A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF ENGLISH AS A LANGUAGE OF

INSTRUCTION ON LEARNERS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN

A NON-LINGUISTIC SUBJECT (MATHEMATICS) AT PRIMARY

LEVEL

By

Saira Maqbool

Ph.D Scholar in English Linguistics

Supervised By

Prof. Dr. Mumana Ghani

Chairperson, Department of English

Dean, Faculty of Arts

Department of English

The Islamia University of Bahawalpur

2016 ABSTRACT

The study sought to explore possibilities whether English can replace Urdu as language of instruction and if it can, to what extent it can be an effectiveness medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics at primary level in Pakistan. The aim was to compare English as a language of instruction with Urdu as language of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics to grade 4 class. The other objective was to examine people‘s attitudes towards English as medium of instruction in the teaching and learning generally and for the teaching of Mathematics in particular in Pakistan. A practical teaching experiment was conducte to explore the effectiveness of English as language of instruction for teaching and learning Mathematics at grade 4 level. In addition a descriptive survey research design which used questionnaires and interviews as data collection methods was employed. 640 participants were consulted for this research. Amongst these there were 80 grade 4 learners (used in the teaching experiment), 250 teachers and 250 parents (used for questionnaire) and 60 respondents (for interviews). The data collected was analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively resulting in data triangulation for validation. Major findings of the research indicated that the use of Urdu as a medium of instruction in the teaching of

Mathematics to primary school children is more realistic and its use impacted positively the teaching of Mathematics as compared to English language. The learners who used Urdu performed better than those who used English as a medium of instruction. However the research further explored that parents preferred English to be the only medium of instruction from primary up to university level as English offers them better opportunities for employment compared to Urdu. The study concluded that Mathematics is a non-linguistic and technical subject. Grasping Mathematical concepts is already difficult for students. The government‘s recent decision (Education Policy 2014) about the conversion of teaching

Mathematics from Urdu to English medium from grade 4 class would have a negative effect on students‘ achievement. The study finally recommends that the government should revert the policy of implementing English as a medium of instruction for the teaching and learning of Mathematics at primary level. It also recommends the need for an awareness programme for parents about the importance of indigenous languages for the learners at primary level especially for the teaching of any technical subject such as Mathematics.

Key Terms: Language planning; language policy and development; language; mathematics; indigenous languages and empowerment; foreign language instruction; national language instruction; socio-cultural and economic development; official language; medium of instruction

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ...... ii

CHAPTER 1 ...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Statement of the Problem ...... 8 1.2 Aim of the Study ...... 9 1.3 Objective of the Research ...... 10 1.4 Research Questions ...... 10 1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 11 1.6 Research Methodology ...... 12 1.6.1 Research Instruments ...... 13 1.6.2 Validity & Reliability ...... 19 1.6.3 Population of the Study ...... 20 1.6.4 Sampling ...... 20 1.7 Collection of Data ...... 22 1.8 Analysis of Data ...... 22 1.9 Delimitation of the Study ...... 23 1.10 Definition of Terms ...... 23 1.10.1 Language ...... 23 1.10.2 Language Planning ...... 24 1.10.3 Official Language ...... 24 1.10.4 National Language ...... 24 1.10.5 Mother Tongue ...... 24 1.10.6 Status Planning ...... 25 1.10.7 Corpus Planning...... 25 1.10.8 Medium of Instruction ...... 25 1.11 Conclusion ...... 26

CHAPTER 2 ...... 27

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ...... 27

2.1 Introduction ...... 27 2.2 What is Language ...... 28 2.3 Pakistani Languages ...... 32 2.1.1 Punjabi ...... 33 2.3.1 Sindhi ...... 34 2.3.2 Balochi ...... 34 2.3.3 Pashto ...... 35 2.3.4 English ...... 35 2.4 Perpetuation of Social Inequalities ...... 41 2.5 Language Death ...... 41 2.6 Medium of Instruction in Pakistan ...... 42 2.7 Global Perspective of Language Policy ...... 47 2.8 Languages Policies & Planning in Pakistan ...... 47 2.9 Historical Background ...... 49 2.9.1 Medium of Instruction Controversy Pre-partition (1835-1947) ...... 49 2.9.2 Medium of Instruction Controversy after Independence (1947-1971) ...... 51 2.9.3 Medium Of Instruction Controversy after the Separation East Pakistan (1971-2015) ...... 54 2.10 The Role of Language in Education ...... 60 2.11 Language and Medium of Instruction...... 61 2.12 Indigenous Pakistani Language Preparedness for Use in Education ...... 64 2.13 Language Policy in Education ...... 66 2.14 The Role of Indigenous Languages in Pakistan ...... 68 2.15 Use of Indigenous Languages Instruction in Pakistan Primary Schools ...... 72 2.16 Attitudes of Teachers on the Use of Urdu as a Medium of Instruction in Schools ...... 73 2.17 Learner Attitudes towards English Language ...... 74 2.18 Community and Parental Attitudes towards English Languages Instruction ...... 74 2.19 Empowerment of Pakistan Languages through their Use in Teaching and Learning Situation ...... 75 2.20 English in Pakistan: Social Roles and Status in Public Education ...... 78 2.21 Status and Position of English in Social Domains of Pakistan ...... 78 2.22 English in Government Schools in Pakistan ...... 81 2.23 Education Sector Reforms (ESR) ...... 84 2.24 Controversy Stirred by the Medium of Instruction Issue ...... 86 2.25 Current and Projected Status of English in the Government Schools in the National Education Policy (NEP) 2009 ...... 87 2.26 Governments‘/Policymakers‘ Justifications and Rationales for English Medium Education ...... 92 2.27 Content-based Instruction (CBI) and Immersion Education Perspectives ...... 94 2.28 The Teaching of Mathematics in Primary Schools ...... 97 2.29 Conclusion ...... 98

Chapter 3 ...... 100

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 100

3.1 Introduction ...... 100 3.2 Theoretical Framework ...... 100 3.2.1 Language Planning ...... 101 3.2.2 Status Planning ...... 105 3.2.3 Corpus Planning...... 106 3.2.4 Acquisition Planning ...... 107 3.2.5 Orientations of Planning ...... 108 3.2.6 Stages of Language Planning ...... 110 3.3 The Research Methodology ...... 112 3.4 The Research Design ...... 113 3.4.1 Population and Sampling ...... 114 3.5 Data Collection Instruments ...... 117 3.5.1 The Practical Teaching Experiment ...... 117 3.5.2 The Questionnaires ...... 119 3.5.3 Interviews ...... 121 3.6 Data Collection Procedure ...... 123 3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation Procedure ...... 124 3.8 Conclusion ...... 124

Chapter 4 ...... 126

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 126

4.1 Introduction ...... 126 4.2 Data Presentation ...... 127 4.2.1 Demographic Information about the Learners Involved in Practical Teaching ...... 128 4.2.2 Gender Wise Distribution of the Sample ...... 128 4.2.3 Data Analysis of the Practical Teaching ...... 147 4.2.3.1 Data Analysis of the Experiment on Group-I ...... 147 4.2.3.2 Results of the Exercises Given to Group-I ...... 149 4.2.3.3 Data Analysis of Experimental Group-II ...... 152 4.2.3.4 Results of the Exercises given to Group-II during the Practical Teaching .. 155 4.3.1 Comparison of the Performance of the Learners using Groups Average Marks . 157 4.3 Findings from the Questionnaire ...... 174 4.3.1 Background Information of the Parents and Teachers ...... 174 4.3.1.1 Distribution of Respondents by Gender ...... 174 4.3.1.2 Distribution of Respondents by Age ...... 177 4.3.1.3 Level of Education of Teachers ...... 179 4.3.1.4 Education of Parents ...... 184 4.3.2 Responses from Questionnaires of Teachers and Parents ...... 186 4.3.2.1 The Language(s) that Respondents Use in the Societal Contact at Large ... 186 4.4.2.2 What is the name of your mother tongue? ...... 188 4.4.2.3 What language(s) do teachers use to teach Mathematics as a subject in your/your children‘s school? ...... 190 4.4.2.4 What language(s) do you think should be used as language(s) of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics in primary schools? ...... 193 4.4.2.5 Should English be Introduced as a Medium of Instruction at Primary Level? ...... 195 4.4.2.7 Whether the use of Urdu can Bring Better Cooperation and Coordination between School and the Community? ...... 199 4.4.2.8 Which Language(s) is Likely to give you Power and Prestige in Pakistan if you speak it? ...... 200 4.4.2.10 Responses on the Reasons why Urdu language is likely to give power and prestige in Pakistan if one speaks it ...... 203 4.4.2.11 Responses on the Link of Urdu Language linked with the Social, Economic and Scientific Development ...... 204 4.4.2.12 Responses on Urdu‘s Ability to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts ...... 206 4.4.2.13 Reasons why Urdu may not be Able to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts in Teaching ...... 208 4.4.2.14 Reasons why Urdu is able to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts in Teaching of Mathematics ...... 209 4.4.2.15 Responses on the Capability of Urdu to be Developed to Express Educational and Scientific Ideas in Teaching...... 210 4.4.2.16 Would You be Happy if all Subjects from Primary to University Level were Studied while Using Urdu Language as a Medium of Instruction? .... 212 4.4.2.17 Reasons why respondents were happy/unhappy if all subjects from primary to university level were studied while using Urdu language as a medium of instruction...... 213 4.4 Findings from Interviews ...... 215 4.4.1 Parents Interviews ...... 217 4.4.2 Teachers ...... 223 4.5 Conclusion ...... 230

Chapter 5 ...... 232

FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 232

5.1 Introduction ...... 232 5.2 Research Summary ...... 233 5.3 Analysis of the Research Findings ...... 238 5.3.1 Findings from the Practical Experiment ...... 238 5.3.1.1 Group-I: Using Urdu as a Medium of Instruction for Learning Mathematics ...... 239 5.3.1.2 Group-II: Using English as a Medium of Instruction in Learning Mathematics ...... 241 5.3.1.3 Comparison of the Performance of Group-I and Group-II Learners in the Practical Teaching Experiment ...... 242 5.4 Instruction in the English Language ...... 243 5.5 Attitudes Towards the Use of Urdu as a Language of Instruction in Education .... 246 5.5.1 Parents ...... 249 5.5.2 Teacher ...... 250 5.6 Benefits of Using Urdu as a Medium of Instruction ...... 251 5.7 Developing Urdu for Use in Education ...... 252 5.8 Conclusion ...... 253 5.8.1 The feasibility of Using English as a Medium of Instruction in the Teaching of Mathematics in Primary Schools ...... 253 5.8.2 Comparative Analysis of the Use of English and Urdu to Teach Mathematics at the Primary Level ...... 254 5.8.3 The Socio-economic Advantages of Using Urdu as an Official Medium of Instruction in Education ...... 254 5.8.4 People‘s Attitudes Towards the Use of Urdu as a Language of Instruction in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics in Primary Schools ...... 255 5.9 Recommendations ...... 257

REFERENCES ...... 260

APPENDICES ...... 275

APPENDIX A ...... 275 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS ...... 275 APPENDIX B ...... 281 INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS ...... 281 APPENDIX C ...... 282 Teaching Programme for Teaching Group-II ...... 282 APPENDIX D ...... 287 Teaching Programme for Teaching Group-I ...... 287 APPENDIX E ...... 291 PRE-TEST FOR TEACHING BOTH GROUPS ...... 291 APPENDIX-F ...... 293 PRE-TEST FOR TEACHING GROUP-I ...... 293 APPENDIX-G ...... 295 PRE-TEST FOR TEACHING GROUP-II ...... 295 APPENDIX-G ...... 297 EXERCISES FOR GROUP-I ...... 297 APPENDIX-H ...... 299 EXERCISES FOR GROUP-II ...... 299 List of Tables

Table 2.1: Language Situation in Post-colonial Pakistan ...... 67 Table 2.2: Historical Background of the Language Situation in Pakistan ...... 82 Table 2.3: Future Bilingual Educational Scenario in/of Pakistan ...... 91 Table 2.4: Continuum of Content and Language Integration ...... 96 Table 3.1: Federal capital for both teachers and parents ...... 116 Table 4.1: Gender Wise Distribution of Sample (N=80) ...... 128 Table 4.1: Distribution of the Students by their Mother Tongue (N=80) ...... 134 Table 4.3: Distribution of the Sample by the Language they can Understand/Speak ...... 141 Table 4.4: Results of the Pre-test and Post-test for Group-I (N=20) ...... 147 Table 4.5: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-I ...... 149 Table 4.6: Results of the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-II (N=20) ...... 152 Table 4.7: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-II during the Practical Teaching (N=20)...... 155 Table 4.8: The Average Marks for the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-I and Group-II ...... 157 Table 4.9: Distribution of Respondents by Gender (N=500) ...... 175 Table 4.10: Distribution of Respondents by Age (N=500)...... 177 Table 4.11: Level of Education of Teachers (N = 250) ...... 182 Table 4.12: Level of Education of Parents (N=250)...... 184 Table 4.13: Languages that Respondents Speak in the Society at large (500) ...... 187 Table 4.14: The Responses on the Mother Tongue of Respondents (500) ...... 188 Table 4.15: Language(s) that Teachers Use to Teach Mathematics at Primary Level (N=500)...... 190 Table 4.16: Responses for Language(s) that Should be Used as Language(s) of Instruction in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics in Primary schools (N=500)...... 193 Table 4.17: Responses on whether English should be Introduced as a Medium of Instruction at Primary Level (N=500) ...... 195 Table 4.18: Responses on whether medium of education should completely be switched to Urdu (N=500) ...... 197 Table 4.19: Responses on Whether can Bring Better Cooperation and Coordination between School and Community (N=500)...... 199 Table 4.20: Responses on Which Language(s) is Likely to Give You Power and Prestige in Pakistan (N=500) ...... 201 Table 4.21: Reasons why English language is likely to give you power and prestige in Pakistan if you speak it? ...... 202 Table 4.22: Reasons why Urdu Language is Likely to Give Power & Prestige in Pakistan if one Speak it ...... 203 Table 4.23: Responses on the Positive Link of Urdu to the Social, Economic and Scientific Development of a Nation (N=500) ...... 204 Table 4.24: Responses on the Urdu‘s Potential to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts(N=500) ...... 206 Table 4.25: Reasons why Urdu may not be Able to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts in Teaching ...... 208 Table 4.26: Reasons why Urdu is able to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts in Teaching of Mathematics ...... 209 Table 4.27: Responses on Urdu to be developed to express educational and scientific ideas? (N=500)...... 210 Table 4.28: Responses on whether all Subjects from Primary to University level were to be Studied while Using Urdu as a Medium of Instruction (N=500) ...... 212

List of Figures

Figure 4.1: Gender Wise Distribution of the Sample ...... 129 Figure 4.2: Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners by their Mother Tongue ...... 136 Figure 4.3: Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners by the Language they could Understand/Speak ...... 142 Figure 4.4: Results of the Pre- and Post-tests of Group-I Learners ...... 148 Figure 4.5: Scores of the Exercises Given to Grade 4 Learners During the Practical Teaching ...... 151 Figure 4.6: Marks in the Pre-test and the Post-test of Group-II ...... 154 Figure 4.7: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-II During the Practical Teaching ..... 156 Figure 4.8: Graph for the Average Marks in the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-I and Group-II ...... 158 Figure 4.9: Distribution of Respondents by Gender (N=500) ...... 177 Figure 4.10: Distribution of Respondents According to Age ...... 179 Figure 4.11: Distribution of the Teachers According to Education ...... 183 Figure 4.12: Distributions of Parents According to Education ...... 185 Figure 4.13: Languages the Respondents Speak in the Societal Contact at Large ...... 188 Figure 4.14: Responses on the Mother Tongue of the Respondents ...... 190 Figure 4.15: Language(s) that Teachers Use to Teach Mathematics at Primary Level in Schools ...... 192 Figure 4.16: Responses on Language(s) that should be Used as Language(s) of Instruction in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics in Primary Schools ...... 194 Figure 4.17: Responses on the Introduction of English as a medium of Instruction at Primary Level ...... 196 Figure 4.18: Responses on whether medium of education should completely be switched to Urdu ...... 198 Figure 4.19: Responses on Whether can Bring Better Cooperation and Coordination between School and Community ...... 200 Figure 4.20: Responses on which language(s) is likely to give you power and prestige in Pakistan (N=500)...... 202 Figure 4.21: Responses on the Positive Link of Urdu Language to Social, Economic and Scientific Development of a Nation? (N=500) ...... 205 Figure 4.21: Responses on Urdu‘s Potential to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts in the Teaching of Mathematics in primary schools ...... 207 Figure 4.23: Responses on Urdu to be developed to express educational and scientific ideas (N=500) ...... 211

CHAPTER 1 1 INTRODUCTION Medium of instruction is not a new topic. Much research has already been carried upon this issue in general and on the learning of English as a second language in particular. But all these researches reveal divided opinions on the issue. Language is used to impart education at all levels for all subjects. Selection of a single language of instruction is a controversial issue at all levels of education, especially in the societies in which various systems of education are followed (Nisar & Ahmad, 2011).

