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America at War World War I: People, Politics, and Power Published in 2010 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Copyright © 2010 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2010 Rosen Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services. For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932. First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition William L. Hosch: Associate Editor, Science and Technology Rosen Educational Services Hope Lourie Killcoyne: Senior Editor and Project Manager Maggie Murphy: Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Matthew Cauli: Designer Introduction by Julie Smith Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data World War I: people, politics, and power / edited by William L. Hosch. p. cm.—(America at war) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-61530-048-8 (eBook) 1. World War, 1914–1918—Juvenile literature. I. Hosch, William L. II. Title: World War 1. III. Title: World War One. D522.7.W68 2010 940.3—dc22 2009033707 On the cover: Trench warfare, in which opposing forces sacrifice mobility for some degree of protection, reached its highest development on the Western Front during World War I. In this 1916 photo, British troops “go over the top” during the First Battle of the Somme. Popperfoto/Getty Images 43 CONTENTS Introduction 8 Chapter 1: The Roots of World War I 17 Industrialism and Imperialism 19 The Triple Entente 24 The Road to War 26 Crisis in the Balkans 29 Chapter 2: The Outbreak of War 38 Inital Military Forces and Resources 38 Naval Forces 40 Machine Guns and Modern Artillery 48 Tanks 51 88 Chemical Weapons 53 Air Power 54 Chapter 3: The Initial Stages of the War 61 Initial Strategies 61 The War in the West Begins 65 Other Fronts 73 Chapter 4: The Stalemate Years Begin 84 Major Developments in 1915 84 Major Developments in 1916 98 Major Developments in 1917 111 Chapter 5: The Stalemate Breaks, 1918 134 Germany Regroups to Attack in the West 134 Other Developments 140 The Allies Launch the Final Attack on the Western Front 147 115 Chapter 6: Political Leaders 154 Austro-Hungarian Empire 154 Britain 155 France 158 Germany 160 Italy 161 Ottoman Empire 162 Russia 163 United States 167 179 Chapter 7: Military Commanders 173 Entente Powers 173 Central Powers 198 Chapter 8: Casualties of War 217 The War Guilt Question 218 Glossary 226 Bibliography 228 Index 230 196 221 INTRODUCTION Introduction | 9 four-year war, running from 1914 to Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria. A 1918, World War I left 10 million On June 28, 1914, the Archduke, heir to people dead, 21 million people wounded, the Austrian throne, and his wife, Sophie, and nearly 8 million missing or impris- duchess of Hohenberg, were shot and killed oned. While it was neither the biggest in the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo by a nor the most deadly war in history, this 19-year-old Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip. war, sometimes referred to as the Great The assassination of the Archduke War, is still being researched and written changed everything, moving Austria- about nearly 100 years later. Beyond the Hungary toward all-out war. Initially, 39 million people directly aff ected by this the Austrian government ordered only epic struggle, empires were toppled, rev- an investigation into the assassination, olutions incited, and the seeds of another but behind the scenes the Habsburg global war sewn. monarchy obtained German support for The eff ects of the Great War were felt retaliation against Serbia. Though the far and wide and lasted years after the assassin and his companions were resi- fi ghting had stopped. Some scholars argue dents of Bosnia and therefore subjects of that these eff ects—notably what Germans the Habsburgs, the Austrian government viewed as the fi nancially punitive aspects alleged that the assassination plot was of the Versailles Treaty—led to the begin- conceived in Belgrade with the assistance nings of World War II. Within the pages of of Serbian offi cials. this book, readers will fi nd a robust schol- Less than a month later, the Habsburg arship surrounding the roots of World offi cials presented Serbia with an ultima- War I, the strategic battles and alliances, tum, to which Serbian offi cials responded the key political and military leaders, the within 48 hours. They accepted all but one all-important introduction of technology demand. Austrian leaders broke off rela- onto the battlefi eld, and the geopolitical tions and declared war on July 28, 1914. ramifi cations of the Great War. Austro-Hungarian forces began to Early in 1914, the advent of industrial- attack Belgrade the next day, which led ization and increasingly complex trade