Rome (as Holy See) end of, 264, 289 Hombourger, René, 72n109 French alliance with, 129, 157 Horatian Ode (Marvel), 275 indemnities proposed for, 235n113 human rights, 30, 30n91 Italy and, 227 Hunter, Ian, 14–15n37 princes possessionnés and, 39 Huxelles, Marquis d’, 51, 69–70

326 Index

intendants (French royal representatives), Sister Republics and, 207 43n19, 45, 46n29, 51, 53, 252–253 treaties as basis of, 15–16, 55–56 International Court of Justice, 290 wars of conquest and, 4, 6–7, 15–16, international law 15n39, 23–24 American Revolution and, 276–277, international law and popular sovereignty 276n17 client states created by, 34 ancien régime and, 11–16 decree of fraternity and, 134–135 Avignon and, 86–88, 91, 92–93, 113, historiography of, 25–33 118–120 ignored in the Revolution’s history, British violations of, 273, 273n7 25–33, 297–298 codification of, 8–10, 8n14, 15 legacies of, 270–274, 278, 290–292, in colonial contexts, 31–33, 32n96, 297–298 32n98, 32n99 Napoleonic empire and, 6–7 definitions and characteristics of, 7–11 National Assembly and, 85–86, 92–93 doctrinal writers on, 292–297 and national sovereignty, 281 Dufourny on, 119–120 persistence of, 283–289 Duke d’Enghien affair and, 272–273 princes possessionnés and, 39–40, 62 dynastic control and operations of, revolutionary ideology and, 126–127 11–16, 15n39, 35, 122–124, 276 unintended consequences of, 34, 82, equality among nations and, 280–281 273–274, 277–278 French claims to superiority and, Irhoven van Dam, Willem van, 245 280–281 Israel, 290–291 French Revolution’s legacy in, 293–294 Italian Sister Republics the general will and, 95 Bonaparte’s armies’ pillaging in, Genoese citations of, 71 254–255 German unification in violation of, constitutions of, 249n180 284–285, 286–289, 293–294 French army in, 228–229 historical school of, 294–297 French domination of, 229–230n92, historiography of, 29–33, 30n89 249–250 Italian unification in violation of, French interference in, 251–259 284–286, 293–294 indemnities imposed on, 249–250 legitimacy indicators of, 10n21 and the Holy Roman Empire, 229n91 Napoleonic empire and, 265, 268–269, Map 5.3, 234 271n4, 273n7 popular sovereignty and, 229–230, non-interference as basis of, 190 250 observance vs. non-observance of, requisitions imposed on, 254–255 278–279 self-determination in, 282 Oppenheim’s International Law, 297 state status of, 241, 249–250, 265–266 Peace of Westphalia and, Italy 12–13n29, 273 Austria and, 217–218, 230, 232, Pope Pius VI’s citation of, 111 232n103, 232n106, 251, 285–286 positivism in, 293–298, 294n60 Avignon as precedent for, 230–231 princes possessionnés’s citations of, Belgium as precedent for, 228–229 67–71 Bonaparte in, 227–240, 262n239 as public law of Europe, 12, 12n28 Eugène de Beauharnais as Viceroy revolutionaries’ rejection of, 26n74 of, 264 the Revolution’s significance for France’s strategic interests in, 227, (overview), 270–298 229–230 Robespierre and, 126n8 French claims to superiority in, 263 self-determination in, 85 French conquests in, 197, 232n103

Index 327

French-Prussian peace treaty and, Koskenniemi, Martti, 7n12, 8–9 204 Krabbe, Hugo, 297–298 French revolutionizing resented in, Kubben, Raymond, 10n22, 208–209n5, 263n245 209–210n8, 251n191 homogeneity with France, 231 indemnities imposed on, 229 Lafayette, Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de, national uniﬁcation of, 285–286, 131, 134–135n33 293–294 La Grange, Jacques de, 51 neutrality of, 227 La Harpe, Frédéric-César de, 222 requisitions imposed on, 256 Lamennais, Hugues-Félicité Robert de, the Rhineland as precedent for, 296n69 228–229, 231 Lameth, Charles de, 23 self-determination for, 281n30 Lansing, Robert, 119, 289–290, war against Napoleon in, 270 290n50, 298 Lapidé, Hypolitus A., 66n96 Jacobins (political club), 142–143 La Révellière-Lépeaux, Louis Marie de, in Chambery, 132 232n103 Dutch patriots’ appeals to, 214–216 Lauterpacht, Hersch, 13–14 in Italy, 231n97 The Law of Nations (Vattel), 11 in Mainz, 169n25 League of Nations, 296n70 Milton’s Pro Populo Anglicano Lebrun-Tondu, Pierre, 131, 137–138, Defensio and, 275–276n15 141, 167–168, 171 in Monaco, 133 Lecarlier d’Ardon, Marie Jean François motherland metaphors expressed Philibert, 224–225 in, 144 Lefebvre, Georges, 54n58, 66n94, in the Rhineland, 168–170 232n103 of Tournai, 158 legal conscience, 297–298 voting inﬂuenced by, 157 Lenin, Vladimir, 289–290, 290n52 Jacobs, Beatrix, 209–210n8, 283–284n35 Lentz, Thierry, 6n8, 260n234 Jainchill, Andrew, 180n66, 188n102, Leopold II (emperor), 55, 113, 129 199n146, 210n11, 241, 241n146 Lerner, Marc H., 208–209n5, 248n178 Japan, 280 Lesaffer, Randall, 9–10, 29–30n89, Jaucourt, Louis de, 15 209–210n8, 283–284n35 Joan (queen), 88, 102–103 Lesage-Senault, Gaspard, 156–157 Jordan, David, 255, 262n239, 263, Leuwers, Hervé, 67n97 263n244 levée-en-masse (French military Joseph II (emperor), 55, 129 conscription), 5, 163–172 Jospin, Lionel, 283–284n35 Leviathan (Hobbes), 14–15n37 Joubert, Barthélemy Catherine, 239 Liège, 128–129, 130, 138, 140–141, 183, Jourdan, Annie, 208–209n5, 261n235 200–201 Jourdan, Jean-Baptiste, 228 Liège, Prince-Bishop of, 129, 130 Ligurian Republic, 236. See also Genoa Kant, Immanuel, 210, 210n9, 292 Locke, John, 186n94 Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton, 124–125 Lombardy, 229–230, 232–235, Keitner, Chimène, 166n18, 187n99 236, 285 Kellermann, François, 130–131 London Protocol (1852), 287 Kemiläinen, Aira, 21n61, 107–108n89 Louis XIV (king), 13–14n33, 28, 51, Kennedy, Michael, 142–143 53n53, 90n14, 241 Kléber, Jean-Baptiste, 267n261 Louis XV (king), 74, 90n14 Koch, Christophe-Guillaume, 71n108 Louis XVI (king) Koselleck, Reinhart, 279n21 authority of, challenged, 22–24