Language of instruction plays a crucial role for students as well as teachers in the process of imparting education.

Language is the basic tool for transformation of cultural norms in any society.

Language plays an important role in a child‘s personality development in the context of his own cultural patterns. A major part of the socialization process consists of learning through language. (Cuber, 1959).

Schools, one of the major institutions in society, are faced with the challenge of preparing students to obtain knowledge, skills, and character for success in adult years (Lieberman & Miller, 2004) and they judge students learning level through different academic achievement tests. These test evaluate students through scores, grades and percentages (Kennedy, 1975). There are many factors that contribute to students success in these tests. Language is one of the most important of these factors.

Arshad (1997) proclaims language as having considerable importance that affects education in many countries.

Language of instruction is a burning subject in Pakistan. Many policies have been deviced and many plans implemented, but this controversy has not been able to resolve. Language of instruction is a power struggle amongst different social classes in Pakistan according to Rahman (Rahman, 1999). Pakistan has different types of schools. The major two types include English medium and Urdu medium schools.

These two types have differences in their performance as well. English medium schools continue to show better performance in terms of academic achievement than

Urdu medium schools. Different education policies have been devised to eliminate this difference of achievement but no fruitful results have been achieved.

In the educational policy 2009, language of instruction was the center of attention and it was acknowledged that the disparity between the achievement difference of public and private schools can be minimized through a change in the medium of instruction i.e. converting government schools from Urdu to English medium.

Educators have divided opinion upon the use of a foreign language as a medium of instruction in education. Some of them are against the introduction of a foreign language in education as it leads to reduced ability to understand concepts, low-level of knowledge about the subject studied, and excessive consumption of time, feelings of alienation and separation, and the least amount of participation in the classes due to low level proficiency in English (Arslantunalı 1998; Boztaş 1998;

Demir 1995; Demircan 1995; Kocaman 1998; Köksal 2002; Sankur and Usluata

1998). To add to this it is also argued that English medium education leads to creating distances between various classes of the society. On one hand there is elite class receiving education in English language and on the other hand there is a majority who cannot play a major role in the economic and social development because of not being able to have education in the English language (Mutamba 1999; Sarıhan 2005). On the other hand we have the research conducted by the British Council in

Pakistan. British Council‘s report (24th October, 2010) on English language in

Pakistan says that a child in a government school will need a further 1.5 years of schooling to achieve what a child in year 3 in a private non-elite school achieves in the subject of mathematics in Urdu, whilst a government school pupil will need a further 2.5 years of schooling to achieve what a year 3 pupil in a private non-elite school can do in English.

Some people argue that learning a second language may lead to the lose of one‘s own language but the educators who are in favour of the introduction of a foreign language in education say that learning in a foreign language (English, in our context) can lead to improved competence in mother-tongue (Alptekin 1998a, 1998b, 1998c).

Bear (1998a, 1998b) and Çolakoglu (1995) consider English-medium instruction as an artificial environment where students are required to communicate in English because of the few opportunities outside of school. This environment helps to practice the target language in everyday communication. He adds that it is an appropriate model as regards the current situation in Turkey (in our case Pakistan) where there are no other proposed alternatives.

However, whether English or Urdu, the fact cannot be ignored that there exist a big gap between the achievement level of the students of these two categories of school i.e. English medium and Urdu medium. To resolve this issue the National

Educational Policy 2009 declared that the language of instruction in primary schools would be converted from Urdu to English from the year 2014. The policy is put into action and the medium of instruction has been converted into English for the teaching of Mathematics from grade 4. Tehreek-i-Insaf rulling in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa started implementing this ching from the month April 2014. The argument given for this conversion is that this change would bring government schools at par with the private schools and will provide uniform education to all the children.

Before taking such an intense measure the government should have consulted some researches to keep in view different factors involved in the conversion. For example, what is the opinion of parents about the medium of instruction, what would be the effects of this change upon educational outcomes, what would be its impact upon primary education cycle etc.

Pakistan is a multilingual country. Before taking any decision about the selection of medium of instruction in education the perceptions of different stalk holders of this field should be analyzed. If we take the example of KP, according to Annual Status

Education Report (ASER) 77 per cent its population speaks Pashto, 11 percent speaks

Hinko, 3.5 per cent speaks Seraiki, 3 per cent uses Chitrali, and 5.5 per cent speaks other languages. The question is whether parents prefer mother tongue to be used in education or national language or any foreign language. Researches show that parents prefer mother tongue over any other language. For example a case study conducted by the British Council in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 2012 reports that the people of KP have a strong attachment with their own languages and that is why they want their children to be educated in their mother language. Thus this report proves that the policy of

Tehrik-I Insaf is not in line with the wishes of the people of the pprovince.

Another study by the ASER, 2012, which was based on a survey involving

13,702 households in 23 districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, showed that 45 per cent households in KP preferred Pashto as medium of instruction whereas 39 per cent preferred Urdu as the medium of instruction in schools. These surveys indicate that the decision of the KP government to change the medium of instruction to English is not aligned with the demands of the parents and other stakeholders in the province.

Even the primary school students and teachers are opposed to the idea of the government. This means that even if the children are in school they are not learning much that is of value. So if the students have problems in understanding a teacher speaking Urdu, one can imagine how difficult it would be for students to understand their teachers when they are speaking English while everyone is aware that most of the primary school teachers are hardly able to speak a sentence in English.

Now lets discuss the case of Punjab. On the directions of Chief Minister Punjab with respect to introducing an equal education system for all, English was employed as a medium of instruction in 12000 government schools from 2011 scholastic year.

Under the plan, all government schools in Lahore were to be made English medium schools beginning from April 01, 2010. Additionally, all the concerned teachers teachers were given training for teaching in English language.

This information was given by Secretary Schools Education Punjab, Mohammad

Aslam Kamboh while attending the inaugural function of first training of the teachers in Lahore. Coordinator of this training, Dr. Javed Iqbal talked on the event as well.

Secretary Schools Education said that a consistent education framework in the country is conceivable only if there is the syllabus, medium of instruction and system of examination is uniform. He said that mathematics and science subjects would be introduced in English in all the newly converted Government English Medium schools. Organizer of the course, Dr. Javed Iqbal said that for the time being only mathematics and science subjects are included in the plan and only these subjects‘ teachers would be given training to teach in English language. Mohammad Aslam

Kamboh said that because of the disparity in the medium of instruction, the entire society has been divided in two classes. He said that the requisit of justice is that an open door ought to be given to the offspring of poor and white collar class families learning at public schools to be equal to the English medium schools. Keeping in view this reality, the Chief Minister Punjab has offered endorsement to present English as the medium of instruction in subjects of science and mathematics. Secretary Schools

Education Punjab, Mohammad Aslam Kamboh said that 12000 schools will be given the status of English medium, while all schools in public sector will be made English medium.

Secretary Schools Education said that in contrast with tuition based private schools, the educators of government schools are better prepared and better paid and can with ease teach English medium classes. In addition, he said refresher courses will be arranged for the teachers of all government schools. He said that as majority of recently hired teachers hold master degree, they will be particularly given the duty of teaching in English medium classes. (F.P Report, October 2, 2010)

The second question, which is normally overlooked in policy talk, is about the effect of medium of education on kids' results e.g. their capability to finish compulsory primary education. Research discovered that the language of education is inversely related with the primary education completion cycle from the year 2007-12 which implies that the primary scool completion rate diminished by 0.7 in contrast with the scholarly cycle 2002-07. The move in the arrangements of the progressive governments from Urdu to primary language (Pashto) and from native language. The move in the approaches of the governments from Urdu to native language and from native language to Urdu during the last two years is one of the reason for the decline of primary education in the country. The choice of the political governments isalso reflected in EMIS figures, for instance, the proportion of Urdu versus Pashto medium schools in 2005 was 52:46 which expanded to almost 60:40 after 2007. If a change from first language to Urdu can create this much contrast, how much disturbance would be created by a change from Urdu to English. Resultantly, the blemish strategy of the administration is expanding the quantity of out of school students.

Analysts concur that the best medium for early schooling is the dialect children are already acquainted with and to which children are actually exposed to in their social surroundings. Furthermore, research also demonstrate that students, who are expose to education in their own language remain in school for longer, improve more than those who don't get education in their own language. English is not the medium of education even in developed nations like China, Germany, Japan, South Korea,

France, and so on.

At the end, the administration's contention for the convergence of medium of education, that is, to bring state funded schools at standard with tuition based schools in the country, is additionally not a valid. It is a misguided judgment that simply changing the medium of education in state funded schools from Urdu to English will bring them at standard with non-public schools. Many components, for example, school assets, educational programs, instructors' inspiration, preparing and responsibility, guardians' training and financial status add to enhancing educational results. Just changing the medium of education will accomplish nothing. The administration needs to rethink its choice and make strides for usage of the choice of the past government to insert native language as medium of education in primary schools.

We can conclude that if the learners have issues in comprehension of an instructor communicating in Urdu, one can envision how troublesome it would be for learners to comprehend their instructors when they are communicating in English while everybody knows that a large portion of the primary teachers are not really ready to talk a sentence in English b themselves. The question that is for the most part solicited is that whether language of education is the main component responsible for the gap in the accomplishment between English medium and Urdu medium schools.

Could an adjustment in the medium of education decimate this gap?

1.1 Statement of the Problem

The difference between English medium and Urdu medium schools is more intricate than only guaranteeing a distinctive medium of direction. White Paper, the first public document of the education policy of 1998-2010, proclaims that English is a financial need, it ought to be advanced through schools. A similar archive announces is that Urdu is our national dialect; it ought not be disregarded and ought to kept on being utilized at primary level. Even still the same paper contends that local dialect ought to be the dialect of education at primary level. As a starting point to implement this policy the government has already started the conversion of the language of instruction for the teaching and learning of Mathematics from Urdu to

English.

As per UNESCO (2006) the number of students enrolled in Primary schools in

Pakistan is 17,806,488, which makes them 49.3% of all the school going students in Pakistan in 2006. We can't just disregard the significant issue of language of instruction. An extremely through review of all the factors involved is expected to reach to the accurrect conclusion or this issue will keep influencing the lives of a big number of children and our policy makers will still be befuddled in selecting English or Urdu to be the medium of instruction. The present review is an endeavor to discover the impacts of medium of instruction on young learnerss‘ accomplishment in the subject of mathematics at primary level.

1.2 Aim of the Study

The major aim of this study is to examine the usefulness of English as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools of Pakistan and compare its effectiveness with that of Urdu as a medium of instruction for teaching Mathematics. Urdu is second to the mother tongue for most of the learners in

Pakistani schools. It is the language of the immediate societal contact. This research seeks to promote Urdu as a medium of instruction for the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools in Pakistan.

The research also aimed at establishing the degree to which English can be introduced in the educational domain as a language of teaching and learning in primary schools. English instruction is effective when there are appropriately trained teachers available and when learners, educators and parents are willing to accept it.

The research aimed to find out public opinion about the use of English as a language of instruction for teaching Mathematics.

This research explores and highlighted the attitudes of teachers, and parents towards the use of English in the learning and teaching situations in primary schools and finds out how they view its role as a language of instruction in Mathematics as a subject. It examines the attitudes of Pakistanis towards the use of the English as a medium of instruction in primary schools. The research examines and highlights some of the limitations or constraints in the use of English in educational domains.

1.3 Objective of the Research

The main objectives of this research are as follow:

 To investigate the effectiveness of using English as a medium of instruction in

the teaching and learning of Mathematics to a grade 4 class in Pakistan.

 To compare the use of English as a medium of instruction with Urdu as

medium of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics to grade 4

learners in Pakistani primary schools.

 To explore the socio-economic advantages of using Urdu/English language as

an official medium of instruction in education?

 To find out people‘s attitudes towards the use of English as a language of

instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics in primary schools.

1.4 Research Questions

The main research questions are as follow:

 How effective is the use of English as a medium of instruction in the teaching

and learning of Mathematics in Pakistan‘s primary schools?

 What is the comparative effectiveness of English as a medium of instruction

versus Urdu as medium of instruction in the teaching and learning of

Mathematics to grade 4 learners in Pakistani primary schools.

 What are the socio-economic advantages of using Urdu/English language as

an official medium of instruction in education in Pakistan?  What are people‘s attitudes towards the use of English as a language of

instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics in primary schools?

1.5 Significance of the Study

Previous researches conducted by researchers such as Gulzar (2010), Khan

(2002), Amna Saeed (2011), Rahman (2005), Khursheed (1987), Zubeida Mustufa

(2005) have exposed the inadequacies of language policies and inequalities of indigenous Pakistani languages in socio-economic, political, science and technological development that have seen Pakistan remain an underdeveloped country in spite of abundance of resources. No experimental research has been conducted on finding the effectiveness and probability of using English versus Urdu as a language of instruction in Primary schools and particularly in the teaching of Mathematics. This research seeks to contribute in the promotion of the use of Urdu as medium of instruction in the education system of Pakistan and would like to fill the gap left by previous researchers.

The dominant language of government and business in Pakistan tend to be in most cases former colonial language. The dominance of English in science and technology has an effect of diminishing the value of other languages and this has become the norm and other languages are an alternative when dealing with science matters. Therefore, it influences its standards, which are western, on how things should be done. It is high time scholars and policy makers join hands to come up with a Pakistani model of language planning in the field of education. Hence it is the intention of this research to provide practical suggestion that may result in a comprehensive language policy that effectively put into effect the use of Urdu as medium of instruction in teaching in primary schools. 1.6 Research Methodology

To examine the effectiveness of using English as medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics to primary schools, a multidimensional methodology using mainly qualitative methods supported by quantitative ones are used. This method of approaching a research study is viewed as multifaceted as data is gathered in many different ways and from as many diverse sources as possible (Mutasa, 2003). Mutasa

(2003) see this method of research as triangulation as it ―encompasses multiple sources of data collection in a single research project to increase the reliability of the results and to compensate for the limitations of each method‖.

According to Leedy, as quoted by Mutasa (2003) qualitative and quantitative differ in the sense that qualitative research data is verbal and quantitative research data is numerical. The qualitative approach describes and gives answers from the participants, point of view. The approach uses data to identify items, explain aspects of usage, and to provide real life examples of usage. The advantage of using qualitative method is that findings are descriptive (Leeds 1997). Qualitative approaches are justified on the grounds that researchers are more interested in the quality of a particular activity and not its numerical occurrence. It investigates the qualitative different ways in which people experience or think about phenomena

(Hendry, 1996). The understanding with which the qualitative investigation is concerned is conveyed by the description of the participants‘ feeling, ideals, beliefs, and thought.

