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5-2001 Biodiversity: The orW ld of Life Charles H. Smith Western Kentucky University, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation Charles H. Smith, "Biodiversity: The orldW of Life" (May 2001). Choice 38(9): 1565-1580.
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BIBLIOGRAPHIC ESSAY
The World of Life: Biodiversity Studies
BY CHARLES SMITH multifarious ecosystems of the world. The key to effective analysis ofbio the literature on the former, concerned as diversity is the precise definition of it is with the basic description of millions Introduction each level oforganization when it is of species of animals and plants-not to being addressed. mention suborganismallevels of organiza tion and communities, ecosystems, and Wbat i.J bioiJiverJity? This definition may strike some ob the biosphere as a whole-would exist ( and servers as being just the slightest bit vague, did exist) independent of the recent bio or some 15 years the public at least to the extent that it fails to explain diversity movement. Practically every state has witnessed a sustained world how the concept is related to the various in the nation is represented by at least one Fwide movement that concerns natural studies that make it up, and that monographic study of its resident mam itself with understanding the in fact have existed as independently con mals, as are many individual species of mam natural diversity oflife, and how such di ceived lines of research for more than a mals (and even particular mammals from versity can be conserved. The word "bio century in several cases. In Biodipersity: particular states!). The real gist of the bio diversity" itself (short for "biological di A Reference Handbook, author Anne Bech diversity movement, however, is the ef versity") is a recently coined term that has er has recognized three basic components fort to relate the details of such diversity to been in common use only during that pe to biological diversity: genetic, taxonom its various levels of manifestation, and es riod; nevertheless, the crisis that surrounds ic (species), and ecological, but while this pecially to our capacity for managing it the subject has quickly made it one of the division serves a categorical purpose, it may globally in a sustainable fashion. most frequently discussed topics in the nat first be more helpful to distinguish between ural and applied sciences. So what is this "biodiversity itself," and what may be termed The natural science part ofbiodiversity "biodiversity," and why do its defenders ar "biodiversity studies." The latter we can studies thus is concerned with systematic gue that its investigation should become recognize as the array of research approaches study of the causes of observed diversity a major human priority? that have come together to study the phe patterns. Such causes may have predomi nomena of natural diversity and its con nantly geographical, morphological, his The definition part of this question is servation. As Wtlson notes on the first page torical, ecological, or anthropogenic com the subject of a recent piece (in Biodiper of the same essay quoted above, " .. . what ponents, or any combination of these. Re sity 11, ed. by M. Reaka-Kudla et al.) from finally has given it such widespread atten lated discoveries are sometimes extraordi one of the movement's primary figures, tion is the realization that it is disappear nary and have the most profound impli Harvard zoologist Edward o. Wilson: ing." More than this, however, only by the cations; for example, on the basis of a long mid-1980s was it realized that significant series of paleontological investigations it So what is it? Biologists are inclined loss ofbiodiversity might have serious world now seems reasonable to conclude that to agree that it is, in one sense, ev erything. Biodiversity is defined as wide ethical, economic, and even survival every so many years a mountain-sized chunk all hereditarily based variation at ramifications. At that point, the state of the of roc1,c has hit the earth, each time oblit all levels of organization, from genes planet'S biodiversity became more than erating a substantial percentage of the species within a single local population or just a matter of natural science alone, it living on it. How society is to deal with this species, to the species composing all became an identifiable worldwide crisis. and many other less traumatic realities of or part of a local community, and fi related type is ultimately a social problem, nally to the communities themselves As a result, we can now speak in rather and herein lies the rationale for a social that compose the living parts of the separate terms ofbiodiversity itself, and the science ofbiodiversity. Loosely speaking, agenda of the movement that has taken the main concerns involved are applied, con Dr. Charles H . Smith is Assistant Professor and up the study of the biodiversity crisis. This servation-oriented ones, but the arguments Science Librarian, Helm Library, Western Kentucky separation of concepts is particularly im extend far beyond conservation for con Unif'ersity, Bowling Green, KT. portant in the present context, because servation's sake.
May 2001 CHOICE 1565 The World of Life
Why JbouUJ we care? the entire biosphere. Less dramatic (but subject to appear was this writer's Biodi perhaps equally fatal) scenarios involving, versity Studies: A Bibliographic Review, pub very good question, at least for e.g., destruction of the ozone layer or glob lished in early 2000. Becher's introduc A those who have not already al overwarming are also imaginable; such tory handbook, written primarily for a col committed themselves to an concerns may seem remote to many ob lege freshman readership level, was pub involvement with the movement. Several servers, but inasmuch as the best scientif lished in 1998 (and is now available as an main reasons can be given: ic advice suggests that monumental dan online resource), but there is still no all gers could be involved, we would be well pmpose professional-level handbook on the (1) Aesthetic grounds. Since at least advised as a society to continue looking in subject. A promising event is the late 2000 the middle of the 19th century there have to such possibilities and how they might be publication of the multivolume Encyclo been those who have argued that to di treated should they actually take place. pedia ofBiodiversity, edited by noted ecol minish the grandeur of our natural sur ogist Simon A. Levin. In addition, a fine roundings is to invite a cheapening of the quality coffee table-like reference work, Pre human experience. As diversity in its var Bibliographic Control cious Heritage: The Status ofBiodiversity in ious other senses has always appeared to be the United States (edited by Bruce Stein connected with the maintenance ofa healthy n considering the concept ofbibli et al.), was recently published and promis human society, this argument is hard to dis I ographic control on biodiversity es to provide an excellent all-purpose re miss-whether one looks at the question related studies, it should first be view that can be appreciated by almost any purely in terms of a!sthetics, or in a more reiterated that there is a vast amount of level of educated readership. applied sense focussing on various aspects subject material. The literature of "bio of human education, recreation, and in diversity itself" has classically been arranged This essay does not concentrate on Web dustry. in library and other collections to mirror based resources, but the subject is in fact general systematic understandings of the being increasingly well served in that di (2) Moral and ethical grounds. The organisms and community/ecosystem types rection. Most biodiversity-related sites argument as to aesthetics can be taken one involved, e.g., according to protozoans, still concentrate on the animals and plants step further to embrace moral and ethical birds, or wetlands. But biodiversity stud themselves, but a number take a broader rationales. Some plead directly for the rights ies have no such logical association in our approach. See, for example, Biodiversity of animals, plants, or communities, or sec collections. To be sure, a "biological di (World Resources Institute); Biodiversity ondarily, in defending the notion that hu versity" subject heading has been estab and Biological Collections Web Server (Ju man beings have evolved into the planet's