328 Index

Louis XVI (king) (cont.) jokes at the expense of, 69 Charles I and, 275–276n15 legal training of, 64 as constitutional monarch, 261n235 on national unity, 199 Constitution of 1791 and, 18, 84, 94 on popular sovereignty vs. treaty law, Corsica and, 45–48, 49, 86n5 64, 66, 79–80, 83 discredited, 27–28, 124–125 pouvoir révolutionnaire justified by, execution of, 5, 137, 157–158 152–153 flight to Varennes, 94n31, 124–125 princes possessionnés indemnities as King of the French, 261 proposed by, 67, 67n97, 83n135, 153 Louis XVIII (king), 125 Rousseau invoked by, 75–76n119, Louvois, Marquis de, 51 76n120 Lowenfeld, Andreas, 9–10, 29n86 on secession, 75–76, 98–99, 138, Lyons, Martin, 260 274, 289 treaties respected by, 72–74, Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de, 55–56, 73n112, 80 56n63, 180 Metternich, Klemens von, 197–198, MacDonald, Jacques, 239–240 198n140, 284n37, 285–286 Mack, Karl von, 239–240 Milan, 229, 230–231 Madison, James, 22–23n65 military indemnities and requisitions. See Mainz, 169–171, 169n25, 171n32, also army/armies of France; war; 174n46 indemnities or requisitions in specific Maistre, Joseph de, 296n69 places Malouet, Pierre Victor, 99, 103–104, 115 as absolute in the Rhineland, 173 Mancini, Pasquale, 294, 296 administration of, 176–177 Manela, Erez, 290n52 backlash against, 206–207 Marie-Antoinette (queen), 27–28, 89n11, as a French imperative, 181 124–125, 129 French laws requiring, 177–179 Martens, Georg von, 55–56, 292–293 French officials’ complaints regarding, Martin, Jean-Clément, 24n70, 172n37 175–176, 257 Marvell, Andrew, 275 imposed in friendly states, 174–175 Marxism, 280n27 justifications for, 174–175, 179–181 Masséna, André, 256 Mill, John Stuart, 285–286, 288n46 Mathiez, Albert, 54n58 Miller, Mary Ashburn, 150n95 Maupeou, René Nicolas Charles Augustin Milton, John, 275–276, 275n13, 275n15 de, 74 Mirabeau, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, Count Maury, Jean-Sifrein, 97, 103–104, de, 24n70, 59–60, 61, 72–74, 238–239 73n111, 80, 109–110 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 295n66, 296n70, 298 Moldova, 290–291 Mengaud, Joseph, 223–224, 224n62, Monaco, 30n90, 133, 136–137, 173 224n67, 225, 226n77, 243, 247–248, Mons, 153–154, 153n108 251, 252 Mont-Blanc department, 132, 156, 197 Menou, Jacques-François de, 93–94, Monteil, Marquis de, 43, 43n19 102–103, 106–107, 260 Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Merlin de Douai, Philippe Antoine Baron de La Brède et de, 14–15 on the abolition of feudal rights, 64–77 Montesquieu-Fézensac, Anne Pierre de, on Belgium’s annexation, 156–157 132, 186n94 on Corsica, 66–67 Montmorin, Armand Marc, Count de, French national unity and, 75–76, 58–59, 62–63, 64, 109–110, 129–130 75–76n119, 76n120, 83, 187, Mont-Terrible department, 213 187n99 Moreau, Jacob-Nicolas, 11