Thus it captures the vagueness and subjectivity of a language analytical to the use of English as a language of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools. In discussing quantitative method Alasuutari (1998) associates this method mainly with the acquisition of data through statistics. He observes that ―Rather, the term (quantitative) refers to the operations in and through which the observations concerning reality are produced. The quantifying method looks at reality as a system of laws composed of different kinds of ―variables‖. Its main tools of analysis are standardization and the explanation of differences.‖ Quantitative methods answer questions about relations between quantifiable values with the wish to explain, predict and control phenomenon. Quantitative research as the name suggests is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It places emphasis on how often an event or activity occurs which makes it inadequate. This multifaceted approach will benefit the study from the precision of the qualitative analysis combined with the statistics generalizations as data is gathered in many different ways and from as many diverse sources as possible (Mutasa, 2003).

Both qualitative and quantitative research methods have advantages that can be exploited in this study. The qualitative method is being taken as the main method in this study. It allows descriptions, interviews and analysis to be carried out. The results from the qualitative analysis are augmented by quantitative analysis. The data for this study is gathered through the use of practical teaching by the researcher, questionnaires, and interviews.

1.6.1 Research Instruments

Research instruments used to gather data are discussed below.

1.6.1.1 Practical Teaching Experiment

The practical teaching uses an experimental design. In an experimental design

―the investigator has some control over what will happen to the subjects by systematically imposing or withholding specified conditions. It is a procedure for investigating cause and effect relationships by randomly assigning subjects to groups in which one or more independent variables are manipulated. The intent of an experiment is to compare the effect of one condition on one group with the effect a different condition has on a second group, or to compare the effect of different conditions on the same group. Typically, the researcher then makes comparisons between subjects who have had and others who have not had the imposed conditions‖

(Schumacher, 1993). This experimental design involves a pre-test and post-test comparison approach in the practical teaching phase. In the pre-test and post-tests design groups of learners are given a pre-test then the practical teaching and then the post- test.

In this study a grade 4 class was sampled and used for practical teaching.

Sampling is a way of selecting a given number of persons from a defined population as representative of that population (Borg and Gall, 1996; Chiromo 2006). When sampling, the researcher drew a representative of a grade 4 class from a large population of grade 4 classes in primary English medium schools. English medium school was selected as it was the demand of the research to have a sample having proficiency in both English and Urdu languages. Sampling was done as this saves time and expenses that may be incurred if one had to study the whole population. The other advantage is that the researcher reaches conclusions about an entire population by studying only a small sample. Permission was sought from the principals of

Beacon House School Islamabad and Government Centennial Model School Mardan to teach the grade 4 class for the sake of this research. The class was of a mixed ability stream. A grade 4 class of 40 learners at Beacon House School System and another having the same number of participants from Government Centennial Model

School Mardan were conveniently chosen for this study. The sample was rich in information such that it could be easily generalized to the entire population under research.

In this study, the grade 4 classes were divided into four groups of 20 learners each, Group-I, Group II, Group III, and Group-IV. Group-I and III learnt Mathematics using Urdu as the medium of instruction and Group-II and IV were taught the same topics and concepts in English. The first step was giving a pre-test to each group. The purpose of the pre- test was to enable the researcher to reasonably rule out any selection differences between Group-I and Group-III; and Group II and IV that may have accounted for differences that could be found in the results. The second step was to post-test each group on the teaching of Mathematics in English or Urdu as a medium of instruction. Pre-test and post-test scores from the four groups were used to compare the performance of individual learners and the performance of the groups and the results were compiled and analyzed.

1.6.1.2 Questionnaires

A survey is a frame arranged and distributed among the respondents to secure reactions to specific inquiries (Borg and Gall, 1996). Moreover, Chikoko and Mhloyi

(1995) say that questionnaires make it feasible for the scientist to quantify what a man knows, likes, or hates and what he or she holds as a thought. Questionnairs are thus a progression of properly arranged and fittingly worded quiries or things on a particular subject set down on paper and furnished with spaces where the respondent can fill in the answers or select the reply by putting a stamp in the proper space. Collins et al

(2003) see the survey as "a printed archive that contains guidelines, inquiries that are accumulated to get answers from respondents. A researcher concentrates on the issues of wording of the questions and additionally the imperative thoughts of validity and relaiility. It has its own particular negatives that are the potential of the question statements to be unclear to the respondents. The survey may not fulfill any need if the subject is not clear to respondents.

In this research questionnaire was utilized to dig out information that is fixed somewhere down in the respondents' psyches or inside their states of mind, emotions or attitudes. This instrument empowered the researcher to cover a wide area with least cost in cash, time and exertion. The survey ensured respondent annonymity and security and secracy that supported authentic reactions on issues like societal demeanors towards language utilization. The instrument likewise permitted more prominent consistency in the way the inquiries were solicited and this improved interconnectivity of the responses.

The survey instrument was composed both in Urdu and English and was self- distributed for the purpose to have a chance to disclose to the respondents the reason for the study and also explain other things that required explanation.

Questionnaire was utilized as a part of this exploratory study with an end goal to reach more and more respondents and different section of the society. In this research the questionnaire was utilized to get information from teachers and parents.

1.6.1.3 Interviews

This tool was utilized to gather information from theteachers and guardians for this research. Its basic plus point is that interviews are adaptable and versatile according to individual circumstances. It was utilized as the second instrument to provide for the shortcomings of the questionnaire. Collins et al (2003) characterize an interview as an up close and personal meeting between at least two individuals in which the researcher makes inquiries while the respondent replies back. As indicated by Denzin and Lincoln (1994) interview is the most methodological apparatus of the subjective research or as such the most famous method for gathering information in interpretive research. Interviews exist in three structures, to be specific structured, unstructured and open-ended. As interviews are personal meeting, they give the researcher a chance to comprehend if a genuine response is being imparted as the researcher can analyse the signs of non-verbal communication of the correspondence, for example, outward appearance, body movements, gestures, face expressions etc.

The main benefit of interviews is that it is adaptable and bendable to individual circumstances. The interview tool empowered the researcher to test in where obscure or insufficient answers are given by respondents. It likewise permits the researcher to stay in charge of the circumstance all through the survey. The interviews were conducted in Urdu and English according to the suitability of the respondents. They were recorded and transcribed.

Miller and Glassner (1997) argueing against the authenticity of the interview tool propose that no information about a reality, that is 'out there' in the social world, can be acquired from the interviews, in light of the fact that the interview is clearly and solely a communication between the interviewer and subject in which both members narrate events from the social world. The issue with collecting such data is that it is always context related and can be invented or twisted to fit the setting of the meeting. Personal or phone meetings are the sorts that were utilized as a part of this research. Interviews has been a center technique inside quantitative research (Hurworth,

2004). Structured interview procedure was utilized as a part of the research. A structured interview comprises of the questions of similar nature for each respondent.

A well organized interview comprising of nine items was created for this research to elucidate information from the respondents with regards to their feeling about the medium of instruction to be utilized in Pakistan. Main questions of the interviews asked from the repondents are given as under:

1. Is there any relationship between language and socio-economic development?

2. What are the socio-economic benefits of using Urdu as a language of

instruction in education?

3. What are the problems that are likely to be encountered if Pakistan decides to

use Urdu as an official language of instruction in education?

4. Do you think it is possible to teach Mathematics from primary to university

level using an Urdu language as a medium of instruction?

5. What do you think is the attitude of Pakistani people towards the use of the

English as a medium of instruction in education?

6. Do you think English should continue to be used as the official medium of

instruction in Pakistan?

7. Are teachers in this country fully equipped to use English languages as a

media of instruction in education?

8. Are there any efforts that are being made to promote the use and growth of

Urdu in Pakistan?

9. What do you think should be done to improve the status and function of Urdu

in Pakistan? 1.6.2 Validity & Reliability

Validity is one of the principal ideas in research (Arthur, Waring, Coe, and

Hedges 2012). It assumes a fundamental part in setting up any research device and administering of it. As per Johnson and Christensen (2012) validity is the rightness or honesty of an instrument that is made to be used for collecting any sort of data. While

Fraenkel Wallen and Hyun (2012) give importance to the suitability and comprehensibility of the exploration instruments. Keeping in view the guidelines of

Fraenkel and Wallen i.e. content related sign of validity (substance, arrangement, suitability and comprehensibility) and construct related signs of validity (clarity of research targets and clear portrayal of research inquiries) was built up by consulting ten senior educationists and researchers.

To check the reliability of the instruments on sample, the scales were administered in a pilot study to fifty teachers and parents of primary school going children in Islamabad, Pakistan. All scales demonstrated more than 0.70 value of Cronbach‗s alpha.

For present investigation, an interview on nine items was produced to record the data from the interviewee in respect of their perspectives about medium of education. Content as well as face legitimacy of interview were ensured through a panel of five specialists of the field who were requested to rate fittingness, appropriateness and comprehensiveness of items in connection to linguistic, content and practicality of items keeping in view the objectives of study conveyed to them.

The inquiries which were embraced by more than 80% of authorities were finalized, however items under 80% support/ approval rate were modified by given suggestions of experts. Two categories of respondents i.e. teachers and parents have been sampled out, audio recorded and analyzed separately. The selected represent a cross section of interviewees with different levels of educational and professional qualifications as well as different linguistics constituencies.

1.6.3 Population of the Study

Population of the study comprised all male and female students of Pakistani primary schools. According to UNESCO (2006) there are 17,806,488 students enrolled in primary school, which makes 49.3% of the total students enrolled in

Pakistan in 2006. All these students formed the population of this study. Moreover, the parents and teachers of all these students were included in the population of the study.

1.6.4 Sampling

A practical teaching experiment was used to investigate the effectiveness of using English as medium of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics to grade 4 class. In addition a descriptive survey research design which used questionnaires and interviews as data collection methods was employed for its usefulness in exploratory studies. Multistage sampling technique was used to select sample from the population. The whole country was divided into five strata i.e. Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, and Baluchistan and

Federally Administered Capital. 50 respondents (25 parents and 25 teachers) from each stratum were randomly selected for questionnaires.

To conduct the interview formal consent was sought from sampled teachers and parents. Fifty respondents gave their permission in this regard. Semi structured interviews were conducted from these fifty respondents. For the purpose of practical experiment grade 4 class was sampled as this is the grade in which the conversion from Urdu to English takes place according to the National Education Policy 2019. Sampling is a way of selecting a given number of persons from a defined population as representative of that population (Borg and

Gall, 1996; Chiromo 2006). When sampling, the researcher drew a representative of a grade 4 class from a large population of grade 4 classes in primary English medium schools. English medium school was selected as it was the demand of the research to have a sample having proficiency in both English and Urdu languages. Sampling was done as this saves time and expenses that may be incurred if one had to study the whole population. The other advantage is that the researcher reaches conclusions about an entire population by studying only a small sample. All the primary schools were divided into two strata i.e. private schools and public schools. One school from each stratum was selected through convenient sampling technique. Permission was sought from the principals of Beacon House School Islamabad and Government

Centennial Model School Mardan to teach the grade 4 class for the sake of this research. The class was of a mixed ability stream. A grade 4 class of 40 learners at

Beacon House School System and another having the same number of participants from Government Centennial Model School Mardan were conveniently chosen for this study. The sample was rich in information such that it could be easily generalized to the entire population under research.

So a total of 640 people participated in the research and these were 80 grade 4 learners (used in the teaching experiment), 250 teachers and 250 parents (used for questionnaire) and 60 respondents (for interviews). 1.7 Collection of Data

Researcher visited the selected schools personally and collected data from employed teachers. On the bases of students‘ enrollment in the schools, researcher visited the sample parents and administered the questionnaire. She ensured her presence during administering/collecting the tool and provided necessary guidance to parents and teachers in filling the questionnaire. Researcher also sought some parents‘ and teachers‘ consent randomly for interviews. After quantitative analysis of the data collected through the questionnaire, she approached the parents and teachers who provided consent for interview and probed their opinions to deeply understand the investigated issue. Teachers‘ and parents‘ interviews were recorded in audio device and converted to written documents accordingly.

1.8 Analysis of Data

Two types of data (quantitative and qualitative) were involved in the current research and hence it is treated in data analysis differently. Quantitative analysis for the experiment and questionnaire and qualitative analysis for the interviews.

1.7.1 Quantitative Data Analysis

Analysis of the data collected is central part of any research. The first section of the data that was collected through practical teaching experiment was fed in SPSS.

The first task was to analyse the reliability of the tool. The steadiness, consistency and precision of the instrument is called reliability. Through using SPSS co-efficient of internal consistency and Co-efficient of equivalence were calculated. To examine the effects of medium of instruction on students achievement in the subject of

Mathematics, t test was applied.

1.7.2 Qualitative Data Analysis

Topical approach of subjective information examination strategy was utilized as a part of the present research to break down the subjective information. The interviews transcripts were examined with emphasis on meaning coding, condensing the meaning and interpreting as argued and discussed in detail in the study of Miles and Huberman (1994).The meanings stated by the respondents were reduced and abridged into smaller forms to elucidate main themes as suggested by Kvale (2007).

After both data analysis, the conclusions were drawn on the basis of research findings and recommendations have been presented accordingly.

1.9 Delimitation of the Study

Applicability of the findings of current study is limited to Pakistani context.

To make the population manageable, the study was delimited to primary schools of grade 4 class. The respondents of the study were the primary mathematics teachers of grade 4 and the parents of primary school going children.

1.10 Definition of Terms

It is important that terms used in this study are given contextual definitions.

1.10.1 Language

Language is an arrangement of words utilized as a part of a discourse group by the general population in naming their general surroundings, their communication with nature and collaboration with each other for the purpose of generating goods and services which are vital for their survival. Language separates individuals from all other creature species so it is the endowment of being human.

1.10.2 Language Planning

Language planning alludes to a sorted out or precise method for searching for the answers of language issues existing in a society. Answers for such issues are generally obtained through planned intercessions by the state or by expert language organizers.

1.10.3 Official Language

Official language is the language utilized as a source of carrying out business by government in the organization of a nation through the common administration, formal training, the legal and the business segment. Normally it is in this language that important documents are composed.

1.10.4 National Language

National language alludes to the dialect that is used for speaking with the bigger populace in a nation. Typically this language is an indigenous dialect accepted because of its board use or numerical predominance. In this study it alludes to Urdu language given perceived status by a national government for use in different determined areas inside the nation

1.10.5 Mother Tongue

Mother tongue alludes to the dialect a child learns as a medium of correspondence before going to class. It is the dialect with which a kid feels generally the most comfortable. A mother tongue is the dialects a man learns to talk in from birth. Indigenous dialects is the principal dialect a youngster realizes when she/he begins to talk. The dialect in which a speaker typically feels more agreeable to express him/herself in.

1.10.6 Status Planning

Status planning relates with assigning different roles to a language. It might include the support, expansion or limitation of the role of a language or even its presentation as an official language. It is typically completed by non specialists, as a rule by government officials instead of by etymologists since it relates policy making.

It is concerned with support, extension or limitations of its use. It is status planning that can be manipulated to exclude or disempower certain languages.

1.10.7 Corpus Planning

Corpus planning relates language material. It includes vocabulary extension, changes in structures, disentanglement of registers, orthographic advancement, articulation, style and arrangement of dialect material. In this study it alludes to the improvement of a language, which concentrates on the usage of choices emerging from proposals of language specialists. It concerns with the recording of lexical, syntactic and expressive changes of a dialect and is typically done by dialect specialists.

