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AEMI JOURNAL • VOLUME 6/ 7 • 2008 2009

AEMIJOURNAL

Volume 6/7 • 2008 • 2009

www.aemi.dk Association of European Migration Institutions AEMIJOURNAL

Volume 6 • 2008

Special Issue on

From Immigration to Integration: Documentation and Research in Europe

Editor Hans Storhaug

Association of European Migration Institutions www.aemi.dk AEMI Journal Editor: Hans Storhaug

Editorial board: Brian Lambkin, Centre for Migration Studies at the Ulster- American Folk Park, Omagh Henning Bender, the Danish Emigrant Archives, Aalborg, Layout and design: Hans Storhaug

The Association of European Migration Institutions - AEMI, founded in 1991, is a network of organisations in Europe concerned with the documentation, research and presentation of European migration.

AEMI board: Brian Lambkin, Chairman Henning Bender, Secretary Hans Storhaug Olavi Koivukangas Silvia Martini

Manuscripts and editorial correspondence regarding AEMI Journal should be sent by e-mail to [email protected]. Statements of facts or opinion in AEMI Journal are solely those of the authors and do not imply endorsement by the editors or publisher.

Published in September 2009 © AEMI ISSN 1729-3561

AEMI - Secretariat, Arkivstraede 1, Box 1731, DK - 9100 Aalborg, Denmark Phone: + 45 99314230 Fax: + 45 98102248 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: www.aemi.dk

Printed in Norway by Omega Trykk, Stavanger Contents

5 From the Editor

6 Protocol of the AEMI 2007 meeting in Turku, Finland

14 Chairman´s Report 2006 - 2007

20 Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade Integration Policies for Immigrants in Portugal

31 Elli Heikkilä and Maria Pikkarainen Internationalization of Population and Labour Force from the Present to the Future in Finland

46 Krister Björklund From Immigration to Integration: the Case of Japan

66 Maija Hinkle ‘Latvians Abroad’: A Planned Latvian Emigration Museum and Research Center

74 Maria Villares Varela The Study of Ethnic Entrepreneurship from a Perspective of Gender: An Analysis of the Motivations, Barriers and Impact on Immigrant Empowerment

95 Olavi Koivukangas Immigration in Europe: Good or Bad?

108 Benan Oregi and Joseba Arreguri The Basque Diaspora: One Step Forward

118 Hans Storhaug The Council of Europe Cultural Routes´Award to the European Route of Migration Heritage

122 Protocol of the AEMI 2008 meeting in Genoa, Italy

130 Chairman´s Report 2007 - 2008

136 Milan Mesic Intercultural Education for Multicultural Society

148 Marta Severo The International Networks of Migration Institutions: Promoting the Public Understanding of Migration

153 Noemi Ugolini and Chiara Cardogna Permanent Study Centre on Emigration-Museum of the Emigrant: The Memory Archive and the Migrants´Jobs.

From the Editor

I am happy finally to present another volume of the AEMI Journal. It should have been out for our annual meeting in Genoa, Italy, last year, but due to some sudden health problems, the publication was delayed. That is why this edition, as the last one, is a double volume presenting the most important papers from the 2007 meeting in Turku, but also a few from last year´s meeting in Genoa, Italy.

It is a fact that I have not been successful in communicating to the host institutions of the annual conference, nor to the speakers, the importance of providing me with the papers presented at the meeting. I will therefor use this opportunity to remind you all that our policy still is to publish papers from all our meetings. To be able to do so, I strongly encourage future contributors to e-mail their papers to me directly, in due time, meaning no later than 31 December. My e-mail address is [email protected].

It is also my experience that our Journal has become an important tool not only for documentation and dissemination of international migration research, but also to communicate to our national authorities and over-national organisations like EU, the Council of Europe, UNESCO and International Organisation of Migra- tion (IOM), our mission of bridging research institutions, libraries, universities and museums worldwide dedicated to past, present and future migration. In this respect I believe a closer cooperation between AEMI and the International Network of Mi- gration Institutions, would be very beneficial.

The complexity of immigration and integration in various countries in Europe - and Japan - is the main theme of this volume. But the Journal also focuses on digitization of archival material and celebrates the fact that the Council of Europe Cultural Routes finally recognised AEMI and migration heritage as a new European Cultural Route. It makes us also remember that intercultural education was high- lighted during 2008 - the Year of Intercultural Dialogue in Europe.

Hans Storhaug, Editor Protocol of the Annual Meeting of the Association of European Migration Institutions

26 - 29 September, 2007 Turku, Finland

Members of the Association of European Migration Institutions met for their annual meeting in Turku, Fin- land. Here their are gathered on the top of the roof of the host organization - the Finnish Migration Institute in Turku, Finland. Foto: H. Storhaug

Thursday 26.09.07 man, Dr Brian Lambkin, thanked Pro- Conference members assembled at 9.00 fessor Koivukangas and his colleagues a.m. in the conference room of the Insti- for their kind welcome. He reminded tute of Migration in Turku, Finland and members that the Association had pre- were welcomed by the Director of the viously met in Turku in 1993 and that Institute, Professor Olavi Koivukangas. Olavi, who had played a key role in the On behalf of the Association, the Chair- foundation of the Association, had ex- ANNUAL AEMI MEETING TURKU, FINLAND 2007 7 pressed the wish that his Institute might Session 2: 13.15 - 15.00 host a further Annual Meeting before he Documentation: Emigrant Registers retired. Comparing briefly the situation Chair: Dr Director Brian Lambkin, of this year’s meeting on terra firma with Centre for Migration Studies at The that of the previous year on board the Ulster-American Folk Park, Omagh, Adriatic Paradise in the harbor of Trogir, Northern Ireland. Croatia, the Chairman drew attention ‘The Emigrant Register and Its Serv- to the appropriateness of the Finnish ices’, Genealogist Elisabeth Uschanov, Institute’s dockside location, opposite Institute of Migration, Turku, Finland. an old rope works. ‘Finnish overseas emigration through Professor Koivukangas then intro- Denmark’, Director Henning V. Bender, duced the theme of this year’s confer- The Danish Emigration Archives, Den- ence, ‘From Immigration to Integration: mark. Documentation and Research’ and in- Discussion vited the keynote speaker, Minister for Europe and Immigration, Astrid Thors, Afternoon to address the meeting. Ms Thors ex- The General Assembly of AEMI. The tended greetings of the Finnish govern- minutes of the meeting are given below. ment and proceeded to give an overview ‘Emigration in Port Bulletins from of current policy on immigration and 1904 and 1963, Silvia Martini, Interna- the historical background to it. tional Study Centre on Italian Emigra- The programme for the rest of the day tion, CISEI, Genoa, Italy. and for the rest of the meeting was as follows: Reception of the City of Turku at the City Hall. Session 1: 10.30 - 12.00 Documentation: Archives and Libraries Friday 28.9.2007 Chair: Professor Olavi Koivukangas, In- Session 3: 9.30 - 12. 30 stitute of Migration, Finland. Documentation: Emigrant museums. ‘Last Chance to Rescue Our History: Chair: Director Knut Djupedal, The Identifying, Acquiring and Preparing Norwegian Emigrant Museum, Nor- Basque Migration and Exile Archives for way. Public Domain Use’, Assistant Benan ‘Recent Developments of Migra- Oregi and Assistant Joseba Arregui, the tion Museums and Future Directions’, Basque Government for Relations with Coordinator Carine Rouah, Interna- Basque Diaspora, Spain. tional Network of Migration Museums, ‘Information Services of the Institute UNESCO, Paris, France. of Migration’, Information service man- ‘San Marino Memory Archive’, Di- ager Jouni Korkiasaari, Institute of Mi- rector Mrs. Noemi Ugolini and Assist- gration, Turku, Finland . ant Mrs. Chiara Cardogna, Permanent Discussion Study Centre on Emigration - Museum of the Emigrant, San Marino. ‘The Finnish Emigrant Museum’, 8 AEMI JOURNAL 2008–2009 Project Manager Tellervo Lahti, Finnish and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania’, Dr., Di- Emigrant Museum, Seinäjoki, Finland. rector Brian Lambkin, Centre for Mi- ‘BallinStadt – The New Emigration gration Studies at The Ulster-American Museum in Hamburg’, Mrs. Ursula Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Ireland. Wöst, BallinStadt Hamburg Emigration Museum, Germany. Session 5: 16.30 - 18.00 ‘Latvians in the World: A Planned Research: From immigration to integra- Latvian Emigration Museum and Re- tion cont. search Center’, Director Maija Hinkle, ‘How the New EU Member States Oral History Program at the American (CEECs) Cope with Immigration: Les- Latvian Association, USA. sons for Croatia’, Sociologist-Ph.D. ‘The Norwegian Emigrant Museum’, Candidate Snježana Gregurovic, Insti- Director Knut Djupedal, The Norwe- tute for Migration and Ethnic Studies, gian Emigrant Museum, Norway. Zagreb, Croatia. Discussion ‘The Study of Ethnic Entrepreneur- ship from a Perspective of Gender: An Session 4: 14.15 - 16.15 Analysis of the Motivations, Barriers Research: From immigration to integra- and Impact on Immigrant Empower- tion ment’, Ph.D. Student María Villares Chair Professor, Director Maria Beatriz Varela, Faculty of Sociology, University Rocha-Trindade, CEMRI -Centre for of Coruña, Spain. the Study of Migration and Intercul- ‘Emigration of Finns in the Twenty- tural Relations, University of Aberta, First Century to Germany and to the Portugal. United States and Finnish Emigrants ‘Immigration in Europe: Good or as a Resource of Finland’, Researcher Bad?’, Professor, Director Olavi Koivu- Sirkku Wilkman, Institute of Migra- kangas, Institute of Migration, Turku, tion, Turku, Finland. Finland. ‘Integration Policies for Immigrants Conference dinner, Restaurant Svarte in Portugal’, Professor, Director Maria Rudolf. Beatriz Rocha-Trindade, CEMRI - Centre for the Study of Migration and Saturday 29.9.2007 Intercultural Relations, University of Session 6: 9. 30 - 12.00 Aberta, Portugal. Research: From immigration to integra- ‘The Immigration and Integration of tion cont. British Migrants to Ireland, 1607-2007’, Chair Director Hans Storhaug, Norwe- Dr. Patrick Fitzgerald, Centre for Mi- gian Emigrant Center. gration Studies at The Ulster-American ‘Integration of Immigrants into the Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Ireland. Finnish Labour Markets’, Docent, Re- ‘The Immigration and Integration search Director Elli Heikkilä and Re- of Scottish Migrants to Ireland and the searcher Maria Pikkarainen, Institute of United States: the Case of the Mellon Migration, Turku, Finland. Family of Castletown, County Tyrone ‘Gendered Migration: The Case of ANNUAL AEMI MEETING TURKU, FINLAND 2007 9 Finnish Expatriate Women in Califor- Closing of the Conference, nia’, Lecturer Tiina Haapakoski, Uni- versity of Toronto, Canada. Dr., Director Brian Lambkin, Centre ‘Socio-labour Insertion of Immigrant for Migration Studies at The Ulster- Women in Spain’, Professor Raquel American Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Martinez and Researcher Montserrat Ireland. Golias, Faculty of Sociology, University The Chairman thanked Professor of Coruña, Spain. Koivukangas and his colleagues for their ‘From Immigration to Integration: excellent running of the conference and the Case of Japan’, Reseacher Kris- most generous hospitality. Presentations ter Björklund, Institute of Migration, were made to Professor Koivukangas Turku, Finland. and his colleague Elli Heikillä as tokens Discussion of the warm appreciation expressed by all present. Professor Koivukangas then Visiting Turku Castle invited all present to his house that evening for a farewell party that was Session 7: 15.00 - 16.30: Research: From greatly enjoyed by all. immigration to integration cont. Chair: Professor, Director Olavi Koivu- General Assembly of the Associa- kangas, Institute of Migration, Turku, tion of European Migration Institu- Finland. tions (AEMI) ‘Youth and Migration Project 2008’, Director Hans Storhaug, The Norwe- Minutes of Meeting gian Emigration Center, Stavanger, The General Assembly of the Associa- Norway. tion of European Migration Institutions was convened on in the Institute of Final Discussion Migration, Turku, Finland and called

Dating back to 1280, Turku Castle is the largest sur- Keynote speaker, Minister for Europe and Immigra- viving medieval building in Finland, and one of the tion, Astrid Thors, flanked by Hans Storhaug, (left), largest surviving medieval castles in Scandinavia. and Olavi Koivukangas and AEMI President Brian Lambkin. Photo: Hans Storhaug 10 AEMI JOURNAL 2008–2009 to order at 13.15 on Thursday 27 Sep- The Åland Islands Emigrant Institute, tember 2007 by the Chairman, Brian Mariehamm, Finland, represented by Lambkin. Dr Eva Meyer The Immigrant Institute, Sweden, Present represented by Mr Miguel Benito Representatives of the following mem- The Kinship Center, Karlstad, Swe- ber institutions were present: den, represented by Mr Erik Gustavson The Danish Emigration Archives, Aalborg, Denmark, represented by Dr The following institution applying for Henning Bender membership was represented: The Institute of Migration, Turku, Directorate for Relations with Basque Finland, represented by Professor Olavi Communities Abroad, Basque Country Koivukangas (Spain), represented by Mr Benan Oregi Génériques, Paris, France, repre- and Mr Joseba Inaki Arregui sented by Ms Sarah Clement The German Emigration Museum, Apologies Bremerhaven, Germany, represented by Written apologies were received from: Mr Steffen Wiegmann Routes to the Routes, Oldenburg, The Centre for Migration Studies at Germany, represented by Dr Wolfgang the Ulster-American Folk Park, North- Grams ern Ireland, represented by Dr Brian The Centre for Documentation of Lambkin Human Migration, Luxembourg, repre- The Norwegian Emigration Center, sented by Ms Antoinette Reuter Stavanger, Norway, represented by Mr CISEI (Centro Internazionale Studi Hans Storhaug Emigrazione Italiana), Genoa, Italy, rep- The Norwegian-American Collec- resented by Silvia Martini tion, National Library of Norway, represented by Ms Dina Tolfsby The following member institutions were The Norwegian Emigrant Museum, not represented: represented by Mr Knut Djupedal The Institute for Migration and Ethnic The Institute of Diaspora and Ethnic Studies, Zagreb, Croatia Studies, Krakow, Poland, represented by Croatian Heritage Foundation, Za- Professor Adam Walaszek greb, Croatia The Centre for the Study of Migra- Archives Department, Merseyside tion and Intercultural Relations, Lis- Maritime Museum, Liverpool, England, bon, Portugal, represented by Professor UK Maria-Beatriz Rocha-Trindade North Frisian Emigrant Archive, San Marino Emigrant Museum and Bredstedt, Germany Study Center, San Marino, represented Research Center for German Emi- by Noemi Ugolini grants in the USA, Oldenburg, Ger- The Swedish Emigrant Institute, many Växjö, Sweden, represented by Dr Britt- Friends of the German Emigration Louise Berndtsson Museum, Bremerhaven ANNUAL AEMI MEETING TURKU, FINLAND 2007 11 CISEI (Centro Internazionale Studi 4. Secretary and Treasurer’s Report: Fi- Emigrazione Italiana), Genoa, Italy, nancial Statement and Accounts, 2006- Centro Italiano di Studi Sull Emigrazi- 2007 one, Tramonti, Italy The Secretary and Treasurer, Henning The Centre for Documentation of Bender presented the Financial State- Human Migration, Luxembourg ment and Accounts for 2006-2007, as County Archives, Sogn og Fjordane, posted previously on the AEMI website. Kaupanger, Norway The Association’s Auditor, Dr Eva Museum of Emigration and Commu- Meyer, who was present, confirmed that nities, Fafe, Portugal she was satisfied with the Accounts for Museum of Scotland International, 2006 and had signed them. National Museums of Scotland, Edin- Agreed: It was agreed that the Audi- burgh, UK tor’s Report should appear as a separate Scots Abroad, National Library of item on the Agenda of next year’s meet- Scotland, Edinburgh, UK ing. The Institute for Slovene Emigration The Secretary and Treasure reported Studies, Ljubljana, Slovenia that he had commissioned a Danish Slovene Ethnographic Museum, firm to upgrade the Association’s website Ljubljana, Slovenia and demonstrated some of the improvements that would be made. He expected There were no representatives of associate the upgraded website to be launched members or personal members present. within a few weeks. The Presiding Officer thanked the 1. Election of presiding officer for the Gen- Secretary Treasurer and moved the adop- eral Assembly tion of his report and of the Accounts. The Chairman moved that Professor The meeting adopted the motion. Adam Walaszek be elected presiding officer of the business meeting. The motion 5. Journal Editor’s Report was agreed and Professor Walaszek took The Editor of the Association’s Jour- the chair. nal, Hans Storhaug, reported that the 2. Minutes of General Assembly 2006 latest volume had been published and The Minutes of the General Assembly he presented members with copies. This 2006, held on board the Adriatic Para- issue is the first to contain colour illus- dise en route between the island of Vis trations. It combines volumes 4 (2006) and Trogir, Croatia, on Saturday 30 Sep- and 5 (2007), which contain reports tember, posted previously on the AEMI of the Annual Meetings in Paris and website, were approved. Croatia respectively. The Editor was 3. Chairman’s Report for 2003-2004 congratulated on the appearance of the The Chairman gave his report. The Journal and there was some discussion full text is given separately at the AEMI of how it might be developed further. website. The Presiding Officer moved the It was suggested that consideration be adoption of the Chairman’s Report. The given to including book reviews. The meeting adopted the motion. Editor asked that contributors in future 12 AEMI JOURNAL 2008–2009 make every effort to meet deadlines set 7. Appointment of Auditor for 2007-2008 and submit illustrations in either gif. The Presiding Officer asked the Asso- or jpg. format. The Presiding Officer ciation’s Auditor, Dr Eva Meyer, if she thanked the Editor for his continuing would be willing to continue serving efforts on behalf of the Association. as Auditor for the coming year and she Sarah Clement of Generiques was confirmed that she was. The Presiding then invited to report on the publica- Officer thanked Dr Meyer on behalf of tion of the latest issue of her institution’s the Association. journal, Migrance 28. This French- language publication contains papers 8. Venue of Annual Meeting 2008 given at the Association’s Annual Meet- The Chairman reminded members of ing in 2005 in Paris, which was hosted the procedure by which the venue is by Generiques. Sarah was similarly chosen for the Annual Meeting. The As- congratulated on her publication and sociation relies on member institutions thanked for making copies available to coming forward and offering to act as members. host. In the event of more than one offer being received in a given year, the deci- 6. Proposed Budget for 2007-08 sion is made by members attending the The Secretary and Treasurer spoke to the Annual Meeting with special consid- proposed budget for 2007-08, posted eration being given to the desirability previously on the AEMI website. He ex- of moving the location of the Annual plained how this represented the most Meeting around Europe as inclusively as prudent use of resources, given that possible. Thus over the last five years the no significant increase in subscriptions meeting has moved between north and could be contemplated in the medium south and east and west (Norway 2002, term, and warned again (as he had the Portugal 2003, Sweden 2004, France previous year) that unless additional 2005, Croatia 2006, Finland 2007). funding was obtained, the Association He also reminded the meeting that in would be unable to maintain its current Paris (2005), where Finland had been level of activities beyond 2007. Knut decided on as the venue for 2007, ex- Djupedal asked if a separate budget al- pressions of interest in hosting future location should be made to support the meetings were made by Erik Gustav- development of European Migration son (Sweden), Simone Eick (Germany), Heritage Week. Henning Bender (Denmark) and Silvia Martini (Italy). He then explained that Agreed: It was agreed to consider a sepa- two firm offers for hosting the meeting rate allocation for this purpose in next in 2008 had been received from mem- year’s budget. The Presiding Officer ber institutions, namely the German moved the adoption of the proposed Emigration Museusm, Bremerhaven budget and the meeting accepted the and the International Study Centre for motion. Italian Migration, Genoa, Italy, Genoa. Invited to make a presentation on behalf of Bremerhaven, Steffen Wiegmann ANNUAL AEMI MEETING TURKU, FINLAND 2007 13 reported on the progress of his institu- back to the Board as to its viability as tion since its opening in 2005, its award a venue for the 2008 meeting. In the of European Museum of the Year in light of his report, the Board would 2007 and the extensive plans for further then make a decision as to the venue tourism development in Bremerhaven and communicate the outcome to the in the vicinity of the Emigrant Centre members as soon as possible. and warmly made the invitation to col- The Chairman thanked Steffen Wieg- leagues. Jürgen Rudloff also spoke on mann and Jürgen Rudloff for their un- behalf of Bremerhaven’s offer. derstanding and patience in the matter Silvia Martini was not present to make and asked them to communicate the a presentation on behalf of Genoa. She appreciation of the meeting to Simone had sent a message a few days previously Eick and their colleagues on their re- to say that she had been prevented by turn. illness from attending and was unable at such short notice to send a representa- 9. Admission of New Members tive in her place. She asked that Genoa’s The Presiding Officer asked the Chair- offer to host in 2008 be considered nev- man and Secretary/Treasurer to speak to ertheless. The Chairman said that, while the admission of new members. in one sense it was a happy situation The Chairman referred to the pres- for the Association to have two mem- entation made in Session 1 by Benan ber institutions keen to host the next Oregi and Joseba Arregui with regard year’s meeting, it was a difficult decision to the Basque Emigration Museum and for the meeting to make when Bremer- Research Center Project and and pro- haven was represented and Genoa was posed its admission to membership. not. The discussion that followed had This was agreed by acclaim. regard to the fact that Bremerhaven The Secretary/Treasurer reported that had already kindly hosted meetings in the Association pour la Maison de la 1991 and 2000 and that meeting there Memoire de l’Emigration des Pyrenees in 2008 after Finland would mean two et du Sud-Ouest, France, had requested meetings in succession in northern Eu- to continue being designated as ‘apply- rope. At the same time Genoa had issued ing for membership’. This was agreed. an invitation in writing, emphasizing that as a new institution and member it 10. Members Projects would value the support of the Associa- AEMI ‘European Migration Heritage tion’s presence. On a proposal from the Route’ Chairman, seconded by the Secretary San Marino Book Proposal and Treasurer, it was agreed to defer the decision pending further investigation 11.0 Any Other Business of the situation of Genoa. There being no other business, the Chairman thanked Professor Walaszek Agreed: It was agreed that the Secretary for acting as Presiding Officer and the and Treasurer should arrange to visit General Assembly concluded at 17.15. Genoa as soon as possible and report The Association of European Migration Institutions Chairman’s Report 2006-2007

Brian Lambkin

The Board held one face-to-face meeting in 2007, 2-3 July in Aalborg, Denmark, thanks to the hospitality of the Secretary and Treasurer, Henning Bender (left). Bender has retired from his position as Director of Aalborg City Archives and the Danish Emigration Archives. Photo: Hans Storhaug

Ladies and Gentlemen: the Institute for Ethnic and Migration In reflecting on the events of the past Research, Zagreb, for welcoming us so year I would like to begin by recalling warmly in Croatia. As ever, we rely on our Annual Meeting last year which our Annual Meeting as our main means took place in Croatia. In keeping with of renewing old friendships and making our theme, it was truly migratory, be- new ones, for reviewing progress, and ginning in the beautiful mainland town for charting our direction for the com- of Trogir and then moving to the island ing year. We also thank Olavi Koivukan- of Vis and back again. We again thank gas and his colleagues for making us so Silva Meznaric and her colleagues at welcome here in Finland. CHAIRMAN´S REPORT 15 As usual, there has been frequent Secretary and Treasurer will be report- communication between members of ing on progress. With regard to the the Board, mainly by email, in prepa- idea of a European Migration History ration for the Annual Meeting, and in Search Database, it was noted that of this regard I would like to pay tribute the projects currently underway that in particular to the cheerful, hard work are most likely to have an interest in of Olavi’s colleague, Elli Heikkilä. Your developing this kind of resource are Board, for the second year of this cur- the MA in European Migration Studies rent three-year cycle, has been Henning programme and the Youth and Migra- Bender (Denmark) as general secretary, tion (YAM) project, both of which are Hans Storhaug (Norway) as editor of concerned with promoting comparative the Association’s Journal, Silva Meznaric studies and European awareness, and it (Croatia) as representative of last year’s was agreed that if possible presentations host institution, Olavi Koivukangas about each of these should be sought for (Finland) as representative of the host the programme of the Annual Meeting. institution of 2007, and myself as chair- I am very pleased that Marina Luksic- man (Northern Ireland). The Board held Hacin and Hans Storhaug will be speak- one face-to-face meeting this year 2-3 ing about both these projects to us. You July in Aalborg, Denmark, thanks to the may recall that another project that we hospitality of the Secretary and Treas- have in mind is for a book, in a con- urer, Henning Bender. There we agreed venient comparative format, which will to the proposal of the Editor to go ahead outline the migration history of each with combining two issues of the Journal European country and draw attention in one volume and I am delighted to say to the various resources available in each that this is ready for us in Finland. We country, not least those of our own in- also reviewed our Strategic Plan, noting stitutions. In this regard we noted that that since the Annual Meeting in Portu- a new edition is in preparation of the gal (2003), the Association has gained 7 book edited by Dirk Hoerder and Di- new members (iCroatia; Germany (Bal- ethelm Knauf called Fame, Fortune and linstadt); Italy (Genoa); Portugal (Fafe); Sweet Liberty: The Great European Emi- Scotland (Scots Abroad); Sweden (Kin- gration, edited by Dirk Hoerder and Di- ship Center and Immigrant Institute). ethelm Knauf which was published in Regrettably, we have also lost 4 members 1992. This is the book which probably in Iceland; Ireland (Dunbrody); Ger- comes closest so far to giving a country- many (Hamburg); Italy (Rome); Den- by-country overview of European emi- mark (Farum). We also noted that there gration. It thus goes some way towards are some member institutions who have meeting the need we have identified, paid subscriptions consistently by never but of course it does not attempt to deal managed to send a representative to an with the dimension of migration the Annual Meeting and we discussed pos- concerns so many of us - immigration, sible ways of encouraging them to do so. nor with the question of access to the It was agreed to proceed with the resources of migration museums, librar- updating of the AEMI website and the ies and archives. 16 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 We also discussed the conference More good news came in July with on Migration Museums that was held the official opening in Hamburg of Bal- 23-25 October in Rome, jointly organ- linStadt – ‘Port of Dreams – Emigrant ized by UNESCO and IOM with the World Hamburg’. Our congratulations objective of exchanging information go to our colleagues there for the reali- on the role of migration museums in sation of their project which began in promoting migration integration poli- 2005. As in the case of Bremerhaven, cies and cultural diversity. This was a this success is further encouragement to major new initiative in our field and I us all as evidence of the growing recog- am pleased that four of our member in- nition of the importance of our theme. stitutions were represented at the con- I am delighted that Ursula Wöst from ference (Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade BallinStadt is here with us to give a and Miguel Monteiro from Portugal, first-hand account of how she and her Miguel Benito from Sweden and Agnès colleagues managed it and tell us about Arquez-Roth from France) and I would their future plans. like to return to the importance of that So far as the work of the Associa- conference later. tion as a whole is concerned, the main The announcement in May that the highlight of the year was the news from German Emigration Center, Bremer- Antoinette Reuter in Luxembourg that haven, had been awarded the title of our ‘Migration Heritage Route’ had European Museum of the Year, 2007, been officially approved by the Coun- was excellent news. For Simone Eick cil of Europe in April this year and that and her colleagues, whose centre opened there will be a formal presentation of the in 2005, this is a tremendous achieve- charter at a special ceremony to be held ment and one of which we can all feel in Luxembourg on October 5th at which proud. Those of us who were present the ambassadors of all our countries will at the Association’s Annual Meeting in be present. Regrettably, once again I am Bremerhaven in 2000, hosted by Jürgen prevented by other commitments from Rudloff and his colleagues, will recall attending but I am glad to say that the the mood of high excitement and an- Board of the Association will be repre- ticipation when the news of funding for sented by Hans Storhaug. As Antoinette the project was announced. I am grate- reminds us, the main activity associated ful for the kind invitation to attend the with the ‘Migration Heritage Route’ so gala dinner that was held in celebration far is ‘Migration Heritage Week’, which of the award and regret not having been we have designated as 4-14 October. able to attend on behalf of the Associa- That we have got as far as we have with tion. Nevertheless, I trust you will join this project, I need hardly remind you, is me in renewing our congratulations to largely thanks to the initiative and hard Bremerhaven. Their project was born work of Antoinette and her colleagues out of long years of persistence. Their in Luxembourg in working closely success is an encouragement to us all with the European Institute of Cultural and, we may hope, to those thinking of Routes. Our thanks go to Antoinette es- investing further in such projects! pecially. I am sorry that she is not able CHAIRMAN´S REPORT 17 to be with us this extra-busy year for her gress of Basque Communities Abroad in when Luxembourg is European Capital Bilbao, Euskal Herria, 9-13 July. If Eu- of Culture, but I am sure you will want ropean countries are looking for models to join me in extending the apprecia- for developing the way in which they tion of the Association for what she has engage with their diasporas they could helped us to achieve. The onus is now hardly do better than to take a close on us to continue building on this rec- look at how our Basque colleagues man- ognition of what our institutions have age this issue. The level of investment to offer and contributing as best we can which goes into this and the results that to ensure the future success of the ‘Euro- are achieved are most impressive. In pean Migration Heritage Route’. Bilbao I was pleased to meet Dr Gloria Another highlight this year was the Tortoricagüena who directs the Centre official opening in July, immediately for Basque Studies at the University of after the Board meeting in Denmark, Reno, Nevada, and we had hoped that of the Museum of Emigation and Com- she would be able to attend our meeting munities in Fafe, Portugal. Happily, I here and speak about. Unfortunately she was able to attend this occasion on be- has had to pull out because in the mean- half of the Association at the invitation time she has been appointed to a new of Miguel Monteiro and his colleagues. post by the Office of the Presidency of You may recall that after the Annual the Basque Autonomous Government. Meeting in Lisbon 2003, hosted by In the special project, ‘Euskadi and the Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade, some of Basques in the Age of Globalization’, us made the journey north to the town she has been appointed as the General of Fafe to be shown the ambitious plans Director for issues related to the Basque for this new museum. Some of us may diaspora. Gloria will be staying in Reno, have wondered if they were not overly Nevada, and work and travel from there. ambitious, requiring as they did the Her charge is to research how globaliza- full backing of the municipal author- tion and innovation can be positively ity. What impressed me especially at the used to promote and improve Basque splendid opening was how wholeheart- Country science, academics, arts and edly not only the municipal authority culture, lifestyle, and environment. She but also the national government was will serve as a consultant to a team that supporting this imaginative project reports to the Basque Country President that daringly incorporates the evidence and his cabinet. Her new role begins of migration that is to be found in the on October 1, when she will formally townscape, in buildings such as the so- leave the University of Reno and the called ‘Brazilian’ houses. I am pleased Center for Basque Studies. This is an- that Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade who other encouraging sign of recognition has long championed this project is here of the importance of our work with sig- to tell us about what has been achieved. nificant new investment and we wish I was also privileged this year to be Gloria well in her new post. Fortunately invited to speak about the work of the we do have Benan Oregi and Joseba Ar- Association at the Fourth World Con- regui with us to tell us more about this 18 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 development and in particular about the need for all institutions concerned how it fits with their Basque Migration with the documentation, research and Archives project. presentation of migration to come to- As well as all this, we have in pros- gether. As we know, migration, rela- pect next month the official opening of tively-speaking, is an ‘artefact-poor’ area a new national migration museum in of human experience (unless we are pre- France on 10 October. As with Bremer- pared to take the imaginative ‘outdoor’ haven, those of us who attended the An- approach of our colleagues in Fafe) and nual Meeting of the Association in Paris our understanding of migration has to in 2005 may recall being shown around rely on the collections of libraries and the splendid Palais de la Porte Dorée as archives as much as on those of muse- it was then in the process of redesign ums. We see this, for example, in the and refurbishment and wondering how way that Bremerhaven avoids the exclu- it might be made ready in time for this sive description of itself as a museum, grand opening. We appreciate that Paris calling itself the Deutches Auswander- is unable to be represented this year erhaus or German Emigration Center, and we wish Patricia Sitruk and her col- incorporating not only a museum but a leagues every good wish for their big day migration archive that supports family and great success for the future of their history research. Nevertheless, we must venture. listen carefully to what Carine Rouah In closing this review of a busy year has to say to us about how she sees of exciting developments, I would things developing. Her brief extends be- like return the conference on Migra- yond European migration and she has a tion Museums that was held in Rome good overview of the opportunities that last October because I believe this will may be opening up. We must consider prove to have been most important for carefully the implications for our future our future direction as an Association. development. As I said at this time last One of the benefits of attending the year, ‘we should be open to new initia- opening of the new museum in Fafe, tives and proposals from whatever di- Portugal, was the opportunity to meet rection they come, bearing in mind the with Luc Gruson and Agnès Arquez- strategic objectives that we have set our- Roth of the Cité Nationale de l’histoire selves’. de l’immigration, Paris, and also Carine If more evidence is needed of the Rouah of UNESCO who was also in at- momentum that is building in favour tendance. Carine was one of the main of new investment in migration in- organisers of the Rome conference and stitutions, I notice that the Museums I am delighted that she has been able Association will be debating at its an- to come to address us here in Finland nual conference next month in Glas- about her project. In choosing to focus gow ‘Does the UK need a migration on ‘museums’, I believe that this wel- museum?’ We have long argued for the come initiative may be missing a trick. relevance of what our institutions have A main strength of our Association has to offer Europe, particularly as it comes been the vision of its founders in seeing to terms with the challenges of a very CHAIRMAN´S REPORT 19 new migration landscape. The means Thought needs to be given bringing of developing a good understanding of new talent and energy to the leadership our own migration history and heritage of the organisation and encouragement is what we offer our countries as they given as appropriate. For now, as ever, seek to make the best choices as host we are grateful to Henning Bender for communities in promoting harmoni- his indefatigable work as secretary and ous integration. We need to identify the treasurer, for maintaining and updat- opportunities that may be opening up ing our website which provides such an to us and seize them. If, as we believe indispensable service for us and for re- well-resourced and effective migration sponding to the enquiries of members institutions are going to be essential to and prospective new members. Hans harmonious social integration in the Storhaug deserves our special appre- future, then the question arises of how ciation for continuing the onerous job these institutions might best co-operate of founder editor of our Journal. Fi- in the interests of Europe as a whole. We nally, I would like to thank again Silva might fairly say that if AEMI had not Meznaric and her colleagues for hosting been invented in 1989 it would need the Annual Meeting in Croatia in 2006. to be invented now. So after all the en- And we also thank Olavi Koivukangas couraging developments this year there and his colleagues for undertaking the is much for us to discuss. task of preparing to host us for a second In closing, I would like to draw your time in Finland in 2006. May our delib- attention to another matter that needs erations here in Turku prove fruitful in discussing. Your Board is now entering the year ahead. the final year of its three-year term so elections are due to be held next year. Brian Lambkin Chairman Integration Policies for Immigrants in Portugal