Index 329

Moreau, Jean Victor Marie, 228 Sister Republics proclaimed by, Moreton, Jacques Henri de, 148 230–231, 232n103, 236 Morgan, Edmund, 19 in Switzerland, 222 Mornet, Daniel, 25, 27n78 Napoleonic empire motherhood metaphors, 144 overview, 259–277 Moulinas, René, 85, 87, 117–118 Brother Kingdoms of, 264, 264n252, Mulhouse (Alsatian/Swiss city), 220, 270–271 226–227 conflicting aspects of, 262n242 Murat, Joachim, 264 decree of December 15 and, 263 Murati, Pierre Paul, 48–49 French claims to superiority and, 263, 263n248, 268–269 Naples, 88, 90n14, 102, 264, 285. See also Great Britain to be blockaded by, Neapolitan Republic 265n253 Napoleon Bonaparte independent states dominated by, administrative vs. representative 260n233 government preferred by, 262 international law and, 265, 268–269, Campo Formio treaty and, 235, 271n4, 273n7 235n112 Map 6.1, 272 Cisalpine Republic proclaimed by, Napoleon III and, 6n9 249 popular sovereignty in, 259, 265, Cisalpine ministers chosen by, 252 268, 271 Commander of the Army of Italy, 228 pouvoir révolutionnaire in, 263, 271n4 Corsica’s annexation and, 42 the Republic replaced by, 262n241 coup of 18 Brumaire of, 6, 6n8, requisitions required from satellites 267–268, 267n262 of, 283 David’s painting of, 267–268 Revolution’s ideals spread by, 283–284, defeated, 283 283–284n35 diplomatic immunity and, 198n140 state autonomy challenged by, the Directory and, 260, 260n229 209n7 in Egypt, 266, 267, 267n261 unification aims of, 270–271 as Emperor of the French, 261 National Assembly (1789–1791) exile(s) of, 273–274n8 Alsatian compensations decided by, as First Consul, 261n235, 267 54–55 historiography of, 259–260 ancien régime treaties and, 73–74 Italian Sister States created by, 6–7 Avignon-Comtat unification decreed in Italy, 227–240 by, 94 popular sovereignty and, 6–7, 260–263, Avignon’s annexation and, 3, 106–107, 260n229, 260n234, 283 109–112 as pragmatic improviser, 265 Avignon’s envoys to, 85–86, 91, 91n18, as public authority in Bologna, 98, 102–103 249n180 Civil Constitution of the Clergy and, public opinion molded by, 262, 109–110 262n239 Corsica and, 36, 48–49, 86, 86n5 revolutionary messianism of, 263, Declaration of the Rights of Man and 263n244 Citizen and, 1–2 royalist uprising defeated by, 228 deputies elected to, 96n37 Russia and, 271, 273n7, 283 foreign ambassadors’ refusal to Salicetti and, 45 acknowledge, 22 self-assessment of, 230 formation of, 66n94 Sister Republic requisitions imposed Genoa-France treaty contravened by, 256 by, 56

330 Index

National Assembly (1789–1791) (cont.) national identity and, 198–199, 203 Genoa’s demands rejected by, 59–60 Nice/Savoy and, 166 indemnities proposed for Rome by, proper extent of, 199n146 113–114 the Pyrenees and, 198–199 vs. international law, 85–86, 92–93 the Rhineland and, 201 Louis XVI’s authority challenged by, Sister Republics and, 209–210n8 22–24 as strategic imperative, 184–185, mediators sent to Avignon by, 93–94, 190–192 93n27 natural law, 126n8, 185–186n90, popular sovereignty made legal 293, 296 determinant by, 37–38 Neapolitan Republic, 239–240, vs. the princes possessionnés, 64–77 239n135, 244, 250n187, 266. National Convention (1792–1795) See also Naples on the army’s conduct in occupied Nedham, Marchamont, 275 territories, 134–135 Neff, Steven, 290n53, 296 Berg’s appeal for annexation Nelson, Horatio, 239, 240 and, 1–3 the Netherlands. See also Batavian Committee of Public Safety and, 145 Republic decree of fraternity revoked by, 190 Austrian losses in, 217–218 envoys sent to Belgium by, 139, 145 British losses in, 217–218 envoys sent to Berg by, 167–169 Great Britain vs. France in, 188–189 formation of, 66n94 French alliance with, 171–172, Nice’s annexation and, 132–133, 135 214–216 vs. the princes possessionnés, 67n97 French army in, 156–157, 163–164 Rhineland sovereignty accepted Great Britain and, 214 by, 170 indemnities imposed on, 229, 247 Savoy’s annexation and, 135 indemnities proposed for, 247n172 national self-determination. See popular invasion of, considered, 216–217 sovereignty; self-determination Kingdom of, 284–285 nationalism, 165n10, 282–283, 282n34, Louis Bonaparte as king of, 264 288, 288n46, 294, 296n69, popular sovereignty and, 205, 242–243 296n70, 298 provinces uniting with France, 140n51 national sovereignty pouvoir révolutionnaire in, 242n149, evolving from dynastic sovereignty, 242n151 16n44, 281 requisitions imposed on, 256 German uniﬁcation and, 286 revolutions in, 208–209n5, 214–216, international law and, 281 217n35, 218 origins of, 281 the Rhineland as precedent for, popular sovereignty and, 16n44, 20–21, 228–229 21n61, 281 as a Sister Republics, 6, 247n173 princes possessionnés and, 78n126 southern regions of, 156–157, 163–164 revolutionary foreign policy and, Talleyrand in, 130 166n18 at war with France, 171 natural boundaries/frontiers of France Nice annexed territories at, 143n62 as the Alpes-Maritimes department, buffer territories and, 266–267 148–149, 197 Danton on, 190–191 annexed, 4, 132–133, 148–149, 166 governance legitimated by, 150n95 Avignon as precedent for, 135 historiography of, 165–166, 165n12, envoys sent to Paris from, 132–133, 166n17 139–140