1.10.8 Medium of Instruction

Medium of direction is the dialect utilized for instructing the different school subjects, for example, science, and mathematics in schools. It could possibly be the official language of the nation. It essentially alludes to the chosen language to be utilized for showing subjects, composing course books, lesson arranges, tests and examinations, and appointing homework for reports, papers. 1.11 Conclusion

In this Chapter a review of the study is given. The basic role of this review is to research the adequacy of utilizing English as a medium of instruction in the educating of Mathematics in primary schools. A review of language planning and olicy was given. The arguments in this section noticed that English keeps on overwhelming, not just as the language of business, organization, governmental issues and the media, but also as the language of education in nearly the whole educational framework, while Pakistani languages like Urdu keeps on being minimized in the schools and vernacularized outside in the more extensive group.

The motivation for the study and a general outline of the scope of the study as well as the research methodology has been discussed. The next chapter focuses on language planning in Pakistani with special attention being given the medium of instruction. It will also delve into the historical development and role of indigenous

Pakistani languages.

CHAPTER 2

2 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

Language is clearly the key to communication and understanding in the classroom. Developing countries such as Pakistan are characterized by individual as well as societal multilingualism yet it continues to allow a single foreign language

(English) to dominate the education sector. Instruction through a language that learners do not speak has been called ‗submersion‘ because it is analogous to holding learners under water without teaching them how to swim (Magwa, 2008).

Submersions make both learning and teaching extremely difficult, particularly when the language of instruction is also foreign to the teacher as is the case in the teaching of Mathematics in Pakistani primary schools.

The language of instruction, the language of educational formation, in any society is also the language of hegemony and power. It is the language in which basic skills and knowledge are imparted to the population and the medium in which the production and reproduction of knowledge takes place. In this chapter the focus is on the literature review with regard to the teaching of Mathematics using English as a medium of instruction. The role of Urdu language instruction in teaching of subjects in primary schools with special reference to the teaching of Mathematics will be looked at in order to provide a firm foundation into the discussion of how English can be used in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools. Furthermore, the chapter will look into other researches that looked into the English cultural infusion of mathematical ideas in the teaching of Mathematics which gives a foundation to the learners and teachers on how mathematical concepts can be taught using English as a medium of instruction in primary schools.

2.2 What is Language

Human beings communicates with each other while use different sort of old as well as new sentences which may or may not have heard ever.(Neilson, 2004). In other words of an American anthropologist-linguist Edward Spair, ‗Language is a fundamental human phenomenon and impulse process to communicate thoughts, desires, and sentiments via willingly generated visually through words and symbols.‘

(Dadabhai,2007).

―(Saucers) defines language as an act of communication or correspondence which functions in order to communicate with each other. According to the

―Merriam-Webster‘s Learner dictionary‖ this very function of the language is the most significant and powerful tool of communication through which we make ourselves able to convey our feelings, sentiments, desires, aspirations and thoughts to the other human beings. Language plays a significant role in the culture. A language is considered as a symbol of people‘s legacy and recognition and ethnicity (Rahman,

1998). We cannot neglect the significance of it. Though, learning a language is not a piece of cake because of it manifold nature but if requires a lot of time to learn it.

(Bose, 2004)

Language is a collection of meaningful sounds adopted by the people of any region to understand and communicate their feelings to other people. Encyclopedia

Britannica (2012) define language as combination of the alphabets and words, its articulation and the way they are combined to interact with the community. Webster

(2011) defines language as a source for communication of ideas feeling apart from signs, sounds and gestures. It focuses on the pronunciation of the words and their understanding of the listeners if the communications works then it can be called a language Naseem (1990) claimed that it is the simple truth that thought and language are so closely related that thought gets itself the more sharply defined as one begins to seek its articulation through language. The growth of thought and growth of language is an index to the growth of nation unity of thought and common aspiration. Sapper

(1994) considers that language is purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. Chaika (2008) advocated that human language is multilayered. It is composed of a system of meaningless elements that combines by rules into meaningful structure. Venkateswaran (1995) argued that there is no doubt that a language contains kind of codes which developed an imperative arbitrary relationship of different symbols and the concept behind them. He further added that usually language keeps very complex and highly versatile codes that make communication of thoughts and feelings, experiences and desires to other people and persons. Language is the principal vehicle for the dissemination of knowledge and the transmission of acquired skills. There are many languages being spoken in Pakistan but most widely

Urdu is spoken and understood. English is used as office language in almost all

Government Departments, but after regional languages Urdu is the only language which is commonly spoken and understood in the whole country.

2.3 Language Theories A child, when born requires special consideration and with time he tries to gain the attention of the elders by various means. He makes use of techniques no one had taught him. The way of communication children use unconsciously looks like an inbuilt system confirmed by John(1978)(commenting on Chomsky)who says that children are born with the power of communicating. They possess a language acquisition device. Which organizes the coded info in their minds? He opposes the concepts that children learn by observing adults, as an adults way of communication is complicated.

As a result, Yasnitsky (2012) gave his views on Vygotsky and said that language is further renovated by finding answers to various obstacles by or having assistance from elders. Their talents are refined by continuing to talk and speak in different behaviors by listening and seeing their surroundings. Development of communication skills is very much related to meeting different kinds of people.Skineers (1938)(views were that positive response on different behaviors was what language development was dependentupon. It may appear to be of various types.

One such example is that if a child is provided with speaking task and if he performs successfully and then receives a positive response from his elders then he is likely to l learn more quickly. Piaget(1936) considering knowledge announced that development of language is related to development of mind.as seen ,a child passes through levels cognitive developmental stages like sensormotor,pre/operational, concrete operational and formal operational. These stages build his language skills with varying speeds.

The beginners start grasping the presence of the thing which they can visualize later they can imagine things that are not present. Robert(1997) gave his view, children when given birth ,already posses in built information of language. The basic regulation of all human language are standard, considering two very different language, nouns and verbs will exist in both cases, in different places perhaps but their existence is natural. Burnerstarter that development of language results from biological involvement as well as positive response from elders when a child begins speaking his speech is blurred but with time it is improved it is imperative to school teachers to encourage the child towards the development of the languageand provide the required support.Chhaya (2004) gave the analysis that things become more easily understandable when we realize the various types in which education is delivered that looks over all kind of learning of the children. The school obviously provides a very good surrounding for formal education so thing related to language learned there stay a part at the child‘s memory for a long time.

Iqbal(2007) says that in the frame work of Islamic culture the basic objective of education is to emit the prophetic social groups from other parts of the world. Local language is used as a medium of instruction in most of the madrassa which isconsidered as a cause of their success in communicating with the students where as

Arabic language is taught to facilitate the teachings of Quran ad hadith at a higher level.

In Madrassas, the medium of communication is usually the language which is commonly spoken by everyone in their area. Because of that, the students gain better understanding of everything. On a higher level, they also teach Arabic so that the students could gain better understanding of Quraan and Hadith. The main focus of

Madrassas to convey the knowledge of faith to their pupils and they charge very little fee so the very poor people happily send their children to the madrassa to get education. In British public schools only a small number of the most elite class and the members of the royal family get education. In Shamim‘s (2010) view, the linguistic and education system in Pakistan is deeply divided. The system is not at all equal for everyone. It is different for elite class, different for middle class and different for lower class. According to Rehman, elite class is learning English language at its fullest and are benefiting from it immensely. They are getting more and more powerful by each passing day. This is forming a line between the English speaking and the non English speaking people of Pakistan. The poverty is increasing because the high paying jobs are kept reserved for the English speaking elites. In

Pakistan, the English language has become a symbol of power and dominance.

In Pakistan ,two medium of instructions are in use .Urdu was the medium of instruction in the Government schools, where as English was the medium of instruction in private schoold.This practice was pertinent till 2010.Now the

Government has changed the medium of instruction from Urdu to English at Primary level. Before that English was just taught as a subject but now it in in use as a medium of instruction. Which has a great effect on the teachers as well as the students as they both are directly involved in the process of education. Children learn language easily according to their environment which gets better with the passage of time at an early stage ,they are provided with fully equipped environment to learn any other language they would learn this second language very quickly as compared to any elder person.

2.4 Pakistani Languages

According to the (Website Ethnologies Pak Talat: 2002), total number of languages spoken in Pakistan are approximately sixty nine. Whereas in these very languages, six are considered as major language and rest of the languages are considered as the minor languages. According to the linguists there are more than 300 dialects and each of these dialects differs from each other. The languages which are considered as regional languages are such as Punjabi, Pashto, Balochi, Sindhi,

Hindko, Brahui, Shina, Balti, Kashmiri, Khowar, Dhatki, Marwari, Wakhi, Bagrri,

Dari, Hazaragi, Jogi, Maiya, Potwari, Saraiki, Shinaand, Burushaski and provincial languages includes Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Saraki, Balochi and Kashmiri. In

Pakistan, the official language is Urdu. According to a survey 7.75% people speak it

(Census, 2001). In the light of facts, in the establishment of Urdu language, other languages such as Persian, Arabic and various others local languages played a significant role. Talking about the position of Urdu language amongst the most spoken languages, it has been graded at the 19th position. English language is used only for the official purposes and in the realms of education. (Rahman, 2002).

Talking about the Pakistani population which is about 160 million, they speak

69 major languages. thus Pakistan is a multi-lingual country wherein thirteen major languages and many minor languages are spoken. The most broadly spoken languages include Urdu, English and the provincial language. Provincial languages are mostly spoken in their respective provinces. Pakistan has got four provinces. If we turn the pages of Pakistan‘s history then we come to know that no official status has been given to any provincial language except Sindhi which is taught in the educational institutions. The major languages in Pakistan include:

2.1.1 Punjabi

Pakistani National Language is Urdu and it is the first and foremost language of at least 8% Pakistani population. Bhibli defines (1983) ―Urdu entertains unparallel position‖. It is the sign of the national oneness and integrity. For the expansion of this language, words have been borrowed from different languages. Due to its broad acceptability it is frequently used all over Pakistan.

In the Punjab province alone, Punjabi, English, and Urdu are spoken. Whereas in the capital of Punjab, Lahore different dialects of Punjabi which are spoken. 48 % of the total population which speak Pujabi language. This language has 70 dialects

(pandit,1975). The standard dialect of Punjabi is Majhi. According to one of the surveys it is found that at least 44% of Pakistanies speak this language proficiently.

That is why this very language is used for the communication process in various regions of Pakistan which include Lahore, Sheikhupura, Okara,l Nankana Sahib,

Kasur, Gujranwala, Faislabad, Wazirabad,Narowal,Sialkot, and Gujrat. On the other hand Punjabi language is also spoken on the other side of LOC in India‖ George

Abraham Grierson (1929).

2.4.1 Sindhi

Talking about Sindhi language, it is the provincial language of Sindh province in Pakistan and which has its history in the Indo arenas family. Grierson (1919:01).

According to an estimate 12% of the total population of the Sindh province speak it.

This is an old language with its own history and literature. For that reason it is taught in the academic institutions of the province. The major dialects of this language are

Sireli, Vicholi, Thari, Lari, Vicholi and Kachhi. In sindhi language, there are 52 letters. People living in Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukhur, Shikarpur, Jacobabad, and

Nawabshah speak Sindhi which constitutes approximately 16.992 million Sindhi speakers (Johnstone, 1993). If we turn the pages of the history we come to know that in Arabic was the official language of Sindh (711-750AD), Abbasids (751-854AD) and (1947AD).

2.4.2 Balochi

As we have discussed in the beginning of this chapter that Pakistan is a multi lingual country. There are almost 69 languages spoken all over the country. In which

Urdu, Pashto, and Brahui are widely known and spoken. Same is the case when we talk about Balochi language which is spoken by the 3% of the inhabitants of the total population. It has got various dialects among which Rakhshani is the prominent one.

Eskkander (2008). 2.4.3 Pashto

After Punjabi language which is widely spoken all over the country, Pashhto ranks second according to the population. Kyber Pakhtoonkhwa and FATA areas have a big number of population which speaks this language. This language is extremely rich in literature, customs and traditions. There are a lot of poets who earned name and fame while writing in this particular language but the two prominent of them are Rehman Baba and Khushal Khan. In spite the richness of the language,

‗MMA‘ management selected Urdu, as the language of the domains of power, rather than Pashto language for the educational purposes in KPK province. The linguists passionately prepared the instructional material but on 8th November 1992, these languages were declared optional and parents once again opted for Urdu language

(Rahman 1996).

2.4.4 English

Talking about the brief history of the expansion in the English language, it is quite apparent to cite the unforgettable incident of the second World War , which depicted the bright and vast threshold of this very language as it became more evident and made expansion due to the sociopolitical and economic factors. Moreover, due to the expansion in the colonization, English language dominated the non-colonized areas and it developed as worldwide lingua franca that is why it has now become the language for communicating among the people whose first language differs from each other (Holmes, 1997). One of the main specifications of English language is that it has not only dominated over the business alone but also diplomacy, commerce, education, science and technology, media, in the twentieth and twenty first century (Fishman

2007); Master,1998). Learning English language is nowadays a craze for each and everyone. That is the reason why it is mainly used for the communication process.

Furthermore, it has accelerated its presence and has become and international language of information and technology.

There is no doubt that English is more integrated all over the world into the education system. Due to this widespread use of this language, all the countries are reviewing their policies regarding their educational institutions. There are mainly two outstanding aspects of English language; first is that it is taught as a foreign or second language and second is that it is used as a medium of instructions not only in the schools, colleges, universities, but also in offices and so on. The second case is more prominent where English has semi-official or official status, in the education system, in the colonies captivated by English and U.S. On the other hand there are some countries where there is an inclination towards the use of mother language in the education system. English sustains its dominance in the form of medium for instructions in the educational institutions due to the political and social restructuring after the political independence.

English is the official language of Pakistan and it is not only used for the communication purposes with the rest of the world but also to carry the national matters. English got its deep roots in the British regime. Since independence in 1947 till now English has played a vital role in the history of Pakistan. As there was no other language so high in esteem and dignity to be considered as the official language of Pakistan.

2.5 Role of English

Coleman (2010b, 2011a), Seargeant & Erling (2011), Wedell (2011) and others have pondered upon the general view of people about the use of English language in the developing countries. They have searched for all the positive, negative and neutral affects of the English language used in developing countries. In Pakistan, particularly, its role is a bit complicated. It is used by the government officials, army and militia and it is used by the powerful and influential elite class. English is a symbol of power as it is the language of the elite class. Now, in Pakistan, the usage of

English language is very much divided among the different classes of people

(Rahman 2010b). According to AhmarMahboob, English language greatly varies among the people of Pakistan and not all types carry equal glory. There are some societies and communities who oppose English language. In Pakistan, the schools are divided into five types and they are distinguished by the medium of instruction that they use. Elite school‘s medium of instruction is English. They charge very high fees which, not everyone can afford. They follow the pattern of British school system.

Army and military‘s schools also use English as their medium of instruction. A large number of population study in Government schools, they charge none or very little fee. Mainly, Urdu is the medium of instruction in the government schools but in other provinces such as Sindh and KyberPakhtunkhwa, sindhi and Pashtu is spoken by the teachers. However, in 2010 the Government declared that from now on English will be used by the teachers to teach Sciences and Mathematics but unfortunately, only some teachers can speak fluently in English language. The number of private schools is also increasing on a big level. They are the non-elite English medium schools who do not charge as much fee as the elite schools. They are gaining popularity day by day because they claim to provide full English medium education for less amount of money. Whether they fulfill their promise or not that is under consideration.

• Elite private schools: The elite schools are modelled on the British public school7 system; fees are extremely expensive; the medium of instruction is English. • Schools run by the armed forces. They also use English as the medium of instruction.

