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Gendering Migration from Africa to Spain: Literary Representations of Masculinities and Femininities

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Gendering Migration from Africa to Spain: Literary Representations of Masculinities and Femininities GENDERING MIGRATION FROM AFRICA TO SPAIN: LITERARY REPRESENTATIONS OF MASCULINITIES AND FEMININITIES A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Graduate School At the University of Missouri In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy By CHAD MONTUORI Dr. Michael Ugarte, Dissertation Supervisor MAY 2011 © Copyright by Chad Montuori 2011 All Rights Reserved The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled GENDERING MIGRATION FROM AFRICA TO SPAIN: ! LITERARY REPRESENTATIONS OF MASCULINITIES AND FEMINITIES! Presented by Chad Montuori A candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy! And hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Professor Michael Ugarte Professor Flore Zéphir Professor Tola Olu Pearce _____________________________________________________________ Professor Mamadou Badiane _____________________________________________________________ Professor Iván Reyna DEDICATION Never has the importance of family been as apparent to me as during my pursuit of a PhD. I am convinced that I would have never managed to make this happen had it not been for their presence. I dedicate this dissertation to them. To my mother and father, I thank you for always making time in your schedule so I could escape to write for an hour or two or three or four. To my beautiful wife, Kira, who always found the right thing to say during all the tough times, this is for you. You never stopped believing that things would work out and eventually they did. To Paul and Hillary, who despite the distance that separated us, always made me feel like what I was doing mattered. And finally, I dedicate this work to my three remarkable children, Blaize, Milana, and Rocco. When I embarked on this journey six years ago, these three little people had yet to join us. They have hit the ground running and have wasted little time in making this world a better place. They’ll never know how meaningful it was to come home to a hug and kiss after a frustrating day of writing. May they someday pick up this dissertation and realize that what daddy was doing all those weekend afternoons was worth it! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS None of this would have been possible had I not met with Dr. Flore Zephir on a Sunday evening in the fall of 2005 to discuss the possibility of enrolling in the PhD program. Just as she has done so many times in my academic career, Dr. Zephir provided encouraging words that evening which went a long way in making me believe I could do it. I would also like to thank the other members of my committee who took the time to provide me valuable feedback and guidance that I know will make me a more complete scholar. It is also important for me to acknowledge Professor Emeritus Magdalena Garcia-Pinto for always pushing me to delve a little deeper and think a little harder and clearer about literature. Finally, a very special thanks to my dissertation adviser, Dr. Michael Ugarte for caring about not only my work, but about me as a person. It is rare to find a professor who values his advising responsibilities as much as Dr. Ugarte. The patience and compassion you showed me will never be forgotten. ! " " " " !!" " TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………ii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………iv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………............................ .1 2. THE LITERARY WORK OF DONATO NDONGO PART ONE: “El sueño”……………………………………………………..24 PART TWO: El metro.………………………………………………………41 3. “Emigración”.………………………………………………………………..74 4. El último patriarca………………………………………………………….96 5. Hope and Other Dangerous Pursuits……………………………………….121 6. Leaving Tangier……………………………………………………………..148 CONCLUDING REMARKS……………………………………………………….175 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………. 179 VITA………………………………………………………………………...............186 " " " " " " !!!" " GENDERING MIGRATION FROM AFRICA TO SPAINS: LITERARY REPRESENTATIONS OF MASCULINITIES AND FEMINITIES Chad Montuori Dr. Michael Ugarte, Dissertation Supervisor ABSTRACT This dissertation argues that recent literary representations of migration from Africa to Spain — composed by African authors — hold the potential to create alternative visions of gender, identity, and the nation. I analyze the work of a variety of African writers—Donato Ndongo’s short story “El sueño” (1973) and novel El metro (2007), Maximiliano Nkogo’s short story “Emigración” (2000), Najat El Hachmi’s novel El último patriarca (2008), Laila Lalami’s novel Hope and Other Dangerous Pursuits (2005), and Tahar Ben Jelloun’s novel Leaving Tangier (2008) — to demonstrate how gender and migration intersect to shatter any