Index 331

France’s natural boundaries/frontiers in the French-Austrian peace and, 166 negotiations, 196–197 French characteristics of, 132–133 international law and, 12–13n29, 273 French invasion of, 132–133 Palatinate invasion justified by, 173n42 French recruitment in, 148–149 the princes possessionnés’s citations of, played against Savoy, 148–149 68–70 popular sovereignty in, 115, 122, 135 significance of, 109 as precedent for Sister Republics, 208 territorial sovereigns’ holdings as precedent for Switzerland, 222 protected under, 50n44, 51n45, 53 Treaty of Paris and, 240–241n145 as treaty law, 68 voting in, 208 Treaty of Münster in, 50, 51n45 Nigeria, 290–291 Pérès, Emmanuel, 170–171, 184, Noël, François-Joseph-Michel, 188–189, 200n147 219–220 “Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch” non-interference policy, 137–138, 145, (Kant), 292 154, 190, 203–204, 248 Pétion de Villeneuve, Jérôme, 59–60, 94, Nootka Sound crisis, 22–23, 25, 72 102–103 Nussbaum, Arthur, 29–30n89, 85, Piedmont, 60–61, 204, 240–241n145, 185–186n90, 87 285–286 Nys, E., 15n42 Pieri, Charles, 81n130 Pillnitz Declaration (1791), 124–125, Ochs, Peter, 222, 223–224, 224n62 137 Ofuatry-Kodjoe, Wentworth, 282n33, Pitt, William, 28 290n52 plebiscites. See voting Oppenheim, Lassa, 29 Poland, 35, 103–104, 125–126n7, 189, Oppenheim’s International Law, 297 199–200, 200n147, 281n30 political liberty vs. popular sovereignty, Pacificus-Helvidius debate, 22–23n65 101–108 pacta sunt servanda (agreements must be Pommereul, François René Jean de, observed), 55–56, 56n62, 78 229–230 Padua Circular (1791), 124–125, 137 Pope Leo X, 109 Pagden, Anthony, 29 Pope Pius VI Paine, Thomas, 21n63, 24 Avignon and, 86–87, 91 Palatinate, 173, 173n42 Civil Constitution of the Clergy and, Palestinians, 290–291 92–93, 110 Palmer, R. R., 276–277, 276n16 Comtat Venaissin and, 91–92, 107 Paoli, Pasquale, 36, 36n2, 40–41, 41n12, constitutions rejected by, 84–85 43, 61, 80–81, 276n16 Corsica’s precedent invoked by, Papal States, 83, 236–237, 238, 285 105–106 parlements (French regional law exile and death of, 238 courts), 74 France and, 103–104, 110–112 Parma, Duke of, 251 National Assembly’s deference Pascal, Blaise, 159 toward, 92 Peace of Amiens (1802), 251n191 popular sovereignty invoked by, Peace of Baden (1714), 68 105–106 Peace of Rastatt (1714), 68 Revolution and, 109 Peace of Westphalia (1648). See also Treaty of Tolentino and, 116–117, 238 Treaty of Münster Pope Pius VII, 117, 261 Alsace and, 37, 39, 67, 79, 287–288 popes. See also Rome (as Holy See) ambiguities in, 50–51 authority of, challenged, 12

332 Index

popes (cont.) legal conscience as foundation of, Avignon holdings of, 75–76, 88, 89–90, 297–298 90n14 manipulation of, 127, 142–143 Comtat Venaissin holdings of, 88, Merlin on, 64, 66 89–90 in the Middle Ages, 274, 274n9 French annexation of Avignon and, Napoleon’s conception of, 6–7 87–88 Napoleon’s downfall and, 283 in Italian Sister Republics, 229n91 as national self-determination, sovereignty of, violated, 92–93 281–282n31, 282, 282n32 temporal authority of, 111–112, national sovereignty and, 20–21, 111n101 20n60, 166n18 popular sovereignty. See also international vs. royal authority, 22–23 law and popular sovereignty; self- persistence of, 283–289 determination; territorial claims; vs. political liberty, 101–108 voting prerequisites for, 123–124, 145, advent of, in France, 16–21 146–148, 152 ancien régime diplomacy and, 194–195 Republican indivisibility and, 187, in Belgium, 145 193–194 competing claims of, 102, 104–105, 107 Republican supremacy and, 202–203 as conquest justification, 3–4, 5–6, revolutionary political virtue superior 10, 60 to, 153 Constitution of 1791 and, 18n53 Rousseau and, 16–18, 127–128 vs. the decree of fraternity, 135–136 royal sovereignty and, 1–2, 16, 18–19, definitions and characteristics of, 106, 157 19–21, 19n57, 19n58, 20n60, 282 secession and, 76–77, 98–99 difficulties in determining, 95–101 significance of, 16, 16n44 discredited, 270 subordinated to French interests, doctrinal writers on, 292–297 229–230 Dufourny vs., 116 and the Terror, 95 vs. dynastic sovereignty, 78, 135–136 as uncodified, 298 European boundaries destabilized by, unintended consequences of, 25–27, 74–79 160, 277 evolution in policies of, 28–29, Porrentruy (Swiss municipality), 211–213, 164–165, 165n10, 281 214, 232n102. See also Rauracian vs. feudal rights and obligations, 63, Republic 74–75 Portiez, Louis, 170–171, 184, 188–189, foreign affairs and, 21–24 200n147, 241n148, 242, 242n149, foreign invasion and, 5–6 242n151 French national unity and, 76–77 Portugal, 113, 171 Great Britain and, 61 Portuguese Rebellion, 274 imposition of, 5, 172–173 Poussielgue, Jean-Baptiste-Etienne, 241 instructions to the army regarding, pouvoir révolutionnaire (revolutionary 134–135 power) international law and (overview), Barère’s justification of, 152–153 35–83 vs. Belgian national sovereignty, international vs. domestic applications 153–155 of, 1–2, 25, 31, 31n93, 121–122, 127, vs. choice of government, 157–158 134–135 contradiction of, 145–155 invoked by post-revolutionary crises leading to, 4–5, 158, 163–164 generations, 278 vs. the decree of December 15, 172–173