• State schools: State schools serve the mass of the population. No fees are charged.

The medium of instruction in most parts of the country is Urdu, although Sindhi is used in schools in Sindh whilst Pashto and, increasingly, other local languages are used in schools in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In 2010 the Government of Pakistan decreed that English should be used as the medium of instruction for the teaching of science and mathematics in state schools from the primary level. It seems likely that few primary teachers possess the language skills required for this.

• Non - elite ‗English - medium‘ schools: In recent years there has been a rapid increase in the establishment of private schools which charge modest fees. They aim to cater for aspirational upper working class and lower middle class parents who are unable to afford the fees demanded by the elite schools. Their main selling point is their claim to be ‗English medium‘, but these claims must be treated with care.

Madrasas: This is a very heterogeneous category of institution and their language practices are also very varied.This is not the case in Punjab, where Punjabi is universally used colloquially but where Urdu is the language of intellectual activity.

The so-called ‗public schools‘ in the UK are in fact extremely expensive private schools which provide an education for the children of a very small proportion of the

British population (including members of the Royal Family) and, increasingly, for the children of elite social groups from other parts of the world. In most madrasas the local language is used as medium of instruction ‗and that explains their success in communicating with their students‘ whilst Arabic is taught ‗to facilitate the teaching of the Quran and Hadith at a higher level‘. Madrasas provide an education with a major orientation towards religious studies; some charge no fees at all and so are attractive for the very poor. Shamim

(2011) has described the current language in education system in Pakistan as being one of ‗linguistic apartheid‘. Rahman, too, talks of ‗educational apartheid‘ between the English - medium elite schools and the Urdu - medium schools for the masses

(2004). Elsewhere, Rahman describes the situation in cataclysmic terms: ―By supporting English through a parallel system of elite schooling, Pakistan‘s ruling elite acts as an ally of the forces of globalisation at least as far as the hegemony of English is concerned. The major consequence of this policy is the weakening of local languages and the lowering of their status. This, in turn, opposes linguistic and cultural diversity, weakens the ‗have - nots‘ even further and increases poverty by leaving the best - paid jobs in the hands of the international elite and the English - using elite of the peripheries.‖ (2010a:30) To summarise, English has played a major role in the area that is now Pakistan since the middle of the 19th century. It has acquired very significant symbolic value and has become the language of a small and powerful elite section of society.

In Pakistan, there have been two medium of instructions, in government schools

Urdu was medium of instruction and in private schools English was medium of instruction. This practice was applicable till 2010. Now Government of Punjab has changed medium of instruction as English from Urdu from Primary level. Before this

English was taught as subject but now English has been adopted as medium of instruction. All syllabus has also been changed and newly printed for implementation of policy. Teachers & students are two direct associates who are involved in the process of education. Change of medium of instruction has affected both teachers and students at primary level.Children of any region of the world learn language according to their region and environment with ease and they prove themselves better communicators with the passage of time. If in this early stage, they are given a task within the environment fully facilitated to learn any language other than their mother tongue they would learn this second language very quickly and easily as compared to any elder person either he is literate or illiterate.

2.6 Language policy and social stability

In Pinnocks view, if the children are being taught by the teachers in a foreign language, which only a small number of people in that area speak, then they will be less enthusiastic about their studies because they won‘t understand anything at all. They will be denied their basic right of education. Almost 91.62% of Pakistanis speak their mother tongues in home and in schools they are being taught a different language. This is the main reason why children do not participate well in school. They are much less interested in studies because they do not understand what their teacher is teaching them about. This, obviously results in low literacy rate because students give up and ditch schools. This will later result in increase in the number of uneducated, uncivilized, frustrated and unemployed adults. However, other factors contribute as well in the low attendance of students in schools for example the views of their parents, the distance from schools to home, family values and less resources.

In most under developed countries, the rural population is very big and the language gap between their home and school cannot be easily filled. That is the main reason why the rural areas are much less educated than the urban areas. Pakistan is one of those countries in which many languages are spoken and this adds very much to the problem of education. English is ultimately given much importance above all the other languages spoken in Pakistan and the people who speak it are considered superior to the ones who do not. This difference in the languages and education system has created cultural and social division and we should all think of a way to solve this very big and important issue.

2.7 Perpetuation of Social Inequalities

In post-colonial era, the force which is considered basic for opening international opportunities and guarantees bright future is the mechanism of the globalization of English. The case of Pakistan is the same as Hong Kong. In case of the parents in Hong Kong, they would like to choose for EMI to CMI, as they strictly believe that good English- proficiency guarantees, bright future to the students (Chan,

Hoare and Johanson, 1997). Such a belief is expressed by Pennycook (2001) due to the study of English there are various job opportunities which are availed by the good proficient English candidates and whereas these sort of opportunities are lost by those whose have deficiency in the English proficiency. They are also excluded from the employment and have not that much regard and influence in the society as well. That is why there is no that the English medium schools products i.e. students are more competent than that of Urdu medium students.

The situation is similar in the Pakistan. The prominence of English in the education system tends to be the very vital for the social economic development of the country. In the elite schools, for grabbing the attention of the elite class, English language is used as the medium of instruction at all the levels. But on the other hand the poor class in the community is deprived of this facility.

2.8 Language Death

Language death occurs when the speakers of a language shift to another language and no speakers are left to speak that particular language. That will be the future of indigenous languages of Pakistan if they are forsaken for English. The languages which are currently expected to extinct from Pakistan are as under:

Robertson (1970) and Shah (1974) reported that the minor language of Chitral valley would soon extinct to the decline in its usage among the people. Talat (2012) according to him the people in kalash in chitral valley are vulnerable to lose their identity in the form of their language. Other fact of losing the language is that when people change their religion and convert into Islam, they change their language as well. The other two languages which are likely to extinct are Ormuri and

Kundalshahi. Khwaja Abdur Rahman discovered Kundalshahi spoken in Azad

Kashmir and Neelam Valley. In the light of the fore mentioned facts it is crystal clear that Pakistan‘s minor and far-flung languages are in extreme danger and will soon perish. For the language status among the people is low and that is why language become sick if not die abruptly.

2.9 Medium of Instruction in Pakistan

In the words of (Heugh, 2002), in spite of a growing awareness the method of first language instruction is far better than that of the second language, the inevitable inclination in the use of English-Medium Instruction (EMI), particularly in higher education, has become a global trend (Chang, 2010; Wong, 2009; Manakul, 2007;

Coleman, 2006; kirkgoz, 2005; Cloetzee, 2004; Crystal, 2004; Kurtan, 2004; Graddol,

1997). As we know that language is the medium of instruction which is used to impart the instructions of any subject at any level. The medium of instruction is always a matter of controversy at all the levels, especially in the societies in which there are various systems of education (Nisar & Ahmad, 2011). In the last few decades, English has become the lingua franca. This particular language has dominated the world in so many ways. ‗Whether it is an educational, social or cultural perspective it has played a significant role‘ (Tsui, 2004). There has been a long debate among the world leaders and governments whether to make this very language the medium of instructions or not especially in post-colonial countries.

But there arises other issues relating to this language as well such as cultural and social inequality.

As for as the medium of instruction is concerned, it means a language which is used for the instructional process of the school, college and university curriculum

(UNESCO, 2007). it is the language which is used to carry for instructional purposes to be implemented for the subject matter of the school curriculum (Thirumalai, 2002).

In fact the medium of instruction has been a vital issue in Pakistan since it appeared on the map of the world, 1947. It is a heart trending aspect that every government in its regime changed the policies and did not do any research since the creation of this country till 1983. As a result, all of their hard work was of no use and did not benefit the school going children (Ahmad & Ijaz 2011). That is why we can see that Urdu language was made an official language \of Pakistan and English was not given importance to carry on official tasks in it. Bur unfortunately this law was not implemented so far.

There is a problem with language policy of our country since the 1973 constitution was implemented and it was decided to carry on English language for the official purposes but after the span of fifteen years it will be replaced by Urdu language. But sorry to say that the Urdu language has not replaced the English language nor it has been practiced as a n official language so far. (Chaudhary 1995,pp 42-43). As it was conveyed that Urdu would be given the due regard and status but this issue still remained unsolved (Article 251 constitution of Islamic Republican of

Pakistan). There was a survey which was conducted by UNESCO presented its data with the findings, problems and recommendations to the government in order to have a glimpse of the very language which was assured to be implemented as an official language of the country. In its findings it stated since Pakistan came into existence

1947 even the basic education has never been given in the mother tongue, that is why the standard of the education of the people of the country remained low. As a result, the National Education Policy 1979 was highly based on the recommendations of the

UNESC.

2.10 What should be the language of instruction in Pakistan's primary schools?

Should Pakistani children attending elementary school learn in only one language or gain mastery over several languages? This dilemma the parents and teachers of these students face is important given the multi-lingual environment of

Pakistan, as well as increased globalization, which has heightened the influence of

English.

Currently, Pakistan's elementary school classrooms use multi-lingual teaching.

Students are taught their provincial language (i.e. Sindhi, Punjabi), the national language (Urdu) and English as an official non-indigenous language. However, many studies reveal that children learn more effectively and time is saved if they are taught only in their first language during the first grades of school.

This is due to the fact that multilingual instruction reduces the amount of time and attention given to teaching a single language. The result is that children in multilingual schools often learn literacy slower than children taught in monolingual classes.

Children from areas with poor minority groups, like the tribal areas of

Pakistan, are at a disadvantage when they are taught in a second language not spoken at home. A recent study in neighboring India indicated that only 60 percent of teachers believed that tribal children understood textbooks written in the regional language but not the children's first language.

The success of monolingual schooling during the early years of schooling can be seen in two projects conducted in Guatemala and Nigeria respectively.

In Guatemala, a primary school curriculum with Spanish-language instruction was replaced with one in which students were taught in one of four major Mayan languages for the first three grades of elementary school. After this, the language of instruction was Spanish.

Initially, parents were concerned that their children would be left behind other students who did learn Spanish and that they would receive a lower level of education. However, as the children progressed through the curriculum, parents' fears were allayed once they saw their children improve their mastery of Spanish as well as the indigenous language. The success of this program in Guatemala led to the passage of a national law that now requires bilingual education in all rural communities that speak Mayan languages.

In the Nigeria project, teaching in the native language actually improved learning without hindering elementary school students from picking up the country's national language. By the time they completed elementary school, these children were ahead of their peers who were not part of the project in all subjects, including English.

In Pakistan, like in the case of the Guatemala project, parents often fear their children will not learn the national or official language, which is why they often insist on maintaining a multilingual language of instruction for their children. This is of course understandable, since not knowing the dominant language reduces future educational opportunities, limits the types of jobs available and limits the opportunities for escaping poverty and upward social mobility. For example, not knowing English in Pakistan would limit these above-mentioned opportunities.

In a survey of different linguistic groups in Pakistan, 98 percent of Punjabi- speaking students and 96 percent of Urdu-speaking students considered the study of

English essential.

Many teachers in the Aga Khan Foundation's schools in northern Pakistan have reported a high demand from parents for English language instruction in primary schools. This is similar to how parental pressure has led to the introduction of English from grade one onwards in some schools of Pakistan.

What Pakistani parents need to remember though, is that such bilingual teaching programs are not successful because of the poor teaching quality. Many teachers are not fluent in the dominant official language themselves, which means that a large number of children complete elementary school with very low competency levels in the second language.

As the examples from Guatemala and Nigeria indicate, the best strategy for

Pakistan to follow is to develop solid skills in the first language only for the first few grades of elementary school. Such a method allows students to thoroughly learn their first language, thus promoting the necessary skills to learn a second language. Once these have been gained, any other language can be easily learned before entry into secondary school and beyond.

2.11 Global Perspective of Language Policy

The colonization of the sub-continent not only effected its economic and political values of the Indians but also caused a great damage to Pakistani languages.

The loss of a language could mean the death of a culture. Throughout the sub- continent, English became the language of Education due to it excessive use through out the world.This is one of the clever policies of the colonial masters to dominate over theyPakistani communities. Institutions which could be referred to as ideological state apparatus were established with the sole purpose of facilitating the total annihilation of indigenous languages and cultures. Even after partition, language became a barrier between the majority of citizens in Pakistani societies and economic prosperity. It provided selective access to economic participation and occupational mobility, in the education and development of people‘s knowledge, skills, norms and values.

2.12 Languages Policies & Planning in Pakistan

This section examines the education system and the language policy Pakistan inherited from the Britishers and how this system evolved. The main objective is to analyze how colonial politics shaped the language policies in Pakistan, as well as the impact these language policies had on post-colonial Pakistan‘s education system. It discusses language planning and policy-making from both a historical and contemporary perspective in Pakistan with particular attention being given to language policies and planning in education. Focus is on the development of colonial and post-colonial language policies with regard to the use of indigenous Pakistani languages, for example English and Urdu, as languages of instruction in the learning and teaching of subjects such as Mathematics. Pakistan inherited from the Britain a racially structured system of education in which two parallel systems existed. The

European system was designed to serve and promote white interests and ensure elite domination and superiority while Pakistani education was really an education designed to perpetuate the subjugation of the masses.

This section presents a brief analysis of the language in education situation in

Pakistan from its historical perspective. Language policy issue in primary education in

Pakistan has not been adequately addressed by the various education commissions set up by different governments to look into the problems being faced by students and teachers. Pakistan is a country with more than 70 living languages and its government is confused in the selection of a single language as MOI (medium of instruction) among English, Urdu i.e. the national language and local languages. The paper will explain the controversy of MOI from the pre-partition time (1835-1947) till date in different political regimes to understand the causes of disagreement on one a single

MOI in education.

The language that is used by the teacher for teaching inside the classroom is called medium of instruction. Pakistan is a multilingual country more than 70 languages are spoken in the different regions of Pakistan. There are six major languages i.e. Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Sariaki and Baluchi, and Urdu. Urdu is the national language and English is the official language. Although no community uses

English as its first language still it exists as an official language due to multiple reasons i.e. colonial legacy, need of administration and courts of law, wish of elites and others. It is not necessary that the official language or the primary language of the country should be used as medium of instruction in education. The national language of Pakistan is Urdu whereas the provincial languages include the Punjabi, Sindhi,

Pashto and Balochi. However, the Brahui, Hindko and Siraiki are also used in different regions of the country. Medium of instruction controversy in Pakistan has existed since independence or to be true even before independence during British rule, the ruling elites were split in two camps on the issue of medium of instruction _ the

Orientalists _ the supporters of vernaculars to be the medium of instruction while the other one was Anglicists _ the supporter of English to be the medium of instruction.

The issue of the medium of instruction is still under discussion in the different forums of education and policies of education enforced from time to time i.e. from the first convention on education 1947 to the last education policy in the year 2009.

2.13 Historical Background

2.13.1 Medium of Instruction Controversy Pre-partition (1835-1947)

In this section, the focus is to examine the way the Pakistan‘s Government constructed and implemented its educational and linguistic policies and also critically discusses the role Pakistani languages played in the teaching and learning of science subjects such as Mathematics. The colonial powers regarded proficiency in local

Pakistani languages as a prerequisite for the facilitation of collection of taxes, knowledge of native laws and customs that enabled the enforcement of colonial orders. The British education system regarded Pakistani languages as crude and uncivilized. English occupied a central position in the curriculum, and Pakistani languages such as Urdu, received scant attention in schools. Medium of instruction controversy is not a spanking new topic of discussion for the educationist but it does not make it any less vital. The issue of medium of instruction first appeared in Indo-Pak in the British period. At that time William

Bentick was the Governer General. Lord William changed medium of instruction from Persian to English. The decision was taken under the constant pressure from many Anglicists like Trevelyon and Macaly in 1835.