Maria Beatriz Rocha-Trindade

Introduction ing the retirement years. However, rea- The expression ‘to migrate’, character- sons of an economic nature continue to ized by a semantic plurality, holds a va- occupy a central position in the diverse riety of different meanings ranging from range of motives that are the driving the mere mobility of individuals (which force behind human mobility. may be applied to the displacement of In an effort to better understand this any human being) to a wide variety of variety of 1situations of remarkable com- broader social meanings. plexity, it is possible to classify migratory As is well known, human mobility movements into a number of distinct may be of a variety of types, driven by categories, according to the main indi- any number of different motives and cators of this phenomenon. However, may take on very different directions; it such indicators are neither mutually ex- may be temporary in nature and, under clusive nor entirely determinant. such circumstances, may be of variable duration; it may be ignited by natural The Present Context tragedies, political conflicts in a limited Presently, we live in a complex social or confined region of the globe or en- reality in which the physical distance compass a more generalized area; or it between countries and continents has may be driven by strictly personal and shrunk and in which physical space has autonomous reasons. been brought closer together. In politi- Individuals leave their country of cal terms, regional identities search for origin for a wide variety of motives: for affirmation and national sovereign pow- professional reasons, for tourism and ers tend to associate themselves with pleasure-related purposes, to study or to one another in an effort to articulate do an internship; or one may chose to their respective potentialities, allowing move abroad for the destination coun- for a greater public affirmation of their try’s milder climate, or for the quality of respective ability to project themselves life it offers is citizens, particularly dur- politically and manage, in conjunction, Maria beatriz rocha-trindade 21 their bolstered economic capabilities. tion of migrants from Asia; and, more Viewed from this perspective, the recently, of individuals from Central proximity which has been created by and Eastern Europe. globalization and the transnational spaces which continue to be established, The Evolution of Migratory Cur- as a result of the dislocation and settle- rents ment of migrants, has led to the creation Throughout the entire twentieth cen- of such a wide variety of situations that, tury, ties of an historical nature, inher- in terms of the scientific analysis of mi- ited from the colonial past, opened the gratory phenomena, occasional or even channels of linguistic and cultural com- sectorial approximations are no longer monality and directed the migratory permitted. On the contrary, it has be- flows from past colonial territories to come necessary to give priority to the promising European destinations. From global framework which must act as the these initial migratory flows, social ties backdrop for the study of migrations, emerged between correspondents from allowing for the broader visualization the country of origin and those in the of the migratory flows throughout their destination county, which often filled routes in the various parts of the world; immigrant candidates with the courage to establish the location of the interrup- to embark on new adventures of their tion platforms that may arise; and to own, relying on the support and local know the relocations/reorientations that framework of fellow compatriots they may take place and that necessarily alter knew (or whom they knew through a the idealized linearity of the traditional friend or a friend-of-a-friend) living in routes. the destination country in helping them From a global perspective, it is thus through those difficult first moments possible to delineate the broadened res- following their arrival. In the major- ervoirs of immigrants as well as the re- ity of cases, the reality they faced was, ceptor basins of these same reservoirs, however, vastly different from what they bringing together spaces that can, nev- expected. ertheless, evolve over time. The living conditions of the aver- At the present moment credible in- age newly-settled immigrant have been ternational sources of statistical infor- known to be so unfavorable that it is mation (OCDE; EU; IMO; PNUB) difficult to understand how all the risks indicate that the number of men and and insecurity they incurred (facts that women who were born in one country today are common knowledge to most and who settled down in another to be of those who choose to migrate) can greater than 200 million strong2. West- be downplayed in light of the positive ern Europe is one of the principal recep- expectations associated with emigra- tor basins and has, over the last several tion. When, however, the situation in decades, been the destination of indi- the country of origin is so critical that viduals from countries in sub-Saharan the very survival or safety of its citizens Africa and Latin America; to a lesser ex- is put into question, all the predictable tent it has also been the chosen destina- difficulties that could emerge during the 22 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 transit to the destination country and a permanent destination for retired em- the subsequent process of settling down ployees of the British ex-colonies. there (which can only nominally be re- More recently, the history of immi- ferred to as a reception) causes poten- gration in the second half of the twen- tial emigrants to put the experience into tieth century, and more specifically, the perspective, in name of a better life in period between 1975 and the present the future. moment, is made up of four periods: The imbalance between hope and objective reality is further hidden by the A) The first period of recent im- actions of those who benefit most from migration to Portugal is visibly marked recruiting new migrants, reinforcing all by the consequences of decolonization, the advantages and omitting the dangers whereby numerically significant migra- and disadvantages of the process. tory flows originated from the western coast of Africa: Cape Verde Islands, Immigration in Portugal Guinea-Bissau and Angola. Less rel- Contrary to what has been referred by evant are those contingents that origi- some, immigration is not a new social nated from Mozambique, on the eastern phenomenon to Portugal. There was, in coast of Africa. For reasons that will be centuries past, considerable importation made clear later on, the special charac- of individuals from the African colonies teristics of these migratory movements to the Portuguese metropolis, both in did not fade away with time, and are the context of slavery as well as in other still prevalent at the present moment. contexts, some of which were eminently B) From the early 1980s until the favorable; it is known that roughly 100 mid 1990s a second migratory flow took years ago there was a large wave of im- shape and intensified, made up prima- migration bringing individuals from the rily of Brazilian citizens, generally pos- region of Galicia, in Spain, who settled sessing good professional qualifications down throughout the country, most of (dentists, designers, communication and whom went on to work in hard manual marketing specialists, artists, etc.) who labor jobs or in the hotel and tourism made their way to our country because industries; considerable numbers of of a combination of factors, namely the refugees from all over Europe, fleeing political instability in Brazil (where mili- from the Second World War, also settled tary dictatorships came to power) as well down in Portugal. as the economically unfavorable situa- There was, also, an enormous number tion that that country was experiencing of British citizens, many of whom settled at the time, which particularly affected in our country over two centuries ago, citizens with average to above average with ties to the agriculture and produc- incomes, thanks to high inflations rates tion of Port wine in the northern part that reached triple digit values. of the country; others who moved since C) One may consider the third pe- the mid-twentieth century, especially riod that which began, in political terms, towards the south of Portugal (the re- with Portugal’s entry into the European gion of the Algarve), which has become Economic Community (Treaty of June, Maria beatriz rocha-trindade 23 1985) and which continued until the end know Portugal, projecting images of a of the 1980s. This shift was due, on the country that, because of its geographic one hand, to increased intra-European location and political regime, had, in the circulation that brought with it foreign past, been cast into isolation for many companies and highly qualified immi- decades.In approximately ten years the grants to Portugal from other member foreign population with legal authoriza- states of the EEC; on the other hand, tion to reside in Portugal leaped from 58 to the possibility that is offered to its 000 to 191 000 individuals, represent- citizens to leave their countries without ing a 30% average annual growth rate. difficulty and settle down legally outside D) The present period of immigra- those countries, for periods of time that, tion in Portugal, which may be consid- in many cases, exceeded the stipulated ered to have been born with the start of time period without that incurring sig- the present century, combines in large nificant problems to the transgressor, al- part the characteristics of the previous though increasing the number of illegal periods, both with respect to the pro- immigrants in Portugal. gressive increase in the number of for- The availability of funds from the Eu- eigners living in Portugal, legally and ropean Economic Community allowed illegally, as well as the increasing diver- for public investment on a grand scale, sity of the countries of origin. That said, creating the need for a manual labor force there are still some very important dif- that was indispensable for such ambi- ferences, worth noting, that characterize tious projects, and the supply of manual this migration flux. labor in Portugal was soon found to be The first of these differences is the insufficient. As a result, the necessary arrival of immigrants from Eastern Eu- conditions were created to allow for the rope who, from the end of the previous entry of a considerable number of un- century, initiated their entry into Portu- qualified workers from various countries gal. Among the countries belonging to of origin. As these individuals settled this group (including Russia, Moldavia, down and acquired new qualifications, Bulgaria and Romania, among others), new contingents of immigrants were the Ukraine deserves special mention, called upon to meet the ever growing occupying the most distinguished posi- need for manual labor. tion. Aside from the national infrastruc- It is possible - although this has yet tures that were continuously being built to be confirmed – that part of the im- during this period and which provided migrant population originally from the easier communication at both the na- Ukraine and Romania has begun a proc- tional and international levels, the ess of return or re-immigration, and it is combination of events projected to the expected that these contingents of im- outside world (for instance the World’s migrants will, in the future, decrease in Fair in 1998 and the 2004 European number. Soccer Cup Championship) were situa- On the other hand, traditional im- tions of reciprocal attraction of interests migrant flows of African origin have and allowed the outside world to get to decelerated their rate of entry into the 24 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 country and it is interesting to note that the above-referred years as well as the their numbers are, in fact, lower than years that follow, thereby contradicting those of immigrants from E.U. nations. the incipient trend to reduce the total On the other hand, the number of Bra- number of foreign workers in Portugal. zilian immigrants is on the rise, claiming first place with respect to the total vol- Today, more than 520 000 foreigners ume of immigrant population (see Table – both legally and illegally settled - live 1, in annex). The composition of this in Portugal, representing roughly 5% of group has changed significantly from the total resident population, and mak- that of the previous period. It is now ing up approximately 10% of the active mostly made up of unqualified manual or working population. Their geographic laborers originating from all over Brazil, distribution throughout national terri- with special emphasis on those from the tory is irregular and the diversity of na- more remote interior states and regions tionalities that exist make a study of the of that country, which have a long his- maps of their regional distribution an tory of migration: Minas Gerais, Parana interesting issue (see annex). and Nordeste. Regions of settlement E) A Short-term Prospective From the beginning of foreign settle- During the last four years, the glo- ment in national territory, there has been bal value of public investment has de- a preference for settling down in the creased substantially, due to the need to Metropolitan Area of Lisbon (districts take drastic measures to reduce govern- of Lisbon and Setubal) and in the south ment spending, in order to ensure that of the country (the Algarve), where the the national debt did not exceed the immigrant population is visibly more norms set in the Stability and Growth pronounced. However, the Metropoli- Pact, adopted by the E.U. However, the tan Area of Oporto has likewise sparked Portuguese government has announced interest among these populations. The that such measures shall be eased in the diversification and increase in the total 2008 and 2009 State Budget; and there number of foreigners brought with are plans in place to initiate large-scale it visible changes in the geography of public works such as the construction their territorial distribution and one of a new international airport in Lis- may confirm from the Table dealing bon and start work on the construction with their spatial localization that im- of the network for High-Speed Trains migration in Portugal has shifted form (TGV). an urban-metropolitan concentration of It is, therefore, predictable that there the population, to a series of new waves will be a need for a large volume of directed towards rural settlement areas. supplementary labor in order to carry It is mostly the labour market, with the out such ambitious projects, and it is work opportunities that it offers, which reasonable to expect that there will be mainly determines the regions of settle- a new appeal for contingents of immi- ment of immigrants in Portugal. How- grant laborers from abroad, both during ever, one must not also forget the impact Maria beatriz rocha-trindade 25 that immigrant networks - made up grants4. A present-day analysis of these of immigrants with the same national official documents, looking back with origin - have in that process, both with the necessary distance, reveals a fluc- respect to place of settlement and resi- tuation between the principles of jus dence, as well as choice of professional sanguinis and jus solis, as well as a restric- activity. tive tendency towards the entry of new The maps presented in the annex, es- immigrants. On the other hand, there tablished by geographer Maria Lucinda was a progressive movement towards Fonseca (2007, 107-1509), permit the the stance adopted by the Council of visualization of the above-mentioned af- Europe, with respect to the need to es- firmations. tablish an intercultural dialogue and the successive clarifications of the doctrine Immigration policies in Portugal of the European Union regarding the During the 1990s, the policies adopted advantages of rejuvenating European by the Portuguese government regard- populations with the entry of younger ing immigration assumed a mostly reac- residents. tive character: that is, the legal texts and In this sense, one may consider that regulations concerning this matter were the Portuguese policy stance followed a conceived with the intention to cor- positive evolution, one step at a time. rect situations that had previously been This entire situation was clarified deemed undesirable, but a strategy was when the organs of Portuguese sover- not evident which would determine the eignty adopted a set of principles that migratory phenomenon, in the medium shaped the new immigration laws in or long term. Portugal and which can be summarized It was generally accepted that the as follows: country needed foreign workers to guarantee its economic development; that - It is acknowledged that there is a there was a growing number of illegal need for the annual entry of a significant immigrants whose situation had to be number of foreigners, both to satisfy the legalized; and, finally, that it was incon- need for manual laborers required for venient to adopt an open-door policy economic development to take place5, with regards to immigration3. and to correct the general demographic With regards to public opinion, it dif- aging of the Portuguese population. fered from that of employers, who gen- - It is indispensable that all residents erally looked favorably upon the arrival have access to the benefits of citizenship, of foreign manual laborers, while the regardless of whether the person in ques- general public expressed concern, more tion is a legal immigrant or not, in the or less vocally, regarding the “excessive” name of respect for human rights. volume of foreigners in Portugal. - As such, it is absolutely necessary Successive laws aimed at regulating that both central and local structures immigration were enacted, as well as and mechanisms be created that will exceptional legal diplomas created to facilitate the resolution of problems of permit the legalization of illegal immi- whatever nature that may arise amongst 26 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 foreign citizens, and namely to promote statutes of long-term residence; and, al- an intercultural dialogue with the ma- though with a lower legal hierarchical jority population. status, the Resolution by the Counsel - In summary, the motto of this po- of Ministers (dated the 3rd of May of litical position shall be to welcome and 2007), which delineates a Plan for the to integrate6, in a pro-active rather than Integration of Immigrants. reactive perspective. Structures for integration One of the fundamental mechanisms It is not enough to create a legal frame- of this political orientation was the re- work that adequately satisfies the inforcement of the High Commissariat government’s objectives regarding im- for Immigration and Ethnic Minorities migration. It is also necessary to create (Alto Comissariado para a Imigração e the operational structures that material- Minorias Étnicas/ACIME) (created in ize such laws. 2002), which took on the new name The existence of the ACIDI would of High Commissariat for Immigration not be enough to guarantee their action: and Intercultural Dialogue (Alto Comis- the respective decentralized structures sariado para a Imigração e o Diálogo In- had to be created. These were named tercultural/ACIDI) (2007), and which, Local Centers for the Integration of Im- moreover, integrated three already- ex- migrants (Centros Locais de Apoio à In- isting bodies: the Intercultural Secre- tegração de Imigrantes, or CLAIIs) and tariat (Secretariado Entreculturas), the were created throughout the country. Choices Program (Programa Escolhas) and the Technical Mission for Dialogue Notes 1 A parallel structure was likewise created, replicat- Among Religions (Missão Técnica para ing the concept of the “Citizen Shops”7, and des- o Diálogo com as Religiões). ignated the National Center for the Integration of The laws that give shape to this new Immigrants (Centro Nacional de Apoio ao Imi- policy include: The Nationality Law grante or CNAI), where foreign citizens can find th delegations of all the government agencies that may (Organic Law 2/2006, dated 17 of assist them in solving their problems: the Foreign- April and Decree Law 237-A/2006, ers and Frontiers Service (Serviço de Estrangeiros e dated 14th of December) approved by Fronteiras), the ACIDI, the General Inspectorship of Labor (Inspecção Geral do Trabalho), the Social a vast majority of the Portuguese Par- Security agency, the Conservatory of Central Reg- liament, which reinforces the principle istries (Conservatória dos Registos Centrais), the of jus solis; and the so-called New Im- Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Justice. With respect to the decen- migration Law (Law number 93/2007, tralization of administrative interventions, many th dated 4 of July), approved by the same Portuguese municipalities, particularly in areas of organ of sovereignty with favorable votes strong immigrant settlement, created autarchic structures aimed at solving the problems most from the two largest parties in Portugal, commonly faced by these citizens8. As to initiatives and which defines the conditions and taken by the civil society, it must be said that the procedures for entry into, permanence, central government itself encourages the setting up exit and withdrawal of foreign citizens of associations of foreign citizens, in accordance with the idea that these individuals «need to be from Portuguese territory, as well as the heard», so that their problems be known and even- Maria beatriz rocha-trindade 27 tually solved; as well as that they are encouraged ANNEX to participate more actively in the general society, with the principle in mind of guaranteeing that Table 1 Main nationalities of foreign citizens living the entire population, without exception, have the legally in Portugal, 2006. opportunity to benefit from full citizenship9. To Source: Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras, summarize what has been said previously, it can be Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2007 stated that Portugal has progressively followed the right path to achieve, in due time, the integration of its immigrants, who have been put on an equal footing, both legally and socially speaking, with all Countires Residents other Portuguese citizens. Cape Verde 65485 2 It is interesting to add to this fact that 200 million is the total number of inhabitants of Brazil, the Brazil 65463 fifth most populous country in the world. 3 Past experience did not look favourably upon Ukraine 37851 creating new extraordinary opportunities to le- Angola 32215 galize foreigners residing in Portugal illegally. In this way, ACIDI does not look favourably upon Guinea-Bisssau 24513 the renovation of such possibility, as was stated publicly by that agency’s President (on the 19th Others 182658 September 2007) in a speak to present a special TOTAL 409185 edition of the magazine CIDADE SOLIDÁRIA (Migrações, Novos Desafios) launched by the Santa Casa da Misericórdia of Lisbon on the same date. Table 2 Development of the Population of Foreign 4 As an example of erroneous opinions that can be Residents in Portugal, 1980-2006. adopted by public opinion, it has been argued that Source: Serviço de Estrangeiros e Fronteiras, the Portuguese prison population has a dispropor- Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2007. tionate percentage of condemned foreigners. In fact, the above-mentioned imbalance is the result of the capture of drug traffickers coming from abroad, and are not migrant workers living in Por- tugal. 5 The Eurobarometer states that Portugal ranks 2nd in the E.U. in terms of countries that benefit most, percentage-wise, from the contribution that immigrants make towards economic growth. 6 Receive and integrate became a catch-phrase chosen by the ACIDI to define the essence of its mission. 7 “Citizen shops” are structures specially conceived to bring together, in a single specific location, all those administrative structures that citizens most frequently require, whether speaking of physical materials, transportation or communication problems, certificates, licences, etc. 8 There are, namely, three Municipalities with consultative organs directed towards aiding immigrants and foreign citizens, located in Lisbon (1993); Amadora (1995); and Oporto (2005). 9 Not even those residents who find themselves in illegal circumstances are denied access to education, health and social security. 28 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Map 1 Geographic Distribution of Foreign Legal Residents in Portugal (2005). Source: Maria Lucinda Fonseca, 2007

Maria beatriz rocha-trindade 29

Map 2 Geographic Distribution of Citizens from Portuguese-Speaking African Countries in Portugal (2005) Source: Maria Lucinda Fonseca, 2007

Map 3 Geographic Distribution of Citizens from Brazil in Portugal (2005) Source: Maria Lucinda Fonseca, 2007

30 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Map 4 Geographic Distribution of Citizens from Central and Estern Europe in Portugal (2005) Source: Maria Lucinda Fonseca, 2007

Map 5 Geographic Distribution of Citizens from European Union countries in Portugal (2005) Source: Maria Lucinda Fonseca, 2007 Internationalization of Population and Labour Force from the Present to the Future in Finland

Elli Heikkilä and Maria Pikkarainen

Introduction migrants in the Finnish labour market, The Finnish population is aging, and and anticipation of the future need for this is becoming a serious problem like labor. The research was an anticipation in other developed countries. The Baby project of International migration, need Boomers are retiring, and the length- of labour and effects of immigration on ened life expectancy will increase the education supply, which was funded by size of the elderly population in the the European Social Fund, the Finnish coming years. The population of work- Ministry of Education and the Institute ing age will also decrease, and it has of Migration. been estimated to decrease most in the The primary data of the research decade 2010, at a pace of almost 30,000 project are extensive gross flow-data per year. When the baby boomers re- obtained from Statistics Finland, the tire, there will not be enough labour Ensti-database of the Finnish National force to replace them. The Labour 2025 Board of Education, and numerous report suggests employing elderly, un- surveys and interviews. Using a case- employed, disabled and immigrants. study from the University of Oulu, the The immigrant labour reserve consists willingness and intentions of university of foreigners living in Finland, natural- graduates to move abroad was studied, ized immigrants and new potential im- and also the interest of international migrants. students to stay in Finland. The interest of foreign university graduates to work This research project presents new in- in Finland was studied both in the Uni- formation of internationalization of the versity of Oulu and in Orion Pharma. population and labour in Finland. The Also the willingness of expatriate Finns development is analyzed for the whole to return migrate and enter the Finnish country and all counties from the present labour market was studied. day to the year 2015 and immigration is used as a special indicator. The object of Immigration flows the analysis is the employment of im- Finland has traditionally been a country 32 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 of emigration. People have left for other representing 2.3 percent of the total Western countries to find better job population. The largest groups of for- opportunities, and have especially pre- eigners during that year were Russian ferred Sweden. Finland became a coun- citizens (25,326), Estonians (17,599), try of immigration in the beginning of Swedes (8,265); and of refugee back- the 1980s, when the balance of interna- grounds, Somalis (4,623) (Figure 2). tional migration switched to positive. The total number of those born abroad The most noticeable wave of immigra- was 187,910 in 2006. tion occurred in the 1990s, when In- Finland is getting the highest im- grian Finns received returnee-status migration flows from EU-15 and the (Figure 1). The reception of refugees, for second highest from EU-10 (Figure 3). example, Somalis during the first half of Europe as a continent is thus playing the 1990s, has further increased the flow an important role in migration proc- of immigration to Finland. Reception esses, both in immigration to Finland centres have been established all over the and emigration from Finland. There ex- country for newly arrived asylum seek- ists also immigration from more distant ers. Finland also takes in a yearly quota continents like Asia and Africa. of refugees, currently 750 persons. Migration flows between Finland and Immigrants, or foreign citizens, in its border countries Sweden, Russia and Finland numbered 121,739 in 2006, Estonia are great compared to the flows

Figure 1. Foreign population in Finland in 1980–2006 (Data: Statistics Finland).

persons Foreign citizens Born abroad Foreigners by language 200000

150000

100000

50000

0 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 ELLI HEIKILLÂ AND MARIA PIKKARAINEN 33

Figure 2. The biggest immigrants groups by citizenship in 2006 (Data: Statistics Finland).

0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

Russia Estonia persons Sweden Somalia China Women Form. Serbia&Montenegro Men Iraq Thailand Germany Britain Turkey Iran USA Afganistan India Vietnam directed to and from other countries. early 1990s recession as well as during During the years from 1993 to 2004 the economic upturn at the beginning migration with Sweden has been rather of the millennium. A common feature even, that is to say that as many persons is that the Uusimaa county has been have left for Sweden as have immigrated most attractive, almost half of the im- to Finland; of course there were changes migrants who arrived during the period between the single years. From the point of study settled here. The economic of view of Finland there have been posi- expansion regions of Varsinais-Suomi tive migration flows from Estonia and and Pirkanmaa rank second in attractiv- especially from Russia. The total im- ity. The immigrant share of these three migration from Russia in 1993–2004 counties exceeds 60 percent regardless was ten times bigger than emigration to of the study period, so Southern Finland Russia. When it comes to Estonia, the is the main target for immigrants. Some number of emigrants was only a third of counties have only a 1-2 percent share the immigrants in 1993–2004. of the immigration, and even less. The The immigrants were unevenly dis- county of Central Ostrobothnia had an tributed among the counties during the immigrant share of only half a percent 34 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Figure 3. IInternational migration to and from Finland in 2004. Number above means migration ffrom Fin- land, number underneath means immigration to Finland. (Data: Statistics Finland).

in 2002. During the last ten years there 2000. Few immigrants come to Finland have been no major changes in the im- for work. According to the estimates of migrants’ migration behaviour. Only the Ministry of Labour, only between 5 refugees are more randomly scattered and 10 percent of the immigrants came around the country because of the offi- to work in Finland during the 1990s cial settlement policy. Foreigners mostly and 2000s. The government migration prefer cities, 85 percent of them lived in policy programme adopted in October urban municipalities in 2006 (Figure 4). 2006 aims at increasing work-related immigration. In the year 2002 a fourth Immigrants in the Finnish labour of all the immigrants to Finland, in- market cluding children and elderly, found a The proportion of immigrants among job within a year from the arrival. 11 all employed was 1.6 percent in the year percent became unemployed. Thus 36 ELLI HEIKILLÂ AND MARIA PIKKARAINEN 35

Figure 4. Immigrants by municipalities in 2006. (Data: Statistics Finland).

percent of them belonged to the labour force. The share of persons aged 20–44 When studying main activity of those is greater among foreigners than among of working age, between 15 and 74 years Finnish citizens. Thus the immigrants old, the employment rate of those who are in a favorable working-age. had immigrated in 2002 to Finland from 36 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Figure 5. Main activity of immigrants who moved to Finland in 2002, at the end of their year of immigration, by county of destination (Data: Statistics Finland).

Ahvenanmaa n = 300 Uusimaa n = 5567 Ostrobothnia n = 513 Kanta-Häme n = 208 Southern Ostrobothnia n = 173 Pirkanmaa n = 921 Northern Ostsobothnia n = 625 Itä-Uusimaa n = 201 Varsinais-Suomi n = 1118 Pohjois-Savo n = 248 Kymenlaakso n = 316 Päijät-Häme n = 349 Central Finland n = 430 Satakunta n = 217 Etelä-Savo n = 183 Central Ostrobothnia n = 65 Lapland n = 396 South Karelia n = 234 North Karelia n = 263 Kainuu n = 160

0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 % Employed Unemployed Students Pensioners Others

abroad was 35 percent nationwide. The population. The chances for finding a job best situation was in Ahvenanmaa, where improve after a year in Finland; of the im- two thirds of those who immigrated in migrants who came to Finland in 2002 a 2002 had a job (Figure 5). Most of them third had found work by the end of their were Swedes, so moving to a Swedish- first year in the country, and the follow- speaking area posed no integration prob- ing year 44 percent was employed. The lems. In Uusimaa, where most of the jobs regionally different employment rates are are, only 42 percent of the immigrants due to the general employment situation found employment during the year of in the regions. Ahvenanmaa had almost immigration. The most difficult situation full employment at the beginning of the was in Kainuu, where only 15 percent 2000s, while the general unemployment succeeded in finding work. A consider- was high in the northern and eastern able share of the immigrant population parts of Finland. in the whole country was unemployed or The employment rate is higher and outside the labourforce as labour reserve. there are less unemployed among those The number of these was exceptionally immigrants who were born in west- high during the recession of the 1990s, ern countries. Immigrants from Great but the situation has not improved to Britain, Sweden, Germany and Estonia correspond to the level of the whole show the highest employment rates. In ELLI HEIKILLÂ AND MARIA PIKKARAINEN 37

Figure 6. Employed and unemployed immigrants by country of birth in 1995, 2000 and 2004 (Data: Statistics Finland).

Employed 1995 2000 2004 Unemployed percentage of w orking-aged percentage of w orking-aged percentage of w orking-aged 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 20 40 60 80

UK Sweden Sw eden

Sweden UK UK Germany Estonia

Poland Germany India

China Germany Estonia Turkey Turkey

China USA USA

USA Marocco Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam country of birth country Former Former USSR and Russia Former USSR USSR Thailand Former Estonia Yugoslavia Former Yugoslavia Iran Somalia Iran Former Yugoslavia Somalia Iraq Iraq Iraq Somalia Total Total Total

the newest data from 2004 those born in search sector have been able to use their India also rank high, followed by China, mother tongue in their work. In 2003 Turkey, United States and Vietnam. The women have mostly been employed in employment rates are lowest and unem- the trade sector (16 percent), education ployment most common among immi- and research (13 percent) and health grants originating in former Yugoslavia, care (12 percent). Men found work es- Iran, Somalia and Iraq (Figure 6). The pecially in trade (17 percent) and in fi- immigrants with higher education show nancing, insurance and real estate and the highest employment rates. business services (15 percent). A stratification in economic sectors The occupations of the immigrants can be observed for the immigrants can be compared to the whole distri- one year after the arrival, i.e. in 2003. bution of occupations in Finland the The most important employment sec- year 2000. The distribution differs most tor is trade. Other important sectors for service work: 27 percent of the em- are financing, insurance and real estate ployed immigrants worked in the serv- and business services, which include for ice sector, while the corresponding rate example cleaning, and education and for the whole country was 18 percent. research sector. Those immigrants who Immigrants were also overrepresented in are employed in the education and re- teaching and cultural work in relation to 38 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 the whole population (10 percent vs. 7 transportation (5 percent). percent). The ratio of immigrants in of- When looking at immigrant stock fice work was smaller (6 percent vs. 10 by country of birth and employment percent) and also in caring work (9 per- groups exceeding 600 persons in 2004, cent vs. 13 percent) (Figure 7). In 2004 those who were born in western coun- the most common occupation among tries, such as Sweden, Great Britain, employed immigrant women was clean- Germany, the United States and Poland, ing (2,530 persons, a share of 12 per- employment within teaching and educa- cent), sales work (10 percent), teaching tion was the most common employment and education (9 percent) and restau- group. Immigrants born in countries rant service (8 percent). Surprisingly, outside the EU, like Iran, Vietnam, 15 percent of the occupations were un- China, India and former Yugoslavia are known. In the same year the immigrant mainly employed in restaurant services. men were mostly employed in restau- Of the Turkish-born as much as 60 per- rant service (3,281 persons, 12 percent) cent (848 persons) is employed in this followed by technical planning, supervi- sector. Cleaning is the most common sion and research (7 percent), teaching sector for those born in Somalia (175 and education (6 percent) and ground persons, 24 percent of the employed So-

Figure 7. Professions of employed immigrants (n= 34 862) and whole population (n= 2 228 557) in 2000 (Data: Statistics Finland).

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

1 Agricultural and forestry work Percentage of employed

2 Industrial work

3 Construction work

4 Traffic work Immigrants 5 Post work Whole 6 Leader and expert work in production and traffic population

7 Service work

8 Office work

9 Leader and expert work in economy and administration

10 Caring work

11 Teaching and cultural work

12 Security work

13 Profession unknown ELLI HEIKILLÂ AND MARIA PIKKARAINEN 39 malis) and in Thailand (147 persons, 16 (21 percent) or the United States (16 percent of the employed). Of those born percent). Germany received interest in India, the second most important sec- from 13 percent of the respondents. Ac- tor was technical planning, supervision cording to the respondents living abroad and research (194 persons, 22 percent is not always required in international of the employed) and the third rank- work. In such cases contacts to foreign ing group in technical experts and work employees become important. supervision (8 percent). The technical The University of Oulu receives for- sector is also prominent in the Chinese, eign students, and a survey was also British, Polish, German and American conducted among them. Of the re- occupational distribution. spondents among those 90 percent said that they are interested in working Surveys of the University of Oulu, abroad in the future. They were most Orion Pharma and expatriate Finns interested in Finland and the following According to the survey, graduates of preferred countries were Great Britain, the University of Oulu are interested in the United States and Australia. Finland working abroad in the future. Almost seems to be the most interesting country two thirds of the respondents gave a especially for citizens of Asian and Eng- positive answer, and a little over a third lish speaking countries. a negative. Men were more interested, Information was gathered about em- 76 percent of them were interested in ployees of foreign origin using surveys working abroad, but only a little more in the University of Oulu and Orion than half of the women. The biggest in- Pharma. Also they were asked to name terest was among those with technical three preferred countries to work in. Fin- education (75 percent). Those who were land ranked again top, followed by the interested in working abroad said that English-speaking countries Great Brit- working in a foreign country would give ain and the United States. Of those in- valuable experience, promote the career terested in working abroad, almost half and increase professional skills. Part of would like to spend some years in a for- the respondents also believes that the eign country and then return home. A income would be higher abroad. Factors fifth of the respondents were interested pushing away from Finland are high in combining working abroad and in the taxes and low wages. Of those positive home country alternating between the to working abroad 60 percent would two a few years at a time. A common like to spend some years abroad and 18 reason for moving to Finland was find- percent less than a year. Ten percent of ing a Finnish spouse. Another motive for the respondents would like to alternate migrating to Finland was that the spouse between work in Finland and abroad. from the same country had found work Only less than three percent of those in- in Finland. The immigrant followed terested in working abroad would like to then at a later, more suitable occasion work in another country permanently. or after finding work here. In some cases English speaking countries are the pre- the person has been an exchange student ferred choice, especially Great Britain in e.g. the Erasmus program and liked 40 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 Finland enough to return later. Foreign workers at the University of Need for immigrant labour Oulu and Orion Pharma told about The changing age structure of the popu- their experiences of Finland as a country lation strongly affects the supply of la- to work in. The most positive remarks bour in the long run. The labor leaving were related to the working environ- the labour market is no problem if there ment (40 percent of the respondents). is enough compensating work force en- These respondents experience their job tering the labor market. In aging socie- as meaningful and their work environ- ties complementing reproduction of the ment as good. They appreciate their col- population by immigration has been leagues, the relaxed job culture and work considered as an option. All positions rhythm and also the job resources and are not refilled after retirement and the tools. The bad experiences are mostly creation of new jobs is dependent on related to language and communication the general development, production problems (28 percent of the respond- increase and demand for labour. The ents). Finnish is perceived as a difficult expert interviews revealed that the de- language to learn and Finnish people are mand for labour will exceed the supply. considered non-talkative. Finland needs immigrants with different The survey of expatriate Finns re- educational backgrounds; professionals vealed that most of them, 92 percent as experts and less educated to fill less had no fixed period for their living demanding positions. The interviewees abroad. Many have a foreign spouse and believe that there will be more jobs in they do not expect him/her to integrate the service and business sectors, espe- and find work in Finland as easily as they cially in the former the need for im- have in their new home country. Many migrant labour might be the greatest. respondents have initially emigrated for Also in the welfare sector, in social and a certain period, but the stay has ex- health care more labour will be needed. tended to years. Those who have a good Routine work will decrease with auto- job abroad are not inclined to return mation. to Finland, especially while in working According to the development predic- age. When asked about the most attraction based on the Ensti-database main- tive countries to work in, also the expa- tained by the Finnish National Board of triate Finns mostly answered Finland, Education, the most rapidly decreasing followed in popularity by United King- sectors are agriculture (-28 percent), dom, Sweden and the United States. forestry (-20 percent) and other indus- Most of the potential return migrants try and vehicle manufacture, both with (62 percent) intend to return for work. -17 percent from the year 2000 to 2015. A third considers moving to Finland for Growth sectors will be especially health retirement and a few respondents were care (21 percent), manufacture of in- going to study. A part of the respond- struments and electrical products, both ents have left Finland because they were increasing by 19 percent, and trade in- not able to find any interesting well paid creasing by 10 percent by the year 2015. job which would suit their education. In terms of labour agriculture would ELLI HEIKILLÂ AND MARIA PIKKARAINEN 41 employ 26,810 persons less and in the ployed in the nursing will in the period other industry sector the decrease would 2000–2015 74,000 persons in total and be next greatest with 23,610 persons. in the target development alternative The health sector would expand fastest, 82,700 persons. Simultaneously em- with 32,910 persons and trade would ployment in clerical work will decrease score second with 30,000 persons in- (-45,400 persons in the basic develop- crease. ment alternative). According to the Ensti-database basic The Ensti-database shows which sec- development alternative, the absolute tors will provide most open jobs for vo- number of jobs will grow during the cationally trained; during 2001–2015 period 2001–2015 fastest in techni- – technical sector and traffic (49 per- cal planning, supervision and research cent), the social and health sector (21 (43,200 jobs), in health and beauty percent) and tourism, restaurants and work (23,500), in social and leisure economy (11 percent) As for jobs of- activities work (22,500) and technical fered at the polytechnic level, the tech- work in the nursing and health care sec- nical sector and traffic/ will offer most tor (21,700). The biggest job decreases (33 percent), then administration and will during the period 2001–2005 be trade (28 percent) and the social and in the category ‘unknown; (-28,900), health sector (24 percent). For univer- in agriculture and gardening (-26,400), sity graduates the biggest sectors will be in clerical work (-26,300) and in clean- administration and trade (26 percent), ing (-22,500). According to the Ensti- the humanistic sector and education (25 database basic development there will percent) and the technical sector and be 39,000 more new jobs opening than traffic (21 percent). jobs disappearing from 2001 to 2015. The research project has made a The corresponding job surplus in the forecast of immigrant employment target development is 165,800, which until the year 2015. According to this means that in addition to replacing the Finland would receive almost 60,000 903,600 persons retiring from the la- working immigrants during the period bour force, 165,800 more persons will 2003–2015, which would mean a total be needed. The loss in labour force will number of 103,000 employed when the be greatest during the period 2011– immigrants already here are included. 2015, a number of 355,010 persons, According to the forecast 17 percent when the corresponding number 2006– would work in trade, 12 percent in fi- 2010 is 313,530 persons. nancing, insurance, real estate and busi- Looking at the main occupational ness and 11 percent with education and sectors, for instance nursing, according research in 2015 (Table 1). to the basic development alternative of The number of employed immigrants the Ensti-database an additional 22,100 in 2015 will according to the trend fore- persons will be needed in 2010–2015 in cast of main occupational sector be al- comparison to the period 2005–2010. most 78,000 persons (Table 2), which According to the basic development, the is less than in the aforementioned sector growth in the number of persons em- forecast. A partial reason for this is that 42 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Table 1. Economic sectors of employed immigrants and immigrant population in 2000 and forecast to year 2015 (Data Statistics Finland; Ensti-database).

Forecast of Employed Forecast employed immigrants 2000 2002 2003-2015 2015 34 862 43 950 59 150 102 800 Agriculture 672 900 1 300 2 100 Forestry 24 50 50 100 Forest industry 859 1 100 1 500 2 600 Manufacturing metal products 705 800 700 1 500 Manufacturing machines and equipments 586 800 1 300 2 100 Manufacturing electrotechincal products 1 965 2 600 3 900 6 400 Manufacturing vehicles 416 500 400 900 Manufacturing instruments etc. products 202 300 400 600 Other metal industry 82 100 200 300 Other industry 1 613 1 900 2 100 4 000 Construction 1 324 1 800 3 300 5 200 Trade 7 108 8 500 8 900 17 400 Traffic 2 120 2 800 4 700 7 500 Financing, insurance, real estate and business 3 513 4 700 8 000 12 700 Public sanitation and enviromental care 1 953 2 400 2 800 5 100 Education and research 4 216 5 200 6 400 11 600 Public adminst., national defence and general security 803 1 000 1 200 2 200 Health care 1 263 1 800 3 700 5 500 Social care 1 792 2 100 2 100 4 200 Organizational activities 520 600 800 1 500 Cultural activities 892 1 100 1 300 2 400 Services used by households 702 800 400 1 100 Economic sector unknown 1 532 2 100 3 700 5 800

the main occupational sector forecast the present situation and future develop- is a trend forecast, which is linked to ment, so that Finland also in the future the main occupational development in would get at least a stable flow of immi- the whole country, while in the sector grants to different sectors. This estimate forecast the immigrant distribution ac- has not been linked to the development cording to the 2002 flow-data has been of the Finnish employed labour force kept unchanged until 2015. In practice and thus it gives a more positive picture there are changes every year. The sector of the internationalization of the labour estimate is important considering the force. The employment situation of im- labour distribution in different sectors, migrants in Finland has improved with ELLI HEIKILLÂ AND MARIA PIKKARAINEN 43

Table 2. Main occupational groups of immigrant population in different years and forecasts for the years 2005, 2010 and 2015 (Data: Statistics Finland; Ensti-database).