lished by the library of Congress, and many Han Humphries); Biodiversity: Digital Li caretakers, and that it is a responsibility of those items that concern the subject in brary (Academic Info); Biodiversity: Mea both to ourselves and the rest of the bio general may be found under QH 75, but suring the Variety ofNature (Biogeography sphere to contribute intelligently to its man this heading actually contains but a mi & Conservation Lab, Natural History Mu agement and maintenance. nuscule percentage of the entire related lit seum, London); Biodiversity Related Web erature. To find the rest requires poring Sites (The Natural Heritage Network); In (3) Economic grounds. The most co over the materials under subject headings formation Dissemination for Nature Con gent practical arguments for conserving bio as diverse as agroecology, bioethics, botany, servation (European Centre for Nature Con diversity concern the state of the human ecology, forestry, environmental law, en servation); The Virtual Library ofEcology pocketbook and our aspirations for a sus vironmental economics, ethnobotany, en & Biodiversity (Rice University and CCBN). tainable economy. The costs of ignoring dangered species, ecotourism, genetics, biodiversity depletion are numerous, and microbiology, and zoology. are still being identified and elucidated. In HiJtoricai TbreadJ evitably, however, we can be sure that bio The scattered nature of the topics in diversity loss equals lost capital, since every volved in biodiversity studies in turn makes n 1910 the then-87-year-oldAlfred aspect of our existence as physical beings is it difficult to produce reference materials I Russel Wallace (1823-1913), col affected by it at one level or another. covering the subject. As of this writing, league of Charles Darwin and codis- there is no dictionary ofbiodiversity, no coverer of the principle of natural selection, ( 4) Survival grounds. As pointed out (comprehensive) atlas of biodiversity, no published his last great treatise on natural above, the search to uncover the full range directory related specifically to biodiversi science, The World of Life. In this work of forces that have conspired to produce ty studies, no yearbook or almanac of bio he attempted to draw together some 60 the biodiversity we now witness may yield diversity research, and no indexing or ab years of observation and study of nature in unpredictable findings, up to and includ stracting service specially devoted to the to a single statement about the unity and ing the revelation that we may still be prone biodiversity-related serial literature. The diversity of living things. Despite Wal to cosmic collisions capable of destroying first comprehensive bibliography on the lace's peculiarly teleological spin on things,
1566 CHOICE May 2001 The World of Life
immediately take steps to secure, the result was in some respects the first of paradise; (4) the book The Geographical that in all tropical countries colonised most obvious antecedent of the modern by Europeans the most perfect col Distribution ofAnimals, a cornerstone in biodiversity movement. Indeed, over his lections possible in every branch of the evolution of the field of zoogeography; long career Wallace had at one point or natural history should be made and ( 5) the book Tropical Nature and Other another given attention to nearly all of the deposited in national museums, Essays, which dwelled on various subjects main dimensions of the present under where they may be available for study of interest to students of tropical environ standing of the subject, and in 1863, near and interpretation. If this is not ments; and (6) the book Island Life, which ly 50 years earlier (in his article "On the done, future ages will certainly look treated in detail the various forces at work Physical Geography of the Malay Archipela back upon us as a people so im in these instructively special natural settings. go"), he had penned the words that are now mersed in the pursuit of wealth as the most quoted passage in the subject's to be blind to higher considerations. They will charge us with having cul history: Significant loss of pably allowed the destruction of ... my object has been to show the some of those records of Creation biodiversity might have important bearing of researches in which we had it in our power to serious worldwide ethical, to the natural history of every part preserve; and while professing to re of the world upon the study of its gard every living thing as the di economic, and even past history. An accurate knowledge rect handiwork and best evidence of survival ramifications. of any group of birds or of insects, a Creator, yet, with a strange in and of their geographical distribu consistency, seeing many of them tion, may assist us to map out the perish irrecoverably from the face of islands and continents of a former the earth, uncared for and unknown. Wallace was of course by no means the epoch; the amount ofdifference that only middle-19th -century naturalist who exists between the animals of adja allace is perhaps both his pondered the wonders of biological diver cent districts being closely depen tory's preeminent natural sity. His longtime friend Henry Walter dent upon preceding geological W ist-collector and greatest- Bates, of "Batesian mimicry" fame, spent changes. By the collection of such minute facts alone can we hope to ever authority on tropical nature. He spent some 12 years in the Amazon basin and pro fill up a great gap in the past his four years as a professional collector in the duced another great classic on tropical na tory of the earth as revealed by ge Amazon (1848-52) and eight more in In ture, The Naturalist on the River Ama ology, and obtain some indications donesia (1854-62), then known as the Malay zons (1863). Meanwhile, Darwin had been of the existence of those ancient Archipelago. During the latter expedi painstakingly working out his own version lands which now lie buried beneath tion he accomplished what he is now best of the theory of natural selection for some the ocean, and have left us noth known for, his independent discovery of twenty years, in large part as the result of ing but these living records of their the principle of natural selection. Wal his celebrated voyage around the world former existence. It is for such in lace's communication of his discovery to on H. M. S. Beagle in the years 1831-36. quiries the modern naturalist col Darwin is one of the history of science's The first important outcome of this trip was lects his materials; it is for this that most repeated stories, but it is only one Darwin's 1838 book Journal ofRe search he still wants to add to the appar ently boundless treasures of our na chapter in his life story. Wallace's main con es ... , a work that proved to be an inspira tional museums, and will never rest tributions to what we would now call bio tion to many later naturalists, including Wal satisfied as long as the native coun diversity studies include (1) the first pa lace and Bates. Earlier yet, in 1799-1804, try, the geographical distribution, per ("On the Law Which Has Regulated the celebrated German geographer Alexan and the amount of variation of any the Introduction of New Species") uniting der von Humboldt had engaged in exten living thing remains imperfectly an evolutionary perspective with the study sive scientific travels in tropical South and known. He looks upon every species of the distribution patterns of living things Central America that had laid a foundation of animal and plant now living as the (this produced a starting point for the sub fqr later efforts in the fields ofbiogeogra individual letters which go to make sequent development of the field of his phy, climatology, and ecology. Further in up one of the volumes ofour earth's torical biogeography); (2) the discovery and formation on the work of 19th-century history; and, as a few lost letters may description of the faunal discontinuity be naturalists has been provided by Joel S. make a sentence unintelligible, so the extinction ofthe numerous furms tween the western and eastern Indonesian Schwartz in his excellent essay "The Roots of life which the progress of culti islands that became known as "Wallace's of Evolutionary Ideas: How Travel to Ex vation invariably entails will neces Line" ("On the Zoological Geography of otic Lands Changed Natural History." sarily obscure this invaluable record the Malay Archipelago"); (3) the famous of the past. It is, therefore, an im scientific travel book The Malay Archipela If we believe that biodiversity studies portant object, which governments go, which includes descriptions of his pur focus not only on the "whats" of natural and scientific institutions should suit and study of the orangutan and birds diversity but also on the "hows" and "whys,"