fixed notion of the African migrant experience. While these authors depict African migrant characters from Senegal, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, and Morocco, they all share the same place of destination: Spain. The migratory journey from Africa to Spain becomes a space where normative notions of gender and sexuality are contested. Informed by postcolonial and gender theory, my work seeks to shed light on a number of questions related to gender and migration: How are the traditional gender norms strengthened or interrogated in these literary narratives? How do these representations challenge masculine hegemony by presenting alternative images of masculinity and femininity? Finally, what larger implications do these visions of masculinity and femininity have on the nation? In order to answer these research questions, each chapter !"# # focuses on the following themes: the role African gender relations play in the decision making process, the existence of gendered social networks; how the migratory journey reconfigures or reaffirms gender roles, and how the return of the migrant is a gendered performance of masculinity. My analysis reveals how each author creates subversive gendered identities, which emerge from the migratory experience, that contradict the normative discourse in Spain surrounding the phenomenon. !" " CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Each of us, helplessly and forever contains the other — male in female, female in male, white in black and black in white. We are a part of each other. ---James Baldwin, The Price of the Ticket The death of General Francisco Franco in 1975 accelerated Spain’s entry into the modern consumer economy and forced previously marginalized groups into the workplace. Spain, at this time, was still largely a country of emigration, and not immigration. Suddenly, however, migrant workers played a large role in responding to the challenge that faced the country after forty years of oppression. Franco’s dream of establishing a homogeneous nation-state crumbled vis á vis the monetarized cultural values of the society. With other countries in the region closing their borders to migrants, Spain quickly transformed itself into one of the primary receiving countries for migrants pursuing the European dream of wealth and prosperity. Acceptance into the European Community in 1986 hastened Spain’s conversion from a country of closed borders and ostensible homogeneity, to one of economic potential. In recent years, the transition from sending to receiving country has been drastic. According to the National Institute of Statistics, from 1992-2009, the number of foreign residents has risen from 400,000 to 5.6 million, or 11 percent of the population. Because of the geographic proximity to Africa, there has been a surge in the number of immigrants from North and West Africa who have settled in Spain. Recent data from the National Institute of the Statistics suggests that Africans comprise 20 percent of the foreign population in the country. Due to the historical and cultural ties that bind Spain with Africa, this high percentage of migrants is not surprising. As Paul Gilroy aptly states in Postcolonial Melancholia, “The postcolonial migrant is rooted in the imperial past and is now here because Europe, was once out there. They carry all the ambivalence of empire with them” (89). Spain, “was once out there,” expanding into Equatorial Guinea and Morocco during a nineteenth century that saw a shift in their colonial project away from the Americas to Africa. The colonial doctrine of the Spanish, French, and other European nations sought to strip the colonized of their humanity by creating uniform categories of race, gender, and class. The Manichean discourse of colonialism created an ambivalent struggle within the colonized, a complex that Frantz Fanon analyzes in Black Skin, White Masks when he states in the introduction: “White civilization and European culture have forced an existential deviation on the Negro” (14). The vestiges of this colonial division and condition continue to haunt the former colonized as they struggle to break free of the fixed marks of gendered, racial, and class identities. The migration of millions of Africans to Spain has only increased the intensity of this internal struggle and created a dilemma for both the former colonized and colonizer. In an effort to accommodate the surge in migration from Africa, Spain has undertaken an effort to establish labor plans like the one adopted in 2007 with the Senegalese government. The program seeks to bring hundreds of Senegalese workers to Spain on one year work visas, with the option of extending the stay. Senegal is not the only West African country with whom Spain is trying to establish a partnership. 2 Investments have been made with Gambia, Mali, and Mauritania to train future workers to find employment in Spain. Additionally, Spain is seeking to
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