1995 2000 2004 Forecast Forecast Forecast Employed 2005 2010 2015 17 326 34 862 49 167 52 700 65 650 77 850 1 Agriculture and forestry work 564 669 1 152 1 250 1 500 1 800 2 Industrial work 2 695 5 782 6 780 7 000 9 000 10 200 3 Construction work 322 1 124 2 070 2 300 2 800 3 300 4 Traffic work 322 731 1 629 1 900 2 500 3 300 5 Post work 132 382 781 900 1 100 1 400 6 Manufacture and traffic supervision and expert work 1 226 2 659 3 941 4 300 6 200 8 000 7 Service work 4 280 9 379 13 754 14 800 18 900 22 600 8 Office work 1 157 2 115 2 261 2 300 2 700 3 000 9 Economic and administrative supervision and expert work 1 536 2 794 3 675 3 900 5 200 6 600 10 Nursing 1 815 3 284 3 013 2 900 3 900 5 100 11 Education and cultural work 2 561 3 504 4 104 4 200 4 900 5 500 12 Security work 54 126 183 250 250 350 13 Occupation unknown 662 2 313 5 824 6 700 6 700 6 700

every year, and they will be increasingly the year 2000 the share of immigrants employed as the baby boomers retire. in the total population’s main occupa- According to the occupational sector tional sectors was 1.6 percent, meaning forecast, the importance of the service that growth until 2015 will mean a dou- sector for providing jobs to immigrants bling of the employed immigrants in the is considerable, because it has a share of main occupational sectors. In relation to almost 30 percent and the number of the whole population the biggest shares employed will be 22,600 in 2015. Indus- of immigrants are found in the group trial work is the second most important ‘occupation unknown’, in postal work employment sector and number three and service in 2015. The amount of em- is manufacture and traffic supervision ployed immigrants would thus substan- and expert work. There is a small de- tially grow from 34,862 persons in 2000 crease in the nursing sector in the begin- to 77,850 persons in 2015. ning of the 2000s, and according to the Forecasts on immigrants have also trend forecast this occupational sector been conducted at regional level, be- would employ 5,100 persons in 2015. cause the counties are in quite different The immigrants’ employment share of situation in attracting immigrants. All the main occupation sectors would be immigrants are included in this fore- according to the Ensti-database basic cast, also those who are not in working development 3.4 percent in 2015. In age, i.e. children and elderly. In 2006 44 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 the number of persons in Finland born expected to increase. According to the abroad was 187,910. If the net immi- experts immigrants will come from the gration would be doubled from the Baltic countries, Russia, Poland, Bela- 2004–2006 average level, and keep con- rus, Ukraine, Bulgaria and Romania. stant until 2015, Finland would have a Opinions differ on Estonia. Some be- net amount of 156,000 new immigrants lieve that the immigration from there and the whole immigrant population will continue, while others think that would be almost 344,000 in 2015. If the flow has drained. Asia is considered the average net immigration would be second. China and India are expected to tripled, we would have around 422,000 provide mainly educated labour. Immi- immigrants in 2015. In the former gration will grow also as a consequence case 42 percent of them would live in of family reunions. Professionals and Uusimaa and there would be 143,000 experts are expected to immigrate from persons born abroad in 2015. Varsinais- the United States, Germany, Sweden Suomi would have more than 30,000 and Britain, but otherwise the immigra- immigrants, Pirkanmaa 26,000, Ostro- tion flows from western countries will bothnia almost 17,000 and Northern be small. The competition with other Ostrobothnia almost 15,000 immi- European countries for well-educated grants. The smallest number would be migrants is severe. If the differences in in Central Ostrobothnia, a little over standard of living between Finland and 2,700 persons. In some cases there are the neighboring countries and in Eu- big regional differences in occupations, rope will decrease during the next 5–15 but also similarities. In some counties years, the immigration pressure will de- an increase of net immigration will not crease. The immigration flow from third supply the demand for labour in future. countries to the EU is much bigger than Compared to the Finnish population, the internal migration flow. Temporary the age structure of the immigrants is migration and short term employment more favorable with more persons in is expected to increase. working age and less dependent. Immigration from new EU-countries is not necessarily also the solution to the Conclusion old EU-countries’ population ageing Most of the immigrants in Finland problems, since in many new EU-coun- come from other European countries, tries the population is diminishing both i.e. more than two thirds of those born in natural population development, abroad in 2005. The migrant flow when death rate is exceeding birth rate, from Asian countries to Finland has and by net loss in international migra- increased, which is an indicator of far- tion (Figure 8). Finland is still facing away places increasing in importance as population growth by both indicators in places of origin. Africa is the third most 2006 and especially successful are coun- important continent from where im- tries like Iceland, Ireland, Spain and Cy- migrants come to Finland. The expert prus. interviews indicated that the migration flow from neighboring countries is ELLI HEIKILLÂ AND MARIA PIKKARAINEN 45

Figure 8. Population change in EU-countries in 2006.

Population change in EU-countries 2006 * Data from 2005

Netherlands Lithuania Latvia Poland Macedonia *

Romania Turkey Bulgaria * Estonia Germany Net immigration in Slovakia relation to the France population of the country (per 1000 Croatia * inhabitants) Denmark Natural population Hungary change in relation to the Finland population of the country (per 1000 Portugal inhabitants) Malta Slovenia United Kingdom * Czech Republic Austria Greece Liechtenstein Switzerland Belgium * Norway Italy * Sweden Luxembourg * Cyprus Spain Ireland * Iceland

-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 From Immigration to Integration: the Case of Japan

Krister Björklund

Introduction migration structure as in degree. The Japan is generally perceived as a homoge- colonial character of the early migration nous country with very few immigrants. was a feature unique to Japan. Nowhere The second statement has undoubt- else did the state build such an appara- edly been true until the 1980s, but the tus to plan and steer the migration flows conception of homogeneity can be put to its own interest. This applied to emi- in doubt. The geographical isolation gration as well as to immigration. of Japan with a unity of land, people, Soon after the Meiji Restoration, culture and language has downplayed Japan embarked on an expansionist variations along class, gender, region, course and conquered Chinese territory dialect and the like to the outside world. in the Sino-Japanese war 1894-1895 Emigration from and immigration to and colonized Korea in 1910. Until the Japan has never matched that of Eu- end of the Second World War, Japan rope, and that is a main reason for Japan experienced considerable colonial im- being viewed as homogenous. This has migration by Taiwanese, Koreans and been fueled by the identity discourse of Chinese who voluntarily and forcibly Japan, drawing upon factors such as the were brought to Japan as workers. After unity of culture and language and shared the war repatriations, over half a million bloodline, without any significant infu- Koreans and much smaller numbers of sion of new blood for thousands of years the Taiwanese and mainland Chinese re- (see Befu 2001, 68-72). mained in Japan in permanent exile, not The homogeneity of Japan is, how- being granted equal rights or citizen- ever, a myth reinforced by the over 200 ship. (Komai 2001, Kashiwazaki 2002). year seclusion of the Tokugawa shogu- After the Second World War, when nate until 1853, and it was revitalized Europe was rebuilt using migrant labor, after the Second World War. Japan closed its borders to migration Throughout the recent history of and achieved spectacular economic human migration Japan has differed growth by domestic labor. Towards the from the other developed countries, in end of the twentieth century, when Eu- KRISTER BJörklund 47 rope and North America became the the only non-western imperialist power target for migrants from less developed after the Russo-Japanese war, and the countries, Japan cautiously opened a colonial character of the emigration front door to ethnic Japanese returning was uneasily looked upon. Such fears from South America keeping a watchful certainly played a part in limitations eye on the small trickle of foreign immi- on Japanese immigration in the Ameri- grants through the side doors. With the cas and the Pacific. Australia and New problem of a rapidly aging population Zealand, preferring European immi- structure and falling dependency rates, grants, restricted Japanese immigration Japan now faces the same dilemma as right after the turn of the century. The other developed countries, whether to so-called ‘Gentlemen’s Agreement’ with accept large scale immigration or keep the United States and Canada in 1907- the borders closed. 08 and later the Quota Immigration Act of 1924 ended the Japanese emigration to the US and Hawaii completely (De Carvalho 2003: 4-5, Young 1999: 312- A brief history of migration from 313). Japan had to look for other emi- and to Japan gration targets. To properly understand the postwar re- The emigration interest turned from luctance to accept immigrants, which Spanish to Portuguese South America. has led to a situation where Japan only Between 1908 and 1939 over 182,000 cautiously is opening its doors to certain Japanese migrated to Brazil and over categories of immigrants, it is necessary 20,000 to Peru. The number going to to briefly recapitulate its migration his- other countries of Latin America was tory. considerably smaller. Most of the migrants hoped to return to Japan some Emigration day, but the reality proved different. The first mass emigration of Japanese More than 93 percent of the Japanese overseas occurred in 1868, when 200 migrants to Brazil 1908-33 never re- Japanese contract laborers were shipped turned. This was in accordance with to Hawaii and Guam by private bro- the governmental settlement policy, the kers. During the following forty years emigrants to Brazil were to be families, hundreds of thousands of Japanese went and they were encouraged to make Bra- to work in Hawaii, South America and zil their home (Masterson and Funada- North America, but also to South East Classen 2004: 51-52, 70-74). Asia. Much of this emigration was, how- After the war, Japan suffered from ever, temporary. The migrants were no overpopulation and took up the same settlers, but temporary laborers plan- emigration policy it had pursued ear- ning to return home with money after a lier. After the Peace Treaty of 1951 that few years of work in a foreign land and granted Japan independence, the coun- the majority of them were men. try made special arrangements with the Japanese emigration never compared governments of Latin America to send to the European, but Japan had become immigrant settlers for agricultural de- 48 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 velopment. The first postwar emigrants There were two strands in Japanese went to Brazil in 1952, Paraguay in emigration since the very beginning. 1954, Argentina in 1955, the Domini- Most of the emigrants were poor mi- can Republic in 1956, and Bolivia in grant workers, but there was also a mi- 1957. In 1955, the number of emigrants grating elite consisting of bureaucrats, topped 10,000 per year and kept ris- officials, experts, traders, businesspeople ing. Most of the emigration during this and the like. This division was institu- period was for agricultural purposes, tionalized in 1908 when the Japanese the emigrants either going to work on government established two specific farms already established by earlier passport categories, hi-imin and imin. Japanese emigrants or going to develop The former was designating persons new agricultural lands. Between 1950 who were neither laborers nor intended and 1965 Brazil received nearly 50,000 to engage in manual work. In the pre- Japanese immigrants. This was a new war days there was a cleavage between period in the Japanese communities in these two groups, often within single Latin America, because the second and Japanese communities. Migrant work- third generations began to increasingly ers were frequently looked down upon identify with the societies in which they as ‘savage Japanese’ by the elites. Thus lived and refer to themselves as Brazil- the overseas communities reflected the ian nikkeijin, and not purely Japanese old homeland in terms of class structure (Masterson and Funada-Classen 2004: and social discrimination. Their author- 179, de Carvalho 2003:25, Diplomatic ity depended upon the activities of the Bluebook 1985). imperial state. Interestingly, reflections Japanese emigration began tapering of this have continued to the present off as the Japanese economy got back on day Machimura (2003: 148-149) claims its feet and expanded employment op- that there still exists a disparity between portunities were available in Japan. By the state- or corporate-sponsored elite 1962, the number of emigrants dropped group and the more localized and less below 10,000. Simultaneously, the ties privileged population. to Brazil proved beneficial to the Japa- The last thirty years of emigration has nese economy; in the late 1970s more mainly been hi-imin migration. Japa- than 500 Japanese firms established nese corporate development has been themselves in Brazil, but during the se- primarily responsible for this emigra- rious economic decline in Latin Amer- tion. Instead of importing foreign labor, ica in the 1980s, Japanese investments Japanese professionals were sent to man- were withdrawn. Overall the nikkeijin age Japanese factories elsewhere. The did not benefit from the Japanese eco- branch-plant economy of joint ventures nomic growth, except those who chose depended on migratory flows of techni- to migrate to Japan (Masterson and Fu- cal advisors, managers and executives, nada-Classen 2004: 225, Goto 2006). training and clerical staff. As the follow- In the 1970s the Japanese migration to ing figure shows, the number of Japa- Brazil ended, and another migration era nese with permanent residence abroad started. has been fairly constant, and the in- KRISTER BJörklund 49 crease is mainly due to the long-stay cat- nese communities. The sending com- egory. Working abroad for the company panies give housing provision; support has become a step on the career ladder, the establishment of clubs and organiza- and overseas positions are rotated, often tions, finance construction of Japanese for a period between 3 and 5 years. The schools (which are run by the Japanese situation has changed from what it was Ministry of Education). The daily life in the 1970s, when overseas assignment of Japanese expatriates is connected to was a necessary evil for the employees the homeland through the educational and the returnees faced difficulties in system, through imported consumer terms of stagnated career development goods and services and through media. and family re-integration. Their status It is common for expatriate communi- changed in the 1980’s from a potential ties to create such ‘environmental bub- new minority group that faced discrimi- bles’, but this applies stronger to the nation to becoming a new elite group Japanese than to other migrant groups. (White 1980, Goodman 2003: 177- The social milieus in these communi- 194). ties operate according to rules and ex- The number of Japanese in differ- pectations familiar from Japan, and the ent regions of the world reflects the contacts to home are intensive. There economic interests of Japan; the three is a split between the old-comer imin cores of the globalizing economy, North and newcomer himin, their contacts are America, Western Europe and the Pa- rare and sometimes even in conflict, as cific rim attract migrants, while Latin the hi-imin look down upon the imin America has declined in importance and their offspring as those who could (Table 1). Like their imin-predecessors not make it in Japan (Goodman et al the new migrants cluster to form Japa- 2003:9, Machimura 2003:151-153).

1,200,000

1,000,000

800,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

0 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Table 1. Number of Japanese living abroad by type of stay 1986-2004. Source: Statistics Bureau JapanNumber 2008 of Japanese Living Abroad Long-stay Permanent Residence 50 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Year Total U.S.A. China Brazil U.K. 1990 620 236 8 105 44

1995 728 264 17 91 52

2000 812 298 46 75 53

2005 1,013 352 115 66 55 Percent change 5.3 3.6 15.9 -4.5 8.1 2004-2005

Table 1. Number of Japanese living abroad by country (in thousands as of October 1, 2005) Source: Japan in figures 2007

Immigration called Zainichi Koreans were divested The large scale movement of people of Japanese nationality, and thus many during Japan’s colonial period ended civil rights, leaving them without any in the aftermath of the Second World clear defined residence status. They re- War. When the Allies stripped Japan of mained in an insecure situation until its colonies, the overseas Japanese were the treaty between the Republic of repatriated at a fast pace. Already by the Korea and Japan was signed in 1965, end of 1946 over 5 million of the sol- when they were designated a special diers and civilians overseas had returned status as ‘Treaty Permanent Residents’ to Japan. Thousands were, however, left (Morris-Suzuki 2006, Komai 2001: 60- behind in China, Russia and South-East 64, Kashiwazaki 2007, Sellek 2001: 19, Asia. Watt 2002: 2). Japan had during the war experienced During the era of the Empire, when considerable colonial immigration by Japanese settled overseas, there was a Taiwanese, Koreans and Chinese, who clear distinction between the home is- were nominally given the status of Japa- lands of Japan and the colonies. The nese. Many of them had more or less former were referred to as naichi and forcibly been brought to Japan as work- the latter as gaichi, inside and outside ers. The Korean population in Japan territory. After the war most gaichi re- reached approximately two million in turnees reintegrated smoothly into 1945. In cooperation with the Japanese Japanese society, but for tens of thou- government the Allies deported over a sands the process proved difficult. The million persons to their homelands, but division of ‘us and them’ materialized in over half a million Koreans and much categorization. The authorities tried to smaller numbers of the Taiwanese and place everybody in occupied Japan into mainland Chinese remained. These so- an appropriate administrative category. KRISTER BJörklund 51 The returnees became hikiagesha (repat- hours. A fifth reason could be added: lo- riates) and former colonials - such as the calizing production overseas supervised Koreans - remaining in Japan were cate- by Japanese management. gorized as sangokujin (third country na- While it is safe to say that economic tionals). This institutionalized the long success did not depend on immigrant practice of resisting outsiders. Prejudice labor, like it did in Europe, a number of against repatriates and racism towards foreign workers did contribute to it. As Koreans and Chinese were two sides Morris-Suzuki (2006: 121) writes: of the same coin. The repatriates were ethnic Japanese, but many of them now Migrants did come, and some also left found themselves as strangers in their again. Some stayed just a few months, own homeland and potential threats to others for a lifetime. Most worked in social stability (Watt 2002: 3-8). Japan, and their presence demands The prewar trend toward a ‘multi- acknowledgment for several reasons. ethnic’ Japan was broken and a concept First, the experience of migration had a of homogenous nation was revitalized. formative effect on many thousands of It was cemented with legislation aimed individual lives. Second, postwar im- at controlling foreigners and a system migration and official responses to that was set up requiring them to carry reg- immigration shaped Japan’s migration istration cards and present them to au- and border control policies in ways that thorities on demand. This legal system continue to have a profound impact to effectively barred immigrants from the present day. Third, although their Japan until the late1970s. Immigrants influence on macroeconomic growth were divided into two categories: ‘old may have been very small, postwar mi- comers’, mainly Koreans, who have re- grants made important contributions to sided in Japan since before 1952, and the destiny of particular industries and their descendants, and ‘newcomers’, re- particular communities within Japan. ferring primarily to foreigners who came to Japan in or after the 1980s (Komai Morris-Suzuki acknowledges that it is 2001: 14-15, Kashiwazaki 2007). impossible to provide accurate statistics The postwar period until the 1980’s of migrants who entered Japan between is generally considered to be a period 1946 and the late 1970s and concludes almost lacking migration to Japan. on the basis of available data and archi- The economic growth after the Second val sources that they numbered at least World War was spectacular and the in the tens of thousands, and possibly common conception is that unlike Eu- in the hundreds of thousands (Morris- rope, the economic growth was accom- Suzuki 2006:122). plished without foreign workers. Kondo The great majority of the illegal mi- (2002) summarizes four reasons for this: grants to Japan in the early postwar pe- migration from rural to urban industrial riod were Koreans who came secretly on areas; automation; utilization of home cargo vessels or fishing boats. Of those working; students and elderly people who were returned to Korea after the as part time labor; and long working war a great number could not take up 52 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 their old lives there, many had brought struction workers, and almost a third of their families to Japan with the inten- the female workers were bar hostesses tion of staying more or less permanently. (Goto 2006). For many of these returning to Japan In the 1970s six major categories seemed the best option. Many migrants of immigrants started to enter Japan: came for short periods to earn money, women from the Philippines, Thailand, study or rejoin relatives, some crossed Taiwan and Korea who mainly came to back and forth between Korea and work in the sex industry; Indochinese Japan many times. Most of them came refugees; spouses in international mar- to work, however, and they generally riages; descendants of Japanese who had found employment in very small firms been left in China at the end of World with only a few employees, often run by War II; nikkeijin from Latin America; other Koreans. Some also succeeded to and business people from Europe and get employment in larger Japanese com- North America. We shall take a brief panies (Sellek 2001:19, Morris-Suzuki look at all of these groups. 2006). As illegal immigrants they fell The inflow of foreign female workers between the two categories ‘old comers’ in the entertainment industry started and ‘new comers’. The treaty between with the lucrative sex tourism in the Japan and Korea did not apply to them, Philippines and Thailand in the 1970s. so they lived a marginal life, sometimes Japanese men were major customers, for decades under the fear of being de- and thus a demand for Asian women portew. was created in the domestic market of The illegal migration to Japan has Japan. The networks which were origi- continued to the present, mainly in nally managing the sex tourism from form of visa overstayers, whose number Japan were adapted to transfer the same hit a peak of 298,646 in 1993, decreas- sort of business to Japan. Far from all ing to 207,299 in 2005. This decrease women who migrated to Japan worked is due to the severe punishments; em- in the sex industry in their home coun- ployers can be fined and imprisoned for try. The enormous wage differences hiring illegal migrants and the migrants between Japan and most other Asian fined, imprisoned and expelled (Banki countries were strong incentives also 2006, Higuchi 2006). for well-educated women not able to Most illegal workers in Japan come find a job matching their educational from neighboring Asian countries; background. Other options such as China, Korea, Philippines and Thailand. working in the domestic and the ser- Until the middle of the 1980s most of vice sector were not available for them them were women who worked as bar in Japan because of the Japanese policy hostesses, but later the number of male of prohibiting foreigners from taking workers dramatically increased to be- employment in the unskilled job sec- tween 50 and 80 percent of the total tors. Providing sexual services could illegal immigrants. Of the male illegal also produce large profits within a lim- foreign workers apprehended in 2004, ited period of time, compared to other around 50 percent were factory or con- type of labor, but at the cost of social KRISTER BJörklund 53 stigmatization (Sellek 2001: 166- sons. The yearly number varies, but only 172). Most of these women entered 381 have received this status since 1982 the country legally as entertainers, but (JAR 2007). also as illegal migrants. In 2004 there The number of asylum seekers is very were 137,820 persons in Japan with low in Japan. UNHCR in Japan has the status as entertainer; 100,046 of stopped giving mandate status to asy- these were from Asia (Japan statistical lum seekers altogether because of the yearbook 2006), but considering so dominance of the Japanese state in these many working illegally in Japan, it is matters. In 2005 only 284 applications impossible to give an accurate number for asylum were made. Japan’s refugee of foreign women in the sex industry. policy reflects the generally restrictive The amendment of the criteria for the migration policy (Banki 2006). status of residence ‘Entertainer’ in 2005 International marriages bring many tightened the control considerably. A foreigners to Japan. Such began to minimum of two years at a foreign edu- occur in larger numbers when Japan’s cational institution studying perform- colonial period brought close contacts ance arts, or a minimum of two years’ with neighboring Asian countries. The performance experience outside Japan Japanese government encouraged mar- as an entertainer became required (Im- riages between Japanese and Korean migration Bureau of Japan 2007). colonial subjects as part of a wider Indochinese refugees began arriv- policy to eliminate Korean racial and ing in Japan by boat in the 1970s after ethnic identities. Under this policy es- the fall of South Vietnam. Over 10,000 pecially Japanese women married Ko- refugees from Indochina have been al- rean men who worked in Japan. This lowed to remain in Japan since then. pattern continued a long time after the Because Japan did not ratify the 1951 war with international marriages being Convention or the 1967 Protocol Relat- mainly between Japanese and Koreans. ing to the Status of Refugees until 1981- The majority of these Korean nationals 82, the vast majority of the Indochinese were permanent residents in Japan who was not considered convention refugees. themselves or whose parents had once Their resettlement was organized under had Japanese nationality under the co- a different system created especially for lonial period. Due to the nationality cri- this purpose. teria these marriages were registered as Convention refugee status is granted international in official statistics. by the Japanese government and entitles During the Allied occupation of the refugee to stay and work in Japan Japan, international marriages between long term. Very few have, however, Japanese women and men from the been awarded this; between 1982 and United States became prominent. Many 2005 only 376 of 3928 applicants were of these ‘war brides’ migrated to the US, granted Convention status. Some ap- partly because of the hostile attitude in plicants may remain in Japan after their Japan towards them (Nakamatsu 2002: application for refugee status has been 11). The trend of Japanese women mar- rejected, usually for humanitarian rea- rying foreign men continued until 1975, 54 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

45 000

40 000

35 000

30 000

25 000

20 000 Marriages 15 000

10 000

5 000

0 1965 70 75 80 85 90 95 2000 05 Year

Foreign bride Foreign husband

Figure 2. International marriages in Japan Source: Ministry of Health and Welfare 2007 when the number of Japanese men mar- business in Japan (Nakamatsu 2002:12). rying non-Japanese women surpassed In 2005 the wives in international mar- the number of the former. riages mainly came from China(11,644) The trend in international marriages the Philippines (10,242), Korea (6,066) on the one hand reflected the interac- and Thailand (1,637). tion between Japan and other Asian Until 1970 citizens of the United countries, and on the other an increas- States topped the statistics of non-Japa- ing number of Japanese men, especially nese grooms. In 2005 the proportion of in the rural areas, not finding marriage Japanese women marrying men from the partners (Komai 2001: 72). From the US has decreased from the 1965 level of beginning of the 1990s brides from 51 percent to 18 percent although the China and the Philippines became more number of these marriages has increased numerous than those from Korea. In- (1551 in 2005). Korean grooms now termarriage between Japanese men and top the statistics (2,087) and Chinese Filipino and Thai women who work rank third (1,015) (Ministry of health in Japan reflects the growth of the en- and Welfare 2007). tertainment industry and the estab- Thewar-displaced – zanryu fujin/koji, lishment of the international marriage the Japanese women and children who KRISTER BJörklund 55 were separated from their families and people from the former colonies had left behind in the colonies, especially migrated to Japan (Sien-Center 2007). Manchuria, during and after World War They are elderly and many came with II, were the first immigrants officially their spouses, children or grandchil- accepted into Japan after 1945. Accord- dren, who sometimes have spouses of ing to incomplete statistics, more than their own. These come under the status 4,000 of the Japanese children left be- as second or third generation returnees hind were adopted by Chinese families (Komai 2001, Ward 2006). Consider- (China Daily 6.9.2006), but any definite ing that a returnee on the average brings number of women and children has not 10 or more relatives and in-laws, many been possible to determine. A year after of them outside the state-supported pro- the diplomatic relations between Japan gram, the aggregate number of zanryu and China were normalized in 1972, fujin/koji including their family mem- they were allowed to move to Japan on bers must be around 100,000, but the state expense. Initially only those who exact number is not known. These re- could prove their identity and had a turnees face the same language and cul- Japanese guarantor could move to Japan ture barrier as other immigrants, but are and accompanying family members had in a situation of dual diaspora being of to pay for themselves. Many of the zan- Japanese ancestry, looking Japanese but ryufujin/koji had to migrate to Japan not knowing the culture. They are also as non-Japanese A change in policy in much more dependent on public assist- 1959 had reduced the number of years ance benefits than other immigrants and a person was required to be missing have a lower employment rate (Komai before considered legally dead reduced 2001: 61). the number of non-repatriated civilians Reacting to their difficult situation from 77,000 to 31,000 and these per- in Japan, 2000 zanryufujin/koji reset- sons lost their citizenship (Ward 2006). tled in Japan have filed lawsuits with 15 The immigration process proved dif- district courts and one high court na- ficult and in 1981 the Japanese govern- tionwide to compensate for the state’s ment began to sponsor groups of zanryu failure to take swift action for their re- fujin/koji to visit Japan and identify settlement and adequately help them their biological families and thus prove become self-reliant in Japan. Osaka their identity. In 1989 a special sponsor district court refused compensation in scheme was introduced and the appli- July 2005, stating that there was not cants were required to have a sponsor sufficient evidence to rule that the gov- rather than a guarantor, which made ernment had negligent in finding the their migration much easier. In 1994 a orphans and that the government was ‘Law to promote the smooth reentry of not obliged to support them after re- Japanese Nationals left behind in China, turning to Japan. The Kobe District etc. and to support their independence court decided differently in December following reentry’ was enforced to facili- 2006, and ordered the government to tate their integration. pay a combined 468.6 million yen in At the end of 2006, a total of 20,248 compensation to 61 of the 65 plain- 56 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 tiffs for its failure to take care of them. larged from 18 to 28. The basic principle At the end of January 2007 the Tokyo of not accepting unskilled foreign labor district court rejected a similar demand was maintained and employer sanctions from 40 war-displaced Japanese (Asahi were introduced to discourage hiring il- Shimbun 2.12.2006; Japan Times legal workers. A side door was, however, 2.12.2006, 31.1.2007). kept open for ‘trainees and technical In July 2007 the government an- interns’ who could stay for a maximum nounced new support plan to settle of three years. This became a system for compensation lawsuits nationwide, rotating cheap unskilled workers (Sellek Under the new plan, the orphans, who 2001; Kondo 2002; Kashiwazaki 2007). currently receive only one-third of the Another major effect of the Revised public pension, will be able to receive Immigration Control Act, which went the full payment and additional ben- into force 1990, was that it allowed efits. The average age of the 2,500 or second and third-generation persons so war orphans who have resettled in of Japanese descent (nikkeijin) easier Japan is over 70, and more than 70 per- access to residential visas with no em- cent depend on welfare (Japan Times ployment restrictions. Under these 11.7.2007). provisions the nikkeijin were allowed Before the economic bubble burst in to enter Japan on two types of visas, as the beginning of the 1990s, Japanese spouse or descendant of Japanese and companies experienced serious labor also under a new category as long term shortage, and the influx of low-wage resident teijusha with no activity restric- labor power increased dramatically in tions. Although these special visas were the later half of the 1980s .These im- of limited duration, they could be easily migrants came from Latin-America renewed (Tsuda 2003: 93). The official (nikkeijin, mostly Brazilians of Japanese explanation for granting residence-work descent), South Korea, China, the Phil- status to Japanese descendants was to ippines, Iran, Pakistan and from all over provide opportunities to visit relatives the world. A great part of them worked in Japan, but the hidden agenda was to illegally; visa overstayers and foreigners stop illegal immigration and solve a seri- taking employment outside the scope ous labor shortage (Kondo 2002). permitted by their residency status, such The nikkeijin population in Latin as technical trainees and students. The America was around 1.5 million at the influx of foreign students rose tremen- turn of the millennium. Brazil hosts dously from former levels (Komai 2001, more people of Japanese origin than any Kashiwazaki 2002). In 1989 the Japa- nation outside Japan itself. Most of the nese government embarked on reform- Japanese population (91 percent) is con- ing the Immigration Control Act in centrated in the southwest and south response to the uncontrolled develop- of the country. The states of São Paulo ment of immigration. The government and Paraná have the highest number of reorganized new visa categories to facili- nikkeijin. Some 30 percent of the Japa- tate the immigration of professional and nese Brazilians are second generation skilled personnel; the number was en- (nisei), 41 percent are third generation KRISTER BJörklund 57 (sansei) with a small but increasing pop- (Tsuda 2003: 99). In certain living dis- ulation of fourth generation (yonsei) , 62 tricts the proportion of nikkeijin is very percent of whom are of mixed descent high and they have created their own (Tsuda 2003: 57). local culture with Brazilian shops and The Japanese government had shown bars. For example in Homi housing dis- comparatively little interest in them trict in Toyota city around 40 percent of until the enacting of the new Immigra- the residents are Brazilian (Goto 2006; tion Control Act in 1990. The sudden Linger 2001: 79-86; International Press massive influx of these immigrants into 3.2.2007). Japan was quite unexpected. They had They have added new chapters to not kept up contact with relatives in Japan’s ethnohistory being of Japanese Japan and few had visited the country. lineage and looking Japanese, but hav- Only around 2000 such returnees lived ing a language, culture, customs and in Japan in 1986, but in 2005 their behavior deriving from South America. number had risen to around 360,000. Many ethnic Latin American spouses The pull factor was economic, private and children also accompanied them brokers organized the journey, job and to Japan, adding to the cultural confu- housing. There were also strong push- sion. It is common to classify the second factors. The Brazilian economy had dete- and third generation nikkeijin as return riorated badly in the 1990s and Japanese migrants, but where is the point of ref- wages were very high compared to those erence, their ‘home’? Linger (2001:26) in Brazil. The nikkeijin got jobs as man- suggest that the situation is one of ‘dual ual workers in the 3-K sector - kitanai, diaspora’ because they shuttle between kitsui, kiken - dirty, difficult, dangerous, two homelands, being Japanese in Brazil replacing temporary illegal workers and and Brazilian in Japan. trainees (Sellek 2001; Brody 2002). Thenikkeijin face many difficulties in The first to come in the 1990s were Japan, especially with regard to language single men intending to stay for a few and culture. They stay illiterate for a long years and return home with the money time, and they have difficulties adapting earned in Japan, which resulted in an to the Japanese way of living. As they age distribution with few elderly and tend to stick to other nikkeijin and form children. As the nikkeijin established ethnic communities, Komai (2001, 37) themselves in Japan, bringing families writes that the ‘nikkeijin society is going along and obtaining permanent resi- through a process of cleavage from Japa- dency the proportion of fourth genera- nese society’. tion and fifth generation has increased Even though the returnees are ad- (Goto 2006). monished to become model Japanese, The nikkeijin are not evenly distrib- they are constantly reminded of their uted in Japan, but are concentrated in otherness. They experience a kind of certain industrial areas. The prefectures double discrimination, because they are with the largest number of Brazilian not excused as foreigners when they do nikkeijin are Aichi, Shizuoka, Kanagawa, mistakes, they are expected to follow Saitama, Gunma, Chiba and Tokyo city Japanese customs and speak the lan- 58 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 guage because they have Japanese blood. sists of former Japanese nationals and Coming from what by the Japanese is their families returning from China perceived as developing countries also (zanryufujin/koji), students and trainees, puts them in an inferior position (Roth spouses and children of Japanese nation- 2002). als, company employees and other. In addition there is a large number of illegal Chinese migrants in Japan, mainly Internationalization and visa overstayers (Komai 2001: 26-27). integration Immigration policy has two interre- The total number of foreigners in Japan lated parts: immigration control policy was over two millions in 2005, and it and integration policy. In the Japanese is increasing. Figure 3 shows how the context they are, however, synony- nationality structure is changing with mous (Kondo 2002). The three pillars the ‘newcomers’ (only the biggest im- of the immigration system were erected migrant nationalities are shown in the at the end of the allied occupation of figure). The number of ‘oldcomers’, es- Japan. These were (1) the Nationality pecially Koreans, is declining, and the law (1950) based on the transmission number of ‘newcomer’ Chinese rising. of nationality through the paternal line, The largest group of newcomers, the (2) the Immigration control act (1951), Chinese, is a very diverse group. It con- which was drafted in close cooperation

2 500 000

2 000 000

1 500 000 Total Koreans Chinese Brazilians 1 000 000

500 000

1948 1951 1954 1957 1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005

Figure 3. Foreigners in Japan Source: Statistics Bureau Japan 2008, Japan Statistical Yearbook 2008 KRISTER BJörklund 59 with the Supreme Command Allied increasing international trade. Prime Powers and modeled on the US immi- Minister Nakasone set out to transform gration policy (3) the Alien registration Japan into an ‘international country’ in law (1952) which set up the system with a speech before the parliament in 1984 registering and fingerprinting foreign- as a response to the American demand ers (Komai 2001:14-15). The legislation to open Japan for foreign exports. Koku- also revoked the Japanese nationality of saika is, however, a complex term, which Chinese and Koreans in Japan. They lost cannot be reduced to the word interna- a wide range of rights and were left with- tionalization. It also carries a connota- out any clearly defined residence status tion to japanization of the foreign in and deprived of their right to leave and the world and of the foreign in Japan. re-enter Japan (Morris-Suzuki 2006). Because of the controversial meanings The legislation did have a category of kokusaika carries, terms such as globali- ‘permanent residents’ corresponding to zation (gurobaruka) and co-existence the category of ‘immigrants’ in the US (kyosei) have replaced it in common use policy, on which it had been modeled, (Burgess 2004). The latter has become but nobody was ever accepted in that popular not only in government use, category. It was not designed to integrate but also among volunteer and citizen newcomers; rather it was an instrument groups. Some local governments with of surveillance and control thus discrim- many resident aliens have adopted this inating against foreigners. term in their policy. In 1982 a new Immigration Control The so-called “nikkeijin” provision in and Refugee Recognition Act was en- the Revised Immigration Control Act forced. Japan had been reluctant to join of 1990 rested on the implicit assump- the original International Refugee Treaty tion that ethnic Japanese would fill the of 1951, but the arrival of Indochinese demand for unskilled workers without refugees in Japan and international pres- disturbing the ethnic and cultural uni- sure compelled the government to sign formity of Japan. They were expected to the convention relating to the status of assimilate easily into the society regard- refugees. This reform provided the legal less of nationality, the concepts of eth- framework for different types of status nicity, culture and ‘blood’ were used to of residence and re-entry permits and legitimate this assumption (Goodman et equal treatment to nationals and non- al 2003). Japanese ‘blood’ was measured nationals abolishing some discrimi- by the number of generations removed nation of foreigners within the social from Japan. This was reflected in that security system. Rather than using the second generation Japanese descendants concept integration policy, the Japanese (nisei) were eligible for a 3-year long visa, government used internationalization whereas third generation (sansei) were policy or domestic internationalization entitled only to a 1-year visa. Fourth policy (kokusaika) (Komai 2001: 16- generation and thereafter did not qual- 17; Kondo 2002; Sellek 2001: 25). This ify to enter Japan under the scheme, as a concept had emerged in the 1970s with the economic development of Japan and 60 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 great part of them was of mixed descent1 South Korea and their children) (Kondo (Takenaka 2003: 225). This legislation 2002). Further amendments were made allowing the return of ethnic Japanese in 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2006 tighten- falls in fact back on jus sanguinis basis: ing the control on illegal aliens in Japan, to meet the need for labor keeping those but also making improvements, such as with no Japanese blood outside, not let- taking measures against trafficking in ting even fourth generation nikkeijin persons (Immigration Bureau of Japan with their ‘diluted blood’ in. Nikkeijin 2007). and Zanryufujin/koji in Japan get ex- Amendments have also been made plicitly confronted with this when the in the Nationality law 1984 and 1993 native Japanese wonder why a person changing the principle of patrilineal jus with a Japanese surname and a Japanese sanguinis to both patri- and matrilineal. physical appearance is unable to speak The requirement of a Japanese name as Japanese and act like one. When they requirement for naturalization was also do learn the language, they do not get dropped. In 1993 the Alien registration the same compliments as other non- act was amended and eliminated finger- Japanese achieving this, because they printing as a requirement for permanent are supposed to have it somehow inher- residents, and in 2000 it was abolished ent ‘in their blood’. Instead, they even for all resident aliens (Ministry of Justice confront hostility not being able to con- 2007). It did return with the amend- firm to all the implicit expectations and ment of the immigration policy act in norms in Japan. 2006 in another form, fingerprints are Since the enacting of the Immi- taken when entering the country, and gration Control Act in 1990 many not as before only for resident aliens at revisions have been made in the im- the local immigration office. migration legislation. In 1991 persons The Immigration Control Act of and their descendants who lost their 1990 also stipulated that the Minister Japanese citizenship in accordance with of Justice was to establish a Basic Plan the Peace Treaty were permitted spe- for Immigration Control to set forth cial permanent residence status (the immigration control guidelines and bilateral agreement with South Korea other measures. In the First Basic Plan in 1965 had ensured the status of per- for Immigration Control of 1992, the manent residents only for citizens of main objectives were the promotion of smooth exchanges of personnel and 1 The nisei and sansei would in principle have had measures against illegal foreign workers. the option of entering Japan as Japanese nationals The second basic plan of immigration if their parents would have registered them at the control announced in 2000 outlined a Japanese consulate promptly after their birth. Ac- more open policy of foreign migration cording to the Japanese nationality law, children born to a Japanese national are automatically en- to Japan. With the country facing a titled to Japanese citizenship, regardless of their population decline due to the age struc- place of birth. Not being Japanese citizens, the ture, it acknowledged the need to accept nikkeijin were admitted as “co-ethnic family visitors” and “settlers” allowed to work without any at least some immigration and stated: restriction KRISTER BJörklund 61 moted through realization of a Japanese However, this does not mean short- society where foreign nationals can live in circuited acceptance of immigrants or a a stable environment (Ministry of Justice huge number of foreigners, but rather ac- 2007). ceptance of foreigners corresponding to the societal needs, through active utilization of In order to promote these goals, the presently available systems, smooth enough government wanted to extend the pos- not causing friction or unease in a society sibilities of longer stay with a proper (Ministry of Justice 2007). visa and clarify the conditions for the permission of permanent residency. The plan clearly reflected uneasiness Traditionally, the Japanese immigration with a growing number of aliens, espe- policy has not been willing to allow per- cially illegal foreigners and advocated manent residence for foreigners. Before strong measures to keep out the un- 1998 a 20-year continuous residence in wanted and choose the desired immi- Japan was needed before qualifying, but grants carefully. has since then been lowered to 10 years Based on the five-year experience of continuous residence. Naturalization, under this plan, the Japanese govern- in contrast, requires only five years of ment announced the Third Basic Plan in continuous residence2. 2005. The fundamental concept is simi- The development of the legislation lar to that of the Second Basic Plan and relating to immigration reflects the ide- it also addresses the smooth settlement ology expressed in cultural debates. The of long-term foreign residents. distinctiveness and separateness of the Japanese in relation to foreigners inside Japan has adopted a basic policy to and outside Japan persists in spite of the openly accept foreign workers in profes- changing policy. The later generations of sional or technical fields. It is therefore Japanese ‘returnees’ from Latin America necessary to more openly accept foreign na- and China have as a result fallen in be- tionals who are welcome in Japanese soci- tween, making their situation in Japan ety, and from the viewpoint of enhancing difficult. the international competitiveness of Japan, The doors will not open wide; the gov- there is special need to welcome those for- ernment cautiously wants professionals eign nationals who are vital to Japanese and highly skilled workers, preferably society such as highly-skilled workers who with some Japanese language skills. Un- have world-class specialized knowledge or skilled workers are not wanted, even if technical skills. In this respect, there is also there is a demand. Nikkeijin and short a need to develop an environment where foreign nationals can live comfortably, 2 The spouses or children of Japanese nationals or permanent residents can after renewing and therefore through such measures as the one-year spouse visa a couple of times, considering a social security system for for- extend it to a three-year spouse visa (but only eign nationals and by coordinating with those from countries in favor with Japan). Then, when the first three-year spouse visa other administrative measures the smooth comes close to expiring it is possible to apply acceptance of foreign nationals will be pro- for permanent residency. 62 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 term workers from abroad on trainee tinued, even counteracting the interests visas are to few, and the demand will rise of the Japanese economy. Japanese mass as the population ages. media frequently voice opinions in fa- The former head of the Tokyo Im- vour of ‘opening the doors’, like many migration Bureau Hidenori Sakanaka critics and analysts of the system, often published an important, but little read referring to the large proportion of im- book in 2005 Nyuukan Senki (Immigra- migrants in Europe, North America and tion battle diary). In this he argues that Australia. The problem is that Japan Japan must decide what kind of country lacks a continuous tradition of accept- it must become by the middle of this ing foreign labor, and adjusting to a century. Being a big country requires situation with a sudden massive influx roughly 20 million immigrants to keep of immigrants would pose considerable the wheels turning and being a small problems, not least that of public opin- country with a population of around ion. 100 million is the consequence when Abandoning the perceived homoge- most foreigners are kept out. In the lat- neity in favor of ethnic heterogeneity ter case robots must do some of the work requires many changes in the Japanese the immigrants would do. Sakanaka fa- immigrant legislation to eliminate the vors the big country alternative, not just institutional discrimination that for- for economic reasons, but Japan should eigners in Japan encounter today. For become the ‘Canada of Asia’, a multicul- example compulsory education in Japan tural and multiethnic salad bowl. does not apply to foreign children. This Japan is part of a global migration means that those immigrant children system which connects particular send- who drop out of primary school have no ing countries with particular receiving other education choices and sometimes countries. Migration is an outcome of wind up in an uneducated underclass interacting macro-, meso- and micro- of youth gangs (furyo in Japanese. litt. structures. In relation to the mac- spoiled goods). Foreign crime is per- rostructure Japan’s presence in Asia has ceived as a serious issue in Japan, and it been substantial through direct invest- is often exaggerated by authorities and ments and export of consumer goods, media thus contributing to the preju- but also in terms of cultural links. The dices against foreigners, both on a com- influx of Asian illegal workers to Japan mon and institutional level. which gained momentum before the re- The current foreign population of cession in the 1990s is connected with Japan poses no threat to the society, this macrostructure. The meso-level and ethnic minorities are not targets of connections between migrants in Japan hatred and xenophobic violence like in encourage to further migration, but on many countries with large immigrant the micro level the obstacles set up by populations. Still there exists institu- Japanese legislation and authority con- tional discrimination to an extent that trol and enforcement counteract this would not be possible in most western strongly. Thus the prewar tradition with societies. This situation is gradually strong state control of migration is con- changing with the increasing foreign KRISTER BJörklund 63 presence in Japan. The myth of Japanese receive pension benefits. Immigrants homogeneity is slowly waning. Even so, taking up permanent residence are, Japan need not necessarily follow the however, no solution in the long run, as road other developed countries have they are likely to conform to Japanese taken. society with low birthrates. The population will decrease in Japan. Another, more seldom discussed mat- The declining birthrate is, however, not ter relates to environmental sustainabil- the main cause. The reason is that mem- ity. Japan is a mountainous nation and bers of the post-World War II baby- most of the country is uninhabitable boom generation who are predicted to making the population density one of die in the next 30 years outnumber chil- the highest in the world. Japan’s envi- dren to be born during the same period. ronmental problems are a result of ex- The population will shrink even if the cessive industrial production and waste birthrate increased drastically. Women discharge in the overpopulated coun- who are predicted to have babies in the try. The most voiced concern about the next 30 years constitute a smaller por- graying Japan relates to the economy; a tion of the population. small working population means lower The immediate pressing issue for production. One might, however, ques- Japan to address is the dependency rate; tion the reasonability of continuing to keep the ratio of working age popula- to pursue a higher economic growth tion to the retired population at a rea- keeping or even increasing the current sonable level. There are basically only population level. Would a shrinking three ways to do this: to increase fertil- population not be an option, taking ity; to change pension benefits (lower the overpopulation, the environmental pensions, postponed retirement age); or problems and Japan’s low food self-suffi- to increase immigration. ciency rate into account? That has rarely The government has introduced a se- been given serious consideration in the ries of policies supporting childcare dur- debate. ing the last decade in order to increase the population fertility and reformed the pension system, but these measures are not sufficient. Immigration could be REFERENCES a remedy to the problem with an age- Asahi Shimbun 2.12.2006. ‘Court orders state to ing population if it brings young active pay war-displaced Japanese’. Banki Susan. ‘Burmese refugees in Tokyo: Live- population who will work, consume lihoods in the urban environment’. Journal of and pay taxes, which will contribute Refugee Studies 2006:19:3. to financing the social security system. Befu Harumi. Hegemony of homogeneity. An an- Theoretically, temporary immigration thropological analysis of Nihonjinron. Trans Pa- would be a good solution, because it cific Press, Melbourne 2001. would change the population pyramid. Brody Betsy. Opening the door. Immigration, eth- Temporary immigrants would require nicity and globalization in Japan. Routledge, little state-funded medical attention and New York and London 2002. they would leave before being eligible to Burgess Chris. ‘Maintaining identities: Dis- 64 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