May 2001 CHOICE 1567 The World of Life however, the single most important early Thus, by the mid-1980s the global sci Here this difficulty is addressed by fo development leading to their inception entific community was starting to move to cusing a bit more on people than is typi was the publication of Darwin's On the ward a new synthesis based on the con cal for a review of this type. The message Origin of Species in late 1859. Darwinian clusion that the diversity of life was some intended is that one can probably enter natural selection gave workers the critical thing quite fundamental-not only for its into the literature on a given subject just as tool for understanding change in life over own sake and as grist for the basic research well by following the work of a particular long periods of time, and thus a vehicle mill, but as a commodity that if lost, or individual as by seeking out a single rep for determining why diversity characteris even degraded, would likely impact the resentative book or paper. tics might differ from place to place. On quality of human civilization in profound the Continent, Darwin's cause was taken ways. A conference exploring these themes, That said, there are in fact a fair num up most notably by the German zoologist "National Forum on BioDiversity," was or ber of works that do present good gener Ernst Haeckel. Moreover, and perhaps ganized for fall 1986 under the auspices of al introductions to, and/or overviews of, not surprisingly, in Haeckel's work lay some the National Academy of Sciences and the the subject of biodiversity. See Biodiver of the beginnings of the field of ecology Smithsonian Institution. By the time the sity JL· Understanding and Protecting Our (including his invention of the term "ekolo conference proceedings were published in Biological Resources, ed. by Marjorie L. gie" itself), which rapidly exploited new un 1988 as Biodiversity under the editorship Reaka-Kudla et al.; The Earth as Trans derstandings of the meaning of adapta of Edward o. Wilson, a new worldwide formed by Human Action, ed. by Billie Lee tions to functionally link organisms to one movement was well under way. This move Turner et al.; Niles Eldredge's Life in the another. ment featured, as explained earlier, efforts Balance; John D. Gage and Paul A. Tyler's to study the diversity of life itself and also Deep-Sea Biology; Global Biodiversity: Sta Progress in that other important aspect the emergence of arguments focusing on tus of the Earth)s Living Resources, ed. by of biodiversity studies-its conservation reasons for societal-Ievel concern. Brian Groombridge; Global Marine Bio proceeded more slowly. The first mile logical Diversity, ed. by Elliot A. Norse; stone was the 1864 book Man and Na The remainder of this essay describes Michael A. Huston's Biological Diversity; ture by the American author George Perkins the progress and literature of the main in George Evelyn Hutchinson's classic pa Marsh, who cogently argued for natural dividual studies that make up the biodi per "Homage to Santa Rosalia, or Why resource conservation in an era when few versity movement. Are There So Many Kinds of Animals?"; were listening. Wallace, too, made such The Living Planet in Crisis, ed. by Joel arguments from time to time; so did the Cracraft and Francesca Grifo; Jonathan great American naturalist John Muir in . Overview.! Marks's Human Biodiversity: Genes) Race) books like The Yosemite, but it was not un and History; Nature)s Services: Societal De til well into the 20th century that interest espite the reasonably straight pendence on Natural Ecosystems, ed. by was raised to a level eliciting significant D forward picture we can paint Gretchen C. Daily; Reed F. Noss andA.Y. public involvement. A sustained envi of what biodiversity is, pro- Cooperrider's Saving Nature)s Legacy; Pro ronmental movement was finally sparked viding a summary of the progress (in tection of Global Biodiversity, ed. by Lak by the 1962 publication of Rachel Car cluding the important literature) of the shman D. Guruswamyand Jeffrey A. Mc son's famous study Silent Spring, which studies involved is actually rather difficult, Neely; Lloyd Timberlake's Africa in Cri alerted the public to the dangers of pes partly because of the relative newness of siS; Richard J. Tobin's The Expendable Fu ticide application. Shortly thereafter, in the subject as a concerted "movement," ture: U. S. Politics and the Protection of terest in subjects such as tropical defor partly from its great scope when consid Biological Diversity; and Edward O. Wil estation and endangered species and habi ered in more than cursory terms, and be son's The Diversity ofLife. tats began to grow, and to increasingly at cause most of the important literature tract the public's attention. of the subject is of a technical nature. As a result, and because researchers are . Biodiversity: The Main Meanwhile, scientific studies in a dozen still in the early stages of exploring the di Academic Fields of Study or more fields were developing in such a mensions of the study, there are actual fashion as to increase sympathy for the no ly relatively few key works that everyone tion that the diversity of life represented would agree are central to the subject's he main academic disciplines that something distinct enough to be studied emergence. The reality is that the liter T concern themselves with biodi and conserved on its own terms. A brief ature is dominated by literally hundreds versity studies have historical notice of the most visible of these fields of edited collections of essays and con beginnings that predate, some by well more is given below, under the heading ference proceedings, and a very large num than one hundred years, the actual move "Biodiversity: The Main Academic Fields ber of studies and essays published in hun ment. Moreover, with the exception of one of Study." dreds of professional journals. of these fields (conservation biology) it is
1568 CHOICE May 2001 The World of Life entirely possible to be involved in related development in the late 1970s was an im but the importance of using economics as work that has little to do with the study portant precursor to the biodiversity move an argument for the conservation of bio of biodiversity per se. ment in general. Important works: Mark diversity cannot be overestimated. Im A. Burgman et al., Risk Assessment in Con portant works: Ecological Economics, ed. by Agricultural Ecology/Agroecology. servation Biology; Graeme Caughley and Robert Costanza; Alan Gilpin's Environ Agroecology emerged as a recognizable Anne Gunn's Conservation Biology in The mental Economics; David W. Pearce and R. study from the somewhat broader field of ory and Practice; Conservation Biology: The Kerry Turner's Economics of Natural Re agricultural ecology in the late 1970s. It Science of Scarcity and Diversity, ed. by sources and the Environment; David W. emphasizes the ecosystem-level study of Michael E. Soule; O.H. Frankel and Michael Pearce and Jeremy J. Warford's World with agriculture as a sustainable process, in so E. SoulC's Conservation and Evolution; out End: Economics, Environment, and Sus doing drawing attention to biogeochemi Richard B. Primack's Essentials of Cons er tainable Development. cal cycling processes, the roles of the great vation Biology; Principles of Conservation diversity of soil and surface organisms in Biology, ed. by Gary K Meffe and C. Ronald Evolutionary, Historical, and System contributing to those processes, and the Carroll; Quantitative Methods for Conser atic Biology. These three fields have in kinds of agency produced by humankind. vation Biology, ed. by Scott Ferson and Mark creasingly become so intertwined that one Important works: Agroecology, ed. by C. Burgman; Viable Populations for Conser can scarcely separate them anymore. It is Ronald Carroll et al.; Agroecology, ed. by vation, ed. by Michael E. Soule. ultimately the objective of workers within Stephen R. Gliessman; Miguel Altieri's these studies to provide a systematic un Agroecology; John Vandermeer and lvette derstanding of the history of life, including Perfecto's Breakfast ofBiodiversity: The Truth coming