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Filipinas As Consumers and Citizens in The NEGOTIATING COLONIAL MODERNITY: FILIPINAS AS CONSUMERS AND CITIZENS IN THE AMERICAN COLONIAL PHILIPPINES, 1901-1937 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MᾹNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY AUGUST 2014 By Katherine E. Dacanay Thesis Committee: Vina Lanzona, Chairperson Barbara Watson Andaya Suzanna Reiss TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ............................................................................................................. iii List of Tables ................................................................................................................ v List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................. vi Note on Biographies and Translations ....................................................................... vii Chapter 1. Introduction: Filipinas at a Colonial Crossroads ................................. 1 The Colonial Setting: Betrayal and “Benevolence” .......................................... 7 Deconstructing “Modern Filipino Womanhood:” Cross-Colonial Connections and Multi-Cultural “Hybridities” ......................................... 13 Structure of the Thesis .................................................................................... 24 Chapter 2. Expanding Opportunities, Limiting Options: The American Colonial Education of Filipino Girls, 1901-1937 .............................................. 28 “That’s All I Learned in Convent School:” Pre-Colonial and Spanish Education for Filipinas .............................................................................. 33 Learning the Arts of Modernity: The American Colonial Educational System in the Philippines .......................................................................... 42 “Fulfilling their Social Roles:” American Education and Filipino Womanhood .............................................................................................. 64 Conclusion ......................................................................................................79 Chapter 3. Between Ladies’ Home Journal and Liwayway: Competing Representations of Modern Womanhood in the American Colonial Philippines, 1922-1937 ........................................................................................ 82 Windows to Womanhood: The Rise of Women’s Magazines in the United States and the Philippines ............................................................. 87 Victorian Ladies and “Maria Claras:” Late-Nineteenth Century Femininities in Spain, the United States, and the Philippines ...................99 Negotiating “Modern Womanhood:” American and Filipino Women’s Magazines of the 1920s and 1930s .........................................................105 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 137 Chapter 4. Toward New Definitions of Philippine Citizenship: Debating and Creating the Modern Filipina of the 1930s ..................................................... 140 The Struggle Turns Transpacific: Americans, Filipinas, and the Fight for Woman Suffrage ..................................................................................... 147 New Women, New Roles: Debating Filipina Suffrage ................................. 153 Compromise Completed: “The Politics of Dress,” a Plebiscite, and the Emergence of the Modern Filipina ......................................................... 166 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 171 Chapter 5. Epilogue & Conclusion: The Filipina Takes on the Modern World 174 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................184 ii LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Paz Marquez Benitez in mestiza dress .....................................................................3 1.2 Ofelia Hidalgo Dacanay, silver wedding anniversary, 1968 ...................................4 2.1 Philippine Public School Enrollment, 1918-1923: Primary Level ........................49 2.2 Philippine Public School Enrollment, 1918-1923: Secondary Level ....................56 2.3 The Marquez girls in University of the Philippines graduation attire ...................58 2.4 Enrollment in the University of the Philippines, 1918-1923 .................................62 3.1 Cover, Liwayway, June 5, 1936 .............................................................................86 3.2 Cover, La Moda Filipina, 1890s ..........................................................................104 3.3 Pompeian cream advertisement, Ladies’ Home Journal, January 1922 ..............111 3.4 Pompeian cream advertisement, Liwayway, August 11, 1923.............................111 3.5 “Dambana ng Kagandahan,” Liwayway, September 29, 1923 ............................113 3.6 “January Bargains,” Ladies’ Home Journal, January 1922 .................................115 3.7 Beck’s Department Store advertisement, Liwayway, April 24, 1924 ..................115 3.8 Short story illustrations, Liwayway, October 13, 1923 and June 17, 1932 ..........117 3.9 Short story illustrations, Liwayway, December 25, 1936 and January 1, 1937 .. 119 3.10 “Magandang Tabas ng Damit,” Liwayway, October 11, 1935 ............................121 3.11 Manila Gas advertisement, Liwayway, January 15, 1924 ....................................124 3.12 “Wintersmith Tonic advertisement, Liwayway, October 16, 1925 ......................128 3.13 Horlick and Carnation Milk ads, Liwayway, 1923 and 1935 ...............................130 3.14 Cover, Ladies’ Home Journal, October 1920 ......................................................133 3.15 Cover, Liwayway, August 11, 1923 .....................................................................134 3.16 Cover, Liwayway, March 5, 1926 ........................................................................135 3.17 Cover, Liwayway, June 12, 1936 .........................................................................136 4.1 Francisco and Paz Benitez with friends, 1930s ...................................................142 iii 4.2 Editorial cartoon, Philippines Free Press, April 3, 1937 ....................................164 4.3 Sample woman suffrage plebiscite ballot, April 1937 .........................................171 4.4 President Manuel Quezon signs the Woman Suffrage Bill, 1937 .......................172 5.1 Wedding photo of Pablo and Ofelia Dacanay, November 1943 ..........................175 5.2 Dacanay family photo, 1949 ................................................................................177 5.3 Paz Marquez Benitez and grandchildren .............................................................183 5.4 Ofelia Hidalgo Dacanay and granddaughter Katherine, 1991 and 1993 .............183 iv LIST OF TABLES 2.1 American Teachers Hand Over the Job to Filipinos, 1900-1940...........................73 v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS NFWC National Federation of Women’s Clubs OFW Overseas Filipino Workers PAUW Philippine Association of University Women SAW Society for the Advancement of Women UP University of the Philippines vi NOTE ON BIOGRAPHIES AND TRANSLATIONS The story of Paz Marquez Benitez is fortunate enough to have been preserved. Paz left behind many letters and journal entries that have been compiled and published by her daughter, thus keeping alive the soul of a beautiful and vibrant Filipino woman. The story of Ofelia Hidalgo Dacanay, however, has not been written down for posterity, and few formal records about her life remain in existence. Therefore the names, places, and events in the story of my paternal grandmother’s life are all family memories, retold to me through the eyes of her children—my aunts and father. The biographies of these two women have been juxtaposed throughout the course of this thesis in order to shed light on the progress made by Paz’s vanguard generation of “modern” Filipino women. Later generations of Filipino women, including migrant generations such as Ofelia’s, followed in the footsteps of their elite Filipina forebears, riding on the heels of increased female empowerment that resulted from the struggle for citizenship. For the translations of articles, advertisements, and other content from Liwayway magazine in Chapter 3, I have attempted to translate the original Tagalog to the best of my ability with help from my Filipino language professor, Dr. Leticia Pagkalinawan. vii CHAPTER 1 Introduction: Filipinas at a Colonial Crossroads This study revolves around the story of two women. Like many stories, it is a tale of two people who, at first glance, would seem to be opposites. One was thirty years older, born a generation ahead of the other. One was wealthy, and one was a commoner. One was a society girl; the other, a barrio girl. One enjoyed a lifestyle of wealth and endless opportunity; the other had to work hard to achieve a middle-class standard of living for her and her family. One lived in the Philippines her entire life; the other eventually gave into the tantalizing promise of life in the United States. Still, as in any story of opposites, there exist circumstances that connected the lives of these two women. No, they never met, but they did share similar life experiences. They were both teachers who were deeply committed to the education of young Filipinos. They were both family women, devoted to their husbands and
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