courses of homogeneity in a rapidly globaliz- play.cfm?ID=487 2007 (5.2.08). ing Japan’. Electronic Journal of Contemporary Komai Hiroshi: Foreign Migrants in contempo- Japanese Studies 2004:1. http://www.japa- rary Japan. Trans Pacific Press, Melbourne nesestudies.org.uk/articles/Burgess.html 2001. (5.2.2008) Kondo Atsushi. ‘The development of immigra- China Daily 6.9.2006. ‘Japanese war orphans in tion policy in Japan’. Asian and Pacific Migra- China’. tion Journal 2002:11:4; 415-435. De Carvalho Daniela. Migrants and identity in Linger Daniel Touro. No one home. Brazilian Japan and Brazil. The Nikkeijin. Routledge- selves remade in Japan. Stanford University Curzon. London and New York 2003. Press. Stanford, California 2001. Diplomatic Bluebook 1985. Ministry of For- Machimura Takashi. Living in a transnational eign Affairs, Japan. http://www.mofa.go.jp/ community within a multi-ethnic city. Mak- policy/other/bluebook/1985/1985-contents. ing a localized ‘Japan’ in Los Angeles. In Good- htm#CONTENTS (5.2.2008). man Roger, Peach Ceri, Takenaka Ayumi, Goodman Roger, Peach Ceri, Takenaka Ayumi, White Paul (ed.). Global Japan. The experi- White Paul. ‘The Experience of Japan’s new ence of Japan’s new immigrant and overseas migrants and overseas communities in an- communities. RoutledgeCurzon. London and thropological, geographical, historical and New York 2003: 147-156. sociological perspective’. In Goodman Roger, Masterson Daniel M with Funada-Classen Peach Ceri, Takenaka Ayumi, White Paul Sayaka. The Japanese in Latin America. Uni- (ed.). Global Japan. The experience of Japan’s versity of Illinois Press. Urbana and Chicago new immigrant and overseas communities. 2004. RoutledgeCurzon. London and New York Ministry of Health and Welfare, statistics. http:// 2003: 1-20. wwwdbtk.mhlw.go.jp/toukei/data/010/2005/ Goto Junichi. Latin Americans of the Japanese toukeihyou/0005626/t0124540/ origin (Nikkeijin) working in Japan – A survey. MG180000_001.html (20.1.2007). Research Institute for Economics and Busi- Ministry of Justice. http://www.moj.go.jp/ ness Administration. Kobe University. http:// (26.2.2007). www.rieb.kobe-u.ac.jp/academic/ra/dp/Eng- Morris-Suzuki Tessa. Invisible immigrants: Un- lish/dp185.pdf (13.10.2006). documented migration and border controls in Higuchi Naoto. ‘Brazilian migration to Japan. early postwar Japan. Journal of Japanese Stud- Trends modalities and impact’. UN/POP/ ies, 2006:32:1:119-153. EGM-MIG/2005/11, 27 February 2006. Nakamatsu Tomoko. ‘Marriage, migration and http://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/ the international marriage business in Japan’. IttMigLAC/P11_Higuchi.pdf (11.1.2007) PhD-thesis, Murdoch University 2002. Mur- Immigration Bureau of Japan http://www. doch Univerisity Digital Thesis program. immi-moj.go.jp/ (5.2.2007). http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/browse/ International Press 3.2.2007. ‘O Brasil que vive view/adt-MU20041012.152339 (22.1.2007). em danchi’. Roth Joshua Hotaka: Brokered homeland. Japa- Japan in Figures 2007. http://www.stat.go.jp/ nese Brazilian migrants in Japan. Cornell Uni- english/data/figures/index.htm (13.1.2007) versity Press. Ithaca and London 2002. Japan Statistical Yearbook 2006 - 2008. http:// Sellek Yoko: Migrant labour in Japan. Palgrave. www.stat.go.jp/english/data/nenkan/ Hampshire and New York 2001. (13.10.2006, 30.1.2008). Sien-Center. ‘The support and communication Japan Times 2.12.2006, 31.1.2007, 11.7.2007. centers for people returning from China’. JAR. Japan Association for Refugees. http:// http://www.sien-center.or.jp/ (20.11.2007) www.refugee.or.jp/ (15.1.2007). Sakanaka Hidenori: Nyuukan Senki: ”zainichi” Kashiwazaki Chikako. ‘Japan: From Immigra- sabetsu, ”Nikkeijin” mondai, gaikokujin han- tion control to immigration policy?’ http:// zai to, Nihon no kin-mirai. Kodansha. Japan www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/dis- 2005. KRISTER BJörklund 65

Statistics Bureau Japan 2008. http://www.stat. Japanese Studies 2006:26:2:139-151. go.jp/ (5.2.2008) Watt Lori. When empire comes home: Repatria- Takenaka Ayumi. ‘Paradoxes of ethnicity- tion in postwar Japan 1945-1958. Columbia based immigration. Peruvian and Japanese- University 2002. ProQuest Digital Disserta- Peruvian migrants in Japan’. In Goodman tions. http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/ Roger, Peach Ceri, Takenaka Ayumi, White gateway (25.12.2006). Paul (ed.). Global Japan. The experience of Ja- White Merry Isaacs. Stranger in his native land: pan’s new immigrant and overseas communities. Group boundaries and the Japanese interna- RoutledgeCurzon. London and New York tional returnee. Harvard University, Depart- 2003: 222-235. ment of Sociology. Cambridge, Massachusetts Tsuda Takeyuki. Strangers in the ethnic home- 1980. land. Japanese Brazilian return migration in Young Louise. Japan’s total empire. Manchuria transnational perspective. Columbia University and the culture of wartime imperialism. Uni- Press. New York 2003. versity of California Press. Berkeley and Los Ward Rowena. ‘Japaneseness, multiple exile and Angeles 1999. the Japanese citizens abandoned in China’. ‘Latvians Abroad’: A Planned Latvian Emigration Museum and Research Center Maija Hinkle

The twentieth century can be character- amounts to approximately 13% of the ized in world history not only by the two population.1 total, devastating world wars that took Yet in spite of the significance of mi- place during the first half of the century, grations in recent Latvian history, there but also by the hitherto unprecedented has been very little study of the mass mass migrations of peoples that accom- migrations and no attempt to preserve panied these wars, migrations where the histories and experiences of the millions of people swept across Europe emigrants. Fortunately, this is slowly in a few years – not only soldiers, but changing with respect to the current millions and millions of civilians – to es- populations of former Latvian inhabit- cape the war and save ones life, to escape ants living abroad. In 2006 the Latvian occupying armies, because they were Ministry of Integration launched a sys- forced by governing authorities or be- tematic investigation of and interaction cause their homes had been destroyed. with the Latvian communities residing Latvians formed a small part of this abroad, but so far only preliminary data mass movement of peoples throughout have been published (see www.integrac- the century, having been both a sending ija.gov.lv). and a receiving country. While it lost a significant percentage of its population Latvian demographics and history during the two world wars, it became in 20th century – a short outline an immigrant destination during the The population of Latvia during the last Soviet period after World War II, only century has varied between 1,6 million to undergo new waves of emigration in and 2,67 million (Table 1), the changes the present century, to the extent that most often being due to population an Integration Ministry study in 2006 migration and loss during a war, rather estimated that almost 300,000 former than to natural causes. Latvian inhabitants were now perma- Great upheavals in Latvian history nent residents outside Latvia. That have most often been accompanied by- maija hinkle 67

Table 1 - Latvian population, 1863 - 20071

Year Total population of Latvia Latvians (%) Number of Latvians outside Latvia 1863 1,240,000 1897 1,929,387 68% 149,000 1914 2,552,000 60% 230,000 – 260,000 1920 1,596,000 72.6% 1935 1,950,000 75.2% 215,000 – 225,000 1943 1,803,104 1959 2,093,000 62% 262,000 1990 2,670,000 52% 201,000 - 211,000 1992 2,657,755 52.5% 195,000 – 205,000 2006 300,0002 20073 2,259,810 58.2%

1 Plakans, Andrejs, 1995, The Latvians. A Short His- tory. Hoover Institution Press, p. 88. 2 Bērziņš, Aldis, 2006, „Emigrācija skaitļos” Kultūras Forums, 16. – 22. sept. p. 4 3 www.indexmundi.com/latvia/demographics great changes in the population. One of Soviet Union. A number of Latvians were the most devastating population losses in leadership positions in the Commu- occured before and during World War nist party and were among the thousands I, when in 1914 about 760,000 peo- killed in Stalin’s purges in the 1930’s. ple from Western Latvia were forced The next great upheaval in popula- out of their homes to flee East, many tion came with World War II with the to Russia,2 which soon was gripped by mass exodus of civilians to both the East civil war. According to Krasnais, there and the West, as the armies swept across were about 300,000 Latvian inhabit- Latvia several times (see Table 2). ants in Russia at the eve of World War Toward the end of WWII as the Soviet I, which group then more than doubled army was again recapturing Latvia hun- with the influx of refugees.3 Plakans es- dreds of thousands of Latvian inhabitants timates that by March 1917 some one fled or were forced to move West, where million Latvians had taken residence about 214,000 ended up on German outside the Baltic area.4 Many made it territory.5 Of those more than 100,000 back to Latvia after the war and Latvia’s stayed in Germany in DP refugee camps. independence in 1918, but many more After 2-5 years in camps most had emi- remained in Russia when it became the grated to host countries including 40,000 68 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Table 2 Latvian history highlights and popultaion movements 1939 - 1991.

Date Historical event Civilian population movement

1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Non- Hitler urges all ethnic Germans to return Agression pact – Baltic coun- to their homeland. Most Baltic Germans tries assigned to the USSR emigrate to Germany.

1940, June 17 USSR occupies Latvia. Approximately 35,000 Latvian inhabitants – 1941, July 5 deported to USSR. First mass deportations June 13-14, 1941.4

1941, June 23 Germany attacks USSR; Some Jews, communist sympathizers, func- World War II starts. tionaries and others flee to the USSR with retreating Soviet army. 1941, July – Nazi occupation of Latvia. 25,000 Jews brought into Latvia by the 1945, May -1941: Nazi extermination of Nazis, of which 10,000 eventually trans- Jews, mostly in location. ported back to Germany. 4,000 surviving -1943: Latvian Legion formed Latvian Jews transported to Germany in -1943: secret Latvian Central 1943.4 Council formed

1945, May 8 World War II ends. USSR Approximately 200,000 (10%) of Latvia’s reoccupies Latvia inhabitants flee or are forced to leave for the West.5 Soviet functionaries and some former Latvian inhabitants return to Latvia from the USSR with Soviet army. 1945 – 1991 Soviet occupation of Latvia 1941- 1949: approximately 200,000 of Latvian inhabitants deported to Siberia, about 1/3 eventually return.6 1945-1955: Some 535,000 workers from USSR sent into Latvia.7

4 These Names Accuse,1982, The Latvian National Foundation, Stokholm, p. XXX. 5 Andrew Ezergailis, personal communication. 6 Baltais, Mirdza Kate, 1999, “Piespiedu iesaukšana darbam Vācijā, militāram dienestam un evakuācija uz Vāciju”, The Latvian Legion: Selected Documents. Ezergailis, Andrew, ed. Toronto: Amber Printers and Publish- ers, pg. 193-199. Of the 200,000 about 30,000 were soldiers, several thousand were mobilized or volunteered to work in Germany, and most of the rest were refugees. Only about 100,000 eventually reached Germany. Mirdza Baltais proposes that during the war about 217,000 Latvians had reached Germany, but only about 140,000 remained as émigrés. 7 Plakans, Andrejs, op cit. p. 155. 8 Plakans, Andrejs, op cit. p. 15 maija hinkle 69 to the United States. There they estab- for emigration issues, a place where we lished still active communities-in-exile, could research the various emigrations, whose two main goals were to remind preserve emigration artifacts and show the world about Latvia’s occupation and the emigrant experience. We needed a preserve pre-war Latvian language and museum and a research center modelled culture until the day that Latvia is inde- on that in Norway and that dealt not pendent again. only with the migration during WWII, My family and I were among them. but with a much broader time frame. Since my father was a Lutheran minis- Fortunately, The Museum’s director, ter and actively engaged in the Latvian Knut Djupedal has been extremely community, I grew up fully a part of helpful and supportive of the idea and two cultures, the American one and the has helped us develop plans for imple- Latvian world, which was the center mentation that might just be the ones of my social and cultural life. When that result in a successful result. Latvia regained its independence in 1991, some emigres returned from their Current emigration from Latvia homes in the West, but many were too Around the same time the Latvian gov- assimilated and integrated into their ernment was becoming seriously con- host countries. However, often the concerned about the increasing numbers nection, especially for the older genera- of young, professional people emigrat- tion, was still there, and many people, ing in search of better paying jobs and even though they didn’t intend to move a easier lifestyle abroad. In order to start back to Latvia to live, wanted to share addressing the problem, they first had their experiences with their compatri- to get some statistics about the former ots in Latvia. They wanted to tell them Latvian inhabitants now living abroad. what they had done on behalf of Latvia Under the sponsorship of the Integra- during the occupation, about who they tion Ministry of Latvia and the PBLA7 were.6 Partly to help implement this the Center for Economic and Opinion desire, I agreed to collect life stories of Research (SKDS) canvassed the embas- Latvian-American emigres and eventu- sies and various local ethnic organiza- ally to ‘return them to Latvia’ as part of tions in 75 countries in 2006 to arrive at a bigger story of emigration over the last some preliminary data about emigrants few centuries. Yet interest in the stories from Latvia in those countries. By 2006 and experiences of emigres by Latvian a total of almost 300,000 former Latvian inhabitants has remained tepid at best. inhabitants (about 13%) had emigrated Furthermore, what information there to other countries. Table 3 shows the was was scattered and not easily avail- number of host country inhabitants able. from Latvia or of Latvian descent in the When in the spring of 2006 I partici- countries with the greatest numbers: pated in a conference on migration and 69% of the Latvian inhabitants living oral history at the Norwegian Emigrant abroad were ethnic Latvians, whereas Museum, I realized that what we needed 32% of all emigrants were Latvian citi- in Latvia was a central research center zens. In the USA about half of the latter 70 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Table 3 – Former Latvian inhabitants now permanently settled abroad9 Country Former Latvian Percent of inhabitants total emigrants USA 87,564 31% Great Britain and Northern Ireland 37,500 13% Russia 30,142 11% Ireland 30,000 11% Canada 22,615 8% Australia 18,935 7% Germany 9,447 3% Brazil 10,000 4% Ukraine 5,079 2% Sweden 4,000 1% Lithuania 2,955 1%

9 Bšrzinš, Aldis 2006, op.cit have double citizenship.8 The numbers ans are not only those who reside within in this study are approximate and need the territory of Latvia, but everyone who more investigation for several reasons. considers him/herself as Latvian or be- In the first place, the data were obtained longing to Latvian culture and that their from various sources within a country, history ought to become part of Latvian some of which were only giving very ap- history as a whole. The impetus to es- proximate estimations. Secondly, there tablish a museum and research center was no clear definition of who should was 1) the lack of systematic preserva- be included in the counts. It is also clear tion of diaspora cultures in Latvia and that by now the numbers have grown, abroad, 2) no other institution in Latvia because for 2007 alone indexmundi re- or abroads intends to do it, and 3) en- ported an average of 2.7 emigrants from couragement by similar organizations, Latvia for every 1000 inhabitants.9 In e.g., the Norwegian Emigrant Museum. informal surveys most of them do not The mission of LA-MRC is to research, intend to return to Latvia. preserve and disseminate the histories and cultures of Latvians abroad as an in- ‘LATVIANS ABROAD’ – Museum tegral part of the history of Latvia. The and Research Center (LA-MRC) goals of the museum are 1) to present - initial plans interesting, engaging and educational The idea for a new history museum in exhibits and programs for broad range Latvia is based on the premise that Latvi- of audiences, 2) to initiate and support maija hinkle 71 a variety of emigration research projects, for future development, and be within 3) to collect and preserve the documents, our budgetary means. archives, relics and other material cul- When fully functional the program ture artifacts of Latvian communities, will consist of permanent and special individuals and organizations abroad, 4) exhibitions, travelling (or digital) ex- to establish a research library on Latvian hibitions, open-air installations, pub- emigration, 5) to help build bridges be- lications for academic and general tween the people of Latvia and Latvians audiences, reference library, confer- abroad, and 6) to help build bridges be- ence facilities, guided tours and school tween host countries and Latvia. programs, public programs and special The focus of research and exhibitions events, internship programs for youth will be the emigration history of Latvi- and students, a gift shop or other com- ans and their life abroad during the last mercial enterprise. Clearly the program 200 years. The exhibitions will address components will be implemented over the history of the emigration, moti- time, as money becomes available. It is vations for leaving of the emigrants, possible that in the beginning we will Latvian immigrant communities, their have to concentrate on collecting mate- culture, activities and organizations in rials and developing travelling and dig- each country of residence, influcence ital exhibitions. of host country on immigrant com- The museum will be private, incorpo- munities, emigrants’ contributions to rated in Latvia, with a Board of Gover- the world and to Latvia, contemporary nors (Trustees), an advisory board and status of Latvian immigrant communi- paid professional employees, e.g., direc- ties and return migration and its conse- tor, assistant, curators, etc. The policies quences. The first priority regarding the will be set by the annual full member- facility will be to develop traditional ex- ship meeting and executed by the Board, hibition galleries, administrative offices which is elected by the membership. and a collections storage facility. We hope that the start-up funding will The site will be outside Riga for sev- come from international funds (EU, eral reasons. 1) Getting permissions to EEA, local embassies), Latvian minis- build in Riga is a multi-year process; 2) tries, Latvian cultural granting organiza- building outside Riga is considerably tions abroad. Operational funding will cheaper; 3) we want enough land to come from grants, Latvian government have a conference center an an open air agencies, museum membership dues, museum, and 4) we want to bring much donationas/bequests from individuals needed economic and cultural develop- or organizations, rental fees and a comment to a provincial region in Latvia. mercial enterprise connected with the The site should have some connection museum. to emigration, should be within an hour’s drive from Riga, be close to other Implementation – phase one. tourist, cultural or educational sites, Since establishing such an institution have a favorable museum and local gov- in Latvia is a very large undertaking, I ernment environment, be large enough started out by floating the idea in the 72 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 forums where I was already active and the staff of the Integration Ministry’s by canvassing key people in the exile Department for Special Tasks Regard- community and Latvia. By June 2007 ing Latvians Living Abroad has advised we had formed a working committee us on funding and other matters. Our of 15 members from the USA, Sweden presence at the AEMI meeting in Turku, and Latvia, who had either volunteered Finland 2007 was of special interest to after some of my talks or whom I had the higher government officials and I recruited. Clearly members of the emi- think opened some doors for us. gre community were very enthusiastic Thanks to the good offices ofthe about the plans. well-known and popular Latvian writer, The next step was to found the mu- diplomat and public figure Anna Žīgure, seum organization in Latvia and to we obtained the pro bono services of a get the officials and people in Latvia law firm in Riga. They helped us with involved in the process, because even our by-laws and registered the museum though the idea of the center and mu- in the official Latvian Registry under the seum came from the emigre community, official name of ‘LATVIANS ABROAD we wanted the people in Latvia to feel – Museum and Research Center’ (LA- that it was their museum, that they were MRC), LATVIEŠI PASAULĒ – Muzejs an integral part of it. Therefore, Ints un pētniecības centrs (LaPa-MPC). Dzelzgalvis and I spent the month of June 2007 meeting with various central, Implementation – phase two local government and museum officials, After incorporation we have concen- recruiting potential task force members, trated on obtaining funding to 1) set and researching potential museum sites. up and maintain a web site and publish Unfortunately, the major building used other information, 2) to rent an office for the transfer of emigrants for many in Riga with part time staff, 3) to con- years even during Tsarist times was not tinue the search for a site, 4) to organize available. We have been offered several a planning meeting, and 5) to undertake parcels of land for free. We have also the first, digital exhibition in DVD for- investigated two former mansions, con- mat as an information and fundraising nected with emigres, but none are in tool. good enough condition to warrant work We have also started to organize and on it. The site search for the museum incorporate a support group in the USA continues. to facilitate fundraising and to start the We have been quite successful in collection process of exhibition materi- forming potential relationships with als.We have obtained funding from the local, cultural and government officials, Latvian Integration Ministry and started including some local museums and local designing the web site. The other grant government officials. The director of the applications, to the EEA and Latvian Latvian Museum Board, Janis Garjans Foundation, Inc. (LF) are pending. We continues to be most helpful. The Min- applied for funds for the office, staff and ister of Culture has expressed her enthu- planning seminar from EEA, and to im- siastic support for the museum, while plement the digital exhibition of suit- maija hinkle 73 cases and the stories that go with them Notes from the LF. 1 Berziņš, Aldis, 2006, „Emigracija skaitļos,” Kultūras Forums, sept. 16-22, p. 4. Several important archives and data 2 Plakans, Andrejs, 1995, The Latvians. A Short His- bases have been promised for the mu- tory, Hoover Institute Press,. p. 115. seum, the most important being the 3 Krasnais, Vilberts, 1980, Latviešu Kolonijas, Kārļa American Latvian Association organi- Zariņa Fonds, Melburnā. 4 Plakans, Andrejs, op. cit. p. 116. zational data base (ALAIDD), which 5 Baltais, Mirdza Kate, 1999, “Piespiedu incorporates materials from all the iesaukšana darbam Vācijā, militāram dienes- Latvian-American organizations and tam un evakuācija uz Vāciju”, The Latvian Le- gion: Selected Documents. Ezergailis, Andrew, their staff, the American Latvian Associ- ed. Toronto: Amber Printers and Publishers, ation Oral History collection and some pg. 193-199. Of the 200,000 about 30,000 were large, private archives. soldiers, several thousand were mobilized or volunteered to work in Germany, and most of the rest were refugees. Only about 100,000 eventually reached Germany. Mirdza Baltais proposes that during the war about 217,000 Latvians had Bibliography reached Germany, but only about 140,000 remained as émigrés. Baltais, Mirdza Kate, 1999, “Piespiedu 6 For a more thorough description see Hin- iesaukšana darbam Vācijā, militāram dienes- kle, Maija, 2006, “Latvian-Americans in the tam unevakuācija uz Vāciju”, The Latvian Le- Post-Soviet Era: Cultural Factors on Return gion: Selected Documents. Ezergailis, Andrew, Migration in Oral History Interviews,” Jour- ed. Toronto: Amber Printers and Publishers, nal of Baltic Studies, Vol. 37,no. 1, p. 48-67. pg. 193-199. 7 PBLA is the acronym for the Latvian name of the Bērziņš, Aldis, 2006, „Emigracija skaitļos”, Kul- World Federation of Free Latvians, an association turas Forums, 15.- 22. sept., p. 4. of the various national level organizations of Latvi- Hinkle, Maija, 2006. “Latvian-Americans in the ans in the USA, Canada Australia, South America, Post-Soviet Era: Cultural Factors on Return England and Europe. They represent primarily Jour- emigres from World War II. Migration in Oral History Interviews,” 8 Bērziņš, Aldis, op. cit. nal of Baltic Studies, Vol. 37, 9 www.indexmundi.com/Latvia/demographics no. 1, p. 48-67. Krasnais, Vilberts, 1980, Latviešu Kolōnijas, Kārļa Zariņa Fonds, Melbourne. Plakans, Andrejs, 1995, The Latvians, a Short History, The Hoover Institution. These Names Accuse,1982, The Latvian National Foundation, Stokholm, Sweden. www.indexmundi.com/Latvia/demographics www.integracija.gov. The Study of Ethnic Entrepreneurship from a Perspective of Gender: An Analysis of the Motivations, Barriers and Impact on Immigrant Empowerment

María Villares Varela

Female entrepreneurship, women objective varies for female and for male in immigrant entrepreneurship and immigrants, as they are forced to over- female ethnic entrepreneurship: come different hurdles on the road to theoretical considerations entrepreneurship. In addition, entrepreneurship will not only affect the social The aim of this paper is to present the insertion of the immigrant population business strategies for female and male in the host society, but also gender re- migrants in order to achieve social up- lations. In order to study this ques- wards mobility. In order to show this, a tion, an analysis model of the different specific model of analysis for female im- strategies employed by immigrant men migrant entrepreneurship from the per- and women has been drawn up. This spective of gender relations is presented, immigrant entrepreneurship analysis based on a comparative study of busi- model has been developed following the nesses run by immigrant women, immi- study of several variables including the grant men and native men and women. motivations behind the creation of the The hypothesis presented in this article business, the difficulties encountered, is that the immigrant population ex- sources of financing, the type of client, periences greater difficulties in terms working and living conditions and their of social insertion due to cloistering in impact on gender relations. classic labour niches. This is particu- In migration studies, the concept of larly true in the case of women (domes- incorporation into the labour market tic service, care work, sex work, etc). is considered to be a key factor in the This cloistering results in the limitation interaction between immigrants and of their social rights due to the nature the host context, and is seen as part of a of the work they do: namely informal larger social system that determines the work, a tendency to become trapped in migrant’s social integration (Herranz, the submerged economy, alack of nego- 2000). The segmentation of the labour tiation regarding working conditions. market in Spain, in which immigrants However, the means to achieving this tend to become inserted in the most in- maria villares valera 75 formal areas and working conditions has those groups whose access to good jobs is led literature to consider self-employ- hindered by the discriminatory attitudes ment for immigrants as a strategy for of the host society. Women have been escaping from precarious labour condi- conceptualized as the “new immigrants”, tions. fleeing from the disadvantages of labour Consequently, in addition to the clas- inequality (Loscocco, 1991). Moreover, sic differentiation of the dual labour many of the problems involved in set- market (Piore, 1983), we must also con- ting up a business have been shown to sider insertion within the ethnic enclave be common to both women and immi- (Wilson and Portes, 1980; Portes and grants: the lack of access to the initial Börock, 1989; Portes and Rumbaut, capital, lack of management experience, 1990). Self employment as a means of little business training, etc. accessing the labour market has been Consequently, social exclusion and in- identified as a refuge strategy for immi- equality form the starting point on the grants (Light, 2000) in order to counter- road to self-employment, which becomes act the blocking of their upward social a strategy aimed at enabling women and mobility. immigrants to overcome these obstacles, Whilst for immigrants in general this as discussed by Kupferberg (2003) (in is seen as a business subsistence strategy Apitzsch, U. and Kontos, M. 2003) in (Lazaridis, 2003), in the case of women that both immigrants and women are it becomes a more vital refuge strategy new arrivals on the economic scene and for certain immigrant population tra- labour market, which are dominated by jectories (Oso [dir.], 2004). Apitzsch native males. This experience of margin- (2003) raises the issue that Europe can ality damages their self-esteem and they no longer put forward the image of the see self-employment as a means of re- successful business person or entrepre- pairing that damage. neur and the only other option is un- Within the study of immigrant en- employment, and this is increasingly terprise a field has gradually opened up likely to be the case of immigrants and/ for the analysis of women in the ethnic or women. Female entrepreneurship and economy, with earlier research pointing immigrant entrepreneurship appear to to a kind of gender-blindness in previous share several characteristics in terms of research (Phizacklea, 1987; Hillman, their origin, motivations, areas of activ- 1999, Bhachu, 1987). It has become ity, management models and obstacles, clear that literature on ethnic entrepre- etc. Consequently, women and immi- neurship has failed to deal in sufficient grants are the principal actors in the depth with the implications of the patri- use of self-employment as a strategy for archal system for ethnic groups, and in minority groups that are excluded from particular for the specific relations gen- equal insertion on the labour market. erated by labour-intensive self-employ- Along these lines we can find various ment. Ethnic economic businesses tend studies into female entrepreneurship to be controlled by males and require that refer to the fact that setting up small intensive labour. Women once again businesses had traditionally attracted tend to occupy a subordinate role and 76 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 consequently what are generally termed This article follows the lines of stud- ‘family businesses’, tend to be businesses ies that analyse the initiatives set up by run by men who use the labour of their immigrant women. This analysis of the wives and daughters as an accessible and businesses set up by immigrant women profitable recourse. compares the strategies of male entre- However, ongoing research into im- preneurs in order to present a model for migrant entrepreneurship has continued the analysis of female immigrant entre- to shed light on this gender-blindness in preneurship using various indicators an attempt to avoid a passive vision of relating to the characteristics of the en- women as victims in the ethnic economy trepreneurs, the businesses, the insertion (Morokvasc, 1999; Bhachu, 1987). This labour markets and the structure of the vision draws attention to the fact that opportunities available in order to set up research that highlights the exploitation a business. and passivity of women in entrepreneur- The methodology used in order to ship runs the risk of failing to consider carry out this study is based on quantita- women as active individuals capable tive (exploitation of secondary data) and of brining about changes within these qualitative techniques (in-depth inter- processes of labour mobility. Along these views, discussion groups and participant lines Morokvasic puts forward the idea observation). During the quantitative of studying women as small-scale entre- phase, various indicators were analysed preneurs, for whom setting up a business in an attempt to establish a compari- can be seen from various perspectives: as son between the native and immigrant a means of escape from the labour niches population data in Spain, taking into traditionally reserved for immigrants; a consideration the gender variable1 (Mu- means to improving their living and nicipal Census (1996-2006), 2001 working conditions; an occupational Population Census, Active Population mobility strategy away from paid em- Survey (2006, 2005); Registration with ployment; a means to regularization; a the Social Security System). The qualita- means of obtaining extra income within tive phase of the research was based on the family unit; or a strategy aimed at in-depth interviews, discussion groups achieving personal independence. and the participant observation of busi- Particularly worthy of mention here is nesses owned by immigrants, mainly of the research that has focused on study- Latin American origin. Semi-directed ing immigrant female run ethnic en- in-depth interviews with male and fe- trepreneurship (Baycan, 2003; Anthias male native and immigrant entrepre- and Mehta, 2003; Oso, 2004), which neurs2 and key informants enabled addresses the complex relations between contact to be established with a total of the family, gender and ethnicity and 74 people. Data was also obtained from which differ among male and female en- the analysis of the information provided trepreneurs. Whilst men consider power by to discussion groups made up of im- relations within the family as a resource, migrant entrepreneurs, whereby a total women see entrepreneurship as being re- of 16 people were contacted3. moved and separate from family relations. maria villares valera 77 The profile of Spain as a migratory immigrants in Spain come from Mo- context for entrepreneurs rocco (12.9%), Romania (11.7%) and Spain, within the migratory context of Ecuador (9.4%). They are followed by Southern Europe, presents a series of EU and Latin American countries: UK socio-demographic characteristics that (7.0%), Colombia (5.8%), Germany determine immigrants’ entrepreneur- (3.9%), Bolivia (4.4%) and Germany ship strategies: intense foreign popu- (3.7%), etc. The percentage of foreign lation arrival flows; a considerable women currently stands at 47%, al- presence of irregular immigrants; and though there is a gradual masculinisa- a predominance of Latin American and tion of flows, due to the progressive North African immigrants. The foreign regrouping of families and the entry of population has multiplied ten-fold since new migratory trends from Eastern Eu- 1991 and eight-fold in the last decade. rope. Latin American immigration to As a result, as of 1 January 2007, the Spain would appear to be more femi- number of foreigners in Spain totalled nised than that from other countries. 4,482,568, 10 % of the total popula- For example, women make up 51.3% tion. (Table 1). Thirty-three percent of of the total number of immigrants from that population is made up of irregular Ecuador, whilst in the case of Colombia immigrants. . that figure rises to 56.5% and 56.4% in A look at the main countries of ori- the case of Bolivia. gin reveals that the largest groups of

Table 1. Spain 2007. Foreign population classified according to principal nationalities and percentage of women Source: Author´s own based on the Municipal Census 1-1-2007:

Country Total Vertical % % of women Total 4,482,568 100.0 47.0

Morocco 576,344 12.9 35.6 Romania 524,995 11.7 47.3 Ecuador 421,384 9.4 51.3 United Kingdom 314,098 7.0 49.2 Colombia 258,726 5.8 56.5 Bolivia 198,770 4.4 56.4 Germany 163,887 3.7 49.4 Argentina 139,711 3.1 49.8 Italy 134,712 3.0 40.9 Bulgaria 121,611 2.7 45.7 Other nationalities 1,628,330 36.3 -- 78 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 The incorporation of Spain’s immi- labour market, and such opportunities grant population into the labour are centred mainly in the catering and market: a situation marked by the construction sectors (Oso et al, 2006). legal status and the issue of gender In contrast, the number of female im- The incorporation of the immigrant migrants in the formal labour market population into the labour market is is lower. As can be seen from Table 2. far from random: indeed, it is depend- the employment rate is higher amongst ent on several variables including their foreigners than Spaniards (65.4% com- legal status, gender, the year of arrival, pared with 52.0%). However, foreign their level of education, the structure of women are worse off than men with a job opportunities, etc. The qualitative rate of 56.5% compared with 74.2% in research reveals that incorporation into the case of men. As for the unemploy- the labour market is determined by their ment rates of the foreign and native legal status. Possession of the necessary population, the figures show a higher permits provides access to a wider range rate amongst immigrants. The unem- of regulated jobs, whilst irregular status ployment rates show that foreigners are limits immigrants’ labour opportunities more vulnerable than native workers, to the informal economy. Employment with an unemployment rate of 14.6% for irregular immigrants centres in la- compared to 8.7% amongst native resi- bour niches such as domestic service, dents. The unemployment rate amongst care work and sex work, all carried out foreign women is almost 4% higher than by women. Consequently, men find it that of their male counterparts (16.7% harder to obtain work in the informal compared with 10.8%). An analysis of

Table 2. Spain 2008. First quarter. Employment and unemployment rates according to nationality and gender Source: Author´s own based on the Active Population Survey. 2008, first quarter

Population 2008 Employment rate 2008 Unemployment rate Both Men Women Both Men Women genders genders Total population 53.6 63.9 43.8 9.6 7.9 12.0 Spaniards 52.0 62.4 42.1 8.7 7.0 11.1 Foreigners 65.4 74.2 56.5 14.6 13.0 16.7 Foreigners from EU member states 61.8 70.8 52.6 13.3 10.8 16.8 Foreigners from non-EU countries 67.0 75.8 58.3 15.2 14.0 16.8 maria villares valera 79

Figure 1. Spain 2008. Affiliation to the Social Secutirty System according to regime. Source: Author´s own based on Social Security Statistics. January 2008 at www.seg-social.es/estadisticas

Spain Fi s hi n g re gim en 0 % Ag ri c ultu r e re gime 8 % Do mes tic se r vice 8 %

Gene ra l Regim e n 7 3%

Sel f -em pl o yed 1 1%

the affiliations foreign workers to the Consequently, despite the consider- Spanish social security system according able social capital of the immigrant pop- to types of affiliation reveals that the larg- ulation in Spain, reflected in their level est percentage – almost three quarters of of education, both their legal status and the total - is classified under the general gender influence the incorporation of regime.(Figure 1). foreigners into Spain’s labour market. In This is followed by the domestic serv- the informal economic, foreign women ice regime, which makes up of the total find it far easier to join the traditional number of 8 % of foreigners affiliated. labour niches, namely domestic service, The regime for self-employed workers in- care work and sex work. Yet in the for- cludes 11% of the foreigners. In the case mal economy, women are far more vul- of the regime for agricultural and farm- nerable; they suffer higher employment ing work the figures are 8% in the case of rates and tend to become cloistered foreign workers. in domestic service. Self-employment Women make up 28% of the total therefore represents an alternative to the number of foreigners affiliated to the rigid occupational structure that immi- self-employment regime. The largest per- grants tend to find themselves entangled centage of female foreigners is reflected in, particularly foreign women. in the domestic service regime, making We will now go on to consider the up 91% of the affiliations. In the case of various entrepreneurial strategies em- the general regime the figure stands at ployed by immigrants in Spain, particu- 35.7%, while females represent 28% of larly women. self-employment regime.(Figure 2). 80 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Figure 2. Spain 2008. Percentage of women according to affiliation regime Source: Author´s own based on Social Security Statistics. January 2008 at www.seg-social.es/estadisticas

Spain, 2008

100,0 91,0

80,0

60,0 35,7 38,5 40,0 29,0 28,0

20,0 7,9 1,9 0,0 Mining Fishing regime Agriculture General regime Total Self-employed Domestic service regime regime affiliations regime regime

The motivations behind the entre- presents particular features for male preneurial strategies of immigrants and female immigrants, which can be in Spain summed up as follows: (a) a strategy to We can distinguish two essential strate- find a way out of labour niches; (b) self- gies that drive immigrant entrepreneurs employment as a means of resistance to set up businesses in Spain. The first to professional over-qualification; and is the resistance or refuge strategy (1), (c) self-employment as an employment designed to act as an alternative to the strategy for the family unit. We will now precarious labour market traditionally go on to take a closer look at each of reserved for the immigrant population, these. in which they are unable to find a satis- (a) In some cases the situations of so- factory niche. The second is the profes- cio-labour exploitation, experienced in sional continuity strategy (2). the labour niches to which immigrants are restricted, have driven them to set up 1. Entrepreneurship as a refuge strategy a business. Entrepreneurship is there- to counteract a situation of downward la- fore a strategy aimed at finding a way bour mobility out of precarious employment (Oso, L. Various international research projects and Villares, M., 2005, 4). This strategy have pointed to the fact that the in- appears to be more common amongst crease in self-employment amongst the female immigrants. Although male im- immigrant population is due to the dif- migrant entrepreneurs have also used ficulties encountered in ensuring greater self-employment as a way out of labour equality in the labour market (Light, exploitation, the cloistering (Oso, 2004) I., 2002; Taniguchi, 2002; Loscocco, that women suffer in the domestic serv- 1991; Kupferberg, 2003). However, ice and care sectors is far greater. this motivation to set up a business “[Interviewer: Y (…) y (…) on ar- maria villares valera 81 rival did you already have in mind the Venezuelan entrepreneur). idea of setting up a business or did you try to find a job …] No, no, no, no, (c) Self-employment as an employ- first we tried to find a job and I worked ment strategy for the family unit. For as a (…) waiter, construction worker, some of our informants, entrepreneur- painter…I did a bit of everything, but as ship is seen as a strategy for the family I couldn’t find a good job, well. I had to unit, aimed at guaranteeing employ- work long hours for a pittance. Then we ment for the husband or wife as well had the idea of setting up this business.” as for their children in the future, set (Alfredo, Argentinean entrepreneur). within the framework of a low level of job opportunities for immigrant work- “It’s easy to find a job in live-in do- ers. Of particular interest here are the mestic service, cleaning houses…but differences in the way this strategy is finding another type of job is more perceived by male and female entre- complicated. They’re either temporary preneurs. Some male immigrant entre- jobs or based on commission…in the preneurs see this business strategy as end you realise that cleaning is your best a source of employment for the entire bet because the work is guaranteed all family unit, essentially for their wives year…that or setting up your own busi- and in some cases for the elder children ness.” (Rosa, Argentinean entrepreneur). (Josephides, 1988). In addition, they see family businesses as a “more secure” (b) In other cases our informants re- space for others to work in, particularly sorted to self-employment as they were their wives and daughters. The follow- over-qualified for the type of job op- ing excerpts sum up the views of several portunities open to them. As discussed of our informants: above, the level of education of the immigrant population in Spain, and “The business was set up in order to specifically that of women from some provide the family with a living. You Latin American countries4, is similar to know that you can always find work that of the autochthonous population, here but the conditions are…temporary, which generates an even greater sense commission based…and that doesn’t of downward labour mobility in Spain. give you any type of security. And the The sense of a loss of status drives them women have to clean, or look after chil- to self-employment as a means of cush- dren and old people. So I made up my ioning this downward mobility. mind and said “My wife and I are going to run a bar, and we’ll see how things “It gives me a certain stability, and I go”. And here we are. Besides, you couldn’t find a job that adapted to my know that if my kids are out of work, qualifications or my area. At the time I don’t want them to spend all day at my husband was working in a restau- home staring at the wall. They can come rant and (…) well, they told me that downstairs and lend a hand in the bar.” they had a place here in Coruña that (Antonio, Uruguayan entrepreneur). they were thinking of selling.” (Sonia, “Look, even though it’s good for my 82 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 wife to bring in another wage, whilst we ily run businesses exclusively from the don’t need it I prefer the two of us to perspective that wives and daughters be here together. We understand each are passive social actors. Several research other and you’re not out there being projects have indicated that the hypoth- exploited…If it comes to it, then we’ll esis whereby women are considered as both have to go out to work, but for the dependent on the males within the fam- time being we’ll carry on as we are. I ily business should be put aside; indeed, prefer it like that. Working in other peo- they contribute many hours of work and ple’s homes she had to put up with the also play a key role in the decision mak- lady of the house shouting at her. Or ing process, as well as activating ethnic the husband saying something inappro- and family solidarity networks in order priate or offensive…no. She’s better off to obtain the initial capital and to estab- here.” (Jesús, Uruguayan entrepreneur) lish a client base, etc (Dallalfar, 1995, Bhachu, 1987). Various research projects have analysed the way in which ethnic entrepre- Unlike male-run businesses, in the neurship leads to a prolongation of the case of those that are owned exclusively private space in which power relations by women, the husbands tend to be are extended to the sphere of work. kept out of the business activity as far as Consequently, in these types of busi- possible. The family migratory strategy nesses we often find an unequal and is that males should find work in paid static distribution of tasks between male employment. This family strategy com- and female family members. For exam- bines the fixed wages of the male and ple, in the case of catering businesses, the family business project led by the the women are responsible for the cook- woman. In this case the objective is for ing and cleaning whilst the men serve the male to join the Spanish labour mar- the customers. In contrast, in the case ket whilst women activate a refuge strat- of businesses run by women, the female egy through self-employment. This does workers carry out the full range of ac- not necessarily place the women in a tivities. better position: the men try to find jobs The results of the fieldwork support in Spain in keeping with the profession the hypotheses put forward in earlier re- they held in their countries of origin, search: using family members to work in whilst the women are forced to resort the business is essentially a male initia- to self-employment as a refuge strategy. tive, and only very rarely occurs in the Let’s look at the way our informants ex- case of female-run businesses (Anthias press this idea: and Mehta, 2003). As a result, in the case of males, the disadvantages arising “That’s how we decided it should be. from the position of class are cushioned As I was telling you, my husband and by gender-based strategies that employ I are both electrical engineers. But he’s their patriarchal power. going to try and have his qualifications However, there is a danger of analys- officially recognised and I’m running ing the distribution of power in fam- the dry cleaner’s. As you know, you hear maria villares valera 83 all that stuff about it being harder for cyber café but focusing instead on the women, and how companies prefer to training aspects, signing agreements employ men…and the length of time with other companies, offering courses it takes to do those subjects…And I and facilities so that other companies can’t possibly go home from work, look can also provide training in new tech- after my daughters, make dinner, do the nologies or other areas (…) something housework and then get down to study- else, like an English or make-up course, ing. So we decided to leave it like that.” but offering private rooms where you (Alexa, Venezuelan entrepreneur). can segregate the types of people. The other man who’s here with me has a sim- “My husband applied to have his ilar business in Caracas. So in that sense qualifications recognised. It took three we’ve got some experience.” (Lucia, years, he had to do 8 credits and in then Venezuelan entrepreneur). end they gave him the equivalent of a di- (b) Setting up a business as a means ploma. And for the last few months he’s of optimising the skills acquired in paid been working in an office in La Grela. employment in Spain. Another strategy And well, maybe some time in the future is to recycle the skills and know-how I could… but for the moment the shop’s acquired during their labour trajectory doing well… and we can’t afford to em- in Spain in order to set up their own ploy anyone and after all this hard work business. Consequently, areas of activ- and effort. But I would like to work in ity with which they were unfamiliar in my profession again, as an accountant.” their country of origin become a busi- (Sara, Argentinean entrepreneur). ness project following the migrants’ acquisition of new social capital. This 2. Entrepreneurship as professional conti- nature of this business strategy differs in nuity the case of men and women, as a result (a) Setting up a business as a strategy for of their varying labour trajectories: the the continuity of the profession held in labour experience of immigrant women the country of origin. Several of the peo- in Spain tends to centre on domes- ple contacted during the course of the tic service, care work, catering and the fieldwork have opted to open a business commercial sectors, whilst in the case of similar to that they ran in their coun- men it extends to the service sector, the try of origin. The possibility of having construction industry and farming and their qualifications officially recognised agriculture. For this reason, the busi- (where necessary), easy access to capi- nesses that women set up in an attempt tal, and the lack of saturation in their to optimise the skills and know-how particular area of activity all facilitate they have acquired tend to be in areas the entrepreneurial strategy. In this case, that are already amply covered in Spain setting up a business constitutes an ex- (food stores, hairdressers’, textile shops, tension of their previous career. etc), which offer a lower degree of long- “So my business plan is partly to cre- term feasibility. ate websites, develop systems and provide access to the Internet; not like a “I never imagined I would end up 84 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 opening a catering business, providing initial application for a work permit is meals, because I didn’t know how to practically exclusive to the category of cook, at least in the way that Spanish permits for paid employment5. This people like. But since I had some experi- means that foreign workers must first be ence in working in kitchens here, I said included in the category for permits for to myself “I seem to be pretty good at paid employment, and then apply for a this” and so we decided to set up this permit for self-employment. In order for business. I’ve worked in lots of different a foreigner to be able set up a business places here: first washing up, then as a venture in Spain, he/she is first required kitchen assistant, then as a pastry chef in to obtain the corresponding work per- a restaurant… and I gradually learnt the mit. In this sense, males find it easier to Spanish style of cooking.” (Lucía, Uru- obtain a work permit for self-employ- guayan entrepreneur). ment than women: their tendency to become cloistered in labour niches such as domestic service slows down their ca- Obstacles and opportunities en- pacity to obtain a work permit6 and its countered by male and female later conversion into a permit for self- entrepreneurs when setting up a employment. business The obstacles to be overcome in order 2. Access to financial capital for the initial to set up a business initiative vary con- investment. siderably. Indeed, the chances of over- The lack of financing to enable the im- coming the difficulties involved depend migrant population to set up a business on a number of specific factors: origin, has been the object of extensive study. gender, level of education, family situa- Access to the capital necessary for the tion, legal status, financial capital, social initial investment is one of the main capital, etc., are all conditions that play impediments to setting up a business. A a key role when setting up a business. general characteristic of businesses run As discussed on previous pages, groups by immigrants is the ‘infracapitalisa- such as immigrants and women share a tion’ of initiatives (Marlow, 2005). The number of similar characteristics when reasons for this are attributable mainly embarking on the road towards entre- to the difficulties experienced in accu- preneurship, the result of the situations mulating personal savings; the lack of a of social exclusion to which they are credit history in the host country and often exposed. the absence of guarantees. Once again, the situation for women 1. Legal status. in this sphere tends to be tends to be It is essential for immigrants to legalise more complex due to a number of rea- their status prior to setting up a busi- sons, which can be summarised as fol- ness. Indeed ethnic entrepreneurship lows: does not appear to be a way of regularis- •Difficulties in accumulating capital. ing the legal and administrative status of Women find it harder than men to ac- foreigners in Spain (López, 2004). The cumulate personal savings in order to set maria villares valera 85 up a business. Women’s capacity to save bank loans. For instance, being able to is lower than that of their male counter- present various pay slips when applying parts due to the low wages obtained in for a loan makes it easier to borrow the the domestic service and service sectors. necessary capital (Chaganti, 2002) •Family responsibilities. This capacity for saving is further re- 3. Human capital duced if the women have family respon- The education level of the foreign popu- sibilities in the country of origin and are lation resident in Spain is highly indica- required to send remittances7. In this tive of the reasons that lead immigrants sense, lone emigrating women tend to to consider self-employment. Data from experience greater difficulties in saving, the 2001 census regarding the level of unlike those who emigrate with their education of both immigrant and au- partner. tochthonous residents reveal that the •Lower confidence levels of financial in- percentage of immigrants that have stitutions. completed secondary and higher educa- There is clear proof that banks are more tion exceeds that of the native popula- wary of female entrepreneurial initia- tion: 60% compared with 52%. If we tives when considering the possibility of consider higher education, we can see granting loans. This is due to the nature that 11% of the native population has of the initiatives that immigrant women reached this level, compared with 13% tend to set up: immigrant businesses of the foreign residents. (Figure 3.) and particularly those of women tend The percentage of women for each of to fall within saturated sectors – cater- the categories shows that the percentage ing, food, textiles, etc. – with a low level of immigrant women with higher edu- of medium and long term feasibility cation is slightly lower than that of their (Greene, 2000; Marlow, 2005). native counterparts (51.4% compared •Lack of networks. with 52.7%). In contrast, the percent- As has been discussed in literature on age of immigrant women with second- entrepreneurship, the networks estab- ary studies is higher than that of the lished on arrival in the host country native women: 50.7% compared with with fellow emigrants and the native 48.3%. At the other end of the scale population are of considerable impor- we can observe that the percentage of tance in setting up and consolidating a women without studies stands at 54.2% business. Work in the formal economy, compared with 45.4% in the case of im- outside the domestic service sphere, migrant women. (Figure 4). provides immigrant men with labour The education level of Spain’s im- networks that are more heterogeneous migrant population and its impact on than those of immigrant women. Sev- labour has also been the subject of anal- eral research projects have revealed that ysis in other research projects (López de solid ethnic-family support networks Lera, D. et al, 2002; Golías, M., 2005; not only directly facilitate the setting Oso, L. and Villares, M, 2005; Oso et up of the business (capital, labour, etc.), al., 2006). In addition, the in-depth but also act as key elements in accessing interviews analysed for the purpose of 86 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Figure 3. Spain 2001. Education level of Spaniards and immigrants (percentage) Source: Author´s own based on the 2001 Polpulation and Housing Census

10 0 % Highe r e du c ation Highe r e du c ation 90% 80% Sec on da r y ed ucati o n 70% Sec on da r y e du cat io n 60% 50% Ju nior ed ucati o n 40% Ju nior ed uca t on 30% No st u dies 20% No st u dies 10% Illiterate Illiterate 0% Spain: total population Spain: foreigners

Figure 4 Spain 2001. Education level of Spaniards and immigrants; percentage of women Source: Author´s own based on the 2001 Polpulation and Housing Census

56 .0 54.3 54.2 54 .0 52.7 51 .5 51.4 52 .0 50.7 50.7

50 .0 48.3 47 .8 48 .0 45.4 46 .0 44 .0 42 .0 40 .0 Natives Imm igran ts

Illite rate No stud ies Jun ior ed uca tion Secondary education Higher ed uca tion this article also reflect migratory flows lack of stability on the labour market with an average-high level of education and a situation of insecurity (Oso et al., that contributed an important human 2006). However, when the immigrants capital to immigration. The reasons for arrive in Spain, they discover that their migration are essentially attributable to academic qualifications and merits are the socio-economic crises that led to a of little or no use. The difficulties in- maria villares valera 87 volved in obtaining the legal recogni- • Management skills tion of their qualifications means that Another obstacle to business success is several of the people interviewed were the lack of management skills. Scientific forced to go through the Spanish edu- literature has considered the issue that cation system, effectively repeating their certain groups, such as women and im- education. Consequently, the difficulties migrants, are more vulnerable in terms involved in obtaining the official recog- of the chances of success of their busi- nition of their qualifications becomes an nesses. Ethnic and gender segregation, obstacle for the socio-labour insertion the result of the low number of women of the immigrant population (Golías in executive posts, is the main impedi- M., 2005). The fact that their academic ment to the acquisition of business qualifications are not accepted makes management skills (Loscocco, 1991). it extremely difficult for them to find The lack of access to these types of skills jobs in keeping with their qualifications does not only depend on the entrepre- and professions. The recognition proc- neur’s educational profile, but also on ess is extremely long and complex and their experience and training in this involves a vast amount of paperwork area. The fact that immigrants rarely (qualifications, syllabuses, certificates possess these skills is due to the difficul- for professions that require member- ties they experience in accessing jobs in ship of professional associations and which they can acquire this social capi- colleges, etc.). Indeed, according to our tal. And this situation is further aggra- informants, the process takes an average vated in the case of women, who suffer of two years, forcing immigrants to take from this dual lack of equality.However, up other types of employment during the the training profile of the Latin Ameri- early years of their migratory trajectory. 8 can immigrant population in Spain In the light of such difficulties, many tends to cushion this barrier, particu- informants decided not to apply for the larly in the case of women. The results official recognition of their qualifica- of the fieldwork reveal that immigrant tions, or at least postpone the process entrepreneurs have an average-high level until a later stage of the migratory cycle. of education and experience in manage- The need to find employment and the ment posts in their countries of origin. time needed to complete the necessary In some cases those entrepreneurs number of credits are serious obstacles in who have set up a business similar to the obtaining this recognition. In addition, one they ran in their country of origin, despite the fact that the immigrants are or within the scope of their profession, sufficiently qualified, the job opportu- enjoy a series of advantages when set- nities on the Spanish labour market do ting up the business. Prior knowledge of not correspond to their profession. The the necessary skills and know-how will labour niches open to immigrant groups naturally minimise the risks involved. in Spain are restricted to unskilled work, Furthermore, some of the immigrants as we shall see later on. contacted have set up “recycling” strategies for their extra-professional skills. As a result, following migration, know- 88 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 how from hobbies or activities in which (Oso and Villares, 2006). However, this they have a certain experience but did does not appear to benefit the role posi- not form part of their profession in the tioning for these women, who become country of origin, have been converted dependent on a male in order to set up into a business plan (Oso et al, 2006). their business.

4. Social capital: relying on family support Family migration. within the business strategy As discussed earlier, there are certain entrepreneurial strategies in which pro- The family situation is a key element in duction and reproduction within the blocking or facilitating entrepreneurial family-business unit is the central axis initiatives (Oso et al, 2006). As dis- for the project. In this case the success cussed in the section dealing with the of the business depends on the efforts conditions required to access the neces- of both spouses and occasionally on the sary capital, the family situation of the informal work of their children. immigrant entrepreneur will dictate Furthermore, the fact that the whole the course the business takes. Let’s take family unit has migrated together will a look at the way in which the various benefit the entrepreneurial activity, even types of immigrant family influence en- if it fails to provide flexible and cheap trepreneurial activity: (or even free) labour. The fact that the spouse and/or children may be in paid Migration of female heads of household. employment will make it easier to ob- As discussed on previous pages, the fact tain the necessary capital and will cush- of having dependent family members in ion the financial risks involved. the country of origin (children, spouse, 5. The ‘dual responsibility’ for fe- other dependent relatives) hinders the male entrepreneurs. The situation in the saving strategy and delays the setting up countries of origin of our female entre- of the company. Consequently, the exist- preneurs gives us an insight into gender ence of a transnational family is not nor- relations in Spain. Although the women mally associated with a rapid decision to interviewed did not appear to perceive embark on a self-employment strategy9. any inequality in terms of decision mak- The entrepreneurial strategy for lone fe- ing within the family, we did however male immigrants in Spain is therefore a observe certain differentiating factors longer process than in the case of those in the way they represent the situation women that have emigrated with their in their countries. Prior to their arrival partners (Oso, 2004). in Spain, many of our interviewees em- One of the strategies used by female ployed domestic workers or used the immigrant heads of household to coun- female solidarity networks for reproduc- teract the impediments to setting up a tive tasks. business is the search for support from a The task of looking after the children husband or partner (either of their own was left to the grandmothers, allowing ethnicity or Spanish), who has the suf- them more time in which to achieve ficient capital or is in paid employment their career goals, as well as to establish maria villares valera 89 more fluid personal relations and enjoy of work. their leisure time, etc. In Spain however, The entrepreneurial strategies for the most of our interviewees do not entrust immigrant population in Spain show a the domestic work and care of their series of specific characteristics that are children to a paid employee. Could we dependent on a number of variables, in- therefore perhaps speak of the disem- cluding gender. Legal status, financial, powerment of these women? In their human and social capital, the position countries of origin our informants were in the migratory cycle, and the occupa- able to organise their time and estab- tional trajectory in the country of origin lish a balance between productive and and in Spain all impact on the setting up reproductive work, delegating the lat- of initiatives. Spain has become character to external female labour and family terised within the migratory context of solidarity networks, whilst in their mi- Southern Europe as a country with large gratory project they are forced to over- numbers of Latin American female im- come new hurdles. Reconciling their migrants, a fairly large number of whom family and working lives appeared to be are in an irregular situation. simpler task in their countries of origin Despite the considerable social capi- than in Spain. tal of Spain’s immigrant population, reflected in their level of education and Conclusions: towards the crea- training, both legal status and gender tion of a model for the analysis of condition the incorporation of foreign- the strategies of female immigrant ers into the Spanish labour market. For- entrepreneurship eign women find it relatively easy to join As discussed earlier, for Spain’s immi- the traditional labour niches in the in- grant population, and women in par- formal economy: domestic service, care ticular, immigrant entrepreneurship work and sex work. Yet in the formal appears to be a means of enhancing so- economy, they suffer from a high de- cial citizenship. Insertion in the labour gree of cloistering in these same labour market through self-employment seems niches. As a result, self-employment is to represent a way out of the labour seen as an alternative to the occupa- niches in which most of the immigrant tional structure to which immigrants are population is inserted. Labour mobil- restricted, particularly foreign women. ity in Spain is slower for women than Consequently, the motivations which for men, due to their tendency to be- lead the immigrant population in Spain come cloistered in domestic service. In to set up their own businesses vary ac- this sense, self-employment does indeed cording to gender. In this paper two represent an important access route to major strategies and their particular social citizenship for immigrant women. features have been analysed: in the first However, this may have a negative im- place, entrepreneurship as a resistance pact in terms of controlling power in or refuge strategy (as a way out of la- gender relations, as involvement in fam- bour niches; as a way of counteracting ily businesses occasionally implies the professional over-qualification; and as spread of patriarchal power to the field an employment strategy for the family 90 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 unit); and secondly entrepreneurship as a strategy for the professional continuity of the occupation carried out either in the country of origin or in Spain. In addition, an analysis has been made of the various obstacles and opportunities involved in setting up a business based on variables such as the legal status, access to capital for the initial investment, management skills, experience in the particular area of activity, the family situation and the ‘dual responsibility’ for immigrant women. Taking all these elements into consideration it can be seen that the gender variable has a major impact on immigrants’ entrepreneurial trajectory. As has been shown, generally speaking female immigrant entrepreneurs experience greater difficulties in setting up a business: greater cloistering in traditional labour niches; larger numbers of immigrants in an irregular legal situation which will delay the setting up of their business; lower capacity for saving up the initial capital required due to low wages and family responsibilities; less access to business training; dual productive and reproductive responsibilities, etc. In addition, when these women work in a family-run business they may also suffer the effects of the extension of the patriarchal power exerted by their husbands and fathers from the private to the productive sphere. In contrast, when they take sole responsibility for the business they try to distance to distance their family strategy from the private sphere as far as possible. The following chart (Figure 5) sum- marises the various concepts put forward. (See next page). maria villares valera 91 family unit avoid having to avoid labour niches Cloistering in labour market labour market Self-employment as Self-employment

- - Employment for the - Employment work in the secondarywork a refuge strategy: a refuge Informal labour market for labour market Informal women (domestic service, care prostitution) work, Female immigrants Female - cloistering in labour niches difficulties to obtain - greater legal status - family responsibilities of education level - average-high saving capacity - lower responsibilities”: -“dual and reproductive productive in Spain Structure of Structure labour opportunities for self-employment Immigrant characteristics Immigrant Ethnic entrepreneurship entrepreneurship Ethnic Downward socio- Downward labour mobility Self-employment as a Self-employment strategy: refuge to escape order - In labour exploita - from tion over - Professional qualification Formal labour market for men labour market Formal (secondary labour market) Male immigrants Male - family migration of education level - average-high capacity for saving - greater management skills - greater networks - more - more heterogeneous ment sectors - employ Figure 5. Maria Villares Varela´s model for the analysis of strategies female immigrant entrepreneurship Varela´s Figure 5. Maria Villares 92 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 Notes - The immigrant must not have a record of having 1 Some of the data used for exploitation based on committed any crimes in Spain or in any former representative samples (e.g. the Active Population country of residence of crimes contemplated by Survey) did not allow for a breakdown according Spanish law. to autonomous regions, gender and the variable to - Fulfilment of the requirements of legislation in ef- be analysed, as representative data is not obtained fect affecting Spanish nationals for the planned for the analysis of the data corresponding to for- activity. eigners or persons holding dual nationality. - To be in possession of the corresponding profes- 2 The immigrant entrepreneurs interviewed sional qualification for the activity to be carried were mainly from the following countries: out, as well as the necessary qualification for those professions requiring validation and/or member- Argentina, Venezuela, Uruguay, Brazil and ship of an official college or association. Cuba. - Proof that the estimated investment is sufficient in 3 Both the in-depth interviews and the discus- order to set up the project. sion groups were carried out as part of the re- - Prevision that the activity shall generate sufficient search work for my doctoral thesis and within financial resources from the first year onwards the framework of three research projects di- in order to guarantee the interested party’s needs rected by Laura Oso Casas (University of A in terms of accommodation and food, once the Coruña): ‘Ethnic entrepreneurship as a strat- expenditure necessary for the upkeep of the busi- egy for the social integration of immigrants. ness/activity has been deducted. Second generation and gender relations’. 6 Regularisation obtained through job offers is more frequent in the case of employment linked (2004-2007) (SEJ 2004-07750- Spanish to the general regime rather than for workers af- Ministry of Education and Science); ‘Migrant filiated to the domestic service regime. groups and the process of entrepreneurship 7 See the research project discussing Dominican fe- in Galicia – part of the EQUAL CONVIVE male entrepreneurs in Spain acting as the heads of MÁIS project’ (2005-2007); and ‘Ethnic en- transnational households by Oso, (2004), which trepreneurship as a strategy for the social mo- reveals their low capacity to save the capital neces- bility of immigrant women’ (2003), Spanish sary for setting up a business due to their cloister- Institute for Women. The interviews were set up ing in domestic service and the remittances they and supervised by the author, the director of the send to support their dependent family members. research project Laura Oso Casas and researcher 8 Occasionally partial recognition or a lower quali- Montserrat Golías Pérez (University of A Coruña), fication than that obtained in the country of ori- whom I wish to thank for their generosity in allow- gin are granted. Alternatively, in order to validate ing me to use the information they obtained from the qualification, immigrants are required to take the interviews held with the entrepreneurs. a number of credits corresponding similar courses 4 See Oso et al., 2006; Oso and Villares, 2005, for a in Spain. Agreements have been signed with a discussion of the differences between the entrepre- number of countries in order to provide immedi- neurial strategies of Argentinean, Venezuelan and ate recognition of certain qualifications, providing Dominican women. some immigrants with an important qualitative 5 The possibility of obtaining a permit for self-em- advantage that enables them to exercise their pro- ployment does exist, provided that guarantees can fession in the host country. be provided for a minimum investment of almost 9 The case of Dominican women in Madrid isa 300,000 euros and the creation of at least 5 jobs. clear example of this situation. 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Olavi Koivukangas

Introduction Europe was a land of emigration with Migration is a complex issue due to the flows operating mainly in the direction extremely varied character of migration of America. This trend was broken in flows. People migrate for different rea- the second part of the century. Europe sons, stay for different periods and fulfil gradually became the destination for different roles. Migration, especially im- international migrants. Also a massive migration, is a rising issue on the policy increase in European inward migra- agenda in most European countries. tion started in the 1990´s and contin- In the new millennium the European ued into the new millennium (Krieger migration debate is about the need for 2005:5; Wanner 2002:3). As a result the replacement migration given rapidly number of European countries with a ageing and declining populations, about positive balance has grown over the last the need for (highly) skilled workers, decades. In many cases, the size of net about clandestine migration and the migration determines whether a coun- abuse of asylum, and about how to fight try still has population growth or is it the trafficking of migrants. There is every entering a stage of population decline indication that Europe´s importance as (Munz et al. 2006:14). a region of destination will increase, as In the two decades that followed European countries recruit migrants to the end of the World War II, migra- fill the labour and skill shortages that are tion flows occurred mostly within Eu- predicted to rise in the coming decades. rope itself, in particular workers from (IOM 2005; Salt 2005a; Salt 2005b; Southern Europe, Italy, Spain, Portugal Muus 2001:31; Boswell 2005). and Greece, all countries with stagnat- ing economies and high unemployment Brief history rates, moved North. The same can be For more than 200 years Europe was the said of migrants from former Yugosla- prime source region of world migration. via, Turkey and Africa. Several North- In the first half of the twentieth century western European countries faced the 96 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 labour shortages due to reconstruction important component of population of post-war Europe and rapid eco- change. European countries have de- nomic growth. Many of these ‘tempo- veloped their own distinctive migration rary’ European migrants returned home fields, and there is a large degree of sta- later (Garson 2003:46; Muus 2001:33; bility in migration patterns and trends Wanner 2002:2). The oil price increase in national level. Mediterranean states in 1973 caused economic crisis. Many in the EU have become ones of net im- countries adopted more restrictive poli- migration, and some Eastern European cies on labour migration and began lim- states now receive large numbers of la- iting numbers of admissions. The main bour and family migrants. North-west- effect was to replace labour migration ern European countries have become with a family-based form. At the same the dominant receivers of asylum seek- time, asylum-related migration took ers, while Southern European countries on new importance. Migration flows receive relatively more clandestine mi- began to become more diverse (Wanner grants. Countries of Central and East- 2002:3). ern Europe have become the unintended The 1980´s was characterised by end stations of migrants on their way to the diversification of host and sending Western Europe, a type often labelled as countries. Southern European tradi- transit-migration. (Muus 2001:38) tional sending countries started to show positive net migration figures, partly due Stocks to the return of former labour migrants, The total stock of foreign national pop- but partly due to an increase in migra- ulation living in the EU-25 countries in tion from non-European destinations. 2005 stood around 24 million people. After the collapse of the former USSR, Foreign citizens thus constitute some in the early 1990´s, East-West migration 5,2 % of the aggregate population of the and especially the movement of ethnic EU-25, compared with about 9 % who minorities increased. The late 1990´s are foreign-born, which means around was characterised by renewed interest in 40,5 million foreign born. These figures employment-related migration and by provide an estimate range of relative and an increase in the proportion of women absolute numbers. The greater part of among migrants (Garson 2003:48; foreign population stock is resident in Muus 2001:33; Wanner 2002:4). Western Europe, and the numbers have been rising. Most Central and Eastern Present situation European countries have also experi- Recorded migration in Europe is now enced some permanent immigration, relatively stable, with the exception of but flows have been modest and stocks the incorporation of large numbers of of foreign population remain relatively amnestied former illegal migrants in small (Munz et al. 2006:66; Salt 2005a). some countries. Western Europe is now Today, all countries of Western Eu- a global player in terms of numbers of rope (EU-15, Norway, Switzerland) and migrants received each year, and inter- a majority of new EU member States( national migration is becoming a more EU-10) have a positive migration bal- olavi koivukangas 97

Table 1: Foreign nationals and foreign-born in some European countries in 2005 (million) Source: Munz et al. 2006

Country Population Foreign Foreign-born EU-25 460,0 23,8 40,5 Germany 82,5 6,7 10,1 France 60,6 3,3 6,5 UK 60,0 2,9 5,4 Italyv 58,5 2,4 2,5 Spain 43,0 2,0 4,8 Netherlands 16,3 0,7 1,7 Sweden 9,0 0,5 1,1 Austria 8,2 0,8 1,2

ance. Sooner or later, this will also be tral Europe (excluding the Baltic States, the case in most remaining countries of Cyprus and Slovenia) the share of for- Europe. The foreign-born population eign-born population is still below 5 % of Western Europe is spread unevenly. (Munz et al. 2006:15). In absolute terms, Germany has by far Some patterns could be found accord- the largest foreign-born population ing to the share of foreign population of (10,1 million) , the UK (5,4 million), the total population. Spain (4,8 million, and Italy (2,5 mil- • Very high percentage countries: lion) (Munz et al. 2006:14, 15, 62, 66). Luxemburg 37,4 %, Lichtenstein Relative to population size, two 33,9 %, Switzerland 22,9 % Europe´s smallest countries, Luxemburg • High percentage countries (10– (37,4 %) and Lichtenstein (33,9%), 15 %): Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, have the largest stock of immigrants fol- France, Germany, Ireland, the Neth- lowed by Switzerland (22,4%). In the erlands, Spain, Sweden, Croatia, Es- majority of West European countries, tonia, Latvia the foreign population accounts for • Medium percentage (7–9 %): Den- 7–15 % of the total population, while mark, Greece, Portugal, Slovenia, the in the new EU Member states in Cen- UK, Iceland, Norway 98 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 • Low percentage (3–6 %): Czech larger without the positive migration Republic, Finland, Hungary, Italy, balance (Munz et al. 2006:14,62). Lithuania, Macedonia FYR In 2005, relative to population sizes • Very low percentage: Malta, Poland, Cyprus (Greek part only) had the larg- Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey est positive migration balance (+27,2 (Munz at al. 2006:66) per 1000 inhabitants) followed by Spain (+15,0) and Ireland (+11,4). On the There is an increasing diversification other hand, Lithuania (–3,0), the Neth- of the origin of migrants, but there has erlands (–1,8) and Bulgaria (–1,8) had a not been comparable diversification of negative migration balance. In absolute destinations (IOM:386). numbers for 2005, net migration was The following foreign-born non-Eu- largest in Spain (+652 000) and Italy ropean populations are typical in these (+338 000), largely as a result of regular- countries: isation, and the UK (+196 000). Among • Moroccans in Belgium the new Member States, the Czech Re- • Iraqis in Denmark public had the largest net migration gain • North Americans and Nigerians in (+36 000) (Munz et al. 2006:14,62). Ireland According to OECD statistics, in • Pakistani in Norway 2004 the total inflow to the EU-25 • Surinamese, Moroccans and Indone- countries and Norway and Switzerland sian in the Netherlands was 2,8 million. The largest inflow was • Angolans and Mosambiqueans in to Spain (645,800), following Germany Portugal (602,200), and the UK (494 100). In- • Iraqis in Sweden flows in Central-East Europe were much • Moroccans and Algerians in France lower, Russia being the main recipient. • Albanians and Moroccans in Italy The Czech Republic´s inflow has risen • Indians in the UK rapidly from 5,900 in 1995 to 50,800 in • In Germany most non-German peo- 2004. (OECD 2006:233 & Salt 2005a) ple are Europeans Most migration in Europe occurs (OECD 2006:263-286) within Europe. In 2003, almost 60 per cent of the immigrants in Europe came Flows from Europe itself. Asians account for In 2005, EU-25 countries had an over- 20 percent, and Africans and Ameri- all net migration rate of +3,7 per 1,000 cans each about 12 per cent. (IOM inhabitants and net gain from inter- 2005:408) national migration of 1,7 million peo- In 2004, inflows of foreign population ple. This accounts for almost 85 % of to Austria consisted mostly of European Europe´s total population growth. In nationalities. In Austria Germans were many cases, the size of net migration the biggest group (13,300), followed by determines whether a country still has Serbian and Montenegro (10,800). In population growth because of immigra- Belgium Moroccans (8,000) were big- tion, and in some countries recent pop- gest non-European group. In Czech Re- ulation decline would have been much public biggest non-European group was olavi koivukangas 99

Figure 1. Immigration and emigration (1 000) in selected EU countries in 2004 Source: Population Statistics 2006.