Index 333

definitions and characteristics of, 146, Prussia 161–162, 213 Austria defeated by (1866), 285–286 evolution of, 150–151, 151n97 France defeated by (1870–1871), imposed on the unwilling, 121, 285–286, 287–288 123–124, 137, 144, 146–148, France invaded by (1793), 130–131 152–153, 278–280 indemnities proposed for, 194–195, justifications for, 121–124, 146, 194n123 151–153, 180 peace negotiated with, 164, 192–193, on the left bank of the Rhine (overview), 194–195, 196–197, 197n136, 160–205 203–204, 233n111 military requisitions prevailing in the Schleswig-Holstein question, over, 173 286–287 the Mountain vs., 190–192, 190n109 war declared on, 28 as natural right, 150–151, 150n95 public law of Europe, 12 in occupied territories, 149–150 popular sovereignty and, 122–124, Quebec, 290–291 127–128, 137, 145–155, 158–159, Qu’est-ce que le Tiers état? (Sieyès), 17–18 161–162, 172–173, 242–243 Quod aliquandum (papal bull of Pius rationales for, 153n108 VI), 110 relaxation of, 241n148, 242, 242n149, 242n151 Ranke, Leopold von, 27, 27n81, 77n124, Robespierre vs., 150–151, 190–192 124n3, 125, 125–126n7 Rousseau and, 127–128, 128n11 Rapinat, Jean-Jacques, 251, 252, Pragmatic Sanction (1549), 128 258–259 primary assemblies. See electoral Rauracian Republic, 211–212. See also assemblies Porrentruy princes possessionnés (Alsatian propertied Rayneval, Joseph Matthias Gérard de, 11 nobles) Realpolitik, 202, 209–210n8, 298 allies of, vs. France, 39–40 Redslob, Robert, 9n17 Alsatian fiefs of, 52–55 Reformation, 12 ancien régime and, 39 Renan, Ernest, 85n4 counter-revolution and, 68 Reubell, Jean-François, 192–193, 201, feudal rights abolition rejected by, 222, 232n103 37–38, 55, 63n85, 67–71, 73n112 revolutionary power. See pouvoir French-Austrian war and, 83, 83n135 révolutionnaire as French vassals, 37–38 Revolutionary Triennium, 228 Germany and, 77n124 Révolutions de France et de Brabant indemnities for, 55, 62–63, 67, (Desmoulins), 129–130 67n97, 113 Revolutions of 1848, 287 lands of, impounded, 67n97 Rhenogerman National Convention, Peace of Westphalia and, 50 168–170 vs. popular sovereignty, 39, 68, 69 the Rhineland. See also Cisrhenan Revolution’s impact on, 53–55 Republic treaty law and, 61–74, 67n97, annexations in, 198 278–279 assignats as required currency in, 175 Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio (Milton), Aulard on, 30n90 275n13, 275–276n15 Avignon as precedent for, 162 Provence, 74–75, 88, 99, 102–103, Custine’s occupation of, 174 117–118 electoral assemblies in, 162, 168–170 Provence, Count of, 124–125 envoys sent to Paris from, 170

334 Index

the Rhineland (cont.) The Rights of Man (Paine), 24 essay competition on, 179–181, Rivaud, François, 251–252, 253–254 182, 188 Roberjot, Claude, 182–183, 188–189 exploitation of, 174–187, 190–191, Robespierre, Maximilien 201, 204–205 annexations opposed by, 164 France regaining control in, 5, 156–157 on armed missionaries, 191, 264n249, French adherence to principles and, 271, 279–280 266–267 Avignon annexation supported by, 98, French nationalism and, 203 106–107, 167, 190–192 French plundering of (overview), on colonial France, 32–33, 33n100 160–205 decree of fraternity and, 134–135n33 French sovereignty in, 168–170 Dufourny vs., 116 geography of, 163 on Enlightenment philosophes, 26 ideological vs. pragmatic views of, foreign policy shifts of, 190–192, 202 188–189 on the global spread of the Revolution’s international law and, 30–31 ideals, 283–284, 284n36 Jacobin clubs in, 168–170 international law and, 126n8 as precedent for conquest, 6–7 on Louis XVI’s execution, 158 as precedent for Holland, 228–229 overthrown, 164, 192–193 as precedent for Italy, 228–229, 231 popular sovereignty and, 21, 92–93 as precedent for Switzerland, 228–229 vs. pouvoir révolutionnaire, 190–192 requisitions imposed on, 283 Realpolitik of, 192n117 Rhenogerman National Convention in, reign of, 5 168–170 on the Terror, 181–182n71, 279n24 Savoy as precedent for, 162 war opposed by, 270–271 self-determination in, 266–267, 282 war policy shifts of, 191n113 union with France, 168–170, 170n27 Rocca, Peretti della, 45 voting in, 168–170, 169n25 Roche, Louis Charrier de la, 98 Rhine River (left bank of) Roggenbach, Joseph Sigismund von, annexed, 165–166, 198 211–212, 236–239 Berg and, 1–3, 25, 167–169, 264 Roman Republic (as Sister Republic), 240, departments of France established 250n184, 253–254, 255 in, 198 Rome (ancient), 12, 102, 188n102, 239 Dutch possessions on, retained by Rome (as Holy See). See also popes France, 246 Adélaïde and Victoire’s emigration to, France’s natural boundaries/frontiers 109–110 and, 165–166 artworks appropriated from, 255–256 French control of, 163–164 Austria and, 113 French indemnities proposed for vs. Avignon as Holy See location, 84 conquests on, 235n113 Civil Constitution of the Clergy and, French Republic holdings on, 195–196 109–110, 236 historiography of, 165, 165n11, vs. France, 110, 112–113 165–166n17 French Avignon territorial claims Italian conquests and, 232n103 rejected by, 103–104 Map 5.1, 215 French military presence in, 250 negotiations regarding, 164, 194–195, indemnities imposed on, 250, 256n211 194n123 Joseph Bonaparte as ambassador to, pouvoir révolutionnaire and 236–239 (overview), 160–205 Mack advancing on, 239–240 treaties with German landholders on, uprising in, 237–238 195–196, 195n130 war declared on, 237–238