to grips with the factors underly about Rain Forest Destruction. Interest in subjects such as ing the particular kinds of changes the plan tropical deforestation and et's life has undergone. Such investigations Biogeography. Biogeographers have endangered species and may focus on factors either internal and ex concerned themselves with the study of temal-or both-to the organisms and oth the distribution of plants and animals for habitats began to grow. er biosystems involved. Important works: more than two hundred years, extending James H. Brown's Macroecology; Russell F. back at least to the time of Alexander von Doolittle et al., "Determining Divergence Humboldt. Biogeographical data provid Times of the Major Kingdoms of Living ed the single most important impetus for Ecology. Ecology as a recognized dis Organisms with a Protein Clock"; Evolu the development of the theory of natural cipline has existed for well over one hun tion ofBiological Diversity, ed. by Anne E. selection, and continue to inform in the dred years. Most investigations ofbiodi Magurran and Robert M. May; KG. Field new context of biodiversity studies. The versity are at one level or another firmly et al., "Molecular Phylogeny of the Animal subject is very interdisciplinary and un grounded in ecological studies, and in Kingdom"; O.H. Frankel and Michael E. usual to the extent that it tends to attract deed many of the most important contri Soule's Conservation and Evolution; Stephen interest from a broad range ofscientists who butions to the development of the biodi J. Gould and Niles Eldredge's classic "Punc normally work on other, more specialized, versity movement have been made by pro tuated Equilibria: The Tempo and Mode subjects. One of the best current surveys fessional ecologists. Important works: Be of Evolution Reconsidered"; Motoo Kimu of the state of the field is James H. Brown havioral Ecology and Conservation Biolo ra's The Neutral Theory ofMolecular Evo and Mark V. Lomolino's Biogeography gy, ed. by T.M. Caro; C.S. Holling's clas lution; Lynn Margulis and Karlene V. (1998). Important works: James H. sic "Resilience and Stability of Ecological Schwartz's Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Brown's Macroecology; A. Hallam's An Systems"; Robert H. MacArthur and Ed Guide to the Phyla ofLife on Earth; Michael Outline ofPhanerozoic Biogeography; Gareth ward o. Wilson's classic The Theory of Is L. Rosenzweig's Species Diversity in Space J. Nelson and Norman Platnick's System land Biogeography; Stuart L. Pimm's The and Time; Steven M. Stanley's Macroevo atics and Biogeography: Cladistics and Vi Balance of Nature?; Species Diversity in lution, Pattern and Process; Mary Jane West cariance; Michael L. Rosenzweig's Species Ecological Communities, ed. by Robert E. Eberhard's "Phenotypic Plasticity and the Diversity in Space and Time; lan F. Speller RicklefS and Dolph Schluter; David Tilman's Origins of Diversity"; E.O. Wtley's Phylo berg and John W.D. Sawyer's An Intro "Biodiversity: Population versus Ecosystem genetics: The Theory and Practice ofPhylo duction to Applied Biogeography. Stability"; Richard H. Yahner's Eastern genetic Systematics. Deciduous Forest: Ecology and Wildlife Con Conservation Biology. The field ofcon servation. Landscape Ecology. Landscape ecolo servation biology is a rather new discipline, gy is a rather new field incorporating large reflecting the move away from an earlier Environmental Economics. The re scale aspects of geographical, ecological, emphasis on single species-oriented kinds lation of environmental economics to bio and conservation studies. One of its im of biological management. Indeed, its own diversity studies tends to be overlooked, portant inspirations is the mid-20th-cen-
May 2001 CHOICE 1569 The World of Life
tury work of the great conservationist Al lutions to deal with the results of their er imal Rights and Peter Singer'S Animal do Leopold, whose celebrated 1949 book rant ways. A quick survey of some of the Liberation: A New Ethics for Our Treatment concerning "the land ethic," A Sand Coun main related special subjects and works ofAnimals. ty Almanac, is basic reading for any bud follows: ding environmentalist. Two good surveys Biodi1Jersity loss. Biodiversity loss is a of the field are Richard T.T. Forman and Action and reC01Jery plans and pro much more complicated problem than can Michel Godron's Landscape Ecology and grams; ecological restoration. Identify be imagined by thinking solely in terms Monica G. Turner's "Landscape Ecolo ing what needs attention and prioritizing of species extinctions. Indeed, the prob gy: The Effect of Pattern on Process." Im plans are only the first steps in the process lem extends to spatially larger and smaller portant work: Robert A. Askins's Restor of conserving biodiversity; the hardest work levels through such matters as habitat and ing North America's Birds: Lessons from comes in figuring out how to effect recov quality oflife loss, and genetic depletion. Landscape Ecology. ery and restoration. Much of the literature Important works: The Big Kill: Declining in this realm revolves around site-specific Biodiversity in America's Lakes and Rivers, Population Biology. Population biol considerations, but it is also an active are ed. by David S. Wilcove and Michael J. ogy studies are primarily a 20th-century na for theoretical discussion. Important Bean; Biodiversity Loss: Economic and Eco phenomenon involving the genetic, eco works: Environmental Restoration, ed. by logical Issues, ed. by Charles A. Perrings logical, and evolutionary analysis of species John J. Berger; Restoration Ecology, ed. et al.; John D. Tuxill and Jane A. Peterson's at the population level. In the 1980s the by William R. Jordan et al.; Restoration Losing Strands in the Web ofLife. population-level study of spatially frag of Endangered Species, ed. by Martin L. mented species populations led to the de Bowles and C.J. Whelan; Restoring Di Biodi1Jersity measurement, assessment, velopment of what is known as metapopu versity, ed. by Donald Falk et al. and monitoring. An army of researchers lation theory, which has great importance has been concerning itself with the fun to the analysis of such subjects as extinc Agrobiodi1Jersity. Biodiversity investi damental matter of how to go about mea tion, speciation, and reserve design. Im gators concern themselves not only with suring, assessing, and monitoring biodi portant works: Biodiversity Dynamics: natural forms of diversity, but with that in versity in its various manifestations. Two Turnover ofPopulations, Taxa, and Com herent in domesticated and semidomesti related lines of study, for example, involve munities, ed. by Michael L. McKinney and cated forms as well. Among the ramifica identifying what are known as "keystone" J ames A. Drake; Ilkka Hanski and Michael tions of loss of agrobiodiversity are prob and "indicator" species to simplify sampling E. Gilpin's "Metapopulation Dynamics: lems linked to environmental degradation, strategies for monitoring ecosystem health. Brief History and Conceptual Domain"; food supply reduction, and loss of resistance An important technique known as "rapid Alan Hastings and Susan Harrison's to pest species. Important work: Biodi assessment" makes use of such species to "Metapopulation Dynamics and Genetics"; versity in Agroecosystems, ed. by Wanda W. provide quick overviews where detailed Metapopulation Biology: Ecology, Genetics, Collins and Calvin O. Qualset. canvassing is unfeasible. Important works: and Evolution, ed. by Ilkka Hanski and The Big Kill: Declining Biodiversity in Amer Michael E. Gilpin. Amphibian population declines. One ica's Lakes and Rivers, ed. by David D. of the most intriguing special problems in WIlcove and Michael J. Bean; Clive G. Jones biodiversity studies is the well-publicized, et al., "Organisms as Ecosystem Engineers"; Biodiversity: alarming degree to which amphibian pop Anne E. Magurran's Ecological Diversity ulation levels have decreased in many places and Its Measurement; Reed F. Noss's "In Special Subjects in recent years. Investigators worry that the dicators for Monitoring Biodiversity: A reductions may be indicative of some yet Hierarchical Approach"; Q1tantitative Meth t merits constant reminding that unidentified environmental cause that could ods for Conservation Biology, ed. by Scott I biodiversity studies concern them also adversely affect other organisms. Im Ferson and Mark Burgman. selves with all factors contribut- portant works: Andrew R. Blaustein et al., ing to the diversity of life and its conser "Amphibian Declines"; Joseph H.K Pech Biodi1Jersity 1Jaluation. One of the vation. Some of these factors are ofa pure mann et al., "Declining Amphibian Pop most important arguments for biodiversi ly ecological and/or evolutionary ("natu ulations." ty preservation is that it is in one respect or ral") sort, but many others involve human another valuable. Related discussions of agency, whether this may mean how peo Animal rights and welfare. Although ten (but not always) involve economic mod ple have transported species from here to concern for animal rights and welfare pre eling techniques, one of the most relevant there, deliberately or inadvertently eradi dates the biodiversity movement, the new of which is "contingent valuation." Im cated them for various reasons, or now find context has provided additional food for portantworks: Robert Costanza et al., "The themselves in the position ofhaving to come thought. The two classic works on this Value of the World's Eosystem Services up with social, economic, and political so- subject are Tom Regan's The Case for An- and Natural Capital"; Ronald G. Cum-