Austria

Belgium (2000)

Cyprus

Czech Republic

Denmark

Finland

Germany

Hungary (2003)

Ireland

Italy (2000)

Latvia

Lithuania

Netherlands

Poland

Slovakia

Slovenia

Spain Immigration Emigration Sw eden

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 per 1,000 population from Viet Nam (4,500). In Denmark In Italy inflows from Albania (29,600) the biggest group was Chinese (1,300). and Morocco (24,600) were biggest In France Algerians (26,600) and Mo- after Romanians (62,300). In Portugal, roccans (21,700) formed an obvious ma- inflow was biggest from Brazil (2,500) jority. In Germany biggest groups were and Cape Verde (1,800). In Spain, big- European. The biggest non-European gest inflow was from Romania (89,500), group were from Unites States (15,300). followed by Morocco (58,800), the UK 100 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 (44,300), Bolivia (35,300), and Argen- cluding EU-25 countries) and to Swit- tina (23,200). In Sweden Iraqis (2,800) zerland was labour migration, 30% was formed biggest non-European inflow. In migration related to family reunion and the UK, biggest inflows of foreign na- remaining 30% was accounted for by tionalities were from Australia (33,500), asylum seekers and refugees. But there China (18,500), India (16,000), South are strong variations between different Africa (13,100), and United States countries, especially between Northern (13,100). It is typical for the UK that and Southern EU Member States. Scan- biggest inflows are non-European na- dinavian countries, Germany and the tionalities (OECD 2006:235-248). Netherlands have a high percentage of The composition of current migra- total inward migration related to fam- tion flows is based on nationality linked ily unification and a smaller percentage to four factors: historic ties, formed for related to the provision of asylum. All example, during the colonial era; geo- of these countries have a low propor- graphic proximity; the language factor, tion of labour migration (below 10 %), which plays a key role in Anglo-Saxon while in Southern European countries, migration; and immigration policy. Italy, Spain and Portugal, the propor- (Wanner 2002:11). tion of labour migration is between 40 and 60 % (Krieger 2005: 5, 6). Main types of immigration While absolute numbers of family-re- It is estimated that in 2004, 40% of total lated and protection-seeking migration inflow to European Economic Area (in- have remained roughly the same since Figure 2. Resident working age foreign population by nationality in 2005 - row percentages. Source: Commission of the European Communities Brussels, 8.2.2006 COM(2006) 48 final.

% of total labour force 12 EU-15 EU-10 non-EU 10

UK Spain EU-15 EU-25 EU-10 Austria Ireland Greece France Finland Germany Belgium Sweden Netherlands olavi koivukangas 101 1990, the number of labour immigrants of easy entry, for example agriculture, and their share of total flows has in- construction and hospitality (hotels and creased substantially. (Boswell 2005: 3) catering). Permanent migrants are more likely to move as a family, whereas the Family reunion and family typical temporary migrants tend to be formation young and single (Salt 2005b: 11, 16, Family migrants are usually divided into 17). two categories: family formation and A minor labour migration flow con- family reunion. Today family moves are sists of highly skilled personnel, both diverse, ranging from asylum seekers to from within and outside the EU. The highly skilled corporate staff. Family for- numbers of high-skilled migrants from mation includes those who go abroad to non-EU countries have increased in a join fiancé or spouse, with the intention number of European countries. New of settling in the country of destination types of immigrants become more vis- of the prime mover. Family reunion is ible such as ICT experts from coun- accepted as a fundamental human right. tries like India and South Africa (Muus It usually occurs following a prime move 2001: 36—37). for employment reasons by a married male or nowadays also women. Statistics Asylum seekers are lacking (Salt 2005b: 4, 20). Asylum-related migration accounted for the bulk of migration flows observed in Labour migration the 1990s (Wanner 2002: 15). Individu- Labour flows have fluctuated, peak- als from problem areas all over the world ing in early 1990s, becoming relatively started to apply for asylum in Europe stable, but showing increases in several (Muus 2001: 34). This group is charac- countries recently. Many governments terised by its unpredictability. In 2003 in Europe have adopted policies to at- there were 61,100 asylum applications in tract skilled migrants. Germany, Italy UK, 51,400 in France, 50,500 in Ger- and UK have attracted most labour im- many, 32,300 in Austria and 31,400 in migrants. Accorging to OECD’s statis- Sweden. More often than not asylum tics, in 2004, labour migrants’ inflows seekers come singly but many then en- to Germany and the UK are 380,3 and gage in family reunion. There is enor- 89,5 thousands, and, in 2002, to Italy mous diversity within asylum-seekers. 139,1 thousands (Salt 2005b: 11 & They come to Europe variety of reasons, OECD 2006: 303). they originate in different countries, they Labour migrants could be divided in have diverse educational backgrounds highly skilled, lower skilled, permanent and skills, some come alone and oth- and temporary labour migrants. These ers with family members, and there are groups are not homogenous. When increasing numbers of unaccompanied expertise in the form of highly skilled minors claiming asylum (Salt 2005b: workers is not available locally, employ- 32—33). ers frequently import it from abroad. In the twenty-first century there has Lower skilled migrants work in sectors been an upward trend in inflows of asy- 102 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 lum seekers. In 2003 the trend changed, Spain and Germany. Every year over and inflow of asylum seekers reached 400 thousands illegal immigrants come the lowest total since 1997. Explana- to Europe, and many of them arrive first tion of these patterns is complex and in Southern Europe (TS 21.8.2006). the decline reflects a changing situation They usually work in sectors, which within Europe and globally. Four in- are not attractive to nationals, and they terconnected factors appear to be very have positive effect on the economies of important for explaining the patterns of member states. A vicious circle seems destination for asylum seekers: existing to develop between increasingly stricter communities of compatriots; colonial entry controls and the need for potential bonds; knowledge of language; and, (forced) immigrants to turn to the serv- increasingly important, smugglers and ices of traffickers or smugglers (Muus traffickers. Chain migration seems to be 2001: 42). important (Salt 2005a: 25). Foreign students Illegal migration An increasing number of students are No one knows the size of the illegal taking the opportunity to study abroad. population stock across Europe or in in- Their motives are, for example, im- dividual countries. There is no hard evi- provement of language skills and acquir- dence that the scale of unrecorded and ing new cultural experiences. Statistics illegal migrations is increasing. The main are lacking, but the UK, Germany and direction of movement is towards West- France are major destinations in Europe. ern Europe. According to Salt (2005a), A trend in recent years has been for gov- there are three main origin regions. The ernments to make it easier for graduat- largest is former Soviet Union, the main ing foreign students to enter the labour groups being those with Russian citizen- market (Salt 2005b: 27—30). ship. Russia itself is also a destination country of illegal immigration. Accord- Finland ing to some estimates, there are 10 mil- As other countries in Europe, also Fin- lion illegal immigrants in Russia, mostly land is becoming a country of immigra- from former Soviet Union states in East tion. Compared to other EU member and South. The second largest origin re- states, the share of foreign nationals in gion is the Middle East, Central Asia, Finland is still low, around 2 % of total China and the Indian sub-continent population of Finland. Foreign born and the smallest is the CEE region itself constitute 3,5 % of the population (Salt 2005a: 35). of Finland. In absolute numbers this It is estimated that in EU-25 are be- means 122,000 foreign nationals and tween 6 to 8 million undocumented 190,000 foreign-born living constantly migrants (Krieger 2005: 6). According in Finland (Statistics Finland, Popula- to IOM, there are between 15 to 30 tion-database). million undocumented migrants in en- Most immigrants have come to Fin- tire Europe (TS 7.1.2007). There are al- land as refugees, so the unemployment most a million illegal migrants in both, rate of foreign people is quite high, olavi koivukangas 103

Figure 3. Foreign nationals in Finland in 2006: 10 biggest groups. Source: Statistics Finland

30 000

Russia 25 000

20 000 Estonia

15 000

10 000 Sweden Montenegro 5 000 Somalia China and FormerSerbia Irak Thailand Germany UK

0 over 25 %. Not until recently have labour force constant. It could be a solution policymakers started to pay attention to to shortages of labour and skills. But the work-related immigration, and new im- level of net immigration needed to keep the migration policy of government empha- old-age dependency ratio constant would sized that (HS 12.11.2006). exceed the sustainable levels (Münz et al. In 2006, 22,500 persons immigrated 2006). to Finland. Inflows of foreign nation- The United Nations Population Divi- als to Finland consisted mostly of Eu- sion has suggested that Europe might need ropean nationalities. About 11,600 replacement migration to cope with these migrants came from EU-countries and potential problems (demographic ageing, 4,300 from other European countries. shortages of working age populations, de- About 3,500 came from Asia; 1,300 pendency ratios, payment of pensions, and from Africa, and 1,100 from Northern possible shortages of both skilled and less- America. In 2006, net migration gain of skilled labour etc) ranging from around a Finland was 10,300. (Statistics Finland, million to 13 million new migrants per year Population-database). between 2000 and 2050 (Salt 2005a: 6). Most policy makers and researches iden- Demography and aging tify the lack of absorption capacity of such Immigration has a positive influence on huge quantities of new migrants in most population and labour force growth. It can European host societies (not sustainable) help to maintain total population and the (Krieger 2005: 4). 104 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 Labour markets immigrants endowed with financial According to the HWWI (Hamburg or human capital. The impact of im- Institute of International Economics) migration on growth strongly depends Policy Report the impact of immigra- on the labour market performances of tion on wages and employment is on the migrants. Brain waste (high skilled average negative, but very small. Com- migrants being employed in low skilled pared to US, the immigration impact jobs) is typical in several European on wages and employment was found to countries. One problem is labour mar- be more negative in EU countries, but ket discrimination against non-Euro- this negative effect is not evenly distrib- pean immigrants (Münz et al. 2006). uted among EU Member States. There is a slightly positive effect (Greece, Italy, Diasporas Spain and the UK) where immigrants The word diaspora is commonly defined apparently acted as complements rather as a self-identified ethnic group, with a than competitors to native workers. For specific place of origin, which has been example, high-skilled immigrants filled globally dispersed through voluntary or in vacancies that went unmet by the na- forced migration. tive labour supply and thus increased Good sides: 1) Global remittances far productivity, while low-skilled took jobs surpassed the sum of foreign aid. Besides avoided by natives and jobs in sectors official global remittances there are unof- that are traditionally affected by strong ficial remittance flows, too, for example, seasonal fluctuations. There are negative money and goods sent through family effects for example in Belgium, where and friends. It seems that diasporas sup- unemployment rates are high among port economic development and reduce certain foreign-born groups (Münz et poverty. 2) The transfer of knowledge and al. 2006). experience gained abroad by people living in diasporas should be tapped. That means Balance of payments and interna- to facilitate brain circulation as a correc- tional competiveness tive to brain drain. Some migrant-sending Immigration has a small but positive im- countries have developed special financial pact on trade relations between migrant policies through expatriate-only incentives sending and migrant receiving coun- (for example, special bonds and tax excep- tries. In particular seasonal and tem- tions for saving and investment) to reach- porary workers remit a significant part out and engage members of national of their income to their relatives back diasporas. 3) New kinds of transnational home. These flows represent a drain on ethnic entrepreneurship and migrants’ the balance of payments, although, they roles in facilitating international trade are might support EU exports of goods and being recognized. Members of diasporas services too (Münz et al. 2006). create supermarkets and breweries selling to migrants abroad, law firms and travel Growth agencies specializing in migration over- The influence of migration on growth seas or ‘diaspora tourism’ to homeland, was found to be positive in the case of films and TV programs distributed for olavi koivukangas 105 consumption in homeland and compa- tions; nies specializing in the export of tradi- • dependency ratios; tional foods and medicines. In these ways • payment of pensions; diasporas are at present considered to be • possible shortages of both skilled and good things, at least economically. less-skilled labour Bad sides: These include security con- • problems of demand-supply mis- cerns and the threat of terrorism. The match create labour shortages etc ‘failure of integration’ is evident from (Boswell 2005: 5,6) alarming socio-economic indicators showing that specific migrant-origin minori- Shortage of working age population is ties are characterized by low educational already a current issue in Denmark for attainment, high unemployment, poor example. They have introduced a green- housing quality, overcrowding and resi- card-system, which gives everybody an dential segregation, poor health, and lack opportunity to move to Denmark. of socio-economic mobility. Such groups Several recent studies have shown, are living in ‘parallel societies’ marked by however, that immigration alone will linguistic separateness, their own discrete not be sufficient to modify the demo- neighbourhoods, schools, places of wor- graphic structure of those European ship, associations and spaces of leisure. countries most affected by population Some people argue that multicultural decline (Garson 2003: 45). policies and ethnic minorities’ persistent homeland orientations are responsible What should we do ? for the poor conditions surrounding by According to HWWI Policy Report, immigrants and their descendents. There maximising benefits and minimising are advocates and critics of policies like costs of immigration means for example ‘community cohesion’ (promoting core a flexible and market oriented admis- national values) and mandatory immi- sion system. The EU ought to try attract grant integration. In-migrant-receiving more high skilled migrants. Non-eco- countries diasporas tend to be viewed with nomic migrants should have speedy ac- some concerns by many policy-makers, cess to the labour market, recognition of practitioners and the wider public. degrees and qualifications, integration In conclusion: Mixed views. It is over of migrants, integration of children with simplistic to think of diasporas as a mono- migrant background (second genera- lithic type of social formation, to see tran- tion), language proficiency and educa- snational ties as of one kind, and to believe tion etc (Münz et al. 2006: 9—11). that diasporic identifications imprint spe- European countries should develop cific values and kinds of behaviour (di- different ways to give immigrants special versity within diaspora) (Vertovec 2006: assistance, such as language training and 5—8). other educational measures, designed to provide assistance and to help integra- Why Europe needs immigration ? tion (Salt 2005b). • demographic ageing; According to the European Commis- • shortages of working age popula- sion’s Common Migration Policy im- 106 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 migration will continue and should be Future properly regulated in order to maximize According to ILO, the long-term pres- its positive effects on the Union, on the sure of inward migration into the de- migrants themselves and on the coun- veloped countries will remain a major tries of origins. Migration of all types challenge over the years to come because should be taken into account, humani- of the following factors: the differences tarian, family reunion and economic, in GDP per capita has widened, income to deal with the impact on sending equalities in national level have in- and receiving countries as a whole (Salt creased and the number of people living 2005a: 39). on less than one dollar per day is very Most European countries have high and has increased (sub-Saharan changed from a sending to a receiving Africa, Northern Africa and Eastern Eu- area of migration. This raises, among rope) (Krieger 2005: 10). others, the following issues: admission Two factors provide some clues as to policy, challenges of how to deal with how migration is likely to develop in asylum seekers and illegal migrants and the future: firstly, the availability of po- development of effective integration tential immigrants in countries which policy. Europe needs to identify future act as sources of labour; and secondly, skill needs and to develop a targeted ‘demand’ in the host countries, which immigration policy. Europe has to con- is heavily dependent on demographic sider increasing worldwide competition and economic trends in these countries for highly qualified people and how to (Wanner 2002: 23). better activate migrants to participate in In the years to come migration will be paid employment (Krieger 2005: 3). a vital issue not only for Europe but for Cooperation between European the whole world. countries is needed. Collaboration efforts in migration management and control, burden-sharing, and harmonisation of policies on asylum, immigration and integration. (Boswell 2005: 11). olavi koivukangas 107 Bibliography Salt, J. (2005b). Types of Migration in Europe: Boswell, C. (2005). Migration in Europe. A Implications and Policy Concerns. European paper prepared for the Policy Analysis and Re- Population Conference 2005. Demographic search Programme of the Global Commission Challenges for Social Cohesion. Session 3. on International Migration. Global Commis- Impact of Migration on Society and Policies. sion on International Migration Hemicycle, Palais de l’Europe, Strasbourg, Commission of the European Communities 7–8 April, 2005. Council of Europe. Brussels, 8.2.2006 COM (2006) 48 final: Statistics Finland. Population database. http:// Communication from the Commission to the www.tilastokeskus.fi/index_en.html Council, the European Parliament, the Euro- Turun Sanomat (Turku News) 7.1.2007 pean Economic and Social Committee and the Vertovec, S. (2006). ‘Diasporas good? Di- Committee of the Regions, Report on the Func- asporas bad?’ Metropolis World Bulletin: tioning of the Transnational Arrangements set Diasporas and transnationalism. Septem- out in the 2003 Accession Treaty (period 1 May ber 2006, volume 6, 5–8. 2004–30 April 2006) Wanner, P. (2002). Migration Trends in Eu- European Communities (2006). Population Sta- rope. European Population Papers Series tistics. 2006 edition. No 7. Council of Europe, European Pop- Garson, J.-P. (2003). Migration in Europe: Trends ulation Committee, Directorate General and Perspectives. Paper presented for Confer- III – Social Cohesion. ence on the Economic and Social Aspects of Migration, Brussels Belgium, 21–22 January, 2003. Helsingin Sanomat. (Helsinki News) 12.11.2006. Massey, D.S. (2003). Patterns and Processes of International Migration in the 21st Century. Paper presented for Conference on African Migration in Comparative Perspective, Johan- nesburg, South Africa, 4—7 June, 2003. Muus, P. (2001). ‘International Migration and the European Union, Trends and Conse- quences’. In European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 9: 31–49. Kluwer Aca- demic Publishers. Münz, R., T. Straubhaar, F. Vadean & N. Vadean (2006). The Costs and Benefits of European Im- migration. HWWI Policy Report No.3 by the HWWI Research Programme Migration – Migration Research Group. Hamburg Insti- tute of International Economics. OECD (2006). International Migration Out- look. Annual Report. 2006 edition. Salt, J. (2002). European International Migra- tion: Evaluation of the Current Situation. Euro- pean Population Paper Series No. 5. Council of Europe, European Population Committee, Directorate General III – Social Cohesion. Salt, J. (2005a). Current Trends in International Migration in Europe. CDMG (2005) 2. Coun- cil of Europe. The Basque Diaspora: One Step Forward

Benan Oregi and Joseba Arregui

I know others that have envied our heritage, I’ve heard ‘I wish I were Basque’. I think because we have a comraderie, or closeness that is envied in this scattered world.

(Woman, 58 years old, resident in the US, second generation). Oiarzabal, 2005

The Basques the Basque system of common law. The Basque people call themselves Euska- Spanish-French border was established ldunak, those who speak the Basque in 1512, and has been maintained since language, and their land is known as then, dividing the Basque Country be- Euskal Herria, a name which could have tween Spain and France. derived from the Basque Word for ‘sun’. Still the imposition of the border did The Basque Country, 20.664 km2 not bring the end to their unique sys- in extent, is divided into seven territo- tem: ‘when the Basques entered into the ries, four of them on the southern side, consolidating French and Spanish states, within Spain, and three of them, on the each province did so with the agreement northern side of the Pyrenées, within that it would maintain control over its France. The Basques have never formed traditional cultural and political organi- a unified nation-state incorporating all zation. The Basques understood that seven of their provinces. Historically, they had binding legal contracts that they have constituted a loose confed- regulated common interests with the eration united in defence of the Basque crown. At the heart of these agreements culture, language, customs, and fueros was the all-important issue of preserv- benan oregi and joseba arregui 109 ing the fueros (Arregi and Crull, 1996: and sub-dialects of Euskara (Luis Lu- NET)’. cien Bonaparte, 1869). Nowadays, a Actually, the end came with the ins- standardized language has been created tauration of liberal Republics in both since 1968 based mostly on one of the France and Spain: ‘the fuero system en- literary dialects, and is being used in the dured more or less untouched for cen- mass media, education and so on. Dur- turies, until the French revolution of ing the last years, the decline of the last 1789 and the end of the second Spanish centuries in the percentage of speakers Carlist War in 1876. As both France and has turned into a slow increase, due to Spain attempted to forge unitary states the support of the Basque Autonomous within their territorial boundaries (a goal Government and its affirmative action that remains incomplete today in both policy that has enabled its introduction countries), they abolished the fueros. in education. Abolition provoked limited resistance in France, but in Spain it engendered the Basque nationalist movemen (Arregi Basque emigration: the first wave and Crull, 1996:NET)’. These crucial Pierre Lhande stated in 1910 that ‘to events lie at the heart of the history of be an authentic Basque, three condi- Basques abroad. The initiatives target- tions were requested: To have an unpro- ing Basques in the world developed by nounceable name, to speak the language the Basque Government in Spain offer of the sons of Aitor, and to have an uncle an interesting case of para-diplomacy in America’. Basque whalers and cod performed by a sub-state actor using the fishermen were well known to be among possibilities offered by modern technol- the best fishermen and seamen in Eu- ogy to retain Basque culture and rein- rope. They sailed to Greenland, Iceland, force Basque identity worldwide. to Finnmark, on the northernmost tip of Norway. Eventually the Basques arrived The Basque language and culture: in New Found Land and stablished the ancient roots in a modern world first European industry devoted to the The Basque language, one of the oldest processing of whale products. still spoken, remains a mystery. Most Place-names in the Newfoundland philologists and anthropologists main- area and Canada, such as RED BAY or tain that the Basques have occupied the Isle-aux-Basques, Portutxoa, Placentia same territories for at least 5,000 years, Bay, as well as several gravestones do give and, as American author Mark Kurlan- proof of the arrival of the Basque sailors sky (1999), following José Miguel de by the sixteenth century. Many Basques Barandiarán, puts it, are thought to be took part in this Age of Discoveriy that descendants of the Cro-Magnons, who turned European enterprises into global lived in the area 40,000 years ago, with achievements. Among these Basques of the oldest remains dating to the Low global relevance we would like to men- Palaeolithic. Around 600,000 speakers tion Juan Sebastian de Elcano, one of use one of the nine different dialects the first man who circumnavigated the 110 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 globe, Ignacio de Loiola, founder of the were pushed to join religious orders Society of Jesus (Jesuits), and Francis or leave the place looking for a bet- Xavier (Xabier), one of the most promi- ter future in far away lands. Secondly, nent Europeans in Asia. the loss of the fueros, or the rights that In the south of the American conti- the Basque people had kept for centu- nent, the conquest of indigenous lands ries. Since the Middle Ages every King attracted many Basques. Basque sailors, of Castilla had had to swear under the missionaries, merchants and mercenar- holy tree of Gernika that he would be ies began to spread and settle in the respectful with those rights, while the newly established Spanish colonies dur- Basques would swear their loyalty in ing the next centuries: the percentage of exchange. The defeat in the two Carlist Basques among the governors of Peru, Wars (1837 and 1876) brought the end the founders of new cities and settle- of the system and the loss of this unique ments in the Rio de la Plata area, or even political system that the Basque people in first positions of the Mexican territo- had kept for ages. Since then, Basque ries and beyond, is spectacular. During young men had to serve for years in the this colonial era, soldiers, merchants and Spanish army, and that change made missionaries from the seven territories thousands leave their villages and then established themselves mostly in Peru, jump ship in ports around the world. Mexico, Cuba, Chile and Venezuela. This as well as the five revolutions The first Basque institution founded in that took place in Europe in the late Mexico was La Hermandad de Nuestra 1800s (industrial – liberal – agricul- Señora de Aranzazu (1671), religious tural - demographic – transportation) brotherhood hosted by the Franciscans and the personality of the Basque young (also Basques); fifty years later, the Real men, as has been noticed by authors like Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas was Moya (1998), made thousands escape established in Venezuela, with a totally from poverty and lack of freedom and different goal: to keep a Basque monop- depart towards a better life. Between oly in the commerce of products such as 1880 and 1910 thousands of Basque tobacco or cacao. citizens (most of them young men) left the Basque mountains and embarked Second wave: wars and crises for America, the Rio de la Plata being Among the factors compelling Basque their preferred destination. This mas- emigration in the nineteenth century sive and sudden movement of people the following are of foremost impor- brought about depopulation, affecting tance. Firstly, the primogeniture inher- especially rural areas. Some small vil- itance system in rural Basque Country; lages lost entire generations of young the tortuous topography did not permit males, due to the ‘chain migration’ ef- the Basque farmers to divide their land fect. The ‘American Dream’ resulted in among their siblings, and such was the such a fever among young adults that law of mayorazgo: the oldest would in- even the local authorities tried to stop herit the farmhouse. For the rest, they the phenomenon. In 1883, the Provin- cial Council of Alava published the arti- benan oregi and joseba arregui 111 cles that the local journalist José Colá y emigration’. But let us now focus on the Goiti had been writing with the purpose newer emigration. of deterring youngsters from falling into the hands of recruitment agents that The Third Wave: the Franco Re- used propaganda about the conditions gime and beyond of life and opportunities in places such During the Spanish Civil War (1936- as Uruguay. Colá wrote about the horri- 1939) thousands of Basques were vio- ble conditions of travel, the low salaries, lently forced to leave their country and the lack of security in those countries, or flee to exile as political refugees. Again, even the compulsory military service in the countries of destination for many of places like Uruguay, where twenty dif- them were located in America: Argen- ferent wars or revolutions took place in a tina, Chile, Mexico and Venezuela re- period of fifty two years. For the women ceived them with open arms. In the case he warned about the possibility of be- of Argentina, and thanks to the lobby coming a mistress or a prostitute if they work of the Committee organized by happened to emigrate. the Argentinean Basque colony, their Despite these efforts to deter it, President, Roberto Ortiz Lizardi, born emigration to America continued and of a Basque father and a Basque mother got even stronger. During those years, himself, passed a regulation on January Basque ethnic associations were founded the 20th, 1940, due to this successful in Argentina, Uruguay, Cuba, Mexico, mediation. This extraordinary measure: Chile, and some others since the 1870s permitted the entrance to Argentina on. Their main goals were to offer mu- of Basques without any distinction of tual support, the maintenance of culture origin and place of residence, the Com- and the celebration of their festivities. mittee Pro-Basque Immigration being Not only did they serve as landing plat- allowed to participate in the legalization forms for those who arrived, but also as process of all Basque passengers. homes away from home for those who The arrival of these political refugees were staying longer, or never went back supposed a revival of the Basque institu- to their homelands. tions that they found in the host coun- Due to their successful integration tries. The former social aid and cultural in the hosting societies Basques earned nature of these associations were rein- leadership roles in the new republics, for forced and homeland politics entered example, at the end of the XIX century, into their agenda. A new wave of fortune Errazuri was the President of Chile, seekers left the Basque country during Uriburu was the President of Argentina, the fifties and the sixties, looking for bet- and Idiarte Borda was in charge of the ter opportunities, but this time they pre- government in Uruguay. All three of ferred new destinations like the West of them were of Basque descent. Between the United States of America, and, for a 1853 and 1943, ten out of the twenty few hundred, Australia. These last wave two Presidents of Argentina were of of fortune seekers found new employ- Basque origin. Douglass and Bilbao ment working as sheepherders in the US refer to this period as ‘the old Basque and sugar cane-cutters in Australia. 112 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 Regarding homeland politics, there Basques Abroad is placed within the is a clear distinction between on the Basque Presidency, at the highest level one hand Basques who headed towards of the Basque political structure. countries that hosted refugees such as This same year Basque institutions Chile, Mexico, Uruguay and Argentina, started to contact Basques abroad. In who being intellectuals, professionals,… fact, only three years later, in 1982, a were much more active ideologically Basque World Congress was organized and politically and, on the other hand, and several representatives of the Di- those who emigrated in more recent aspora were invited to attend. It was years due to economic reasons (most in 1994 when the Basque Parliament from rural areas of the Basque Country passed a Law (Law number 8/1994) to and the vast majority towards English regulate the relations with the Basque speaking countries). This more recent communities abroad. The Law was ap- typology tends to join with other peo- proved thanks to the vote of all political ple of Basque origin who celebrate their parties represented in the Parliament, culture and speak the language, but they ‘because every single Basque family avoid politics. had a connection with the emigration’. Law 8 established an official register The Basque Autonomous Govern- of Basque associations abroad and also ment and the Diaspora a series of rights that corresponded to: The Basque Autonomous Government 1) members of those associations, 2) was established in Euskadi after the Stat- Basque-born emigrants who kept their ute of Gernika was approved in 1979. Spanish citizenship and 3) those who The Statute of 1979 provided for the had been exiled during the Civil War. transfer of a wide range of powers to Two official institutions were created to the Autonomous Basque Community, help establish new Basque Clubs around which encompasses the three Basque the world and serve as stimulus for those provinces of Araba, Bizkaia and Gipuz- associations that had been founded one koa. Under the Estatuto de Gernika, the hundred of years ago but were still alive: Basques have created an autonomous The Advisory Board for Relations with parliamentary government to enact laws Basques Abroad; and the World Con- regarding powers transferred from the gress of Basque Communities, to be central government to the autonomous held once every four years. region. Powers transferred thus far in- The time had come for Basques who clude control of the public education lived abroad to have an institutional system, the Basque police force, indus- reference in the homeland that would trial planning, public health services, help them achieve their purposes. After and welfare/social security programs. In thirteen years since Law 8 was passed we addition, the Autonomous Basque Com- can argue without hesitation that the re- munity, has developed a unique foreign lation between Basques abroad and their action initiative that has relations with homeland has improved dramatically, the Basques Abroad as one of its core thanks not only to all the programs that areas. The Directorate of Relations with are on-going, but also to all the multi- benan oregi and joseba arregui 113 directional links that are being created. tinction. Argentina is the country with Nowadays, the field of migration stud- the highest number of clubs (near 90), ies attracts public attention and is an and the second is United States (35). In area of increasing interest for citizens, both countries, their federations (FEVA politicians, academics, and so on. Cel- and NABO) play a key role. The total of ebrations of Basque heritage and pride members is of about 25,000. But these in Argentina (with the annual Basque are the Basque activists abroad. The National Week) and the United States census of voters in the homeland elec- (with Jaialdi Festival every five years) are tions contain near 38,000 people who gathering crowds of more than 30,000 live outside the borders and maintain people, showing their pride to be Basque. the right to vote. They do not corre- Law 8 has been developed into sev- spond with the former, since this second eral regulations that contain the legal group comes from nearly 60 countries framework for a handful of possibilities in all the five continents. Only one out of funding for cultural programs, aid of four of them voted in the last elec- for those who are in high need in Latin tions. There is still a third figure, corre- America (especially after the economic sponding to the descendants of Basques. depression of 2001 in some of those During the First Congress in 1995, countries), exchange programs, visits to some rough estimates were presented by the Basque Country, seminars, confer- Iñaki Aguirre, Secretary General of For- ences, and also institutional contacts, eign Action of the Basque Government. in which Basque emigrants often play In Argentina alone, 10% of the total a first hand role as facilitators. And, of population is of this origin, i.e. 3.5 mil- course, there is a Four year institutional lion. In Uruguay, they are 14% of the plan that is approved by the Basque total population, 420,000 (according to institutions since they receive the con- other reports, 25%, 750.000), all over clusions of each of the Congresses. As the country. In the United States there William Douglass puts it: ‘it is fair to say are about 50,000 families living mostly that Euskadi is among the most proac- on the West coast and the Midwest (in tive territories on the planet with respect the last US census, 2000, 57,000 peo- to maintaining ties with its emigrants ple declared themselves of Basque ethnic and their descendants (ibid, 2000:162)’. origin).Venezuela has roughly between 8,000 and 10,000 Basques. Mexico has an estimated 5,000 families in the Fed- Numbers of Basques Abroad eral District. In Chile Basques make up In August 2007, there were 5 federations about 20% of the Chilean population, and 162 associations of Basques officially some 260,000 people. ‘On the whole, registered with the Basque Government, we can soundly estimate’, the report representing 21 countries (many of concludes, ‘that the total population of them in America, some in Europe and Basque descent is about 4.5 million’. 3 in Australia). Members come from any of the seven territories, without dis- 114 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 Emigration today: changing trends Technodiaspora: a new opportunity During the last meeting of the Advisory in the making Board, two phenomena where studied. New technologies allow the establish- The first was a new kind of emigra- ment of ethnic communities through tion, short term, of hundreds of young the Internet. This will not necessarily Basque people that leave for other coun- replace the traditional ones, but it does tries, mostly Europe and places like create new opportunities that will take China, Malaysia or elsewhere in Asia. us to a new scenario still difficult to im- This is thanks to their high education agine. The public and the private sec- and the opportunities offered by glo- tors, scholars, universities and all kinds balization. Globalization enables the of interest groups are fast becoming new freedom of movement for workers, the actors in relations with Basques abroad. relocation of companies and breaks the Numerous new initiatives are building borders within the European Union. new bridges for those who live far away; The second of those phenomena was the globalization has opened new opportu- return movement that we are observing nities and it is now easier to find your from the countries that were receiving personal roots. All this is making it more emigrants. The generally high standards and more feasible to rediscover the cul- in the homeland and the economic crisis tural origin for thousands of connected that affects Latin America has reversed Basques. the cycle. So, from being a country of Information and Communication emigrants, we have become a country of Technologies (ICTs) make it possible immigrants. to ask for public funding, to request As a result, the Basque homeland so- any kind of information, to search for ciety is undergoing a sociological shift in the meaning of a last name, to look for thinking about migration. Out of the 4.4 relatives and to participate in interest Million immigrants in Spain in 2007, groups or to chat every night with other only 98,108 were settled in Euskadi, al- people of the same ethnic origin. It also though this numbers are growing yearly. enables the opportunity of sending an e- Colombia, Bolivia, Romania, Morocco, mail to the Basque President, using the Portugal, Ecuador, Brazil, Argentina, computer. All these factors enable a new China and Algeria are the ten most im- real time relationship among Basques portant countries of origin of those im- no matter where they live. Indeed, ICTs migrants. Regarding emigration, out of break the ‘space-time’ barrier that has the 71,005 people who moved in the for many centuries limited the relation Basque Country (including Navarre) to between Basques in the homeland and a different Basque historical territories, abroad. or even Spain, only 1,406 of them chose Regarding the potential of ICT and as their final destination to settle abroad how they can help minority cultures in - the United Kingdom and France being general, and more precisely, the oldest the two main destinations (INE, Na- language in Europe, the following has tional Institute of Statistics). to be mentioned: BOGA a computer program is being used by thousands of benan oregi and joseba arregui 115 students that try to learn the basics of William Douglass, former Director of our complicated language not only in the Center for Basque Studies at the the Basque clubs abroad but also in 21 University of Nevada in Reno, urged Universities of Europe, America and the Basque authorities that were follow- Australia. As for the Basque Diaspora ing his words in the audience, to rescue members, they are becoming aware of the history of the Basque emigrants: the importance of being connected. As …We are only at the beginning when a result, many Basque clubs and fed- we look at the enormous potential of erations have their own web pages. The tracing the history of specific Basque Basque Government offers information colonies in specific periods of time and about their programs through their main how they became associated, without page www.euskadi.net, and is sending a forgetting the importance of biogra- weekly bulletin to more than 10,000 e- phies built from archives and passed mail addresses. In addition, they send down orally… Intellectually this work a paper magazine they send every two is urgent, because sources are lost over months to more than 36,000 homes time… It is the substance necessary for abroad. Virtual communities have been the creation and maintenance of a tradi- established by the Society of Basque tion that… may serve as a basis for the Studies-Eusko Ikaskuntza (www.eusko- future of the different Basque identities sare.org). One can find what is now scattered around the Diaspora (William going on in any of the Basque com- A. Douglass, 1999). munities through private pages such as This acted a wake up call for the Direc- www.euskalkultura.com, is able to get torate for Relations with Basques Abroad. the way to learn the basics of the Basque Four years later, during the opening of language through www.habe.org or can the 2003 in Vitoria, the Basque Govern- even see how to dance an intricate step ment introduced a new Collection of of a Basque ancient dance through www. publications under the name Urazandi dantzan.com. As well as this, Basque (From Overseas). Since then, twenty vol- studies are on the increase in the world umes have been edited up to compiling academic map, as well. For example, the the history of the most important Basque Center for Basque Studies at the Univer- Clubs all over the World, written by aca- sity of Nevada, in Reno (USA) offers an demics and top researchers from those on-line course in English about Basque countries. Personal memories of emi- emigration studies, and various kinds of grants are being collected in the Euska- top level publications are being distrib- ldunak Munduan series, of which eight uted to the most important universities issues have been produced. The purpose internationally. of this collection is to offer a space for private life stories. In fact, there are thou- Gathering history to launch the sands of families with a lot to tell about future emigration, and some of their members During his opening speech at the Second are starting to read their family letters World Congress of Basque Communi- and put together the history of those who ties that took place in 1999, Professor had had to emigrate. 116 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 Furthermore, an annual award was cre- Conclusions ated in 1999 under the name “Andrés For more than 800 years Basques have de Irujo” (1) been going abroad. This collective ex- In the last eight years, researches from perience is a treasure of high value in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile and both sides our contemporary transnational and of the Basque Country have been distin- knowledge driven world. The experi- guished with the award. Last July, 2007, ence of the Basques abroad has made us the Fourth World Congress of Basque rethink the nature of Euskadi has politi- Communities was held in Bilbao. Regard- cal, economic, social and cultural reality ing the compilation of this chapter of our far beyond the original 7 territories of history, a new step forward was presented: Euskal Herria, opening new posibilities. the birth of Digital Urazandi. Digital Ura- In the light of this, we consider Euskadi zandi (2007) is a new series based on the as a transnational and deterritorialized digitalization of the written production of reality that encompasses Basques in 21 the Basque Diasporas during the twenti- different countries world wide. In plan- eth century. The first volume, Hemero- ning the future we are moving towards teca de la Diáspora Vasca, comprised of a 7 (original territories) + 1 (generic for 9 DVDs, contains the digitalization of Basques in the world) scenario. The ex- 134 different magazines published by the perience gathered by previous genera- Basques abroad during the last 100 years, tions abroad is not only a question of most of them in America. It gathers a total saving the past, It is also and foremost of 180,000 pages that can be consulted about preparing ourselves for today and conveniently by researchers. the future. Recovering the experience If the first Digital Uranzandi focuses and knowledge of Basques abroad is on what the Basques abroad published, also fundamental in order to 1) gener- the second one wants to gather what has ate empathy to new inmigrants in the been published about Basques in the local Basque homeland and 2) train new gen- printed media. This second phase of the erations in ‘integrating without losing project will target articles or references identity;. If done so, new generations of about the Basques (even publicity) that Basques will be better prepared for liv- have been published in local newspapers ing and working in an internationalized in those cities where important Basque and multicultural world. We are living Communities were settled. An agreement a transition era, in which the history of was signed in 2006 between the Basque Basque migration is being constructed Government and the Federation of Basque but, at the same time, we are also prepar- Institutions of Argentina (FEVA) on the ing for the future, imagining the myriad one hand, and three universities of Argen- of opportunities that await in Diaspora tina on the other. Students and Basque collaboration. youngsters will be trained to record millions of references. For the near future, it is foreseen that Digital Urazandi will also cover another series focused on oral histories. benan oregi and joseba arregui 117 Notes migrants in Buenos Aires. University of Cali- (1) Andrés de Irujo founded together with Ixaka fornia Press, 1998. Lopez Mendizabal a publishing house in Oiarzabal, Agustín and Pedro. La identidad Buenos Aires, Ekin, which during the Fran- vasca en el mundo. Erroteta, 2005 (printed in coist regime, became the most important the US) printing service for the Basque culture (hun- Totoricaguena, Gloria. Identity, Ethnicity and dreds of books, magazines, and so on that Politics in the Basque Diaspora. 2004. Reno: could not be published in the homeland were University of Nevada Press produced from their exile in Argentina). Watson, Cameron. Modern Basque History. Center for Basque Studies. University of Ne- Bibliography vada, Reno, 2003 Arregi, Joseba I. and Crull Andra. “Basque Euskaldunak Munduan, Building the Future. 1st ” Nationalism and the Spanish State . Fourth World Congress of Basque Communities. World Bulletin SPRING/SUMMER volume Central Publishing House of the Basque Gov- 5, Nos. 1-2 1996. in http://carbon.cudenver. ernment, 1995 edu/fwc/Issue10/Europe/basque-1.html. Euskadi munduan eraikitzen. 2nd World Con- Aguirre, Iñaki. Euskaldunak munduan, build- st gress of Basque Communities. Central Pub- ing the future. 1 World Congress of Basque lishing House of the Basque Government, Communities. Central Publishing House of 1999 the Basque Government, 1995 Aurrera goaz. 3rd World Congress of Basque Douglass, William A., Bilbao, Jon. Amerikan- Communities. Central Publishing House of uak, Basques in the New World. University of the Basque Government, 2003 Nevada Press, 1975. Zubigintzan, 4th World Congress of Basque Douglass, William, A. Interstitial Culture, Vir- Communities. Central Publishing House of tual Ethnicity, and Hyphenated Basque Identity the Basque Government, 2007 in the New Millenium, in Nevada Historical Homenaje al comité pro-inmigración vasca en ar- Society Quarterly, volume 43, 2000 gentina (1940), Central Publishing House of Gallop, Rodney. A book of the Basques. Univer- the Basque Government, 2006 (2nd Edition) sity of Nevada Press, 1998. First edition, Mac- millan, London, 1930 The basque country in figures at: Irigoyen, Alberto. Laurak Bat de Montevideo. http://www.lehendakaritza.ejgv.euskadi. 1876-1898. Primera euskal etxea del mundo. net/r48-467/en/contenidos/informacion/ Central Publishing House of the Basque Gov- euskadi_en_cifras/en_8835/euskadi_en_ ernment, 1999 cifras.html Kurlansky, Mark. The Basque History of the Information about the basque language: World. Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 1999 nd www.euskara.euskadi.net/r59-734/en/ Lhande, Pierre. L’ émigration basque. 1910. 2 Information about programs for the basque edition, Elkarlanean, May 1998 communities abroad: Moya, Jose C. Cousins and strangers. Spanish im- http://www.euskadi.net/euskaldunak

The Council of Europe Cultural Routes´ Award to the European Route of Migration Heritage

Hans Storhaug

“During the past two centuries most European states shifted from being countries of emigration to countries of immigration. Migrants carry with them their own heritage, the ‘heritage memory’. This can be material heritage such as objects, and immaterial heritage such as languages, literature, music, and traditions. The cultural route of Migration promotes heritage as a source of intercultural understanding between peoples of diverse national identities. The countries that participate in this pan-European project are Ireland, England, Scot- land, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland, Croatia, Slovenia, Italy, Portugal and San Marino.