In eighteen fifties another noticeable development in the same respect happened with the introduction of Wood‘s Dispatch in 1854, a policy relating the medium of instruction. Instructing western Education in English language only. It was the same policy that was adopted by the Education Commission in 1883. In a conference held in Shimla in 1904 Lord Cuzon highlighted the importance of vernacular langue. (Basu 1947).

The local people who were in favour of vernacularisation could not take any stand as they were already divided into two groups, one group supported Urdu as replacement of English and the other was in favour of Hindi. The Governer General settled the issue through Council‘s order of deciding verniculars the Language of

Education (Richey 1922). It was the end result of much controversy of the people who supported English including Sir Erksine Persy of Bombey residency. George Jervise‘s argument of opposition of English was that making English the language of Education will totally isolate the Angliscised from the natives (Jervis 1847).

Zakir Hussain Committee supported Gandhi‘s opinion about the use of mother tongue for Education (Hussain 1938) but later on realized that Urdu was going into the background and Hindi was being imposed on in the congress rule 1939. The controversy continued in Indo-Pak. One of its reason was that neither the British nor did the Elites of Sub continent were in favour of vernicularizaiton. So education in school was in local languages higher Education was imparted in English as before

(Jang 1940).

2.13.2 Medium of Instruction Controversy after Independence (1947-1971)

In independent Pakistan, the leaders of Muslim League formed the government associated Urdu with Islamic and Pakistani identity. They considered that only Urdu could be used to bring together the diverse nationalities of Pakistan. That was the reason that they promulgated the uni-national thesis— that Pakistanis are one people — and Urdu was chosen as the national language. No observable resistance was noticed to this policy decision in the interest for Pakistan.

During the first Educational conference held in 1947 in Karachi, the minister of Education remarked that Pakistan should not throw away a language (English) which can give us so easy access to all the secrets of western science and culture. (M.

Geijbels)

The advisory Board of Education agreed in 1948 that Urdu should be the language of instruction at Secondary and University level but the board could not reach a decision regarding private English medium schools, and civil and military academia. (T. Rahman)

An organization on the name of Official Language Committee, was created by

Governor of Punjab in 1949, with the aim to coin new vocabulary, further schools were ordered to switch from English to Urdu. (Tariq Rahman 1998).

The Pakistani central government‘s support of Urdu had a negative effect on

Sindhi. In The Report on National Education, Urdu achieved the same status in Sindh as it had in other provinces. Urdu was given ‗the same position in Sind as in the rest of West Pakistan (CNE, 1959: 284). According to this Urdu would take the place of Sindhi as medium of instruction upto matric level.

For contesting first general election in Pakistan the political parties of East

Bengal formed the united front. This front prescribed 21 points formula, point No. 10 of this formula sought the introduction of vernaculars as a medium of instruction.(Islam, ―Failure in state- building‖)

So Urdu became the medium of instruction in primary and middle schools in

West Pakistan. Even where medium of instruction was Sindhi, Pushto, or English,

Urdu is taught as the second language. In West Pakistan generally most people who can write at all, write Urdu. (Census, 195 1-p-74)

The official language committee of Punjab substituted English terms with

Urdu in 1949(ABE, 1955). Secondary education was already imparted in Urdu. At that time it was also suggested that Urdu should take place of English even in Higher education. However, in spite of the consensus that Urdu should replace English, elitist schools — such as cadet colleges — kept increasing (ABE, 1958). When he was serving as a general even at that time his suggestion was to start public institutes for the training of intellectuals to becoming future officers. He appointed a Commission on National Education known as Sharif Commotion. The commission legally safeguarded such public elite schools by the jingle of modernization.(CNE 1959)

Selection of medium of instruction for any country is a political matter. Same is the case with Pakistan but as much of our ruling class belongs to elite group, they uphold their personal interests. According to Cooper in 1989 these may include extension of powers, facilities for the elite class, ruling for generations, nation- structure according to once ideas and alliance of many ethnic groups.

Education plan emphasized Urdu and English as Primary Languages of

Pakistan, but it recommended that Arabic should also be a language of instruction.(

Tariq Rehman).Likewise in Pakistan we have had many personalities who supported

Urdu as medium of instruction one of them was Dr. Ishrat Hussain Usmani the president of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission in 1960s. In the fifth annual conference of the Scientific Society he highlighted several reasons due to which Urdu was abandoned and did not become the language of instruction for science. Though

Dr. Saleemul Zaman Siddiqui, the world‘s renowned scientist, had disagreed earlier and had favored Urdu for the purpose, many scientists agreed with Dr. Usmani and the issue was later discussed even at a vice chancellors‘ conference.

Hamood-ur-Rahman expressed regret in his report released in 1966 on the issue of Karachi and Punjab Universities permitting the Bachelor of Arts examination in Urdu and the University of Sindh allowing the same in Sindhi.(Tariq Rahman)

Some elite who were part of Urdu movement demanded all the sign boards to be converted into Urdu (Pakistan Times, 21 February 1961).Abdullah writes in 1976 that it was also demanded by the pro-Urdu elites that the proceedings of formal meetings should be in Urdu and it should be used in the powerful fields like Judiciary and Education to add value to Urdu language.

In 1969 General Yahya replaced Ayub Khan. To renovate the educational system Yahya‘s government constituted a committee under the chairmanship of Air

Marshal Nur Khan. This committee recommended that English should no longer be the language of instruction in the country. In its place, Urdu and Bengali should replace it by 1975 (PNEP, 1969).

New Educational policy proposals issued by Air Marshal Nur Khan in the era of Yahya Khan recommended Bengali to be the medium of instruction in the East

Pakistan and Urdu in the West Paskistan.(Rahman)

2.13.3 Medium Of Instruction Controversy after the Separation East Pakistan (1971-2015)

At independence in 1947, Pakistan inherited a racially structured system of education where one part, the European, was designed to serve and promote white interests and the other, the Pakistani, which was really an education system designed to perpetuate the subjugation of the masses by the elites. The European and Pakistani education systems were indicative of the racial basis of colonial education.

2.9.3.1 Pakistan People’s Party Period ( 1971-1977)

During the Pakistan Peoples‘ Party (PPP) government i.e. 1971–1977, the opponents of Bhutto i.e. the National Awami Party and Jamiat-e- Ulema-i-Islam in the

North West Frontier Province (NWFP) presently KP and Baluchistan supported Urdu.

Bhuto never gave much importance to Urdu which would have meant promoting his opponents who had made Urdu lobby against him. Infect in Urdu conferences there used to be an open debate against Bhutto and PPP (Abdullah, 1976;

Zulfiqar & Akhtar, 1986).

Rubin and Jernudd (1971) believed language planning to be a deliberate, though not always overt, future oriented change in the system of language code. The

Hamoodur Rahman Commission, set up to investigate the causes of student unrest, criticized those universities which had adopted Urdu as a medium of examination in

BA, and it defended the elitist schools on the same grounds as the report of 1959

(RCSP 1966 ).

2.9.3.2 Zia Ul Haq Regime (1977-1988)

During General Zia Ul Haq‘s martial-law period (1977–1988), the right-wing,

Urdu lobby came into its own, encouraged by General Zia, who used Urdu and Islam as symbols of Pakistani and Muslim identity. Zia created the Muqadra Qaumi Zaban

(the National Language Authority) in 1979 and ordered that Urdu will the medium of instruction in all schools (Pakistan Times, 4 February 1979).

General Zia‘s goal of Islamizing the nation led to his desire for Urdu to predominate in Pakistan to accomplish this. He passed an order that Urdu would be the medium of instruction in all schools from ―class 1 or KG as the case may be from

1979.

The 1979 Education policy suggested some strategies to achieve this national goal. One of the said strategies was introduction of Urdu as a medium of instruction.

Thus, it decided that by 1989, the matriculation examination would only be in Urdu.

However, before the elitist English-medium schools could have been abolished,

General Zia was convinced to change his mind, and English was allowed as a medium of instruction in some schools (Pakistan Times, 28 October 1987). Ever since the medium of instruction has been the same in elite schools although in spite of decades of democratic government of Pakistan. 2.9.3.3 Benazir, Nawaz and Musharraf Regimes 1988-2015)

In Benazir Bhutto‘s two tenures (1988–1990 and 1993–1996) and afterwards as well there have been two sets of intellectual the liberalist who upholds English as an important Language and the fundamentalist who prefer Urdu over English.

In 1990 Use of Mother tongue Use Bill in Baluchistan was passes by Benazir

Bhutto‘s regime. It made Baluchi, Brahvi and Pashto mandatory in government schools only exempting the elite schools which kept English as medium of instruction

(Rahman). But in practice this bill was never implemented as no text books were produced and no professional teacher training was given to the teachers.

Aftab Hasan affiliated with Karachi University and a strong devotee of Urdu, writes in his book named ‗Urdu zari‘a-i-taaleem aur istelahaat‘ (Urdu as a medium of instruction and terminology),about how Urdu should be the medium of instruction giving example from a century old university (Usmania University of Hyderabad), where all the subjects were taught in Urdu.

The number of bilingual or multilingual individuals is more than monolingual in the world. Also there are more children who have been and continue to be educated through a second or a later-acquired language, at least for some portion of their formal education, than there are children educated exclusively via the first language in the world. In addition, there are many more children throughout the world who are multilingual. Bilingualism or multilingualism and innovative approaches to education that involve the use of two or more languages constitute the normal everyday experience (Dutcher, 1994; World Bank, 1995). There are institutes which offer education in the second or other than the mother tongue in some countries. Then there are other countries whose institutions educate their students firmly in mother tongue.

It is a country‘s language policy to decide what language will be used for instruction in education. According to Kaplan and Baldauf (1997) language planning is a set of ideas, laws, beliefs, and practices utilized to bring a planned change in the use of language.

Pakistan‘s elite institutions enable their students to excel not only in the content but also in English language as all the content is also provided in English thus the two goals are being attained simultaneously. Therefore, most of the people of

Pakistan want their children to be educated in such schools as they know the fact that these schools are the source of their children‘s‘ bright future.(Khan 2002)

Although Urdu is studied as compulsory subject till 12th grade yet it is a matter of great concern because of the constant neglect. A time may come when Urdu will no longer be considered a living language of the society. The only way to avoid this situation is to make the educational institutes use Urdu and to start using it in social events and in literary work. It is also a fact that only those nations that use their own language as medium of instruction have been able to make progress in the fields of science and commerce, be it China or Japan, Korea or Russia, Germany or France.

The policy 2006, after facing much trouble and opposition states that medium of instruction for non-linguistic subjects like mathematics, science and social studies will be English. Curriculum for these subjects was approved in English and School

Education Department of Punjab started taking steps towards achieving this goal initiating the project in few selected schools and introducing the mentioned subjects in English.(SED 2013). According to the British Council‘ research (2013) sufficient preparation was not carried out prior to this decision.

A research conducted by Amna Saeed, Tanveer Iqbal and Rabbia Azam on the title ―Perceptions of Teachers regarding English-medium Instructions at

Secondary Education in Punjab Province of Pakistan‖ concluded that most of the teachers(70%) do not have appropriate skills to teach Mathematics and Science subjects using English as a medium of instruction. Most of the teachers (74%) thought that they had problem teaching Mathematics and Science subjects in English language. 75% teachers use Urdu to explain the content. 76% think that students don't understand in English.

The results indicated that the percentages of teachers who do not support

English as a medium of instruction range from 67% and 69%. 60% of them felt that students have difficulty in understanding Mathematics and Science instructions

English. While (69%) viewed that Urdu as medium instruction can help students understand Mathematics better; while 68% considered that teaching Science in Urdu will provide better understanding of concepts. Therefore, teachers felt that English as medium instructions have negative effect upon students. Teachers perceived that in

Urdu Medium of Instructions students can understand the concepts of science and

Mathematics better. It is easier for students to learn the concepts in their first language as they do not have to go through the laborious process of translation.

Pakistan is linguistically rich country approximately 72 languages with 300 different dialects are spoken in all four provinces .(Khan 2002)

In socio-linguistics and psycho-linguistics much research is carried out on the issue code-switching (Boztepe2003). Linguists have introduced many types of code- switching. It occurs when students switch form one language to another there can be many reasons to it but it mostly happens when in a class where nonlinguistic subject like mathematics is taught through other than the mother tongue. In such situations student may often switch from the language of instruction to mother language.

The colonial heritage of English conflicts an individual‘s pride, belief and confidence in his/her own linguistic origin, its benefits as an official language of

Pakistan but its international recognition partly compensates for this position by teaching a language prevalent in nearly in all domains of power like the government, bureaucracy, military, judiciary, commerce, education and research (Rahman, 2005, p.24),

The question, ―what should be the medium of instruction in our schools?‖ is still under controversy in Pakistan even after 60 years. After ample research work carried out in the area of language and literacy it is amazing to know that Pakistan is still unable to come to a point of decision making about the language of instruction.

According to Zubeida Mustufa (2005) psycholinguists believe that children learn best if they are taught in mother tongue. The reason they provide is that cognitive development and language development are linked with each other. Therefore, if a child is though in any other language then his mother tongue, his learning will slow down and he will learn syllable by syllable very slowly and with much less understanding.

The domestic colonialism of Urdu over local regional languages, on the other hand, remains less easy to be justifies. Urdu medium and Madrassah school students do not experience medium of instruction as a choice. These schools suffer from a stereotyped, stigmatized image of serving the affluent with an ―underclass of workers and literate servants‖ (Khalique, 2007, p.101).

It is common that in many cases, teachers themselves hardly know how to speak English, but are given the responsibility to teach it (Shamim, 2008).A dexterous use of the English language in reading and writing provides an important competitive advantage to English medium school students in entry tests when pursuing higher studies at well reputed institutes (Rahman, 2010, p.235).Schools imparting education in Urdu, on the other hand, are generally considered more conservative and religious in their everyday teachings. Alongside a civic republican trend of promoting a homogenized national identity, unity and patriotism, inclusion and recurrence of words like Mujahideen, Shuhda and Jihad in Urdu Social Studies and Islamic texts is thought to result in a more intense ―communal and religious interpretation of historical struggles‖ (Saigol, 2010, p.136).

The class dividing factor of the society according to Faizullah (2011) takes place in the schooling system of Pakistan where the elite private schools teachers teach students how to be proficient in speaking English and on the other hand in the government schools teachers themselves are not well trained and equipped with the

English language. When the products of these two types of schools go to job market the first category of students gets the most appealing job and the second gets the left over jobs and this is how the circle continues.

2.14 The Role of Language in Education

Education is the basis of mass participation, a means to upward social mobility, manpower training and development. Knowledge is transmitted through language hence the significance of language in education. (Bamgbose, 1991). Bamgbose‘s views were quite informing to this study. The study maintains that the role of education in development must be concerned with the liberation of the human potential for the welfare of not only the individual but also the community at large.

Language is considered a possible empowering factor in the education process. The study explores further the role of language in education under language and medium of instruction.

2.15 Language and Medium of Instruction

Bamgbose (2000: 58-59) mentions that UNESCO experts who met in Paris in 1951 to consider language as a medium of instruction concluded that: psychological, social and education aspects children be taught in a language they know effectively. In Pakistan there are so many mother tongues. Urdu though not the mother tongue of Pakistanis but is considered next to the mother tongue. It is the national language of the country and most of the people in Pakistan can understand and communicate with it. Language survival depends on multiple functions otherwise it shrinks and dies gradually. A language that a child knows effectively, which is also able of opening communicational barriers should be the language of education and training. Hubbard (1992:11-62) identifies among other barriers to study, the misunderstood word as the third and most important barrier to study. (ibid: 42). Mis- understood word is an obstacle in learning which reflects language a serious restriction to learning. Involvement of indigenous languages in learning formal education facilitates learner in cultural and emotional transfer from house to school and back. UNESCO (1992a: 23) cited in Bamgbose (2000:58-59) provides a checklist for the ideal language of literacy/learning. The language should have some or all of the following: -  It should be familiar to and preferred by learners and teachers

 It should be spoken by a large number of people over a large area

 It should be useful for communication in local and national life and especially

working life.