1570 CHOICE May 2001 The World of Life mings et al., Valuing Environmental Goods: Groves and J.I. Burdon; Mark Williamson's An Assessment of the Contingent Valua Biological Invasions. tion Method; W. Michael Hanemann's ''Valu ing the Environment through Contingent Biomass use (especially, burning). Valuation"; Robert C. Mitchell and R.T. Biomass reduction through forest and oth Carson's Using Surveys to Value Public Goods: er kinds of clearance has a number of pos The Contingent Valuation Method; David sible serious implications, including envi W. Pearce's Economic Values and the Nat ronmental (both atmospheric and terres ural World. trial/aquatic) degradation and climate al teration. See Biomass Burning and Global Biodiversity and pharmaceuticals Change and Global Biomass Burning, both prospecting. The ever-escalating search ed. by Joel S. Levine. for new drugs from natural sources provides one of the best practical arguments for the Biotechnology: genetic engineering/ preservation ofbiodiversity. But people are transgenic organisms. Most people do becoming increasingly aware that there not connect biotechnology to the biodi are many, many other uses of the by-prod versity crisis, but there are many related con ucts ofliving things (not to mention the cerns. The release of transgenic organ organisms themselves in many instances), isms into the environment (especially as re and interest in this direction is creating its lated to agricultural plans), for example, own set of problems, including what has could potentially have major effects on eco been termed "biopiracy" (the overly ex logical stabilities. Important works: Biotech ploitative removal of resources from the nology and Plant Genetic Resources: Con world's less powerful states by represen servation and Use, ed. by J.A. Callow et al.; tatives of its more powerful ones). Im Charles S. Gasser and R.T. Fraley's "Ge portant Works: Biodiversity Prospecting, ed. netically Engineering Plants for Crop Im by Walter V. Reid et al.; Vandana Shiva's provement"; Introduction of Genetically Biopiracy: The Plunder ofNature and Knowl Modified Organisms into the Environment, edge. ed. by Harold A. Mooney and Giorgio Bernardi; Calestous Juma's The Gene Biological invasions and introductions. Hunters; Vandana Shiva's Monocultures Change is, as for most things, one of the of the Mind; James M. Tiedje et al., "The most important characteristics ofbiodiver Planned Introduction of Genetically Engi sity. One of the most significant contrib neered Organisms." utors to biodiversity change at any given location is its level of affliction by invading Birds. Because birds are both numer or introduced species. Some of the latter ically common creatures and relatively easy have become major pests and famous sto to observe and monitor, many ornitholo ries in their own right: the Argentine ant, gists have become involved in biodiversity the Giant Mrican snail, the zebra mussel, oriented studies. One of their many sub the gypsy moth, the starling, the Indian jects of concern has been the recent decline mongoose, and so on. Required initial in numbers of migrating songbirds in the reading on this subject includes the clas New World. Importantworks: RichardM. sic The Ecology ofInvasions by Animals and DeGraaf and John H. Rappole's Neotrop Plants, by Charles S. Elton. Important ical Migratory Birds; Ecology and Conser works: Biological Invasions: A Global Per vation of Grassland Birds of the Western spective, ed. by J.A. Drake et al.; Chris Hemisphere, ed. by Peter D. Vickery and Bright's Life out ofBounds: Bioinvasion in James R. Herkert; Ecology and Conserva a Borderless World; James T. Carlton and tion ofNeotropical Migrant Landbirds, ed. J.B. Geller's "Ecological Roulette: The by John M. Hagan and David W. Johnston; Global Transport of Nonindigenous Ma Paul R. Ehrlich et al., Birds in Jeopardy; En rine Organisms"; George W. Cox's Alien demic Bird Areas of the World, ed. by Ali Species in North America and Hawaii; Ecol son J. Stattersfield et al.; John Terborgh's ogy of Biological Invasions, ed. by R.H. Where Have All the Birds Gone?
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Body size, morphology, and shape trends. Boyle's Dead Heat: The Race against the DiversiPy characteristics and measures: One of the most fundamental aspects of di Greenhouse Effect; Peter M. Vitousek's "Be abundance, diversity gradients, species versity in the living world is the range of yond Global Warming: Ecology and Glob area relations, etc. Under this subject head body shapes and sizes that various creatures al Change." ing we may place any number ofstudies that have adopted to carve out their individu dwell on the micro- and macrocharacteris al niches. Investigators have been exam Collections and banks: museum, ge tics ofdiversity per se. For example, it is well ining a range of geographical, ecological, netic, and other. Not only is it important established that within most families or and evolutionary controls on the process to maintain the research collections of the orders of living things, there are more species since the 19th century. Important works: world's natural history museums for pur that live in low latitude areas than in high Mike Foote's "The Evolution ofMorpho poses of basic research; also needed are latitude ones. Importantworks: Joseph H. logical Diversity"; Scaling in Biology, ed. by seed and germplasm banks to ensure a con Connell's classic "Diversity in Tropical Rain James H. Brown and Geoffrey B. West. tinuing supply of the raw genetic material Forests and Coral ReefS"; David J. Currie's necessary to the maintenance of agrobio "Energy and Large-Scale Patterns of Ani Canopy studies. It only quite recently diversity. Important works: Peter Davis's mal- and Plant-Species Richness"; Michael became apparent that we have probably Museums and the Natural Environment; A. Huston's classic "A General Hypothe vastly underestimated the number ofspecies, Gene Banks and the World's Food, by Don sis of Species Diversity"; Robert K Peet's especially insects, inhabiting the canopy ald L. Plucknett et al.; Gary Paul Nabhan's "The Measurement of Species Diversity." zone of forests. Important work: Mark W. Enduring Seeds: Native American Agri Moffett's The High Frontier: Exploring the culture and Wild Plant Conservation; Sam Endangered and threatened species. Tropical Rainforest Canopy. pling the Gr:een World: Innovative Con Biodiversity loss is most dramatically evi cepts of Collection, Preservation, and Stor denced through the process of extinction, Captive breeding/ex situ conservation. age ofPlant Diversity, ed. byTod F. Stuessy and those forms nearing extinction are said When other means of conservation fail, and S.H. Sohmer to be endangered or threatened. Many the last resort is often to remove individ 20th-century workers have concerned them uals from their natural surroundings and Corridor studies. A good number of selves with the single-species management attempt to encourage their breeding under researchers have been investigating the spe of endangered species, and the biodiver controlled conditions. For a good readable cial problems associated with the mainte sity movement has added to such study survey of the subject, see Colin Tudge's nance and/or construction of habitat cor through