I am pleased to present the Council of Europe Cultural Routes award to the Association of European Migration Institutions and the European Route of Migration Heritage”.

Robert Palmer, 5 Octobre 2007

With these words, Robert Palmer, Di- European Cultural Route.That we have rector of Culture, Cultural and Natu- got as far as we have with this project, is ral Heritage of the Council of Europe, largely thanks to the initiative and hard presented the Council of Europe awards work of Antoinette and her colleagues in to the European Route of Migration Luxembourg in working closely with the Heritage. Antoinette Reuter and Hans European Institute of Cultural Routes. Storhaug, received the certificate on In the presence of seventeen ambas- behalf of AEMI and other migration sadors of Europe, Hans Storhaug gave networks also present. The award repre- a short speech thanking the Council of sented a breakthrough for AEMIs year- Europe for the award, and informing long work to make migration heritage a them that migration will have a strong hans storhaug 119

Representatives of the Council of Europe´s European Route of Migration Heritage. From left: Zeina Habet, European Institute of Cultural Routes, Antoinette Reuter, Documentation Centre for Human Migra- tion, Luxembourg, Ljerka Galic, Croatian Heritage Foundation, Croatia, Rainer Ohliger, Germany, Adam Walaszek, Polonia Research Institute, Jagiellonian University, Poland and Hans Storhaug, Norwegian Emigration Center, Norway. Photo: Dietrich Hackenberg. focus next year as Youth and Migration Saturday 6 October was dedicated is on the programme when the city of to a seminar on how the cultural Stavanger is celebrating its status as Eu- routes can be used as a political tool ropean Capital of Culture in 2008. for increased visibility of the Council The ceremony took place at the Eu- of Europe´s values, and as instrument ropean Institute of Cultural Routes, for intercultural dialogue and democra- Luxembourg, 5 October 2007, and tioc security. The official programme coincided with the Council of Europe was closed by the launching of the Ambassadorial Visit to Luxembourg European Week of Migration Heritage and the 20th Anniversary of the Cultural and opening of the ‘ReTour de Babel’ Routes Programme of the Council of exhibition in Dudelange. Antoinette Europe. The two day programme also Reuter, Documentation Centre for included the inauguration of the Cul- Human Migration in Luxembourg, had tural Routes Exhibition including a dis- been in charge of the exhibition that play of the Phoenician Route with the was part of the European Capital of paintings of David Orler. Culture programme of 2007.

AEMIJOURNAL

Volume 7 • 2009

Special Issue on

Migration Heritage Routes: Documentation, Research and Communication

Editor Hans Storhaug

Association of European Migration Institutions www.aemi.dk Protocol of the Annual Meeting of the Association of European Migration Institutions

2 - 4 October, 2008 Genoa, Italy

Conference delegates and members of the Association of European Migrations Institutions assembled for registration and the 2008 Annual meeting at the conference room at Palazzo San Giorgio, Genoa,Italy. Photo: Hans Storhaug

Thursday 02.10 2008 Capocaccia, president of CISEI, Silvia Martini conference chairman, and 09.00 Registration representatives from Port Authority of Conference delegates assembled for Genoa, the City of Genoa, the Province registration at 9.00 a.m. the conference of Genoa, the Liguria Region and the room at Palazzo San Giorgio. Fabio Chamber of Commerce welcomed the annual aemi meeting genoa, italy 2008 123 Board of AEMI and conference del- Museum of Sea and Navigation egates. and to the Exhibion “La Merica!” The programme for the rest of the day Session 2: 14.30 - 16.00 and for the rest of the meeting was as Studies on Archival Sources for follows: the Construction of the Data- base: the European Experience Session 1: 10.00 -13.00 Chair: AEMI The studies on archival sources: The expe- ’Illustrating Migration: the contribu- rience in Genoa tions of museums, libraries and archives’ Chair: Matteo Sanfilippo, Associate Brian Lambkin, Centre for Migration Professor (Modern History) Tuscia Studies Ulster, Northern Ireland University, Scientific Committee CISEI ’EmiWeb: Migraport and Eu- ’Genoa: the Door to the Americas.’ ropean Digital Frontiers’, Antonio Gibelli, University of Genoa, Kristin Mikalsen, Norwegian Emi- Chairman Scientific Committee CISEI grant Museum and Mathias Nilsson, ’A Documentary Heritage: the Emigrant Registret Kinship Centre Study of the Nautical Logbooks, Carlo Stiaccini, Department of Modern Session 3: 16.30 - 19.00 and Contemporary History, University ‘Museums and Study Centres: a Fruitful of Genoa Cooperation’. ’A project of a database of the emi- Chair: Fabio Capocaccia, President, grants leaving from the port of Genoa’, CISEI Adele Maiello, University of Genoa, Emilio Franzina, University of Ve- Scientific Committee CISEI rona, Scientific Committee CISEI ’Maritime Public Health ’Exhibitions, Museums and the Al- Sources, Genoa 1830s-1850’, treitalie Centre on Italian Migrations’, Francesca Carminati, CISEI, and Giulia Maddalena Tirabassi, Altreitalie Centre, Grandi, Department of Economic and Pierangelo Campodonico, Director Financial Sciences of the University of Muma of Genoa Genoa ’Sources for Migration His- Dinner at Palazzo San Giorgio tory from the Genoa State Archive’ Alfonso Assini, State Archive, Genoa, Friday October 3, 2008 Scientific Committee, CISEI Session 4: 9.30-12.00 ’Ansaldo & Co. Business Records Continuation of the session ‘Studies on as a Source for Migration History’, Archival Sources for the Construction of Ferdinando Fasce, University of Genoa, the Database: the European Experience’ Scientific Committee CISEI Chair: AEMI ’The Historiography on Ligurean ‘Memoirs of a lost past: the testimony Migration: A Critical Re-Appraisal’, of an Italian emigrant in Luxembourg Francesco Surdich, University of Genoa, across anti-fascism, resistance, depor- Scientific Committee CISEI tation and ...oblivion’, Maria Luisa 13.00 Lunch and visit to the Caldognetto, Centre of Records on 124 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 Human Migration Comparados Santa Fè ’Archives, monuments, migration Participants in videoconference from heritage: Early Modern Tyrolean mi- Sao Paulo: grations to the Mosel region (F, D, L)’, Federico Croci, Scientific Committee Antoinette Reuter, Documentation CISEI and Visiting Professor at the Uni- Centre on Human Migration, Luxem- versity of Sao Paulo bourg, Soraya Moura, Memorial do Imi- ’Photographic Archives of the grante’s Project Coordinator San Marino Emigration Museum’, Adele Maiello, University of Genoa, Chiara Cardogna, San Marino Emigra- Scientific Committee CISEI. tion Museum ’International Network of Migration Cocktail and dinner party onboard Institutions. Promoting the Public during the boat tour of the port. understanding of Migration’, Marta Severo, UNESCO Saturday October 4, 2008

Discussion General Assembly of the Associa- tion of European Migration Institu- Session 5: tions (AEMI) Studies on Archival Sources for the Con- struction of the Database: Experiences Minutes of Meeting Across the Atlantic The General Assembly 2008 of the As- Regione Liguria Building sociation of European Migration In- Emigration to the United States through stitutions was convened at Palazzo San Ellis Island Giorgio, Genoa, Italy and called to Chair: Adele Maiello, Scientific Com- order at 09.00 am on Saturday 4 Octo- mittee, CISEI. ber 2008 by Chairman, Brian Lambkin. Participants in videoconference from the US: Ira Glazier, Director Centre for 1. Attendance Register and Apologies Immigration Research, Temple Univer- Brian Lambkin made apologies for edi- sity, Balch Institute, Philadelphia and tor of the AEMI Journal, Hans Storhaug, Diane Pardue, National Park Services, The Norwegian Emigration Centre, Sta- Executive Officer. vanger, Norway and Secretary/Treasurer Henning Bender, The Danish Emigra- Session 6: tion Archives for not being able to at- ‘Emigration to Brazil and to Argentina: tend the general assembly. the Documentary Heritage of Memorial do Imigrante and the experience of Portal Present Gringo.’ The Chairman also noted that the fol- Chair and Discussant: Fulvia Zega, lowing representatives of 15 member Roma Tre University. institutions were present: Participants: Adriana Cristina Crolla, • The Centre for Documentation of Director of the Centro de Estudios Human Migration, Luxembourg, repre- annual aemi meeting genoa, italy 2008 125 sented by Ms Antoinette Reuter Applying for membership: • CISEI (Centro Internazionale Studi Torsten Feys, Red Star Line Project, Emigrazione Italiana), Genoa, Italy, re- Antwerp, Belgium presented by Dr Silvia Martini • The Danish Emigration Archives, The Chairman then moved that Pro- Aalborg, Denmark, represented by Mr fessor Adam Walaszek be elected pre- Jens Topholm siding officer of the business meeting. • Institute of Migration, Turku, Fin- The motion was agreed and Professor land, represented by Professor Olavi Walaszek took the chair. Koivukangas • The German Emigration Museum, 2. Minutes of the Annual Meeting, 27 Bremerhaven, Germany, represented by September 2007, Turku, Finland Mr Steffen Wiegmann The Minutes of the General Assembly • The Centre for Migration Studies at 2006, held in Turku Finland, 27 Sep- the Ulster-American Folk Park, North- tember 2007 and accessible at AEMI’s ern Ireland, represented by Dr Brian website, were approved. Lambkin • The Norwegian-American Collec- 3. Chairman’s Report, 2007- 2008 tion, National Library of Norway, rep- The Chairman gave his report. Brian resented by Ms Dina Tolfsby Lambkin thanked the board for efficient • The Norwegian Emigrant Museum, work, and he focused on the headlines represented by Mr Steinar Bjerkestrand in his report, referring to the full text • The Institute of Diaspora and Eth- that is accessible at the AEMI website. nic Studies, Krakow, Poland, repre- The Presiding Officer moved the sented by Professor Adam Walaszek adoption of the Chairman’s Report. The • The Åland Islands Emigrant Insti- meeting adopted the motion. tute, Mariehamm, Finland, represented by Dr Eva Meyer 4. Treasurer’s Report: Financial statement • The Kinship Centre, Karlstad, Swe- and accounts 2007- 2008 den, represented by Mr Erik Gustavson Jens Topholm presented on behalf of • Directorate for Relations with Treasurer, Henning Bender, the Finan- Basque Communities Abroad, Basque cial Statement and Accounts for 2007- Country, represented by Mr Joseba I. 2008, as posted previously on the AEMI Arregi Orue website. • Institute for Migration & Ethnic The Association’s Auditor, Dr Eva Studies, Zagreb, represented by Profes- Meyer, confirmed that she was satisfied sor Ruzica Cicak-Chand with the Accounts for 2007 and had • Ballinstadt, Das Auswandermu- signed them. seum Hamburg, represented by Mr The Presiding Officer thanked for Jorge Birkner presentation and moved the adoption • Museo dell Emigrante Centro Studi of Treasurers and Accounts report. The sull Emigrazione, San Marino, repre- meeting adopted the motion. sented by Dr Chiara Cardogna 126 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 5. Journal Editor’s Report, 2007- 2008 Koivukangas had proposed Eva Meyer as Brian Lambkin reported on behalf of Secretary and Treasurer, but he accepted Editor of the Association’s Journal, the proposal with Eva Meyer as Treas- Hans Storhaug, that next volume 6 urer and Jens Topholm as Secretary. (2008) would contain reports of the An- The Chairman pointed out that Eva nual Meeting in Turku and it would be Meyer as Auditor knew about the job as released by Christmas. Volume 7 (2009) Treasurer and that Jens Topholm could was planned to contain the papers given continue and develop the website. Brian at this conference in Genoa. Lambkin also agreed to be nominated The Presiding Officer thanked the for a last term as Chairman of the as- Editor for his continuing efforts on be- sociation. half of the Association. The Presiding Officer then asked the audiences if they agreed on the nomi- 6. Election of Officers, 2008- 2011 nation of new board members and the The Chairman thanked former Secre- nominated if they would accept the tary and Treasurer Henning Bender for election. Eva Meyer, Jens Topholm, his long time services to the Association and Brian Lampkin on behalf of Hans from the founding meetings to the situa- Storhaug agreed to that. tion today with a strong cross European As representative of the host institu- association. He was looking forward to tion organizing the General Assembly see Henning at next year’s annual meet- this year was nominated Silvia Martini ing. (Genoa) and as representatives of the The Chairman then proposed divid- institutions hosting next years Gen- ing the Secretary and Treasurer post and eral Assembly were nominated Steffen reported that the Board had received the Wiegmann (Bremerhaven) and Jorge following nominations for the election Birkner (Hamburg) of officers 2008: The election was unanimously con- Treasurer: Eva Meyer (The Aaland Is- firmed by the ordinary members pre- lands Emigrant Institute, Mariehamm, ceding. Finland), Secretary: Jens Topholm (The Danish Emigration Archives, Aal- 7. Proposed Budget 2009 borg, Denmark), Journal Editor: Hans Eva Meyer proposed keeping the ex- Storhaug (The Norwegian Emigration penses in 2009 to a minimum and pro- Center, Stavanger, Norway.) posed a budget accordingly: The chairman called for comments from the audience. Professor Olavi Transport from 2008 6.249 € Koivukangas took the floor and talked Fee...... 5.200 € about the basic thoughts dominating Board...... -2.000 € the foundation of the Association and Admin...... -1.000 € original ideas about the changing of AEMI-Journal..... -3.000 € leadership and countries represented in Webpage -1.000 € the board. Generally he argued for three terms in a row as the upper limit. Olavi Transport to 2010...... 4.449 € annual aemi meeting genoa, italy 2008 127 The Presiding Officer moved the adop- 4, and that decision was unanimously tion of the proposed budget and the confirmed by the 15 ordinary members meeting accepted the motion. preceding.

8. Appointment of Auditor for 2008- 10. Admission of New Members 2009 The Presiding Officer asked the Chair- The Presiding Officer asked Erik Gus- man to speak to the admission of new tavson (The Kinship Centre, Karlstad, members. Sweden), if he would be willing to serve The Chairman then called upon as Auditor for the coming year. He con- Torsten Feys. He presented the Red Star firmed that. The Presiding Officer then Line Project, Antwerp http://www. asked the audiences asked if they agreed visitantwerpen.be/redstarlinememorial/ on that nomination. home.html and proposed its admission The election was unanimously con- to membership. This was agreed by ac- firmed by the 15 ordinary members pre- claim. ceding. 11. Members Projects 9. Venue of Annual Meeting 2009 European Migration Heritage Over the last 7 years the meeting has Route moved between north and south and Antoinette Reuter talked about the east and west (Norway 2002, Portu- project, and noted that it had not been gal 2003, Sweden 2004, France 2005, possible to get financial support from Croatia 2006, Finland 2007 and Italy EU. Maybe AEMI was not strong 2008). enough and should get in contract with For the Annual meeting 2009 a joint other partners. She argued that it is invitation from German Emigration necessary to have a strong formal status Centre, Bremerhaven and from Ballins- to gain financial support from EU. tadt, Das Auswandermuseum Hamburg Antoinette Reuter also mentioned the was presented respectively by Steffen ‘Migration Heritage Week’ which will Wiegmann and Jorge Birkner. It was take place from the 5 to the 12 Octo- proposed to combine the Annual Meet- ber. The idea of the week is to highlight ing and to focus on the impact of two at the same moment at various places major city ports, genealogy and migra- the importance of migration heritage tion, research and biographies. (archives, collections of artefacts, sites, The Chairman noted that other ex- traditions …) and to underline the pressions of interest in hosting future necessity to get means to preserve this meetings were made by Erik Gustavson heritage. (Sweden), Jens Topholm (Denmark) and Chiara Cardogna (San Marino). Youth and Migration, Norway The Presiding Officer then suggested Brian Lambkin gave a short introduc- that the Annual Meeting 2009 would tion to the YAM project and thoughts take place in Bremerhaven and Ham- on how to connect this project with the burg from the September 30. – October EU e-ContentPlus Programme. 128 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009

Migra Portal, Sweden and Norway 11. Any Other Business Erik Gustavson introduced the Migra Being no other business, the Chairman Portal project. The basic idea is to create thanked Professor Walaszek for acting as a search portal to existing private and Presiding Officer and the General As- public European databases on migra- sembly concluded at noon, 12.00. tion. All AEMI members were invited to Closing of the Conference, Chair- participate. Erik Gustavsson proposed man Brian Lambkin thanked Fabio Ca- to create a working group to prepare a pocaccia and Silvia Martini and their two days meeting as soon as possible to colleagues at CISEI for hosting an ex- elaborate a project description focusing cellent conference in beautiful locations. on the eContentPlus Programme. He He also thanked for the generous hos- assured that Sweden and Norway were pitality of Genoa. Presentations were ready to organize the project, financed made to Fabio and Silvia as tokens of by equal contributions between the par- the warm appreciation expressed by all ticipating institutions and EU. Jens To- present. pholm strongly supported the idea and Brian Lambkin concluded by look- talked favourably of creating a search ing forward to next years meeting in database based on international stand- Bremerhaven and Hamburg, thanking ards. the two institutions for offering their cooperation. European Migration Centres Net- At 12.30 pm the participants were work, Italy transferred to the International Fair for Fabio Capocaccia introduced a project lunch and closing the conference by vis- with the objective to create a concrete iting the International Boat Show, the network between organizations working most important boat show in the world. in the field of migration, that is AEMI members and other institutions/organizations. Ligurian Region could be lead- Participants ing partner with the operative support Arregui Joseba, Spain of CISEI and other Institutions. The Belkeddar Farouk, France project was designed to the INTER- Birkner Jorge, Germany REG IVC 2007-2013 Programme fi- Bjerkestrand Steiner, Norway nanced from 75% to 85% of the budget Capocaccia Fabio, Italy by European Union. Fabio Capocaccia Cardogna Chiara, San Marino also mentioned the possibility of inte- Carminati Francesca, Italy grating the Migra Port project. Feys Torsten, Belgium Kristin Mikalsen remarked that Migra Ružica Čicak-Chand, Croatia Port was a different kind of project that Grandi Giulia, Italy could not be a part of a network pro- Gustavson Erik, Sweden gramme. She also noted that some of the Horner Benjamin, France objectives were already part of AEMIs Jotti Laura, Italy activities. Koivukangas Olavi, Finland annual aemi meeting genoa, italy 2008 129 Lambkin Brian, Northern Ireland Martini Silvia, Italy Mayer Eva, Finland Mikalsen Kristin, Norway Moura Soraya, Brasil (in videoconference) Nilsson Mathias, Sweden Pardue Diana, USA (in videoconference) Reuter Antoinette, Luxembourg Stiaccini Carlo, Italy Tolfsby Dina, Norway Topholm Jens, Denmark Walaszec Adam, Poland Wiegmann Steffen, Germany

As external guests: Caldognetto Maria Luisa, Italy Campodonico Pierangelo, Italy Crolla Adriana, Argentina Glazier Ira, USA Lombardi Luigi, Italy Severo Marta, Italy Tirabassi Maddalena, Italy Zega Fulvia, Italy Scientific Committee CISEI Representatives of the Town Institutions

Association of European Migration Association Chairman’s Report 2007 - 2008

Ladies and Gentlemen: to host this year’s An- In opening this report on nual Meeting. the events of the past year As usual, there has I would like to begin by been frequent com- recalling our Annual Meet- munication between ing last year which took members of the Board, place in Turku, Finland, at mainly by email, espe- the Institute of Migration cially in preparation for whose Director, Professor the Annual Meeting. In Olavi Koivukangas, is a this regard I would like founding member of the Association. to pay tribute in particular to Silvia and As ever, we rely on our Annual Meet- Fabio for their generosity in hosting not ing as our main means of renewing old only a visit by Henning Bender on be- friendships and making new ones, for half of the Association in October 2007, reviewing progress, and for charting our as agreed at our meeting in Turku, but direction for the coming year. We again also a meeting of the Board in Genoa thank Olavi and his colleagues for wel- in April 2008 – both indications of coming us so warmly back to Finland, the commitment of CISEI in bringing having hosted the Association there pre- AEMI to their new institution. viously in 1993. For this third and final year of its term We also thank Silvia Martini and of office, your Board has been Henning Fabio Capocaccia and their colleagues at Bender (Denmark) as general secretary the International Centre of Italian Emi- and treasurer, Hans Storhaug (Norway) gration Studies (CISEI) for welcoming as editor of the Association’s Journal, us this year to Genoa in Italy. I would Olavi Koivukangas (Finland) as repre- also like to express my appreciation of sentative of last year’s host institution, the understanding and patience shown Silvia Martini as representative of the by Simone Eick and her colleagues in this year’s host institution, and myself as Bremerhaven, who were also very keen chairman (Northern Ireland). chairman´s report 131 Some of you may not be aware that This year Henning retired as Director Hans was quite seriously ill recently. This of the Danish Emigration Archives in means I am afraid that he is not able to Aalborg Denmark. I regret that has not be with us in Genoa and that there has proved possible to persuade him to at- been some delay to the production of tend this year’s meeting to give his final the next volume of our Journal, as will report in person and receive the richly be explained in his report. However, his deserved thanks. In modest Danish health is now improving and I am glad to fashion, having served for such a long say that he has indicated his willingness time, he was anxious that his successor to continue serving as Editor. I am sure in the Emigration Archives in Aalborg, you will want to join me in wishing him Jens Topholm, should be able to attend a speedy recovery. We also thank Hans with a view to sustaining their institu- for representing the Association at the tion’s commitment to the development ceremony in Luxembourg on 6 October of the Association. I hope that mem- 2007, just after our meeting in Turku, at bers will join with me in both welcom- which the charter was presented for the ing Jens and in expressing our heartfelt European Migration Heritage Route, thanks for the work that Henning has within the programme of the European done over the years, not least in man- Institute for Cultural Routes. aging our website and ensuring, in the I have also to report that Henning nicest possible way, that we all, or very Bender has indicated his intention to re- nearly all, pay our annual subscriptions sign as Secretary and Treasurer, in which on time. We may look forward to the post he has served faithfully since the es- continuing company of Henning as an tablishment of the Association in 1989. individual member and I hope that he

Retired Director of the Danish Emigration Archives AEMI board members visiting CISEI in Genoa and former Secretary and Treasurer of AEMI, Hen- in April 2008: From left: Henning Bender, Olavi ning Bender, and AEMI President Brian Lambkin. Koivukangas, Fabio Capocaccia, Carine Rouah and Photo: Hans Storhaug Brian Lambkin. Photo: Hans Storhaug 132 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 will be able to join us next year, after a focus on migration museums, as dis- well deserved break as he and Birgit set- tinct from other types of migration in- tle into their new home on the island of stitution. Carine Rouah explained that Bornholm. so far as membership of the Network As I have mentioned, the Board held was concerned it was intended that the one face-to-face meeting this year on 21 term ‘museum’ should be interpreted April in Genoa, thanks to the hospitality inclusively rather than exclusively. In- of CISEI. This meeting was particularly stitutions which are not strictly speak- valuable because we were able to bring ing museums are already members. All Carine Rouah from Rome to meet with members of AEMI would therefore be us and continue the very import discus- welcome to join the International Net- sion that we had begun in Turku in 2007 work of Migration Museums. about possible cooperation between We found ourselves in agreement that AEMI and the newly-formed Interna- the special nature of migration museums tional Network of Migration Museums is such that they depend for their success of which Carine is the volunteer Project on developing archive and library col- Manager. As an initiative of UNESCO, lections of migration records (especially originating in a conference held in passenger lists, letters, photographs, oral Rome in October 2006, the Interna- histories, published autobiographies and tional Network of Migration Museums biographies) as well as museum collec- aims to offer a Web interface to assist tions of migration-related objects. The the growth of the international network migration museum is a new kind of in- of migration institutions, to support the stitution that should embody the idea of activities of migration museums and to partnership between museums, librar- facilitate the interactions among them. ies, archives and research or study cen- The main concern of the Board at our tres. Your Board argued that it would be meeting in Genoa was to clarify the rela- unfortunate if the name of International tionship between membership of AEMI Network of Migration Museums were to and membership of the International give the impression that museums were Network of Migration Museums. Some being privileged to the detriment of li- but not all AEMI members are already braries, archives, heritage centres and members of this new Network. The research and study centres which share question to be clarified was whether all the objectives of this Network. A power- AEMI members were eligible for mem- ful way of signalling that this Network is bership of the Network. This is an im- concerned to include all relevant institu- portant issue because AEMI includes, as tions, we suggested, would be simply for its name is intended to indicate, various it to change its name. I am pleased to types of migration institutions as mem- report that the Network is in the process bers: museums, libraries, archives, herit- of changing its name to the International age centres and research institutions or Network of Migration Institutions, with study centres, whereas the name of In- the explanatory strap line – ‘promoting ternational Network of Migration Mu- the public understanding of migration’, seums suggests that it has an exclusive see: (http://www.migrationmuseums. chairman´s report 133 org/web/index.php?page=home). Mem- our Annual Meeting where exactly our bers may recall how I wrote after that meeting will take place. As last year in meeting urging all AEMI members that, Turku we are in the happy position of given this clarification, we should all having received firm offers from two consider joining the International Net- member institutions to host our next work of Migration Institutions. meeting in 2008, both in Germany: the In Genoa we also discussed with Car- German Emigration Center in Bremer- ine how this network might grow over haven and BallinStadt in Hamburg. I the next five to ten years and it seemed have been involved in discussions with likely that in expanding it would need both institutions to see if it may be prac- to develop a regional structure. Insti- ticable to combine in some way in the tutions in different regions (such as organisation of the programme so that North and South America and Australa- we may have an opportunity to visit the sia where there are already important splendid new facilities of both. groupings) may find it more practical In closing, I would also like to draw to come together for face-to-face meet- particular attention to three other devel- ings annually - as AEMI does at present opments during the year, each of which in Europe. A meeting of the global net- I believe indicates the value of our As- work may then be practical only every sociation to its members and the wider 3-5 years. community. Finally, we discussed how we might The first concerns Antoinette Reuter mitigate the clash in dates of the AEMI and the meeting in Brussels on 16 May Annual Conference in Genoa and the which she kindly invited me to attend in International Conference organized by order to discuss the development of the Museo de Historia de la Inmigración de European Migration Heritage Route. Cataluña that will gather members of I look forward to Antoinette, who re- the International Network of Migration mains the main driving force behind Museums in October 2008 in Barce- this project, reporting on how the dis- lona, Spain, and how best to promote cussion has progressed since, but here I European Migration Heritage Week would just like to point out an example, 2008. Unfortunately it has not proved coming out of that meeting, of how the practicable to arrange a video link-up Association grows. Present at the meet- for the programmes of our two confer- ing was Luc Verheyen, representing ences but I trust that there will have the Red Star Line project in Antwerp, been some communication between which has ambitious plans for open- Genoa and Barcelona during these days ing a new migration museum there in to our mutual benefit. three or four years time. Subsequently, What we have managed to agree in Luc sent his colleague Torsten Feys on principle is that instead of having two a fact-finding mission to various other separate conferences next year, the In- AEMI institutions, including our own ternational Network will co-operate in Northern Ireland, and I am glad to with AEMI in its Annual Meeting in say that Torsten will be with us in Genoa 2009. It remains to be determined by on behalf of his institution with a view 134 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 to joining the Association. to the whole question of social integra- The second development was initially tion. A number of major conferences less happy. Members will recall the ur- bear witness to this. These include the gent appeal to the scientific community symposium on Intercultural Dialogue and general public made in July by col- in March 2007 at the Cité nationale de leagues in the Institute for Migration l’histoire de l’immigration, Paris, which and Ethnic Studies in Zagreb, Croatia, hosted our Annual Meeting in 2005. We who kindly hosted our Annual Meeting congratulate colleagues on their success- in 2006. This concerned the manner of ful opening on 10 October 2007. The the appointment of their new Director launch of the splendid Youth and Mi- and I believe it is a case that illustrates gration website, which many members the importance of the Association. Were will recall having seen demonstrated by our own institutions to be faced with Hans Storhaug in previous years in its a similar situation, to whom could we pilot stage of development, was launched turn? The fact that the Institute now in Norway on 25 September as part of a intends to send our old friend Ruzica youth conference that brought together Cicak-Chand to attend our meeting in in a ‘World Village’ over sixty young Genoa as its representative I take to be people from nine different countries, a good sign that things there are on the within the Stavanger 2008 programme mend. I am sure you will want to join as European Capital of Culture along me in wishing all our colleagues in Za- with Liverpool. I have already referred greb well for the future. to the conference on ‘Museums, Migra- The third development was altogether tion and Interculturality’ taking place in a happy one. I was delighted to be con- Barcelona at the same time as our own tacted in August by another old friend in Genoa. Coming up later in October of the Association Jürgen Rudloff in we have major conferences in Berlin and Bremerhaven. As a result of his long-time Bonn that are both addressing the issue dedication to the initiative of building of migration museums. No doubt there an international emigration museum in are other things happening that mem- Bremerhaven, he has been awarded a bers will be keen to share information medal by the Federal President, Horst about. Köhler. This was presented to him at a So as we approach our twentieth an- ceremony on 5 September, hosted by niversary next year, there is little doubt the Chief Magistrate of the senate of the about the continuing need for an As- Free Hanseatic City of Bremen. Again I sociation such as ours. As this Board am sure that you will want to join me in concludes its term of office, and as I con- congratulating Jürgen on his richly de- clude my second term as Chairman, we served award and wish him well in his need to think carefully in electing a new continuing good work, promoting the Board for the next three-year term. In public understanding of migration. almost twenty years, from the Scandina- The signs generally are that there is a vian nucleus of our founder institutions, growing interest in the work of institu- we have grown from a small organizations such as ours and their relevance tion to the medium-sized organization chairman´s report 135 that we are today, spanning most but final, third term. However nominations not yet all of Europe. By reaching out to may still be made from the floor at our new institutions, as here in Genoa, and Annual Meeting on Saturday 4 October by engaging with new initiatives such as and I would urge members to consider the International Migration Museums that a sign that that our Association will Network, we have the potential to grow have made the shift from a medium-size into a large organization. Our associa- organisation to a large one will be when tion continues to welcome small, me- the general expectation is that Board dium and large-sized institutions but the members will serve no more than one onus in expanding the Association must three-year term. necessarily fall on the larger institutions, Be that as it may, I would commend which have the resources better able to to you the hard work done by of your support the kind of work involved. In outgoing Board over the last three years electing your new Board I would ask on behalf of the Association and in par- that you bear this consideration in mind. ticular that done by Henning Bender The situation regarding nominations for as Secretary and Treasurer since that the new Board is at the time of writing is first formal meeting of the Association as follows. Following the resignation of in Aalborg, Denmark in 1989. Finally, Henning Bender, we have two nomina- I would like to thank again Olavi Koi- tions for the previously combined posts vukangas and his colleagues for hosting of Secretary and Treasurer: Eva Meyer the Annual Meeting in Finland in 2007. (Aaland Islands Emigrant Institute) and And we also thank Silvia Martini and Jens Topholm (Danish Emigration Ar- Fabio Capocaccia and their colleagues chives). Hans Storhaug has indicated for undertaking the task of preparing his willingness to continue serving as to host us as a new institution in 2009. Editor of the Association’s Journal and May our deliberations in Genoa prove I have been asked to consider serving a fruitful in the year ahead.