Index 335

Rousseau, Jean Jacques Saint-André, Jean Bon, 188 Avignon and, 87 Saint-Pierre, Charles Irénée Castel de, 210, Corsica and, 36n2, 40 210n9 on dictators, 261n235 Salicetti, Christophe, 45–46, 256, 260 the general will and, 16–17, 20, 21, Salmasius, Claudius, 275n13 21n62, 27n77, 27n78, 87, 95, 95n33, sans-culottes (radical revolutionary 127–128, 186, 277, 297–298 faction), 217, 245 legal conscience and, 297–298 Sardinia, 41, 131–132, 157 Merlin’s invocation of, 75–76, Savoy 75–76n119, 76n120 annexation requested by citizens of, 132 on popular sovereignty, 16–18, annexed, 4, 131–132, 141–142, 127–128 148–149, 166 pouvoir révolutionnaire and, 127–128, Avignon as precedent for, 135 128n11 Berg and, 167 renunciation of conquest and, 187 France’s natural boundaries/frontiers on respect for treaties, 55–56 and, 166 social contract and, 16–18, 75–76 French invasion of, 132 on state sovereignty, 17n46, French promises of peace to, 132 186–187n96 French recruitment in, 148–149 on state unity, 75–76n119 Grégoire on, 136 as Swiss native, 226–227 Jacobin inﬂuence in, 142–143 on war and states, 186n94 as the Mont-Blanc department, 132, on war for survival, 162, 185–187, 156, 197 186n90, 187n98 played against Nice, 148–149 Rowlands, Guy, 13–14n33 popular sovereignty in, 115, 122, 135, Rühl, Philippe-Jacques, 67n97 262–263 Russell, John, 285–287, 293–294 as precedent for Sister Republics, 208 Russia. See also Soviet Union as precedent for Switzerland, 222 Congress of Vienna and, 284 as precedent for the Netherlands, 217 Crimea annexed by, 291–292 as precedent for the Rhineland, 162 dissolution of empire of, 289 secession and, 138 vs. France, 111 Treaty of Paris and, 240–241n145 French diplomacy and, 103–104 voting in, 143, 208 French presence in the Netherlands and, Schleswig-Holstein question, 286–287 188–189 Schmidt, Carl, 24n70, 279n21 Great Britain and, 188–189 School of Salamanca, 296 indemnities and requisitions as defense Schroeder, Paul, 36–37n3, 56n62, 77, against, 183 78n126, 125–126n7, 196n135 Napoleon defeated in, 283 secession, 40, 75–76, 98–99, Napoleon’s accord with, 271, 197–198n139, 274, 282, 291 273n7, 283 secularization, 12–13n29, 78n126, Pan-Hellenism and, 284 279n21 Pius VI and, 113 Ségur, Philippe de, 110 polities threatened by, 78n126 self-determination. See also popular self-determination in, 281n30 sovereignty territories annexed by, 291–292 arguments against, 286 in the War of the Second Coalition, by attachment to a state, 289, 291–292 225–226, 266 in Avignon, 86, 108, 118, 119, 282 at war with France, 111, 266, 268–269, in Belgium, 155 271, 283 Cobban’s views of, 289

336 Index

self-determination (cont.) modern client states and, 280 by constituting an independent state, Napoleon and, 6, 264 289–290 Nazi Germany and, 280 in Corsica, 282 paradox of, 241–259 decolonization and, 289–290 political independence of, 253–254 in Germany, 282n33 popular sovereignty and, 207–208, International Court of Justice and, 290 241, 268 international law and, 290n53, 291n54 proposals regarding, 210–211 Lansing vs., 289–290, 298 requisitions imposed on, 254–259, legal conscience as foundation of, 298 268–269, 283 modern manifestations of, 119, revolutions in, 208–209n5 289–292 state autonomy challenged by, 209n7 of multiple or overlapping territorial state status of (overview), 244–259 identities, 289, 289n48 state status of, 241, 251, 265–266 vs. national borders, 282n32 in sympathy with the Revolution, 207 in Poland, 199–200 as unannexed territories, 208 popular sovereignty and, 283–289 slavery, 32 in the Rhineland, 266–267, 282 social contract (Hobbesian), in Russia, 281n30 14–15n37, 106 in Yugoslavia, 291 The Social Contract (Rousseau), 75–76 Serbia, 289n48, 290–291 Sorel, Albert, 24n70, 107–108n89, 132, Servan, Joseph, 133 157–158, 165–166, 166n14, 187n98, Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), 27–28, 187, 208–209 90n14 South Sudan, 291 Sewell, William, 282–283n34 Soviet Union, 280, 280n26 Sicily, 285 Spain Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph, 16–18, 21n63, Basque separatism in, 290–291 34, 210–211, 210n11, 267 Congress of Vienna and, 284 Sillery, Marquis de, 76 Corsica and, 41n10 Sister Republics. See also specific republics Dutch Republic’s independence artwork transfers and, 255–256 from, 214 Aulard on, 208–209 Family Compact with France, 22–24, Constitution of Year III and, 245 72, 198 establishment of, 30–31, 207, 244–251 France’s national/cultural French appointment of officials boundaries, 198 in, 252 Genoa and, 56–57 French designs on, 205, 205n161 Joseph Bonaparte as King of, 264 French domination of, 6, 6n8, 268, peace negotiated with, 192–193, 198, 270–271 203–204 French federative system building in, separatist movements in, 290–291 241n146 at war with France, 171, 270, 283 French objections to the Republic’s Speyer, Prince-Bishop of, 52–53, 54, interventions in, 252–253 69–71 French requisitions alienating the Spieler, Miranda, 33n100 citizens of, 258–259 Spinola, Marquis of, 56–57, 59 French unification procedures and, 208 Spinoza, Baruch, 185–186n90 functions of, 207–208, 266–267 The Spirit of the Laws (Montesquieu), historiography of, 208–210, 208n5, 14–15 210n8 St. Domingue (French Caribbean colony; the Japanese empire and, 280 the future Haiti), 32, 32n96, 32n97, local agency in, 208–209 99, 185, 296

