BLACK, BROWN AND POOR: MARTIN LUTHER KING JR., THE POOR PEOPLE’S CAMPAIGN AND ITS LEGACIES by Gordon Keith Mantler Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Charles M. Payne, Supervisor ___________________________ William Chafe ___________________________ Felicia Kornbluh ___________________________ Gunther Peck Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2008 ABSTRACT BLACK, BROWN AND POOR: MARTIN LUTHER KING JR., THE POOR PEOPLE’S CAMPAIGN AND ITS LEGACIES by Gordon Keith Mantler Department of History Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Charles M. Payne, Supervisor ___________________________ William Chafe ___________________________ Felicia Kornbluh ___________________________ Gunther Peck An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School of Duke University 2008 Copyright by Gordon Keith Mantler 2008 Abstract Envisioned by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in 1967, the Poor People’s Campaign (PPC) represented a bold attempt to revitalize the black freedom struggle as a movement explicitly based on class, not race. Incorporating African Americans, ethnic Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, American Indians, and poor whites, the PPC sought a broad coalition to travel to Washington, D.C., and pressure the government to fulfill the promise of the War on Poverty. Because of King’s death and the campaign’s subsequent premature end amid rain-driven, ankle-deep mud and just a few, isolated policy achievements, observers then and scholars since have dismissed the campaign as not only a colossal failure, but also the death knell of the modern freedom struggle. Using a wide range of sources – from little-used archives and Federal Bureau of Investigation files to periodicals and oral histories – this project recovers the broader significance of the campaign. Rejecting the paradigm of success and failure and placing the PPC in the broader context of the era’s other social movements, my analysis opens the door to the larger complexity of this pivotal moment of the 1960s. By highlighting the often daunting obstacles to building an alliance of the poor, particularly among blacks and ethnic Mexicans, this study prompts new questions. How do poor people emancipate themselves? And why do we as scholars routinely expect poor people to have solidarity across racial and ethnic lines? In fact, the campaign did spark a tentative but serious conversation on how to organize effectively across these barriers. But the PPC also assisted other burgeoning social movements, such as the Chicano movement, find their own voices on the national scene, iv build activist networks, and deepen the sophistication of their own power analyses, especially after returning home. Not only does this project challenge the continued dominance of a black-white racial framework in historical scholarship, it also undermines the civil rights master narrative by exploring activism after 1968. In addition, it recognizes the often- competing, ethnic-driven social constructions of poverty, and situates this discussion at the intersection of the local and the national. v Contents Abstract.................................................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgments..............................................................................................................................vii Abbreviations........................................................................................................................................x Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................1 1. Prologue to the PPC: Interethnic Organizing and the Cold War...........................................24 2. The Road to Washington: Poverty, Peace and SCLC’s Challenge ........................................88 3. Chicanos in the Capital: Interethnic Efforts, Intra-Ethnic Gains ....................................... 158 4. Indians, Whites and Puerto Ricans: The ‘Forgotten’ Marchers ........................................... 229 5. ‘Framing’ the Movement: Mass Media, Class and the Campaign........................................ 293 6. Lessons Learned, Contacts Made: Legacies and Making the 1970s .................................... 349 Epilogue............................................................................................................................................ 422 Appendix .......................................................................................................................................... 428 Bibliography..................................................................................................................................... 430 Biography.......................................................................................................................................... 462 vi Acknowledgments Similar to a social justice movement, a dissertation is the product of many people. While my name might be most prominent, a project like this could not have been accomplished without the ideas, energy, and enthusiasm of many individuals that have touched my life over the last several years. Any errors here are mine alone, of course, but I wanted to acknowledge those who made a difference – large and small – in this creation. First, I am thankful to those men and women who shared with me their stories, experiences, and memorabilia from forty years ago. They did not have to return a stranger’s phone calls or invite me into their homes and offices, but they did. I am honored that they would trust me enough to attempt to relate their stories, and I hope I did them justice. Secondly, I want to thank my advisor Charles Payne and committee members Bill Chafe, Felicia Kornbluh, and Gunther Peck. Their unwavering support for this project and their thoughtful feedback made the entire process far easier. I am particularly grateful for Charles’ guidance. Five years ago, I approached him with a vague project about interethnic, class-based collaboration in post-World War II America, and he suggested the Poor People’s Campaign as a good place to start. Clearly, that was a good idea. A whole host of scholars and colleagues at Duke and the University of South Florida have helped shape my thinking and writing about U.S. social movement history. Christina Greene and Ray Arsenault deserve a special mention for introducing me to a new generation of scholarship on the African American freedom struggle and its emphasis on the grassroots. Others include Sally Deutsch, John French, Bob Ingalls, Ray Gavins, Thavolia Glymph, Bob vii Korstad, Gary Mormino, John Thompson, and Tim Tyson. I am particularly grateful to members of my two dissertation writing groups at Duke, who read many a rough draft and always gave constructive support: Erica Edwards, Alisha Gaines, Reena Goldthree, Steve Inrig, Amy Johnson, Kelly Kennington, Sebastian Lukasik, Kennetta Perry, Phil Rubio, and LaNitra Walker. My gratitude also goes out to a larger community of scholars, writers, and teachers who through conversations, conferences, and more than a beer or two made a difference: Anne-Marie Angelo, Lauren Araiza, Brian Behnken, Tressa Berman, Tim Black, Rob Chase, Ernie Chávez, David Cline, Daniel Cobb, Caitlin Crowell, John Dittmer, Kate Ellis, Dionne Espinoza, Mitch Fraas, Katharine French-Fuller, Bryan Gilmer, Anne Gollin, Laurie Green, Lisa Hazirjian, Tom Kiffmeyer, Nick Kotz, Max Krochmal, Ian Lekus, Chuck McKinney, Jerry McKnight, Brian Murray, Lorena Oropeza, Laura Pulido, Jim Ralph, Jacob Remes, Marc Rodriguez, Liz Shesko, Henry Sommerville, Scott Tang, Kerry Taylor, Orion Teal, Mike Weisel, and Kale Williams. As the son of two librarians, I would be greatly negligent if I did not thank the many archivists who demonstrated a deep knowledge of their collections and patiently helped me sift through finding aides and photocopy request slips. They include: Elaine Hall and Cynthia Lewis at the King Center; Joellen ElBashir and Ida Jones at Howard’s Moorland- Spingarn Research Center; Ann Massmann and Rose Diaz at the Center for Southwest Research; Lesley Martin of the Chicago Historical Society; Allen Fisher of the Johnson Presidential Library; Don Davis of the American Friends Service Committee; Wendel Cox at Denver Public Library; Nurah-Rosalie Jeter of the Schomburg Center; and Karen Jean Hunt at Duke. viii Funding from the American Council of Learned Societies, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, the Johnson Presidential Library, and several entities at Duke made this dissertation an on-time endeavor. I know I would not be a historian today without the love and guidance of my parents, Ed and Judy Mantler. More than anyone else, they instilled me with a deep respect for understanding and grappling with the past. While many parents took their kids to Disney World, the Mantler trio went to as many battlefields, old houses, and random museums as possible. Other than that one time I nearly passed out from the heat in the Munroe Tavern in Lexington, Mass., I loved every minute of our historical journeys. Last to mention but first in my heart is my partner and soul