Brian Lambkin Chairman Intercultural Education for Multicultural Society

Milan Mesic

Introduction Long time dominance of mono- This paper presents some basic argu- culturalism ments in favor of intercultural dialogue From ancient Greek philosophy, through through education. It offers some el- Medieval Christianity and liberalism, ementary answers to several major ques- till our days western thought and world- tions: view have been dominated by moral 1. What kind of worldview and edu- monism or monocultural understand- cation has dominated the world till the ing of human beings and their societies emergence of interculturalism and mul- (B. Parekh 2006). A bit simplified moral ticulturalism? monism assumes that only one way of 2. What kind of societies and the life is truly human, and all others are world – in terms of their cultural com- more or less defective in moral human position – young people are going to sense. In other words monoculturalists live and to cope with? have believed that one or some cultures 3. Can multicultural societies be (their own) are superior to others, and taken as an advantage for further devel- therefore the latter can rightly be sup- opment of social justice and new open- pressed or even destroyed. minded multi-perspective education? When Western European great pow- 4. What is intercultural or multicul- ers conquered and colonized large parts tural education about; what it means of other continents, they needed ideo- and aims at? logical justification for their rule. Social 5. What kind of changes in educa- science (in the 18th and 19th century), tional system are necessary in order to heavily relied on biology, readily re- implement successfully intercultural sponded to the spirit of the time and education? produced the concepts of hierarchy of 6. Is intercultural and multicultural races and cultures, with the Western Eu- education just a Western/European ropean white race and culture(s) on the model of education that should be im- top and the black race and the African posed on non-European societies? cultures at the bottom of the ostensible milan mesic 137 evolutionary cultural pyramid. Think- culture and education. ing of themselves as a superior race and Leaving aside their predecessors (start- culture Europeans rationalized and le- ing from the 18th century and gaining gitimized their imperialism as a histori- ground at the time of German romanti- cal mission of civilizing the backward cism in the form of cultural pluralism races and cultures. This latest version of and cultural relativism), the initial con- moral monism later became known as temporary ideas of interculturalism or Eurocentrism – ethnocentrism on the multiculturalism appeared in the 1970s, European scale. as a response to ethnic revival and di- Finally, with the rise and consolida- versity movements which appeared both tion of the nation-state as the model in the United States and Europe. Since of modern society, cultural homogeni- then very different concepts of society, zation within a state, i.e. (forcible) as- culture and education have been devel- similation of minority and deprivileged oped either under the umbrella term in- cultures, became an ideal standard of terculturalism or multiculturalism. The a national constitution. The assimila- first notion is used in the continental tionist concept of public education has Europe and deals primarily with educa- played an important, if not a key role, tion, and the latter in the United States, in its establishment and maintenance Canada, Australia and Great Britain, of a monolithic national culture. It was and it theorizes not only about educa- assumed that ethnic and immigrant tion but about society as a whole. groups had to forsake their original cul- Theoreticians of interculturalism often tures in order to fully participate in the claim to have elaborated more advanced nation-state. and sophisticated concepts of education corresponding to contemporary cultur- Emergence of interculturalism or ally diverse societies than theoreticians of multiculturalism multiculturalism. It is said that the term Above we pointed out the dominant multicultural describes the culturally di- social and educational context in which verse nature of human society, including has recently emerged a new vision of not only ethnic or national cultures, but society, culture and education – inter- also linguistic, religious and socio-eco- culturalism or multiculturalism. Both nomic diversity (UNESCO Guidelines versions of basically similar ideas have on Intercultural Education, 2006:17). been developed through critique of Eu- Interculturality, it is said, is unlike mul- rocentrism (and every ethnocentrism in ticulturality dynamic concept and refers general) and (forcible) assimilation on to evolving relations between cultural the one hand and affirmation of cultural groups. In that sense, it has been defined diversities on the other. No wonder as “the existence and equitable interac- that many non-European thinkers (in tion of diverse cultures and the possibility the sense of their cultural origins) have of generating shared cultural expressions taken an active and prominent part in through dialogue and mutual respect” development of the new (intercultural (UNESCO Convention on the Protec- or multicultural) concepts of society, tion and Promotion of the Diversity of 138 AEMI JOURNAL 2009 Cultural Expressions, Article 5, 2005). ism/intercultural education and mul- It is legitimate to adopt the above ticulturalism/multicultural education) meanings of the terms intercultural- interchangeably (as synonima) when ity and multiculturality for the scien- talking about the new concepts of edu- tific terms are the matter of convention cation and social justice, relying on the within an academic community or a concepts of both schools of thought – broader public. However, for the sake of European (interculturalism) and Anglo- academic correctness, we should have in American (multiculturalism). mind that the term multiculturalism has Obviously any concept of intercultur- almost exclusively been used in Anglo- alism (multiculturalism) depends greatly Saxon literature to cover very different on the notion of culture employed. concepts of both multicultural and in- There are many different definitions of tercultural models of societies and edu- culture. In the schools still prevails a cation, including definitely similar ideas traditional anthropological understand- on intercultural dialogue to those pre- ing of culture as static and unchanging scribed as interculturalism. For instance, entity. One of the consequences of such one of its theoreticians defines multicul- perceptions and descriptions is the per- turalism as “the state of a society or the petuation of stereotypes about different world containing many cultures that in- ethnic, cultural, religious, and racial teract in some significant ways with each groups. There is growing scientific evi- other” (A. Gutmann 1994). Even more, dence, however, cultures are dynamic, the most theoretically elaborated con- complex, and changing. Most social sci- cepts relating to intercultural dialogue entists today view culture as consisting and mutual respect have been published primarily of the symbolic, ideational, as books under the title containing the and intangible aspects of human socie- term multiculturalism. Being aware that ties. Even when they view artifacts and multiculturalism is often reduced to and material objects as being a part of cul- understood as a pure multicultural soci- ture, most social scientists regard culture ety, where different cultures more or less as the way people interpret, use, and per- tolerate each other, but do not go into ceive such artifacts and material objects. mutual understandings and productive It is the values, symbols, interpretations, dialogue, some outstanding multicul- and perspectives that distinguish one turalists point out that they advocate people from another in modernized so- transformative or critical multicultural- cieties and not artifacts, material objects, ism in opposition to conservative, lib- and other tangible aspects of human so- eral, or corporative multiculturality. cieties. Both the Japanese and Ameri- In short, both (critical) intercultural- cans produce and use the automobile, ists and multiculturalists generally are but the meaning and the symbol of the in agreement that multiculturality is a automobile in these societies may differ factual condition of most contemporary considerably. However, most scholars in societies today. The question is how to cultural studies still omit to pay proper deal with it. Therefore, we are going attention to variations within the na- here to use both terms (intercultural- tional culture – to sub-cultures within milan mesic 139 it, which is important for intercultural a given societal culture. More specifi- education in a broader sense as well (J. cally, it pertains also to differences such Banks). as sex, disability, age, social class, sexual Generally speaking, liberal and orientations and popular cultures. The communitarian scholars share an in- identity of these groups is considered stitutional view of culture, whereas significant with regard to the construc- postmodernists see it in a relational per- tion of their autonomy, preferences, spective. According to the first position, choices, and conception of the good life. we can also say to narrow (or anthropo- Multiculturalism is sometimes erro- logically thick), notion a culture “pro- neously equated with cultural relativ- vides its members with meaningful ways ism. Cultural relativists maintain that of life across the full range of human since everyone is entitled to his or her activities, including social, educational, culture, no one has right to judge, criti- religious, recreational, and economic cize or press for changing other cultures life, encompassing both public and pri- or some of their practices. They sug- vate spheres. These cultures tend to be gest that all cultures deserve equal re- territorially concentrated and based on spect. Multiculturalism also recognizes shared language” (W. Kymlicka). Cul- an equal right of each community of tural diversity from such a perspective people to its culture. Such a stance does relates first of all to national minorities not, however, entail any moral restric- (as territorially concentrated and self- tions on our judgments and critique of contained communities), indigenous certain practices and beliefs. Our respect peoples and conditionally new immi- for a culture should be based on our as- grant groups. sessment of its content and way of life it For a postmodern relational thinker a facilitates to its members. group exists and is defined as a specific We should also differentiate multi- group only in social and interactive re- culturalism from cultural pluralism. lations to others. Group identity is not It might be said that multiculturalism a set of objective facts, but the product takes a middle position between assimi- of experienced meanings. The broad lation and cultural pluralism. The in- (relational) conception of intercultural- tercultural theorists think that cultural ism, in contrast to a narrow one, takes pluralists exaggerate in giving too much into account groups that do not form prominence to ethnic group in the so- a societal (institutional) culture. The cialization of the individual, while on members of the latter are supposed to the other hand assimilationists greatly share some characteristics that define understate the role of cultural and eth- them as different from members of ma- nic groups (at least in Western societies) jority culture(s) with respect to values, in the lives of individuals. Multicultural lifestyles, and interests. Considered in theorists argue that even though ethnic this view, interculturalism not only con- groups have some unique cultural char- cerns the relations between members acteristics, all groups in society share of diverse societal cultures but also the many cultural characteristics and values. relations between the subcultures in Therefore, they see neither separatism 140 AEMI JOURNAL 2009 (as pluralists do) nor total integration We should keep in mind that belong- (as assimilationists do) as ideal societal ing to a culture varies in different groups goals, but rather envision an open soci- and from one individual to another. It ety, in which individuals from diverse is not homogeneous in nature. Some cultural, ethnic, language, and social- members might share all beliefs of their class groups have equal opportunities culture and follow all of its (traditional) to function and participate. One of the practices and other only some of them. major challenges to diverse democratic Internal heterogeneity and tensions nation-states is to provide opportuni- from one side and external influences ties for different groups to maintain as- from the other help to explain why no pects of their community cultures while culture is ever free of contestation and building a nation in which these groups change are structurally included and to which Culture and religion influence each they feel allegiance. Their essential goal other in a great deal. Because both cul- is to maintain a delicate balance of diver- ture and religion are concerned with sity and unity. Culturally diverse nation- meaning and significance of human states can protect the right of minorities activities and relations, the two tend to and enable diverse groups to participate be closely connected. Indeed, there is only when they are unified around a set hardly a culture in whose creation, con- of democratic values such as justice and stitution and continuation religion has equality (J.A. Banks). not played an important part. In different cultures religion plays different Multiculturality of contemporary so- roles. Although no culture can be exclu- cieties and the reasons for intercultur- sively based on religion, for a religion alism can never cover all areas of human life Although culture and society are in- and anticipate all situations in real life, terconnected in the sense that there is it can be shaped by it in different ways neither a society without a culture nor and degrees. No religion, in turn can be a culture which is not associated with culture-free. some society, the two are to be distin- The great majority of contemporary guished both analytically and practi- societies are multicultural in a narrow cally. A society may embrace two or sense of cultural diversity (containing more cultures, not mentioning sub- different ethnic, national, religious or cultures, and vice versa a culture may be race communities) and practically all of shared by two or more societies (states). them in a broad sense (including sub- A member of a society can identify him- cultural differences). Therefore the rel- self or herself with two or more cultures, evant question is not whether they want and a member of a culture can belong be multicultural or not (since it is a fact to two societies (states) either formally regardless whether it is being recognized (through dual citizenship) or informally or not) but how to respond to their (through his or her ethnic, national or multiculturality. In addition, owing to cultural double or even multiple identi- the complex (economic, political and fication and loyalty. cultural) processes of globalization and milan mesic 141 the changing nature of modern technol- ture and cultural unification for its sta- ogy (which is not value free), no society bility and cohesion is no longer viable today can insulate itself against exter- today (Parekh). nal (multicultural) influences. Capital, There is much to be said for multi- technology, ideas and people move eas- culturality or cultural diversity of a soci- ily across territorial boundaries bringing ety from an intercultural (multicultural) in new forms of thought and life. perspective. First, cultural diversity in- Since cultural diversity characterizes creases the available range of options almost all societies albeit in different and expands freedom of choice. Second, degrees, they must either find ways of because human beings are culturally coming to terms with and even profit- embedded, they have a right to their ing from it, or suppress or marginalize it culture. Third, cultural diversity creates by somehow homogenizing themselves. a rich, varied and aesthetically pleasing The latter involves forcible assimilation and stimulating world. Forth, it encour- of cultural minorities, various political ages a healthy competition between dif- restrictions, control of the media, bans ferent systems of ideas and ways of life. of foreign literature and even technol- Although these arguments in favor of ogy, and limited contacts with outside cultural diversity are convincing, they world. The only acceptable choice open remain, however, largely instrumental to a democratic society today is to man- in character and do not appreciate in- age and build on the creative potential of trinsic value of other cultures but only its diversity, welcome and make it cen- those aspects of them which can be use- tral to its self-understanding (Parekh). ful for members of a majority culture Contemporary multicultural socie- (B. Parekh). ties are not historically unique. Many A true intercultural approach should premodern societies also included sev- reveal a primarily intrinsic value of each eral cultural or religious communities. culture and cultural diversity in a so- Yet, they distinguish themselves from ciety and in the world. It is instructive their predecessors in several important here to note the emergence of politics of aspects. First in premodern societies recognition in the environmental move- minority communities generally ac- ment, to better understand the perspec- cepted their subordinate status. Second, tive shift in viewing society and social today there is a growing awareness that justice. Radical environmentalists aban- a group of people can be oppressed and doned an anthropocentric orientation humiliated not only economically and that views non-human life forms as ex- politically, but culturally as well. Third, isting solely as a means to human ends, contemporary multicultural societies and embraced a biocentric perspective have become more and more intercon- that affirms the inherent value of all nected politically, economically and forms of life. “Furthermore, just as mul- culturally through the processes of glo- ticulturalists might criticize the positing balization. Furthermore, many social of the achievements of one group, such critics believe that the nation-state’s as white European and American males, project, based on exclusive national cul- as the norm of fully developed human- 142 AEMI JOURNAL 2009 ity, so some environmentalists criticize pretations. It also encourages an internal an anthropocentric outlook that posits dialogueue within the culture. human beings as the final end of the cre- A culture or a religion that considers ation process and as inherently superior itself the best and suppresses others or to all other beings. In both cases there fears of contacts with others tends to is an attack on hierarchical modes of take a unified and homogenous view thought that tend to diminish or deny of itself and suppresses its internal dif- the value of other beings” (S. Rockefel- ferences. Different artistic, literary, ler). musical, moral and other traditions Since human capacities and values interrogate, challenge and probe each conflict, every culture realizes a limited other. Cultural diversity, in short, cre- range of them and neglects, marginal- ates a climate in which different cultures izes and suppresses others. However can engage in a mutually beneficial dia- rich it might be, no culture embodies all logue (Parekh). that is valuable in human life and de- From a true intercultural standpoint velops the full range of human possibili- it would not be proper to contend that ties. Different cultures thus correct and only the culturally open way of life is complement each other to new forms of the best. Interculturalism should not be human fulfillment. The value of other exclusive as monoculturalism has been. cultures is independent of whether or A culturally homogenous society has its not they are options for us. Indeed they strengths. It facilitates a sense of com- are often valuable precisely because they munity and solidarity, makes interper- are not. Although a native people’s way sonal communication easier, sustains of life is not an option for us, it serves a thick culture, and easily mobilizes its important cultural purposes (sensitivity members’ loyalties. However, it also has towards harmony with nature) (Parekh). a tendency to become closed, intolerant, Cultural diversity is also an important averse to change, and oppressive, and to constituent and condition of human discourage differences and dissent. It is freedom. Unless human beings are able narrowly based and lacks the conditions to step out of their culture, they remain necessary for the development of such imprisoned within it and tend to abso- great intellectual and moral virtues as lutize it, imagining it to be the only nat- intellectual openness, critical self-con- ural or self-evident way to understand sciousness, and recognition of differ- and organize human life. Since cultural ences. We could argue that a culturally diversity fosters such vital preconditions diverse society can reproduce most of of human freedom as self-knowledge, the desirable qualities of homogenous self-transcendence and self-criticism, it society, but the reverse is not the case. is an objective good. There is no obvious reason why a cultur- When we are used to seeing difference ally plural society should not develop a between cultures, we appreciate that our sense of community, solidarity, common own culture is a product of different in- loyalties and a broad moral and politi- fluences, contains different strands of cal consensus. By contrast, a culturally thought, and is open to different inter- homogeneous society cannot provide milan mesic 143 the creative tensions of an intercultural cepts has emerged to describe the educa- dialogue. Although a culturally diverse tional programs and practices related to society is not better in all aspects, it is ethnic, language, cultural and sub-cul- likely to achieve a better balance of the tural diversities. They reflect many dif- qualities desirable in a good society ferent and sometimes conflicting goals, (Parekh). approaches and educational strategies. We may summarize by saying that Yet, it seems that there is a growing four major factors make today inter- body of concepts which enjoy more or cultural education a necessity: 1) ethnic less consent among advocates of inter- pluralism is a growing societal reality cultural education. influencing the lives of young people The term intercultural education cov- whether they want it or not; 2) in one ers at least three things: a concept, an way or another, all of us acquire more educational reform, and a process. In or less favorable or unfavorable views, all these aspects it has developed in the through formal schooling and outside Western states gradually through stages of it, on different cultures and religions, and still is far from its ideals, and no one and in general on ‘others’; 3) member- should realistically expect that the intro- ship in cultural and sub-cultural diverse duction of intercultural education into communities and groups even in demo- other countries can simply jump over cratic contemporary societies limits so- some of them and start with the most cial opportunities for these individuals; elaborated ideas. However, it does not 4) the world’s greatest problems do not mean that those who would like to em- result from people being unable to read bark on intercultural education should and write, but from culturally (racially, not to be informed about the latest con- religiously, ethically) diverse peoples cepts and let themselves aware in ad- being unable to get along and work to- vance of the problems to be faced with. gether to solve the world’s problems. Monoculturalism in education was almost unchallenged ideological common sense until the second half of 1960s. The reasons for intercultural dia- The idea of intercultural education has logue through intercultural educa- started with the critique of the existing tion model of education, primarily for its Intercultural (multicultural) education Eurocentric and ethnocentric content began do develop in the 1970-is as a and ethos. Eurocentrism is probably constituent and actually most impor- best epitomized by literary critic Mat- tant element of interculturalism (mul- thew Arnold (1822-1888) in his famed ticulturalism), in both theoretical and saying about European cultural achieve- reform movement terms. This new con- ments – “the best that has been said and cept of education designed for (post) thought in the world”. Needless to say modern multicultural societies means that multiculturalist/interculturalist cri- different things to different people and tique of Eurocentrism is addressed not in particular to different theoreticians to Europeans as individuals but rather and practitioners. A wide range of con- to European oppressive cultural he- 144 AEMI JOURNAL 2009 gemony. Nor does it imply a suggestion unique cultural and ethnic perspectives that non-European peoples and their are denied important parts of the human cultures are somehow ‘better’ than Eu- experience and are culturally and ethni- ropeans ones. And since Eurocentrism cally encapsulated. We can get a full view is a historical and social construction of our own culture and behavior only by and not a genetic inheritance, Europe- viewing them from the perspectives of ans can be (and many of them are) anti- other (different) cultures. Eurocentric, jus as non-Europeans can If the major aim of education, as hu- be Eurocentric. manization and not only socialization, is The traditional school system has also to develop worthwhile human capacities been under attack for its gender and such as - self-criticism, self-reflection, sexual prejudices and insensitivities to- open-mindedness, independent judg- wards exceptional pupils and students ment based on arguments, respect for (whether they are physically or mentally others and sensitivity to differences - the disabled or gifted and talented). The lat- educational system should be multi-per- ter critical agenda has also integrated spectival. into discourse of multiculturalism, in particular in the United States. Major characteristics and goals of In a sense, everything in education intercultural education relates to culture – to its acquisition, its Generally speaking, a major goal of in- transmission, and its (re)invention. The tercultural education is to provide for proponents of intercultural (multicul- really equal opportunities in learning tural) education argue that traditional, to all pupils and students regardless of in that sense monocultural, education their racial, national, ethnic, social class, is favorable for white middle-class pu- gender, physical or other (cultural) char- pils. They have a better chance to suc- acteristics. This means that cultural and ceed through schooling than those who other differences among pupils and stu- belong to minority cultural groups. In dents should be taken into account in other words it is responsible for poor development of corresponding curric- learning achievements of some groups ula as well as in teaching practices and of minority pupils and students, because school environment as a whole. This it does not provides for them the posi- requires deep changes in the ways edu- tive role-models from their ethnic and cational programs are conceptualized, cultural background. organized and thought. They should Interculturalists claim that monocul- help pupils and students gain greater tural education is unlikely to awaken stu- self-understanding by viewing them- dents’ intellectual curiosity about other selves from the perspectives of other cul- cultures. It tends to breed arrogance, in- tures. Of course, educational equality, sensitivity and racism. Individuals with like liberty and social justice, is an ideal cultural and ethnic blinders are unable toward which human beings pursue but to get a real understanding of their own never fully attain. culture. Such people who know, partici- Intercultural education assumes that pate in, and see the world from only their ethnic, cultural, language and other di- milan mesic 145 versities are positive elements in a so- changes must not be reduced to human- ciety because they enrich a nation and ities and social sciences but all subject increases the ways in which its citizens areas of education, including science can perceive and solve personal and and mathematics. No single discipline public problems. At the same time cul- can adequately explain all components tural diversities in a society provide in- of the life-styles, cultural experiences, dividuals with more opportunities to and social problems of ethnic groups. experience other cultures and, thus, to It is not enough, however, to broaden become more fulfilled as human beings. the curriculum and include different re- Properly understood and freed from po- ligions, cultures, texts beliefs and their lemical exaggerations of its advocates representatives. One should also bring and detractors, multicultural education them into a fruitful dialogue. If current is an education in freedom, both in the social, political or cultural events and sense of freedom from ethnocentric prej- processes are quite differently seen by udices and biases and freedom to explore individuals and groups directly or in- and learn from other cultures and per- directly involved in or concerned with spectives (Parekh). them, what we may expect regarding in- The first move in intercultural edu- terwoven history of our own and other cational reform usually is directed to nations. Each historical or relevant event changes in curriculum. The intercultural has not one but several overlapping his- curriculum should reflect the cultures of tories and is amenable to different nar- various ethnic, cultural, religious, and ratives, all of them more or less partial language groups, the national culture, and biased. Since events and institu- and the global community. Students tions are multifaceted, so it is the truth need to study all of these cultures in about them, and a balanced judgment order to become effective participants on them can only be formed in a con- and decision-makers in a democratic versation between different perspectives. multicultural nation and in the world. One of the central aims of intercultural An intercultural curriculum can not, curriculum should be to equip the stu- understandably, include into its con- dent to participate in such a dialogue. tent all the cultural wealth of the world, Intercultural education is, namely, a way probably not even everything impor- of viewing reality and a way of thinking tant for both a majority and minority and not just content about various eth- cultures in a society. Such an attempt nic, racial, and cultural groups. would result in superficial trivialization The reconstruction of the curriculum of historical events and great people. (with the inclusion of content concern- Therefore, it is necessary to make a se- ing ethnic, religious and language mi- lection, but it should be well balanced norities, women and other deprivileged in terms of representative examples for groups) is important but not a sufficient different cultures. step in the development of a model of There is another important dimension intercultural education. There is a grow- of the reform which is often overlooked, ing agreement among most scholars and namely, the content and conceptual researchers in intercultural (multicul- 146 AEMI JOURNAL 2009 tural) education that, for it to be imple- 4. facilitate constructive societal mented successfully, the whole school change that enhances human dignity climate and environment, with its goals, and democratic ideals (J. Banks). norms and culture, is to be reformed. The final report of the 1992 Interna- The reform should pertain, not only tional Conference on Education in Ge- to the curriculum, but as well as to the neva, Switzerland, pointed out that the teaching materials, teaching and learn- aims of Intercultural Education are: ing styles, the attitudes, perceptions, • the reduction of all forms of exclu- training of teachers, behaviors of teach- sion; ers and administrators, and the interac- • the furthering of integration and tion between school and society. school achievement; School rules and regulations should • the promotion of respect for cul- enhance cross-cultural harmony and un- tural diversity; derstanding among students, staff, and • the promotion of understanding the teachers. In the past, school harmony cultures of others; and was often sought through efforts to • the promotion of international un- ‘treat everyone the same’. Experience in derstanding (Guidelines on Intercultural multiethnic settings, however, indicates Education). that the same treatment for everyone The UNESCO Guidelines on Inter- is unfair to many students. Instead of cultural Education (2006) summarizes insisting on one ideal model of behav- recommendations and suggestions from ior, school policies should recognize and various international documents relat- accommodate individual and cultural ing to intercultural education into three group differences. This does not mean basic principles: that some students should obey school 1. Intercultural education respects the rules and others should not; it means cultural identity of the learner through that cultural and ethnic groups’ behav- the provision of culturally appropriate iors should be honored as long as they and responsive quality education for all. are not inconsistent with major school 2. Intercultural education provides and societal goals (for instance, minority every learner with the cultural knowl- students should be excused if they do not edge, attitudes and skills necessary to attend the class on their religious days). achieve active and full participation in As schools embark on educational society. programs that reflect cultural diversity, 3. Intercultural education provides they should demonstrate a commitment all learners with cultural knowledge, at- to: titudes and skills that enable them to 1. recognize and respect ethnic and contribute to respect, understanding cultural diversity and solidarity among individuals, eth- 2. promote societal cohesiveness nic, social, cultural and religious groups based on the shared participation of and nations. ethnically and cultural diverse peoples; 3. maximize equality of opportunity Intercultural education aims to pro- for all individuals and groups; vide for the kind of knowledge, attitudes, milan mesic 147 and skills needed by today’s young peo- References: ple to function within different cultures in their own society. However, because we live in a highly interdependent glo- Banks, James A. (2006) Cultural Diversity and Education, Fifth Edition, Pearson. bal society, the school should also help Banks, James A. & Cherry A. McGee Banks students develop the attitudes, compe- (eds.) (2007) Multicultural Education, Issues tencies and sensibilities needed to be and Perspectives, Six Edition, University of able to feel at home in culturally diverse Washington, Bothell. contemporary world and be open to Kymlicka, Will (1996) Multicultural Citizenship, A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights, Clarendon the great achievements of humankind. Press – Oxford. Because of their interrelationships and Parekh, Bhikhu (2000) Rethinking Multicultur- shared goals educators should try to re- alism, Cultural Diversity and Political Theory, late multicultural and global education Palgrave. more effectively. Students who can re- Rockefeller, Steven C. (1994) ‘Comment, in: late positively to and function within a A. Gutman (ed.) Multiculturalism, Examining the Politics of Recognition, Princeton Univer- variety of cultures in their own nation sity Press. are also more likely to orientate themselves successfully in cultures in other nations than are individuals who view domestic ethnic cultures as exotic and strange. At the same time, during the process of education the school should not alienate students from their cultural and ethnic attachments but should help them to clarify their cultural and ethnic identities and make them aware of other cultures and ways of life. In short, young people should through intercultural education develop a delicate balance of cultural, national, and global indentifications. Intercultural dialogue has long been a principle supported by the Council of Europe, the UNESCO and the Eu- ropean Union and its institutions. The year 2008 has been designated “Euro- pean Year of Intercultural Dialogue” by the European Parliament and the Member States of the European Union. It aims to draw the attention of people in Europe to the importance of dialogue within diversity and between diverse cultures. The International Network of Migration Institutions: Promoting the Public Understanding of Migration.

Marta Severo

The International Network of Mi- teen different countries. At the end of gration Institutions is a project born the meeting, the participants identified through the collaboration between the the need for creating an international UNESCO and the International Or- network of cultural institutions con- ganisation for Migration (IOM). The cerned with migration with shared prin- project was born in 2006 under the ciples and values, in order to facilitate name of “International Network of Mi- the collaboration through knowledge gration Museums”. Recently, because of exchanges and joint projects. the many new partnerships that we are activating, such as the one with the As- The Migration Museums´ sociation of European Migration Insti- phenomenon tutions (AEMI), we decided to change Before presenting the Network, it is im- our name into “International Network portant to consider the specificity of mi- of Migration Institutions. Promoting gration museums as identified through the public understanding of migration”. the expert meeting. It is this specifi- The Network was founded after an city that makes our project urgent and Expert Meeting on Migration Museums worthwhile. What clearly emerged from organised in Rome in October 2006 by the meeting was a common need to UNESCO and IOM. The goal of the fight fears and discriminations through meeting was exchanging information on actions such as: impacting on image, this new type of museums emerging all perceptions and behaviours; developing around the world. The participants were integration policies based on multicul- thirty experts including the directors of turalism; facilitating intercultural ex- fifteen migration museums or related change; challenging stereotypes through cultural institutions, coming from thir- individual stories; strengthening mi- marta severo 149 grants’ self-esteem especially in second debates and social activities, and offer- and third generations. Memory has ing space and opportunities to young been recognized as a pre-requisite for all artists. these actions, for memory is the foundation of migrants’ identity and the basis The challenges of the Network of cultural exchange with host society. In carrying out their activities, all mi- In particular, the role and power of in- gration museums face similar challenges dividual stories has been underlined. In- such as: fostering both social cohesion dividual stories allow building migrants and cultural diversity; reaching larger cultural identity, deconstructing stereo- audiences; addressing sensitive issues; types and developing empathy between working on new concepts; collborating migrants and host society. Memory is a with communities; cooperating with bridge between the past, the present and other countries and in particular with the future of migration. countries of origin. To cope with these Migration museums are new insti- challenges, the International Network tutions emerging to provide physical of Migration Museums was born on the venues where migrant memories can be initiative of UNESCO (in particular expressed and preserved. Migration mu- the Migration and Multicultural Poli- seums are a worldwide phenomenon. cies Section within the Division of So- United States, Australia, Canada, and cial Sciences). Now the Network has 28 more recently several European coun- members: 18 national institutions from tries have been creating such venues Europe, 7 from other countries and 3 to facilitate transmission between gen- international partners. For each coun- erations as well as encounters between try, the Network tries to identify a rep- migrants and host populations. These resentative institution to serve as focal institutions fulfil the duty to remember point for other actors in the same coun- especially through three main initia- try. Our Network aims at four macro- tives. First, these museums acknowledge goals: the contributions made by migrants to host societies as well as the diversity and 1. To organize joint activities wealth of their origin culture. Second, 2. To extend the Network to coun- they foster a sense of belonging, ena- tries of origin bling communities to feel as an integral 3. To build awareness of migration part of the nation. Third, they develop museums empathy by building awareness of the 4. To facilitate sharing of practices events that induced individuals to leave their countries. 1. Organize joint activities Migration museums not only offer The Network organizes joint activities a venue for conservation, archives and in order to facilitate the exchange of re- exhibitions, but also a lively meeting sources and collections, such as: place, working with communities and − Travelling exhibitions. This activity schools, giving the floor to second and proved to be very successful. The mem- third generations, organizing forums, bers have exchanged several exhibitions 150 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 (such as “Portraits d’Ellis Island, 1905- and journals; 1920. Augustus Frederick Sherman”). − by building an ad hoc website as a Available exhibitions are also promoted platform for advocacy, information and through the website. discussion; − Forums. In particular, in the context − by authoring publications such as of the European Year of Intercultural several articles in international reviews Dialogue (2008), members of the Net- and a special Issue of MUSEUM Inter- work promoted forums in Barcelona, national (May 2007) now translated in Fafe and Paris. English, French and Spanish; − Scientific activities. The Network − by presenting the network in inter- coordinates international calls for con- national meetings and conferences; tributions, publications and training on − by participating in international common challenges. events, such as the European Year of Intercultural Dialogue, international 2. Extend the Network to countries days of the UN system (e.g. World of origin Day for Cultural Diversity and Inter- The partners work to extend the Net- national Migrants’ Day), national part- work, promoting the creation of migra- ners’ events (e.g. inauguration of the tion institutions in the country of origin, French Cité Nationale de l’Histoire de especially in Northern and sub-Saharan l’Immigration in 2007, the ten years of Africa. In particular we are contribut- the Australian Immigration Museum in ing to the development of a migration 2008, and the international conference museum project in Rabat, Morocco. planned with DOMiT, Germany, in the The Network also tries to collaborate European Capital of Culture in 2010). with local experts to develop linkages and joint projects, e.g. exhibitions or 4. Facilitate sharing of practices researches, between host societies or ex- The Network is meant to identify com- isting migration museums and countries mon challenges and good practices and of origin. to spread them among the members. It also disseminates projects, publications, 3. Build awareness of migration news and events that are relevant at in- museums ternational level through its website and The Network aims at building aware- newsletter. The Network participates, ness around the mission of these new through its representatives, in events museums and at contributing to attract organized by migration museums for a wider audience. In order to reach this networking and coordination purposes. goal, our project gives further visibility It also works to mobilize resources that to migration museums: will enable members to implement − by promoting them on the media; shared activities. − by building on existing communication tools such as institutions’ web- The role of the Internet: www. sites, newsletters, printed materials as migrationmuseums.org well as IOM and UNESCO websites One of the principal outputs of the marta severo 151 International Network of Migration web community shall open to a wider Institutions is its web portal: www.mi- audience including the general public grationmuseums.org. This site has been and, above all, the migrants. It will pro- created to offer an online interface to mote the role of migration museums, the Network, to support the activities encourage visitors to contribute to the of migration museums and to facilitate museums’ activities thorough online the interaction among them. The portal interactive tools and facilitate the shar- has been developed after a careful rec- ing of migrant experiences all over the ognition of the best practices already world. existing in the websites of the member Today the web portal provides the institutions. According to our review, following sections: a presentation of the the websites of migration museums ful- Network and its activities; a presenta- fil two main missions. On the one hand, tion page for each museum; a news sec- they gather testimonies, photos, and tion presenting the reports and events other documents essential to preserve signalled by the museums; a catalogue and diffuse the memory of migrations of resources indicated by experts. The (e.g. Museu da Emigração e das Comu- long term objective is to create a unique nidades, AltreItalie, Domit etc.). On database of news, resources and best the other hand, websites have become a practices provided by museums and ex- meeting point where migrants can share perts. In this way, the web portal aims to their experience with the community become a global repository of informa- (e.g. Moving Here, Cité Nationale de tion. Currently, we are also envisaging l’Histoire de l’Immigration, 19 Princelet to add more advanced interactive tools Street). To accomplish these missions, such as a wiki and e-learning instru- websites employ several different types ments. This project, however, is just at of tools, such as virtual spaces (virtual the beginning and needs inputs not only exhibitions or museums); catalogues from the members of the Network but of resources (list of links, publications also from external actors that can help or others); archives; learning tools (for providing resources and best practices or children and adults); tools for “telling simply letting us know their needs. your story” and genealogy tools. The migration museums web portal Future trends: from migration mu- intends to gather the best online prac- seums to migration institutions tices and profit from the experiences of To conclude this paper, let’s consider the the members. In the long run, this ini- future trends that await our Network. tiative is meant to foster the emergence Recently, new actors have been born of a web community around migration (such as the Cité Nationale de l’Histoire themes. Initially and at a first level, such de l’Immigration) and the mandate of community will be addressed to profes- migration institutions is increasingly sionals and will try to build a continuous widening. The migration institutions dialogue and to favour the exchange of phenomenon is becoming more and experiences, best practices and learned more complex and new partnerships are lessons. Later and at a second level, the emerging among universities and gov- 152 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 ernments, communities and associa- the International Network of Migration tions, museums and the private sector. Institutions is to serve as a facilitator, Considering all that, we decided to strengthening the relationships among wider the scope of our project from migrations initiatives. Our aim is not to migration museums to migration institu- become another node in the net, but to tions and to activate partnerships with expand and reinforce the circulation of other networking initiatives, such as people, knowledge and communication the European Association of Migration among the existing actors. Our way to Institutions. In tying new relationships, promote the public understanding of our Network does not wish to duplicate migration is being at the service of the the efforts of its partners, but to facili- growing international movement of mi- tate the sharing of resources and expe- gration institutions and associations. riences among them. The mission of Permanent Study Centre on Emigration – Museum of the Emigrant: The Memory Archive and the Migrants’ Jobs

Noemi Ugolini and Chiara Cardogna

Chairman of the AEMI, est shown by San Marino residents, but Members of the AEMI, also and particularly by non-residents, highlights this strong feeling of belong- Good morning. We would like to express ing. This Archive, which is the jewel of our gratitude for your kind invitation to our Study Centre, is also used by schools take part in the Annual Conference and to conduct researches and recollect the for your warm welcome. historical line of entire generations who We are here today to present the left from their country in seek for work Memory Archive, a networked system and luck in the world. It has been used dedicated to the research and manage- by many young people, visiting our ment of data and documentation on Study Centre, to conduct research into San Marino emigration. This project, past and present memory of their own still in progress, allows San Marino citi- families. Teachers have confirmed that zens resident abroad to cooperate in re- knowledge about distant relatives emi- search, providing documents, which can grated abroad facilitates social cohesion be forwarded by filling in the formv for in classes with pupils from immigrants’ the description of photographs, letters, families. work permits etc. The Chairmen of the 25 San Marino Communities Abroad This computerised archive is divided can access the system using a password, into 8 thematic databases, which are which was given them after signing a constantly updated. The first 5 data- privacy statement regarding all data en- bases contain expatriation documents, tered in the Archive. reflecting more than 100 years of emi- The Memory Archive is also aimed at gration. The last 2 contain respectively promoting social cohesion, in recover- photographs and letters. ing historical memory not only on mi- Let us now take a look at the Archive. gration but also on families and family lines for genealogical research. The inter- 154 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 Database1: San Marino citizens who emigrated to Passports (1923-1962) Italy from 1865 to 1923. Each permit shows personal details, social condition and destination. The emigration permit was a kind of identity document allowing San Marino citizens to emigrate to Italy. In winter, when in San Marino there was a lack of jobs and agriculture was temporarily unproductive, peasants, craftsmen and costermongers used to leave San Marino for Italy. They would leave in autumn and come back in spring, as shown by document issue dates. Database3: Register of expatriation records 1 (1835-1843) and 2 ( 1856-1860) The archive contains more than 1,500 entries from 1835 to 1843 and from The archive contains about 12,000 en- 1856 to 1861. Such data have been tries (plus renewals) with photographs obtained from expatriation records on obtained from passports issued to San migration movements of San Marino Marino citizens (Law on passport issue population to Italy, showing personal n. 23 of 13 August 1923, which replaced details, social condition and destination. all other expatriation documents). The passports are preserved at the Museum Database 4: of the Emigrant and represent an in- STUBS (1868-1923) valuable documentary heritage not only It contains about 6,000 entries ob- for the photographs contained, but also tained from the stubs of the expatriation for other personal documents found in- records (documents necessary to emi- side the passports. Each passport shows grate to European and non European photograph, personal data, social condi- countries from 1868 to 1923).They tion, destination, places of destination, contain personal details, social condi- profession and accompanying family tion and destination, and accompany- members’ names. This is the only data- ing family members’ names. base containing photographs. Database 5: Renewal of stubs Database 2: (1868-1923) Emigration permits (1865-1923) It contains almost 2,000 detailed entries The Emigration Permits Database con- obtained from the requests for renewal tains more than 16,000 entries obtained of the expatriation documents. Stubs from the emigration permits issued to expired after one year. They show tem- noemi ugoline and chiara cardogna 155 porary migration movements, places of destination, profession and accompanying family members’ names. Database 6: Repatriations (1960- 1980) The archive contains about 5,000 entries of citizens repatriated to San Marino between 1960 and 1985. Each entry shows personal details, repatriation year, country of departure. Database 7: Iconographies Conclusion It contains about 2,000 photographs Drawing to the conclusion, we would from late 1800 till mid 1900. The pho- like to present a project. Our objective tographs are catalogued into macro- is to conduct together a networked re- categories (study, ceremony, travel, search project. You may consult the community, work, monuments, leisure project at www.museoemigrante.sm time, school, other purposes). For each under the section “On-line Projects”. photograph place, date, type and donor This project enables all AEMI members are specified. to take part in it uploading their own researches, sharing projects and docu- Database 8: Letters ments. The topic is Migrants’ Jobs and It contains about 200 letters from 1913 the purpose is to create a comprehensive to 1960 catalogued according to the map of emigrants’ jobs. following parameters: date, sender, re- The other idea is to collect, with your ceiver, type (letter, postcard, telegram), cooperation, a large number of docu- subject, place. ments to be published. This publication would certainly enhance the AEMI activities. Taking part in the project is easy and free. Just register and start contributing to the project, uploading and sharing any type of documents related to this topic. The material uploaded in the box will be available only to AEMI members.

The research might be updated giving details of jobs taken up today by immigrants in European countries. If the research is successfully carried out, it might become a useful instrument to 156 AEMI JOURNAL 2008-2009 increase social cohesion. It would help of the box already contains a few to understand that the main reason for job sections entered by us. You may emigration today as well as in the past choose to add new material to these is the need for work and income, and sections or create new sections for that throughout history emigrants have other jobs. In this case access the box always had to take up the humblest jobs control panel and follow the indica- in the hosting country. tions. You are kindly invited to visit the box (To access the reserved research sec- and send your comments and/or suggestion, visit the website of the Museum tions. of the Emigrant at www.museoemi- You may also email the material or grante.sm enter with the password mail a digital copy. We will upload it in and complete registration with your the e-box. Thanks for your attention. personal details. The main page AEMI JOURNAL • VOLUME 6/ 7 • 2008 2009

AEMIJOURNAL

Volume 6/7 • 2008 • 2009