 It should be well supplied with teaching materials.

 It should be provided with enough printed text to prevent newly literate people

from forgetting what they have learned.

The checklist looks quite plausible although in Pakistan events have not always been influenced by any logic. After independence Pakistan governments aim was to increase literacy rate by ensuring education to all. They preferred structure of educational system and curriculum upon language policy. Prah (2001b.) in Brock-

Utne and Hopson (2005:27) postulates that language of education is the language of control and power. His point of view is that language is collected and putdown in to language instructions where mother tongue is the instructional language. It promotes confidence of learner relating to historical and cultural aspects otherwise frustration and cultural isolation effects development.

Prah (ibid) acknowledges that in free societies knowledge transfer takes place in the language in which the masses are most creative and innovative. Linked to Prah‘s argument, Mutasa (2004:38) educates and advises that ―to guarantee success, knowledge and skill must be disseminated in languages easiest for millions to understand‖. He noticed the problem of Pakistan nation to carry on heritage of policies. Mackey (1984:37-49) argues that education in any language often contains the study of the people traditionally identified with the language. Rubanza (1996) finds English equivalent to Education on following concepts:

 English is school uniform because you take it off when you go home.

 For many Pakistanis to be educated means acquisition of an European

language. Observations have revealed the belief of Pakistanis that to be

educated means to acquire knowledge through the medium of English.

 Studies suggests a language is royal and more powering that helps the learner

to grasp new language, apply new language in classroom and in real life

situations as well as shares it in community. Such a language is not like a

school uniform, which is set a side after school because purpose of education

is to equip the learner with the skills that can be applied by him throughout his

life.

Choice of language of instructions mostly depends upon perceived status of language.

English is perceived to be more powerful and to provide access to information and technology. Adams and Mayes (1998) remarked that we should not happily and proudly put our children through education processes, which render them illiterate and even ―un-oral‖ in our Pakistani languages. On the other hand Hayford (1911:17) as cited in Anydidoho (1992) emphasizes ―…no people could despise its own language, customs and institutions and avoid national death‖. The role of language has been aptly presented by Skutnabb-Kangas (1998:13) who reasons that English is an instrument of imperialism in developing countries.

Arguments presented by various authorities discussed above are in keeping with the checklist provided by UNESCO (1992) as cited in Bamgbose (2000). The use of indigenous languages as a medium of instruction ensures that learners are taught in a language spoken by a large number of people, which language is useful in local and national life and the language is familiar to both learners and teachers. In the case of

Pakistan, Urdu would be the most appropriate language that suits the checklist if the choice were to be reduced to one. The study maintains that the language of instruction should be one that matches the UNESCO checklist and provides learners with as little barriers to learning as possible. The language of learning should facilitate easy acquisition of knowledge and skills that can be practically applied to the learners‘ immediate environment.

It is argued that language is the vehicle of thought and intelligence. It is through language that ideas are conceptualized, thoughts organized and memory systematized. A close relationship exists between language, thought and intelligence,

(ADEA, 1996). Pakistani languages should not be seen as stumbling blocks to national unity, national identity and national development but should be regarded as resources for people‘s aspirations and full participation in national development. In view of this the language of education should be that which offers potential for full participation by the masses.

2.16 Indigenous Pakistani Language Preparedness for Use in

Education

Bamgbose (1991:72) claims that, ―No matter how large the population of speakers of a language is, it is only when the language has been reduced to writing and materials made available in it that it can be used in education‖. In context to use the language in education availability of language in print media for resource material is also valuable along with population of the speakers. Colonization divides speakers of a country in two groups: (i) A group of users – those countries which used indigenous languages as a

medium of instruction in early primary education and taught as a subject at

secondary.

(ii) Non-users – where formal education is conducted in the colonial language.

A group of non-users consists of French and Portuguese colonies. Here English remained main medium of instructions at higher grades as well as a subject. There is same situation in Pakistan. So much material has been written in English than in indigenous Pakistani languages. Having lack of technical and scientific terminology indigenous Pakistani languages are set aside and valued only for bridging the initial levels of education.

Pakistani governments could legislate language polices that empower their languages.

But Pakistani languages face tough competition with English that owns long literary tradition with progressive vocabulary. One more aspect is that languages are developed through written forms other than oral use.

In context with the problem of preserving culture through language Pakistani nation is facing puzzle of saving indigenous languages. Studies suggest Pakistani governments to empower an indigenous language to continue in wider communication and medium of instruction. Having potential Pakistani languages may be effectively used as languages of education. Despite of the problems Pakistani indigenous languages may ensure smooth switching from home to school. In such a scenario when Pakistanis are in competition to speak English like British political commitment to indigenous languages as a medium of instructions proposed by Prah(1995a, b) and Skuthabb- Kangas (2000) seems difficult. A language battle is won gradually and there is need to move from elite type of education to the flood of mass communication through indigenous Pakistani languages.

Observations persuade to consider that any language is capable of winning empowering status. So Pakistani governments should energetically evaluate indigenous Pakistani languages otherwise English and other non-Pakistani languages will remain the world languages.

2.17 Language Policy in Education

Since independence in 1947 Pakistan does not have an Official Language in

Education Policy Document that specifically focuses on the use of Pakistani

Languages as languages of instruction. A socio-linguistic description of the functions of the three main languages/language groups in Pakistan is given below. Table 2 .1: Language Situation in Post-colonial Pakistan

Language Status/Dominance Functions

English Official status -international communication (UN and AU) dominance - wider communication (lingua franca)

- educational instruction

- school subject

- literary for writing books

-technical for scientific and technical communication

Urdu Numerical -group language dominance - school subject

- literary

-religious

Local Recognized -group language Languages language - school subject

- literary

- religious

Table above reveals that indigenous languages in Pakistan are not used for wider communication or as languages of instructions. Proficiency in English is considered the power of language with the concept that private schools prefer it, which retains its status as medium of instruction, key to acquire education, training, employment and mobility.

Language of educational instruction signifies importance of particular language to transmit knowledge. It facilitates school graduates to job market and wider community. So it links socio and economic culture to indigenous language usage in education and social life.

Ngugi wa Thiongo (1986:4) stated ―the choice and use to which language is put is central to a people‘s definition of themselves in relation to their natural and social environment, indeed in relation to the entire universe.‖ The choice has implications for the educational system. In Pakistan English is used for potential efficiency and for wider communication where as Urdu for nationalistic priorities. So English and Urdu both are serving socio-political and educational functions in Pakistan.

English has established itself in administration, Education, jurisdiction, government and private sectors like internet electronic and print media in Pakistan whereas Urdu is not being used in media and internet. Such a disadvantage compels teachers and learners to look down Urdu while comparing with English.

Belief from the colonial period is continued to look English as a superior language.

According to Dube (1997:11) these attitudes may have improved at independence but now it would appear they are contributing to the marginalization of indigenous language in their use as languages of instruction in Pakistani primary schools.

2.18 The Role of Indigenous Languages in Pakistan

The debate on the role of indigenous Pakistani languages in Pakistan‘s education system is not new. According to Mutasa (2004) language enables individuals to become fully functioning members of a group. Ngugi (1994) asserts that language is one of the indispensable features of the cultural systems of all societies. In other words language is the collective memory bank of a people‘s experience in history. Language helps people to communicate their socio-economic, political, scientific and technological experiences. Language is a production tool that facilitates thinking and sharing of ideas. Empowering people to use their indigenous Pakistani languages such as Urdu as a language of instruction in the education system would enable the people to come up with in house solutions as they participate fully in the

development of the society.

Pakistani governments have empowered English as an official language but in rural areas people have been stuck to use indigenous languages but they use liberally

English words so enrich the indigenous languages. This recognition contradicts the intention of government to involve its citizens in participating in matters of development. Mazrui (1996b:3) laments the use of foreign languages to propagate development in Africa, when he argues that ―a country cannot prosper using other peoples‘ languages without the dangers of subordinating its citizens‖. He further questions whether ―any country [can] approximate first rank economic development if it relies overwhelmingly on foreign languages for its discourse on development and transformation‖.

Chessa (2001:16) observes that language the learner knows very well ensures effective development so 1st language is preferred to acquire knowledge. Bamgbose

(1991:50) points out the importance of language as a key to the development when it is exploited and used with full potential. Hence the research seeks to investigate the effectiveness and probability of using Urdu versus English as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools. In morning mathematic or English is taught and Urdu is taught in afternoon when learners are tired. On the other hand teacher and parents want their children to pass in

English that lead to social satisfaction so undermined value of Urdu. Mutasa

(2003:304) supports the notion that parents perceive English as the answer to their children‘s academic and social problems, a gateway to success socially, politically and economically.

Pakistan faces unbalanced bicultural and bilingual situation having English as an official language and Urdu with less importance socially and culturally. The research focus to investigate language planning in Pakistani educational system relating to the use of indigenous Pakistani languages in teaching and learning of subjects.

Language is a tool of communication which on one side expresses ideas and on the other side equips learner with knowledge, skill and values (Kamwendo, 2009:1); hence education offered in indigenous Pakistani languages is likely to incorporate indigenous values to the values of sustainable development.

Prah (2001b) in Brock-Utne and Hopson (2005:25) postulates that the language of education is the language of hegemony and power. He asserts that knowledge is accumulated and deposited in the language of instruction and where language of instruction is the same as indigenous languages it gives confidence to a people with respect to their historical and cultural baggage. Where a people lack confidence and respect of their cultural heritage there is bound to be frustration, alienation, cultural dominance and under-development.

Mateene (1980) maintains that Pakistani languages are underdeveloped in scientific and technical expression because they have not been used to express thought in these fields. Indigenous Pakistani languages are poor because Pakistanis do not want to use them in important areas such as education, administration, medicine and the law.

Rubanza insisted that Pakistani development is impossible without the use of

Pakistani languages, (Prah, 2002:44). Rubanza maintains that ethnic languages enable those who interact to make relevant connections with their lives beyond the school.

Rubanza (1996) argues that for some; English = Education, English = School uniform because you take it off when you go home. In the view of this study, a language for example, English, that helps the learner grasp new knowledge, apply it to real life situation beyond the classroom and share the new knowledge with immediate community, is more empowering.

The language encourages development and transfer of knowledge without disturbing learners immediate environment. Education for sustainable development uses language as a medium for promoting environmental consciousness and responsibility so it should not be taken off when school is over.

Teacher always teaches for a particular examination. Based on the results of these examination schools are rated at the end of the year. According to Mavesera (2010) declarations have been made to use indigenous Pakistani languages as media of instruction but with no clear implementation strategy. A challenge remains is that the declarations are not supported by resource funding even of teaching materials. Policy might encourage indigenous Pakistani languages as media of instruction, examinations in all subjects other than English and Urdu are still done in English

Mavesera (2010) points out that had the English not valued their language; Latin would still be the ―world‖ language. By the same token if Pakistanis do not value their languages, English and other non-Pakistani languages will remain ―the world languages‖. It is vital to invest in both human and financial resources if positive results are to be realized in language planning. It is only when indigenous Pakistani languages have become languages of instruction that they can occupy a significant place for sustainable development in the global village.

2.19 Use of Indigenous Languages Instruction in Pakistan Primary Schools

UNESCO Committee of 1953 recommended that the best medium for teaching a child is the indigenous languages through which children understand better and express themselves freely. Through the use of indigenous languages instruction, the learners can express themselves; teachers can diagnose what has been learned, what remains to be taught and which learners need further assistance. Indigenous languages instruction develops the confidence of learner due to clear understanding of instructions.

In free societies, knowledge transfer takes place in the language or languages of the masses, the languages in which the masses are most creative and innovative, the languages, which speak to them primordially in their hearts and minds (Prah,

2005:26). The use of indigenous languages as a medium of instruction ensures that language is familiar to both learners and teachers. For example, Urdu would be the most appropriate language to be used as a language of instruction.

Subjects such as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Geography to mention a few are very difficult mainly due to the failure by learners to understand concepts because they are explained in English, which is a foreign language to most

Pakistani school children. The language of learning should facilitate easy acquisition of knowledge and skills that can be practically applied to the learners‘ immediate environment.

A strong positive justification in the use of the indigenous languages is that a child when enrolled in a primary school at the age of six he/she would have developed a capacity to use one language or the other. But learning through indigenous language ensures smooth transition from home to school. Therefore knowledge transmission must be in a language a child already knows, development status of language, teacher‘s availability and size of speakers. Language that meets the pre- requisites should continued to be used as a medium of instruction in primary schools. Features of such a language are as under.

• Rote learning can be avoided because of the students‘ better understanding of

the material.

• Learners become more creative since they have to improvise and find novel

ways of expression; invent terms to use in their written work.

2.20 Attitudes of Teachers on the Use of Urdu as a Medium of Instruction in Schools

The success of indigenous languages instruction policy depends on speakers attitudes towards the first language (Urdu) and the second language (English). The colonial and the post colonial language and educational policies obviously provide a solid basis of the explanation of attitudes towards Pakistani languages.

Analysis of the colonial languages policies implemented so far in Pakistan reveals use of English from the 1st grade and use of indigenous languages as a medium of instructions up to primary level. Post colonial policies have maintained same status whereas most usage of English is reflected in an elite group of people in Pakistan.

Indigenous languages are not being used for education beyond the lower grades such as Urdu. As a result Urdu is graded with less importance.

There is no doubt that indigenous languages are used to the lower grades such as

Urdu. They may be assessed by oral usage, emotional attachment, village solidarity and personal loyalties. While comparing Urdu and English, Urdu is considered inferior and English superior one better suited for education. Reason is that Urdu does not have appropriate terms used in science and technology. This is a major disadvantage of indigenous languages which declares them inferior to English.

2.21 Learner Attitudes towards English Language

Learners prefer English as a medium of instruction upon the facts and views that most text books, literature and reading materials are mainly available in the English language, that English is easy to understand and to communicate in and that it is the

―official‖ language in Pakistan. On the other hand it is enrich with broad spectrum vocabulary so universality of English in both the material subjects and Geographical boundaries has given the English language an advantage over other languages.

2.22 Community and Parental Attitudes towards English Languages Instruction

Pakistanis believe English as a language of knowledge. They prefer English on indigenous languages for use in education. Parent‘s attitude towards the Pakistani indigenous languages is also negative which is passed on to their children. Research by Ndamba (2008), shows that children in Grades1-3 preferred to read and write in

English. This could be a result of children who are told by parents that they go to school to learn English (Otto 1997). Attitudes that English is more important than

Urdu may be passed on to children by parents who tell children that English provides educational and employment opportunities in the future (Nondo,1990). Thus children may begin to develop negative attitudes towards the first language which they might then regard as less important (Bamgbose 1991, Robson 1996).

Explanation for positive evaluation of English by parents is that because of the colonial policy parents got used to undermining indigenous languages since it was not at all used as language of instruction from the first grade. Rwambiwa (1996), Gatawa

(1998) and Gudhlanga (2005) attribute the negative attitudes towards the indigenous languages to the fact that the current language policy which requires children to learn in the indigenous languages only in the lower grades. Ndamba‘s (2008:184) findings suggest that parents and children had a more positive attitude towards English than the indigenous languages as the language of instruction at the infant level. This implies that people have been so linguistically colonised that they have more faith in

English than they do in English‘s process of children‘s learning.