investigations cast at t:he ecolog Last Animals at the Zoo: How Mass Ex ridors that will ensure a minimum level of ical and landscape levels. Important works: tinction Can Be Stopped. genetic exchange between remnant and/or Diane Ackerman's The Rarest ofthe Rare: fragmenting popuiations. Important works: Vanishing Animals, Timeless Worlds; The Climatic environmental change. Al The Role ofCorridors, ed. by Denis A. Saun Atlas ofEndangered Species, ed. by John A. though global warming and other such ders and Richard J. Hobbs; Daniel K Rosen Burton; Paul Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich's subjects (including the greenhouse effect berg et al., "Biological Corridors: Form, Extinction: The Causes and Consequences of and the ozone layer problem) can be stud Function, and Efficacy"; Daniel S. Sim the Disappearance of Species; The Last Ex ied at a level more or less detached from berloff and J. Cox's "Consequences and tinction, ed. by Les Kaufinan and Kenneth matters of biodiversity, it should be ap Costs of Conservation Corridors." Mallory; Charles C. Mann and Mark L. parent that any related effects are very Plummer's Noah's Choice: The Future ofEn likely to have profound impacts on the DeforestRtion. The drawbacks associ dangered Species; Norman Myers's The Sink world oflife. Studies in this arena often ated with the reduction of the world's great ingArk. spotlight the degree to which human ac forests have been recognized since the time tivities have worked at cross-purposes: of Marsh and Wallace in the mid-19th cen Endemic species and "hotspots" anal corporate and political structures are not tury. Important works: Judith Gradwohl yses. Endemic species are those that have a often easily swayed by mere scientific ar and Russell Greenberg's Saving the Trop limited geographical range, and "hotspots" guments. Important works: Climate ical Forests; Philip Hurst's Rainforest Poli are those areas populated by many at-risk Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment, tics: Ecological Destruction in South-East endemic forms. One strategy for conserv ed. by J.T. Houghton et al.; Global Warm Asia; Norman Myers's The Primary Source; ing biodiversity involves the maximization ing: The Greenpeace Report, ed. by Jeremy Thomas K Rudel and Bruce Horowitz's of protection afforded to such localities. Leggett; Global Warming and Biologi Tropical Deforestation: Small Farmers and Important works: Andrew P. Dobson et al., cal Diversity, ed. by Robert L. Peters and Land Clearing in the Ecuadorian Amazon; "Geographic Distribution of Endangered Thomas E. Lovejoy; The Greenhouse Ef DavidSkole and Compton Tucker's "Trop Species in the United States"; Endemic fect, Climatic Change, and Ecosystems, ed. ical Deforestation and Habitat Fragmen Bird Areas of the World, ed. by Alison J. by Bert Bolin; Bill McKibben's The End tation in the Amazon: Satellite Data from Stattersfield et al.; Russell A. Mittermeier ofNature; Michael Oppenheimer and R.H. 1978 to 1988." et al., Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Rich-
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est and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecore Ethnobotany. Ethnobotany as an in mands for food are met. One of the most gions; J.R. Prendergast et al., "Rare Species, terdisciplinary field extends well beyond the important aspects of this concern is whether the Coincidence of Diversity Hotspots and scope of biodiversity studies per se. Still, we can maintain a satisfactory diversity of Conservation Strategies." many of the relationships between plants food types, given problems such as shrink and human culture--especially indigenous ing gene pools in the source species from Environmental ethics. The ethical re cultures-figure strongly in our quest for which our domestic varieties have been lationship of humankind to its environment greater knowledge of nature. For example, developed. Important works: Kenny is a subject that has gained increasing at indigenous knowledge of the healing prop Ausubel's Seeds of Change; Cary Fowler tention in recent years: to what degree should erties of native plants aids in the search and Pat Mooney's Shattering: Food, Poli we consider ourselves liable for all the phys for new commercial medicines. Impor tics, and the Loss ofGenetic Diversity; Gene ical exploitation we sponsor? Important tant works: Paul Alan Cox's Nafanua: Sav Banks and the World)s Food, by Donald L. works: Robin Attfield's The Ethics of En ing the Samoan Rain Forest; Ethnoecolo Plucknett et al. vironmental Concern; J. Baird Callicott's In gy: Situated Knowledge/Located Lives, ed. Defense ofthe Land Ethic; Roderick F. Nash's by Virginia D. Nazarea; Medicinal Resources Forest conservation and management. The Rights of Nature: A History of Envi ofthe Tropical Forest, ed. by Michael J. Bal It is not only the tropical forests that are in ronmental Ethics; Holmes Rolston's En ick et al.; Mark J. Plotkin's Tales of a trouble in many parts of the world. Log vironmental Ethics; Christopher D. Stone's Shaman)s Apprentice; Richard E. Schultes ging operations and commercial develop Earth and Other Ethics: The Case for Moral and Robert F. Raft'aufs The Healing For ment threaten many higher latitude loca Pluralism; Paul W. Taylor's Respectfor Na est: Medicinal and Toxic Plants ofthe North tions as well, endangering natural reposi ture: A Theory ofEnvironmental Ethics. west Amazonia. tories ofbiodiversity such as old-growth forests. Important works: Eastern Old Environmental perception and philos Extinction and extinction rates. Ex Growth Forests: Prospects for Rediscovery ophy. Some may consider these subjects a tinction is the primary vehicle of biodiver and Recovery, ed. by Mary Byrd Davis; J u bit far afield from the matter of biodiver sity loss, and its most apparent manifesta dith Gradwohl and Russell Greenberg's sity conservation, but it is nevertheless a fact tion. But its causes are complex and vari Saving the Tropical Forests; Maintaining that the public will not fully support such ous, and have kept a sizable population of Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems, ed. by Mal efforts until it is understood how and why investigators busy hypothesizing causes for colm L. Hunter; Elliott A. Norse's An they feel as they do about related ques well over a hundred years. Important works: cient Forests ofthe Pacific Northwest. tions. Important works: The Biophilia Hy Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich's Ex pothesis, ed. by Stephen R. Kellert and Ed tinction; Niles Eldredge's The Miner)s Ca Gaia hypothesis. The Gaia hypothesis ward O. Wlison; J. Baird Callicott's In De nary; Extinction Rates, ed. by John H. Law the notion that the biosphere has evolved fense of the Land Ethic; Bill Devall and ton and Robert M. May; David M. Raup's in the long-term and large-scale sense as George Sessions's Deep Ecology; Ursula Extinction: Bad Genes or Bad Luck?; Beverly though it were a single giant organism Goodenough's The Sacred Depths of Na Peterson Steams and Stephen C. Stearns's is a highly controversial point of view that ture; Roderick F. Nash's Wilderness and the Watching, from the Edge ofExtinction. most scientists do not accept at present. Yet American Mind; Bryan G. Norton's To the idea continues to draw attention and ward Unity among Environmentalists; Ed Fishes and fisheries. Freshwater and attract advocates. Importantworks: Bran ward Osborne Wilson's Biophilia. marine environments have received rela don Carter's "The Anthropic Principle and tively less attention with respect to the bio Its Implications for Biological Evolution"; Environmentalism. The political, so diversity crisis than have terrestrial envi John R. Gribbin's Hothouse Earth; James cial, and economic advocates of the envi ronments, but this by no means suggests E. Lovelock's Gaia: A New Look at Life on ronment have a strong collective voice in that they are less aftlicted with related prob Earth; James E. Lovelock's TheAgesofGa today's society. The biodiversity crisis has lems. Importantworks: P.J. Doherty and ia; Dorion Sagan's Biospheres: Metamor provided yet more fodder for their can D.M. Wliliams's "The Replentishment of phosis of Planet Earth; Scientists on Gaia, non. Important works: Conserving the En Coral Reef Fish Populations"; The Ecolo ed. by Stephen H. Schneider and Pene vironment, ed. by Laura K. Egendorf; An gy ofFishes on Coral Reefs, ed. by Peter F. lope J. Boston. drew Dobson et al., Green Political Thought, Sale; Gene S. Helfman et al., The Diver Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne Ehrlich's Be sity of Fishes; Christian Leveque's Biodi Gap analysis. Gap analysis is an im trayal of Science and Reason and The Pop versity Dynamics and Conservation: The portant technique wherein ecosystem and ulation Explosion; Garrett J. Hardin's clas Freshwater Fish of Tropical Africa. species distribution maps are compared to sic "The Tragedy of the Commons"; Bryan the extent of existing nature preserves. This G. Norton's Toward Unity among Envi Food sources and supply. There is in tends to draw attention to "gaps"; that is, ronmentalists; Jonathan Weiner's The Next creasing concern that current agriculture to places where the network of preserves One Hundred Years. practices may not ensure that future de- is incomplete with respect to its protection