Russia to order a mobilization against issues made international politics tense Austria-Hungary. This action led Ger- for the imperial governments involved, many, Austria-Hungary’s ally, to issue but war was not considered inevitable. ultimatums. Germany demanded that The spark that lit the fuse of the Great Russia halt mobilization, and that France War was the assassination of one man, remain neutral, should war be declared German soldiers, wearing their distinctive Pickelhaube helmets, practice maneuvers as they prepare for war in June 1914. Topical Press Agency/Hulton Archive/Getty Images 10 | World War I: People, Politics, and Power between Germany and Russia. France the summer of 1914 that this conflict and Russia ignored the German demands, would grow from a clash among which brought about both Germany’s Europeans to a long, drawn-out total war order for mobilization against Russia as involving belligerents from six of the well as France’s initial mobilization seven continents, inflicting carnage and against Germany. Germany then threat- devastation on a scale the world had ened Belgium, demanding free passage never seen. through that country to France. In the initial stages of the Great War, the The conflict that would embroil the Allies had clear advantages—industrially, world began in the first week of August demographically, and militarily. And 1914, when Germany declared war on though the United States was still neutral France, and well-trained and disciplined at this point, the young nation supported German troops invaded Belgium. Great the Allies. Britain, which had no reason to support But the Allies’ advantages notwith- Serbia, Russia, or France, was obligated standing, there was no denying the to defend Belgium, which led them to superior training of the German army, declare war on Germany that same long feared by many other nations. Ger- week. With lightning-fast speed, Austria- man military leaders were considered Hungary declared war against Russia, some of the best in the world at the Japan, and Belgium; Serbia and Japan beginning of the 20th century. In an declared war against Germany; Montenegro effort to ally themselves against the declared war against Austria-Hungary perceived threat of the German army, in and Germany; and France and Great 1904 France and Britain had signed the Britain declared war against Austria- Entente Cordiale. The two countries then Hungary. This rush to war all happened began to include Russia in negotiations, by the end of the month. which became known as the Triple As alliances were solidified, the war Entente. Once the negotiations began was divided into the Central Powers: with Russia, Germany began to fear mainly Austria-Hungary, Germany, and attack from the three allied countries, Turkey; and the Allies: mainly France, prompting them to plan for that military Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and Japan eventuality. In 1904, in answer to the Ger- (later joined by the United States). man government’s concern surrounding Patriotic fervour was running high the Triple Entente, German Army Chief at the outset of the war, creating an of Staff Alfred von Schleiffen was tasked intense feeling of “right against might” with developing a plan to counter a that propelled Europeans to support joint attack. their home countries through the war’s His plan, known as the Schlieffen Plan, infancy. No one could have known in became the key German strategy for the Introduction | 11 German infantrymen stream through a field as they invade France in November 1914. Popperfoto/Getty Images beginning of World War I. The Schlieff en though, the Germans were held up by the Plan revolved around the swift defeat of Belgian army, and were further stunned France, which would give Great Britain by the speedy Russian advance into East and Russia pause, especially given the Prussia. Germany was also taken aback prolonged period of time Germany by the quick arrival of the British into believed it would take the Russians to France and Belgium. organize their large army. The strategy The First Battle of the Marne, the fi rst called for France’s surrender before major battle of the Western Front of the Russian mobilization could take place. war, was fought in September 1914. It During the fi rst days of August 1914, established the trench warfare with which the Schlieff en Plan was put into operation, World War I would become indelibly with Germany rushing into Belgium, a linked. As the Germans advanced into neutral country. Much to their surprise France, coming within 30 miles of Paris, 12 | World War I: People, Politics, and Power the French army commander, Joseph The Allies were divided on how to Joff re, decided that the best form of break the deadlock.
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