Index 337

Stupfel, Johann Peter, 69, 74, 78–79, Eugène Delacroix and, 255–256 83, 100 on France’s discontent with Napoleon’s Suvorov, Alexander Vasilyevich, 266, wars, 271 268–269 Mengaud and, 225 Sweden, 264 as Minister of Foreign Affairs, 225 Switzerland. See also Helvetic Republic; in the Netherlands, 130 Porrentruy Roman Sister Republic, 239, 250 as buffer territory, 200 Tsar Alexander I and, 271 as a confederation, 220–222, 220n46, Taylor, A. J. P., 285–286, 287 223, 225–226 Ternan, Jean de, 55, 62–63 constitution of, 222, 224n62, 223–224, territorial claims (in Alsace), 2, 3–4, 225n71, 248n178 30–31, 50–55, 65–66, 80, 114–115 divided into allied republics, 225–226 territorial claims (in Avignon), 30–31, France’s direct involvement in, 222, 87–88, 100, 102–103, 108, 112–113, 222n51 116–117, 118 French alliance with, 171–172 territorial claims (in Belgium), 5–6, 30–31, French army in, 212–213 141–142, 155, 156n121 French commissioners in, 253 territorial claims (in the Comtat French domination of, 247–250, Venaissin), 105–106, 112–113, 248n178 116–117 French invasion of, 223, 243n155 territorial claims (in Corsica), 2, 3–4, Geneva annexed, 226–227 30–31, 42, 43–44, 56, 58, 60, 61, German majority sentiment in, 222–223 105–106, 114–115 Mulhouse and, 227 territorial claims (dynastic) neutrality of, 211–212 in Alsace, 2, 155 Nice as precedent for, 222 Austria renouncing, 232 popular sovereignty in, 223–224, in Avignon, 87–88, 101–102, 226–227 104–105, 106–107, 110–112, pouvoir révolutionnaire in, 224–225 116–117, 155 princes possessionnés and, 220 consolidation methods of, 13–14n33 Republican assurances regarding in Corsica, 155 independence of, 243–244 international relations and, 1–2, requisitions imposed on, 256, 256n214, 114–115 268–269 in Italy, 90n14 revolt against France in, 225–226 National Assembly’s debates on, the Rhineland as precedent for, 228–229 102–103 Savoy as precedent for, 222 popular sovereignty and, 3–4, 163 as a Sister Republic, 6, 223, 247–249 territorial claims (general). See also wars unitary republic in, 220–227 of conquest in the War of the Second Coalition, boundaries of Europe and, 35, 74 225–226 conquest and, 42, 59–60 destabilizing effects of, 74–79, 164 Tackett, Timothy, 34n103, 54n58, 94n31 dynasts’ vs. revolutionaries’ principles Tainturier, Charles, 183, 200–201 of, 11 Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de French recruitment efforts and, Cisalpine Republic’s Assembly site 148–149 and, 251 imposed on dissenters, 102, 104 on compensation for First Coalition indeterminacy of, 118 sovereigns, 235 Map I.1, 4 on the Napoleonic empire’s client military threats as rationale for, 5–6 states, 264 outside France and Europe, 31–32n95

338 Index

territorial claims (cont.) Toulon, 228 pouvoir révolutionnaire and, 126–128, Transapadane Republic, 230–231, 145–155 232–235, 233n109 rationales for, 141–142 treaty law. See also specific treaties representatives opposing, 23–24n68, 164 in Alsace, 39, 61–74 Sister Republics and, 6 of the ancien régime, 64–67, 64n87 territorial claims (and popular Avignon and, 103–104, 288 sovereignty) Corsica and, 39, 55–61, 278–279, 288 in Alsace, 35, 54, 64, 114–115, Genoa-France treaty and, 39–40, 55–61 118–120 German dependence on, 77–78 in Avignon, 3–4, 30–31, 83, 101–102, German unification in violation of, 288 103–105, 106–107 inviolability of, 56–58 Constitution of 1791 and, 1–2 ironies in, 107–108n89 in Corsica, 35, 40, 114–115, 119–120 Italian unification in violation of, 288 France’s objectives in, 5–6, 28n84, medieval, 102–103, 106 126–127 Merlin’s rejection of, 64 the general will and, 21, 95–101 Montmorin’s respect for, 62–63 international law and, 29n87, 95–101 National Assembly’s regard for, 72–74, princes possessionnés and, 38–39 72n109 problems emanating from, 278 pacta sunt servanda as the basis of, treaties emanating from, 287 55–56, 56n62 Vattel on, 14 Pius VI’s appeal to, 103–104 territorial claims (in the Rhineland), 4–5, plebiscites in violation of, 288 30–31, 127, 160–205 popular sovereignty vs., 3–4, 39–40, 72, territorial claims (in Sister Republics), 55–74, 78 208–210, 241–259 princes possessionnés and, 61–74, Terror 67n97, 278–279 Barère as agent of, 57 rationales for violation of, 79 deprivations in occupied territories territorial claims and, 15–16, 35 during, 202 yielding to military conquest, 67–71 end of, 164 Treaty of Basel (1795), 194–195, 198, 287 foreign invasion and, 5 Treaty of Campo Formio (1797), 157, justifications for, 181–182n71 197, 232–235, 235n112, 239–240, as the order of the day, 171–172, 268, 287 172n37 Treaty of Lunéville (1801), 197–198, 268 popular sovereignty and, 95 Treaty of Münster (1648), 50, 51n45, Realpolitik in conquest during, 202 65–66, 65n88, 68–69, 71, 71n108. the Revolution’s wars and, 28–29n85 See also Peace of Westphalia Théremin, Charles-Guillaume, Treaty of Nijmegen (1678–1679), 180n66, 184 52n51, 68 Thermidor (1794) (coup and reaction Treaty of Paris (1814), 117, 240–241n145 against Robespierre), 164, 164n9, Treaty of Ryswick (1697), 53, 68 192–193, 206–207, 241–242 Treaty of the Hague (1795), 219, 247 Thiellay, Commandant, 242 Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), 166, 198 Third Estate, 16, 17–18, 21n63, 44, Treaty of Tolentino (1797), 116–117, 66n94, 109–111 238, 238n128 Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648), 12, Treaty of Verdun (843), 39 37, 80 Treilhard, Jean-Baptiste, 243–244 Tibet, 290–291 Tuck, Richard, 185–186n90 Tinet, Pierre-Jacques, 255 Tuileries Palace, 124–125 Tolstoy, Leo, 30, 272–273 Tuscany, 264