May 2001 CHOICE 1573 The World of Life of high species diversity environments. Im Leslie E. Sponsel; The Law ofthe Mother: to sort out the causes and whether these portant works: Gap Analysis: A Geograph Protecting Indigenous Peoples, ed. by Eliz may portend trouble ahead for humankind. ic Approach, by J. Michael Scott et al.; Gap abeth Kemf. Important works: Walter Alvarez's T. Rex Analysis: A Landscape Approach, ed. by J. and the Crater of Doom; Douglas H. Er Michael Scott et al. Insects. The enormous numbers of both win's The Great Paleozoic CrisiS; A. Hallam individuals and species ofinsects make them and P.B. Wignall's Mass Extinctions and Genetic/germplasm diversity and re ofvital concern to biodiversity studies. Im Their Aftermath; Quaternary Extinctions: sources. Genetic diversity and its conser portant works: The Conservation of Insects A Prehistoric Revolution, ed. by Paul S. vation is a subject not often connected and Their Habitats, ed. by N . Mark Collins Martin and Richard G. Klein; Peter Dou by the public to biodiversity studies, but and Jeremy Thomas; Bert Holldobler and glas Ward's The End ofEvolution and On expect to hear more and more about re Edward o. Wilson's The Ants; Perspectives Methuselah's Trail: Living Fossils and the lated subjects as time goes on. Impor on Insect Conservation, ed. by Kevin J. Gas Great Extinctions. tant works: Mark D . Adams and A.R. ton et al.; Michael J. Samways's Insect Con Kerlavage's "Initial Assessment of Hu servation Biology. Microorganisms. It is sometimes for man Gene Diversity"; O .H . Frankel et gotten that the diversity of the microscop al., The Conservation of Plant Diversity; Island biology/biogeography. Islands ic world is every bit as great as that at our Richard Frankham's "Conservation Ge have been regarded as "living laborato own scale of being. One can expect many netics"; Genetics and the Extinction of ries" of evolution for some 150 years, and future surprises within this domain of study. Species, ed. by Laura F. Landweber and An the study of their biota has produced many Important works: Susan M . Barns et al., drew P. Dobson; J.L. Hamrick et al., "Fac important advances in theory over that pe "Remarkable Archaeal Diversity Detected tors Influencing Levels of Genetic Diver riod. But their special geographic and eco in a Yellowstone National Park Hot Spring sity in Woody Plant Species"; Russell logical features make them irresistible tar Environment"; 0ivind Bergh et al., "High Lande's "Genetics and Demography in Bi gets for development, and in ways often an Abundance of Viruses Found in Aquatic ological Conservation." tagonistic to the welfare of their resident Environments"; Laurie Garrett's The Com faunas and floras. Importantworks: Hawai ing Plague; Microbial Diversity and Ecosys Habitat/landscape/ecosystem frag ian Biogeography: Evolution on a Hot Spot tem Function, ed. by D. Allsopp et al.; N.R. mentation and patch dynamics. Frag Archipelago, ed. by Warren L. Wagner and Pace's "A Molecular View of Microbial mentation of natural habitats has a vari V.A. Funk; Islands: Biological Diversity Diversity and the Biosphere." ety of important ramifications for natural and Ecosystem Function, ed. by Peter M. Vi diversity. For example, heavily fragment tousek et al.; Robert H . MacArthur and Ed Parasites and parasitism. Parasitism ed populations can be prone to inbreeding, ward O. Wilson's classic The Theory of Is is another phenomenon whose importance which may hasten local extinction. Im land Biogeography, David Quammen's The to biodiversity has been rather overlooked portant works: The Ecology ofNatural Dis Song ofthe Dodo; Robert J. Whittaker's Is until recent years. Its implications both for turbance and Patch Dynamics, ed. by S.T A land Biogeography: Ecology, Evolution, and evolutionary trends and ecological struc Pickett and P.S. White; Lenore Fahrig and Conservation; Mark Williamson's Island tures are now being much more closely G. Merriam's "Conservation of Fragment Populations. examined. Important works: Gerald W. ed Populations"; Larry D. Harris's The Frag Esch and Jacqueline Fernandez's A Func mented Forest; Denis A. Saunders et al., Mammals. Important works: Gerardo tional Biology of Parasitism; Bland J. Fin "Biological Consequences of Ecosystem Ceballos and James H. Brown's "Global lay's "The Global Diversity of Protow a and Fragmentation: A Review." Patterns ofMammalian Diversity, Endemism, Other Small Species"; Robert Poulin's and Endangerment"; Conservation and "Species Richness of Parasite Assemblages." Indigenous peoples, traditional knowl Management ofMarine Mammals, ed. by edge, and intellectual property rights. Not John R. Twiss and Randall R. Reeves; Roben Protected areas and reserve design. The only can one make the argument that tra C. Lacy's "Importance of Genetic Varia most conventional and widely supported ditionallifestyles are themselves an aspect tion to the Viability of Mammalian Popu means of conserving biodiversity involves of biodiversity that should be conserved, lations"; Measuring and Monitoring Bio setting aside parcels of land (and water) but the increasing exploitation of the home logical Diversity: Standard Methods for Mam in an effort to protect them from human lands of native peoples for natural products mals, ed. by Don E. Wuson et al. overexploitation. Related studies feature is fraught with a variety of ethical and moral both economic discussions and social ones; issues. Important works: Conservation of Mass extinctions. It has become in an example of the latter kind of consider Neotropical Forests: Working from Tradi creasingly apparent that Earth's biota has ation is the way buffer wnes between pro tional Resource Use, ed. by Kent H. Red undergone a series of massive simultaneous tected and unprotected parcels ofland com ford and Christine Padoch; Indigenous Peo extinction episodes throughout our geo plicate the lives ofpeople living nearby. Im ples and the Future ofAmazonia, ed. by logical past. Researchers are still trying portant works: Continental Conservation:
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Scientific Foundations of Regional Reserve "Scale Dependence and the Species-Area we can expect to see the development of Networks, ed. by Michael E. Soule and John Relationship"; John A. Wiens's "Spatial a much more substantial research infras Terborgh; A Global Representative System Scaling in Ecology." tructure, and with it new educational pro ofMarine Protected Areas, ed. by Graeme grams and political agenda. We can also Kelleher et al.; Parks in Peril, ed. by Kat Sustainable use and development. Over expect that more attention will be given to rina Brandon et al.; Craig L. Shafer's Na the past 20 years or so a philosophy of nat gaining bibliographic control over the sub ture Reserves: Island Theory and Conser ural resource management based on the ject: it will become increasingly apparent vation Practice; Richard I. Vane-W right et concept ofits sustainable use has gathered how different scales of living organization al., "What to Protect?-Systematics and the much international support. The study are interrelated, and how, in turn, the lit Agony of Choice." of biodiversity loss has only served to in erature generated in one field can be re tensifY this interest. Important works: !.ester lated to that produced in others. Rare species. As the result of factors Russell Brown's Building a Sustainable both internal and external to a given pop Society; Global Biodiversity: Status of the ulation, it is possible for a species to be Earth's Living Resources, ed. by Brian rare but not threatened or endangered, or Groombridge; Jane Lubchenco et al., "The threatened or endangered but not rare. Sustainable Biosphere Initiative: An Eco The population dynamics of naturally rare logical Research Agenda"; David W. Pearce's species thus have their own special kind Economic Values and the Natural World; • Works Cited of implications for biodiversity conserva David W. Pearce and Jeremy J. Warford's tion. Important works: The Biology ofRar World without End: Economics, Environ Agroecology, [ed.] by C. Ronald Carroll, John H. ity, ed. by William E. Kunin and Kevin J. ment, and Sustainable Development. Vandermeer, and Peter Rossett. McGraw Hill,1990. Gaston; Kevin J. Gaston's Rarity; J.R. Pren Agroecology: Researching the Ecological Basis for dergast et aI., "Rare Species, the Coinci Tropicalforests. The post-World War Sustainable Agriculture, ed. by Step hen R. dence of Diversity Hotspots and Conser devastation of the world's tropical forests Gliessman. Springer-Vedag, 1990. vation Strategies." is one of the most serious crises confronting Altieri, Miguel A., with John G. Farrel!. biodiversity conservation. Human popu Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Reptiles and amphibians. Important lation pressures are mainly at the root of the Agriculture. 2nd ed. Westview Press, 1995. works: Trevor J.C. Beebee's Ecology and problem-the quintessential example of the Alvarez, Walter. T. Rex and the Crater of Doom. Princeton,1997 (CH,Oct'97). Conservation ofAmphibians; Measuring snake swallowing its own tail: the world's and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Stan great tropical forests are made up of millions Askins, Robert A. Restoring North America's Birds: Lessons from Landscape Ecology. Yale, dard Methods for Amphibians, ed. by Ronald ofspecies, and some of them might provide 2000 (CH, Jul'OO). W. Heyer et al.; National Research Coun the clues necessary to solving many of our The Atlas of Endangered Species, ed. by John A. cil, Decline of the Sea Turtles; Patterns of most pressing social problems, medical and Burton. 2nd ed. Macmillan Library Distribution ofAmphibians: A Global Per otherwise. Important works: The Conser Reference, 1999. spective, ed. by William E. Duellman. vation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Africa, ed. Attfield, Robin. The Ethics of Environmental by Jeffrey A Sayer et al.; The Conservation Concern. 2nd ed. Georgia, 1991. Scale, spatial. The selection quoted ear Atlas of Tropical Forests: Asia and the Pa Ausubel, Kenny. Seeds of Change: The Living Treasure: The Passionate Story of the Growing lier from the writings ofE. O. WIlson draws cific, ed. by N. Mark Collins et al.; Judith Movement to Restore Biodiversity and attention to the idea that biodiversity must Gradwohl and Russell Greenberg's Saving Revolutionize the Way We Think about Food. be considered in its manifestations "at all the Tropical Forests; Norman Myers's The Harper-SanFrancisco, 1994 (CH, Sep'94). levels of organization"-that is to say, at Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Bates, Henry Walter. The Naturalist on the River the level of individual organisms, local ( com Future; Douglas Southgate's Tropical For Amazons: A Record of Adventures, Habits of Animals, Sketches ofBrazilian and Indian Life munities and populations) settings, regional est Conservation; John Terborgh's Diver and Aspects of Nature under the Equator patterns and assemblages, and global in sity and the Tropical Rain Forest; T. C. Whit during Eleven Years of Travel. J. Murray, terdependencies. Variation in the spatial more's Tropical Rain Forests ofthe Far East. 1863. scale at which biodiversity is manifest is Becher, Ann. Biodiversity: A Reference in fact one of its most essential features Handbook. ABC-CLIO, 1998 (CH, Nov'98). and a research subject that in the future is Conclusion Beebee, Trevor J.C. Ecology and Conservation of Amphibians. Chapman & Hall, 1996 (CH, likely to attract increasing interest. Im Jan'97). portant works: M. Julian Caley and Dolph iodiversity as a study began in Behavioral Ecology and Conservation Biology, ed. Schluter's "The Relationship between Lo Bthe 20th century, but it will sure by T.M. Caro. Oxford, 1998. cal and Regional Diversity"; Simon A Levin's ly be the 21st century that will The Big Kill: Declining Biodiversity in America's "The Problem of Pattern and Scale in Ecol witness its ultimate worth to the perpetu Lakes and Rivers, ed. by David S. Wlicove and ogy"; Michael W. Palmer and P.S. White's ation of human existence. Along the way Michael J. Bean. Environmental Defense Fund,1994.
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BiodiJlersity, ed. by E.O. Wilson. National The Conserpation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Asia Conference, Tulsa, Oklahoma, October, 1995, Academy Press, 1988. and the Pacific, ed. by N. Mark Collins, ed. by Peter D. Vickery and James R. Herkert. BiodiJlersity in Agroecosystems, ed. by Wanda W. Jeffrey Sayer, and T .C. Whitmore. Cooper Ornithological Society, 1999. Collins and Calvin O. Qualset. CRC,1999. Macmillan, 1991. Ecology and Conserpation of Neotropical Migrant BiodiJlersity Dynamics: TurnoJler of Populations, Conserpation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Landbirds, ed. by John M. Hagan and David W. Johnston. Smithsonian,1992. Taxa, and Communities, ed. by Michae1 L. DiJlersity, ed. by Michae1 E. Soule. Sinauer, McKinney and James A. Drake. Columbia, 1986. The Ecology of Fishes on Coral Reefs, ed. by Peter 1998. The Conserpation of Insects and Their Habitats, F. Sale. Academic Press, 1991(CH, Sep'92). BiodiJlersity Loss: Economic and Ecological Issues, ed. by N. Mark Co1lins and Jeremy Thomas. The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch ed. by Charles A. Perrings et al. Cambridge, Academic, 1991. Dynamics, ed. by S.T.A. Pickett and P.S. 1995. Conserpation of Neotropical Forests: Working from White. Academic, 1985. BiodiJlersity Prospecting: Using Genetic Resources Traditional Resource Use, ed. by Kent H. Ehrlich, Paul R., and Anne Ehrlich. Extinction: for Sustainable Dwelopment, ed. by Walter V. Redford and Christine Padoch. Columbia, The Causes and Consequences of the Reid et al. World Resources Institute, 1993. 1992. Disappearance of Species. Random House, Conserping the EnJlironment, ed. by Laura K. 1981. BiodiJlersity 11: Understanding and Protecting Egendorf. Greenhaven, 1999. Our Biological Resources, ed. by Marjorie L. _. The Betrayal of Science and Reason: How Reaka-Kudla, Don E. Wilson, and Edward O. Continental Conserpation: Scientific Foundations Anti-enJlironmental Rhetoric Threatens Our Wilson. Joseph Henry Press, 1997. of Regional Reserpe Networks, ed. by Michae1 Future. Island Press, 1996 (CH, Mar'97). Biological InJlasions: A Global PerspectiJle, ed. by E. Soule and John Terborgh. Island Press, ___ . The Population Explosion. Simon and J.A. Drake et al. Wiley,1989. 1999. Schuster,1990. Cox, George W. Alien Species in North America The Biology ofRarity: Causes and Consequences of Ehrlich, Paul R., David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Rare-Common Differences, ed. by William E. and Hawaii: Impacts on Natural Ecosystems. Wheye. Birds in Jeopardy: The Imperiled and Island Press, 1999(CH, Apr'OO). Kunin and Kevin J. Gaston. Chapman & Extinct Birds of the United States and Canada Hall, 1997. Cox, Paul Alan. Nafanua: SaJling the Samoan Including Hawaii and Puerto Rico. Stanford, Rain Forest. W.H. Freeman, 1997. 1992. Biomass Burning and Global Change, ed. by Joe1 S. Levine. 2 vols. MIT, 1996. Cummings, Ronald G., et al. Valuing Eldredge, Niles. 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Internet ReJourceJ
Biodiversity (World Resources Institute) http://www.wri.org/wri/biodiv/biodiv.html
Biodiversity and Biological Collections Web Sen>er (Julian Humphries) http://www.Keil.ukans.edu/
Biodiversity: Digital Library (Academic Info) http://www.academicinfo.net/biodivlibrary.html
Biodiversity: Measuring the Variety of Nature (Biogeography & Conservation Lab, Natural History Museum, London) http://www.nhm.ac.uk/science/projects/ worldmap/
Biodiversity Related Web Sites (The Natural eritage Network) http://www.heritage.mc.org/oth_svrs.html
Information Dissemination for Nature Conservation (European Centre for Nature Conservation) http://www.ecnc.n1/doc/servers/informat.html
The Virtual Library ofEcology & Biodiversity (Rice University and CCBN) http://www.conbio.net/vljbrowse/
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