Index 339

Ukraine, 291–292 in Italy’s Sister Republics, 230–231 unintended consequences manipulation of, 157 of international law and popular in Napoleon’s regimes, 262, 262n240 sovereignty, 34, 82, 273–274, popular sovereignty determined by, 277–278 95–101 of popular sovereignty, 25–27, in Rome, for Italian national 160, 277 unification, 285–286 of the Revolution, 25n72, 33–34, treaty law violation justified in, 288 34n103, 82 universal manhood suffrage, 20 Union of St. Cecilia (Comtat counter- violence and coercion in, 96–97 revolutionary group), 91–92, 93 Vovelle, Michael, 235n112, 260n233 United Nations, 296n70 United States, 22–23n65, 80, 85, 228, Walt, Stephen, 192n117 273n8, 276–277, 277n18, 279, war. See also army/armies of France; 291, 297 declaration of peace to the world; decree of fraternity; decree of Vattel, Emmerich de, 11, 13, 14–15n37, December 15; military indemnities 137, 185, 185–186n90, 273–274n8 and requisitions; wars of conquest; Vaud (Swiss canton), 222–223, 223n56, specific battles; specific places 225–226 and the ancien régime, 24, 27–28 Vendée (French counter-revolutionary between Avignon and the Comtat, region), 170–171, 216n32, 270 93–94, 100–101, 103–104 Vendémiaire uprising (1795), 228 civil war, 24n70, 80, 96–97, 101, Venice, 233–235, 235n112 275n12 Venturi, Franco, 35 constitutional primacy in matters of, Verdun, 39, 274 22–23 Vergennes, Charles Gravier, Count de, 11, defensive vs. offensive, 23–24, 24n70, 18–19, 43, 58, 214 134–135, 182 Victoire, Princess, 109–110 against despots vs. populations, Victor Amadeus III (king), 132, 138, 141–142, 160, 181, 183, 212, 224 240–241n145 dynastic regimes and, 15n39 Vineam quam plantavit (papal bull of Pius financed by warfare itself, 160–161 VII), 117 Girondins and, 125–126n7 Vitoria, Francisco de, 296, 296n72 ideological explanations for, 124–128, Volney, Constantin François de 145, 191n113, 201–202 Chassebœuf, Count de, 25 in Italy, 116–117, 227–240 Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet), 14–15, natural law as justification for, 26, 41, 55, 59, 72, 104, 292 185–186, 185–186n90 voting. See also electoral assemblies Nootka Sound crisis and, 22–23, 25, 72 in Berg, 167 popular sovereignty and, 4–6, 28n84, in the Cisapline Republic, 249 122, 127–128 demographics of, in Avignon, 95–96, pouvoir révolutionnaire and, 123–124, 96n36 148, 149–150 for deputies, 96n37 Realpolitik and, 202 destabilizing effects of, 290–291 requisitions justified by, 159, 182–185 difficulties with the mechanics of, of revolutionaries vs. the ancien régime, 95–98, 95n34, 157 124n3 emigration and, 97–98 the Revolution’s transition to, 28–29, French agents active in, 142–143, 245 28–29n85 French army and, 96–97, 139, 143 Sister Republics and, 6, 244–259 gender and, 95, 95n35 territories conquered in, 1–2, 14–15

340 Index

war (cont.) 111–112, 129–130, 134–135, 136, Terror and, 202 141–142, 145n72, 196 as total war, 162, 162n6 French imperatives in, 156–157 as unlimited expansion, 162n6 French justiﬁcations for, 141–142, in the Vendée, 163–164, 170–171, 156–157, 181, 182, 201–202 216n32, 270 French reevaluations of, 202, war (on Austria), 28, 83, 111, 121–122, 231–233, 246 121–122n2 French shifts in attitude toward, 188 war (on France). See also army/armies of Monaco and, 128–138 France national self-identiﬁcation vs., 242 France initiative regained in, Nice and, 128–138 163–164, 228 pouvoir révolutionnaire and, 213 justifying defensive retaliation, precedents for, 3–4, 6–7, 108–116 125–126, 141–142, 146–148, reconsiderations of, 192–193, 161–162, 182, 202–203, 254 241–242, 258 justifying plunder, 148–149, 160–162, the Rhineland and, 166–173, 176–177, 164–165, 177–179, 182–185, 178–179, 203, 213 254, 257 Robespierre and, 192–193 Prussia in, 124–125 royal sovereignty exercised through, radicalization in France, 172, 192–193, 66–67 206–207 Savoy and, 128–138 Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, the Sister Republics arising Netherlands in, 171 from, 268 Terror and, 202 as wars for survival, 185–187 war (in Holland), 144 Wars of Religion, 12 war (on Prussia), 27–28 Washington, George, 22–23n65 War and Peace (Tolstoy), 30, 272–273 Weltz, Eric, 282n33 War of the Austrian Succession Westphalia. See Peace of Westphalia (1740–1748), 41 “What is the Third Estate?” (Sieyès), War of the First Coalition (1792–1797), 17–18 157, 232–235 Whitman, James Q., 15n39 War of the Second Coalition Wight, Martin, 9n17, 13–14n33 (1799–1802), 197–198, 225–226, Wilson, Woodrow 240–241n145, 266 Fourteen Points of, 85, 281, 281n30, wars of conquest. See also declaration of 289, 290n52, 298 peace to the world; territorial claims Lansing and, 119, 289–290, 298 (general) national self-determination and, 85, Batavian Republic and, 218–219 281n30, 281–282n31, 290n52, Belgium and, 3–4, 128–138, 291, 298 151–152, 177 Wood, Gordon S., 277n19 Comtat Venaissin and, 105–106 Woolf, Stuart, 260, 260n229, 263, as defense against invasion, 266–267 263n248, 265n253 the Directory and, 219–220 Wootton, David, 275n12 Dufourny on, 116 Wright, Martin, 8–9n17 France’s natural boundaries/frontiers and, 166 Young, Arthur, 52 French declarations against, 23–24, 23–24n68, 28, 103–104, 105–106, Zelada, Francesco Saverio de, 110–112