2.23 Empowerment of Pakistan Languages through their Use in Teaching and Learning Situation

Teaching of other subjects in primary schools through Urdu is a good example of empowerment of Pakistani languages . The strategy persuades to recognize that other subjects can be taught through indigenous languages instead of English. It encourage the learners to use indigenous languages in other professions.

The use indigenous Pakistani Languages in education is cost effective with respect to minimized failure rates. Concepts are understood readily without facing hurdles with the languages of learning. Empowerment of indigenous languages ensures active participation of local communities in the development of country. Use of indigenous languages, make people confident in sharing ideas, potential problem, knowledge and experiences. It also ensures an adequate learning environment that foster understanding of the subjects being taught.

Indigenous languages serve as communication tool which enhances confidence of the speaker in a classroom environment. As a communication tool a language of significant importance should be used. In the present scenario Urdu is not seen in mainstream of educational instructions although it is used in discussions and interactions in a class room. A situation where a major indigenous language is used to teach minority language creates cultural harmony. In case same language is used in wider communications as instructional language it helps to promot international understanding and unity.

Mavesera (2009:48) argues that a language that a child knows effectively should be the language of education and training. The language used for education purposes should be a language capable of opening communication barriers. The communication barrier indicates the importance of language in the comprehension of concepts in the learning process. If a word is found an obstacle to learning it is considered a major hurdle in the learning process. Here a significant role is observed when indigenous language as language of instruction involves parents emotional and cultural transfer to the learners from home to school. It is really less painful (Webb, 2002:191).

According to Brock-Utne and Hopson (2005:27) the knowledge that is accumulated and deposited in the language of instruction, where language of instruction is the same as indigenous languages gives confidence to a people with respect to their historical and cultural baggage. Where people lack confidence and respect of their cultural heritage there is bound to be frustration, alienation cultural dominance and under- development. Linked to this argument, Mutasa (2004:38) educates and advises that ― to guarantee success, knowledge and skill must be disseminated in languages easiest for millions to understand‖.

Mackey (1984:38-49) argues that education in any language often contains the study of the people traditionally identified with the language. Indigenous languages instruction should be promoted to enhance concept formation and include a majority of the indigenous learners who grapple with English.

Use of indigenous languages as a medium of instruction indicates which language is useful in local and national level. How much it is familiar to learner and teacher . It also ensures that learners are taught in a language spoken by a large number of people.

According to Durkheim cited, by Trudgil (1986: 19) the system of concepts with which we think in everyday life is that expressed by the vocabulary of our indigenous languages because every word translates a concept. Hence there is need to teach mathematics in Urdu at primary level and practical investigations towards its use as a medium of instruction are necessary.

Bamgbose (1991:72) claims that,‖ No matter how large the population of speakers of a language is, it is only when the language has been reduced to writing and materials made available in it that it can be used in education‖. Pakistan is a multilingual and multi cultural country where status /judgment to measure the use of indigenous languages is not clear due to lack of measuring resources. In Pakistan it is important to use Urdu as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics when the language has been reduced to writing and is also available in print media for resource materials. Implementation of Urdu as indigenous and instructional language is tucked due to its linguistic modernization when compared with English that carries modern knowledge.

2.24 English in Pakistan: Social Roles and Status in Public Education

Discussing the status of English in Pakistan, Haque (1983) has written that

―Although introduced in this country through an historical accident, English has become a pattern of life, and its cultural influence continues to be strong‖ . While

Haque (1983) noted the impact of English three decades ago, the importance of

English has increased significantly in Pakistan (Mahboob, 2002; Norton, 2010). This section of the review discusses how the English language gained such significance in

Pakistani society in general and in the Pakistani public educational system in particular. This section will first, documents briefly the social status of English in

Pakistan. Second, will provide a short overview of the history of Pakistani public educational policies in the context of the status English has had since the establishment of the country. Third, it will discusse the current and projected standing of English in the public language-in-education policy Finally, the review explores the government‘s and/or policymakers‘ justifications, rationales, and concerns surrounding the current as well as the future role of English in public education.

2.25 Status and Position of English in Social Domains of Pakistan

Pakistan follows the 1973 constitution at present. The Constitution (1973) lays out the following national language policy (Rasool and Mansoor, 2007):  Article 251 1. The national language of Pakistan is Urdu, and

arrangements shall be made for its being used for official and other

purposes within fifteen years from the commencing day.

 Subject to clause 1, the English language may be used for official

purposes until arrangements are made for its replacement by Urdu.

 Without prejudice to the status of the national language, a provincial

assembly may by law prescribe measures for the teaching, promotion and

use of a provincial language in addition to the national language.

Urdu has been designated as the national language and English as the official language of all the people(s) of Pakistan. In addition, as written above, English was designated as the official language only for the first fifteen years. That is, Urdu was conceptualized as both the national and the official languages replacing English after

1988. This, however, did not happen. The burgeoning influence of English as the lingua franca all over the world in general and as the language of power in Pakistan in particular may prevent Urdu from stepping into the role envisioned in the constitution in future, too (Mahboob, 2002; Mansoor, 2004; Rahman,1997; 1999).

Abbas (1993) has noted the ―major functions‖ of English in Pakistan which help to see how English has become the language of power in Pakistan. His discussion also helps to explain how the language has earned its uppermost place in the Pakistani linguistic and social hierarchy. He has written that English is the main language of ―the Civil Administration and the bureaucracy, which includes both the federal and the four provincial governments,‖ i.e., Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan, and

Khyber Pakhtoonkhuwa. Second, it is the principal language of the Pakistani legal system of both federal and the provincial governments: ―the Supreme Court and the four provincial High Courts conduct their proceedings in English.‖ Third, it is the major language of the ―Defense Forces.‖ Not only is English used in ―the design and training of all the components of armed forces, i.e., the Army, Air Force, and Navy,‖ but it is also the ―language of communication for all office work‖ in the armed forces.

Fourth, English has also earned its place in both Pakistani electronic and print media. According to the Pakistani Federal Bureau of Statistics, in the context of print media, for instance, 215 newspapers and periodicals were published in English in

1999, and this number jumped as high as 290 in 2005 (Pakistan Federal Bureau of

Statistics). Fifth, English is the key language in Pakistani private and public educational systems. It is almost the sole medium of instruction in all the government and private higher educational institutes in Pakistan. Abbas (1993) has underlined the fact that English is so central in the public educational system that ―failure in English means failure in the entire examination‖ (p. 154). And, finally, English is also used in trade and commerce domains along with Urdu at the national financial centers and banks (Abbas, 1993). When such is the leading position of English in Pakistani society where a Pakistani may not imagine getting a public or private job if s/he is not literate in English, one may wish to know the position of English in the government

Urdu/vernacular medium schools, the schools where the great majority of poor

Pakistani students study (Lynd, 2007; Qureshi and Shamim, 2009). Below, I briefly discuss the status of English from the establishment of the country to 1999, the year

General Pervez Musharraf overthrew a democratic government through a military coup and became the ruler. Backed mainly by United States Agency for International

Development (USAID), his government initiated the mega reforms in public education which later evolved and appeared in the recent National Education Policy

(2009).

2.26 English in Government Schools in Pakistan

The constitution of 1973, in effect, did allow the provinces to use their first languages (L1s). Their use, however, was legally made subservient to the national 15 language, Urdu. Moreover, L1s were not given the national status that was given to

Urdu (Mansoor, 2004; Rahman, 1996). However, as far as that meager constitutional allowance to promote provincial languages was concerned, some of the then provincial governments, such as those of Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, preferred Urdu rather than their first languages as the official languages of their provinces during the then politically-charged era of 1970s. Sindh, however, was the only province which adopted Sindhi as the official language for its province (Haque,

1983; Rahman, 1996).

All the provinces acknowledged, legalized, and implemented the national language policy in their government educational systems accordingly. In effect, they followed the policy in practice before the decision was taken (Rahman, 1996). Punjab,

Balochistan, and Khyber Pakhtoonkhuwa, for instance, largely not only used Urdu as the main medium of instruction but also as a compulsory subject in their government educational systems. Sindh employed Sindhi as the sole medium of instruction and

Urdu as a compulsory subject in many school districts. It also used Urdu as the medium of instruction and Sindhi as a compulsory subject in certain urban areas.

English, however, was learned and taught as a compulsory subject in all four provinces often from later grades, i.e. Grade 6 (Haque, 1983; Rahman, 1996). The following Table 1--taken from Coleman (2010) and adapted based upon Mahboob (2002) and Mansoor (2005)--provides an overview of the language-in-education policy, particularly in the historical context of the status of English.

Table 2 .2: Historical Background of the Language Situation in Pakistan

Year Event Policy Implementation

Pre- Colonial Rule Urdu/vernacular As policy 1947 medium for masses and English medium for elite

1947 Independence Urdu declared For masses, education in to be national Urdu/vernacular medium; English as a and English subject mostly from later Grades, e.g., official Grade 6, through government English language textbooks taught through grammar translation methods. For elite, education in English medium in private institutes through quality textbooks and student centered teaching methods; Urdu taught as a subject.

1959 Sharif Primary and No change. Commession secondary education in Urdu/vernacular medium, higher education in English

1973 New English to be No change. Only the province of Sindh Constitution replaced by officialized its main language, i.e., Urdu within 15 Sindhi in 1972. The then provincial years, provinces governments of Punjab, Khyber relatively free Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan to develop their preferred using Urdu as the official own language language of their provinces. English policies continued to be taught as a subject.

1977 Coup by Zia- Islamization For masses, although English started as ul-Haq and Urduization a subject from Grade 4, the Urdu/vernacular medium schools began to prepare for complete Urduisation of exams by 1989. For elite and well-to do families, private English medium schools kept growing

1989 Benazir English to be Little effective change Bhutto elected taught from Grade 1 rather than from Grade 4

1989 New No statement Private English medium schools kept education regarding flourishing policy language policy

1999 Coup by First, English to Little effective change at the initial Pervez be taught from stage. Education Sector Reforms (ESR) Musharraf Grade 1 ‗where were initiated which not only made teachers are English a compulsory subject but also available‘. envisioned employing English as Later, English medium of instruction from Grade 1 in as a compulsory state-owned Urdu/vernacular medium subject from schools. Grade 1 from April 2003 in all stateowned Urdu/vernacular medium schools.

As one can see from the above table, there are chiefly two types of educational systems, marked by medium of instruction: high-quality English medium schools for the elite, and low-quality Urdu/vernacular medium for the non-elite masses. In addition, it appears that students studying in the state-owned Urdu/vernacular medium schools mostly started learning English as a subject from later grades, e.g. Grade 6.

Non-elite private English medium schools flourished because people wanted their children to learn 19 English earlier and better than the way state-owned vernacular medium schools taught it. Though Shamim (2008) discussed that these non-elite

English medium schools did not use English as the sole medium of instruction in principle, they performed better than vernacular medium schools (South Asian Forum for Educational Development, 2010). While the military ruler Zia-ul-Haq tried to democratize English by initiating the teaching of English from Grade 4 for state-owned Urdu/ vernacular medium schools, he, ironically, focused more upon promoting Urdu and a certain version of Islam for the masses than on improving English in their education. In 1989, Benazir Bhutto attempted to democratize English by announcing that English should be taught as a subject in Grade 1 and onward in the public schools; however, this change was not implemented comprehensively. It was not until General Musharraf‘s coup in 1999 that mega reforms were instituted in the educational sector throughout the country. At first, he continued the Benazir‘s policy of starting English from Grade 1, where teachers were available. Later, his government initiated major changes in the educational sector that not only made English a compulsory subject but also envisaged using it as a medium of instruction in the state-owned Urdu/vernacular medium schools (Ministry of Education, 2004; USAID, 2008). These reforms evolved and appeared in the shape of the recent National Education Policy (2009), which determines the present and future status of English in the stateowned Urdu/vernacular medium schools.

2.27 Education Sector Reforms (ESR)

The Education Sector Reform Assistance (ESRA) Program End-of- Project

Report (USAID, 2008) states that ―with the advent of the Education Sector Reforms

(ESR) Action Plan 2002 – 2006, Pakistan embarked upon an ambitious national 20 educational reform agenda‖. The agenda was based upon three major goals: ―(i) to promote quality education; (ii) to produce responsible, enlightened, and skilled citizens; and (iii) to integrate Pakistan into the global framework of human-centered economic development‖ (USAID, 2008). These goals were intended to be in consonance with the UNESCO‘s Dakar Declaration, Education for All, and

Millennium Development Goals global programs (USAID, 2008).

In order to achieve the agenda, General Pervez Musharraf‘s government initiated a mega project; namely, the Education Sector Reform (ESR) for the state- owned Urdu and/or vernacular medium schools (Ministry of Education, Government of Pakistan (GoP, March 2004). The reforms ―outlined seven principal objectives‖

(USAID, 2008) to overhaul the public educational system; including refurbishing the curriculum from Grade 1 to 12, introducing a new Scheme of Studies, increasing the academic year from 170 to 210 days, revamping teacher education, setting up a new national examination system, reviewing previous educational policies critically and presenting a new education policy in 2009 based upon the critical review of the previous national educational policies. This initiative to refurbish the government educational system consisted of 22 policy decisions (Ministry of Education, GoP), of which two explicitly mention the present and future role of English in the public

Urdu/vernacular medium schools. The eighth policy decision, for instance, states that

―English language has been made compulsory from class 1 onwards‖ (the policy decision was put into practice in 2003). And Number Eleven explains that

―Introduction of English as the medium of instruction for science, mathematics, computer science and other selected subjects like economics and geography in all schools in a graduated manner was endorsed‖. It is worth noting that English became a compulsory subject in Grade 1 and onward in the public schools under these reforms. In the context of initiating English as a compulsory subject in Grade 1 and onward, The Development of Education, National Report of Pakistan--a report to review the reforms--confirmed that ―Study of English language [was] made compulsory in all schools from April 2003‖ (Ministry of Education, GoP, July, 2004). Subsequently, a new Scheme of Studies (SoS) was announced (Ministry of Education,

GoP, 29th June, 2006). The SoS, presented to the Prime Minister, recommended which courses or subjects should be taught in English medium and which should be taught in the Urdu/vernacular medium (Ministry of Education, GoP, February 2006).

Table 2 lists the courses/subjects envisioned to be taught in English language medium and corresponding grade-levels.

2.28 Controversy Stirred by the Medium of Instruction Issue

A heated debate broke out in 2006 and 2007 at the national level particularly about the step of initiating English as a medium of instruction (Aly, December, 2006;

Mustafa, April 11, 2007; Jaffery, April 30, 2007; Chima, May 17, 2007; Sultan, May

17, 2007; Parveen, June 5, 2007). The debate co-occurred with the critical review of previous national educational policies – one of the measures taken under the

Education Sector Reforms (ESR) (Ministry of Education, GoP, July, 2004) – by the

Ministry of Education. The review, viewed by the policymakers as a ―landmark and timely exercise,‖ was undertaken because the Ministry of Education ―realized that rapid developments on both domestic and international fronts had overtaken the objectives and the projections of the existing policy, and that a new articulation of the educational priorities and future of Pakistan was needed in light of the Devolution of

Power, the Millennium Development Goals, the Education for All‖ (National

Education Policy Review, Ministry of Education, GoP). The review was conducted through a rigorous design which included many steps, all of which were carried out having taken the provincial governments and their pertinent education departments into confidence. Before the review team could present a new policy in 2009, it presented two white papers (Aly, December, 2006 and Aly, February, 2007). Both the papers lamented the current plight of the government Urdu/vernacular medium schools. Indeed, their discussion and recommendations were in the background of the debate the new Scheme of Studies (SoS) in general and the measure of launching

English as a medium of instruction had stirred. The white papers recommended that

English be used in state-owned Urdu/vernacular medium schools. The first, for example, advised that English as a subject should start from Grade 4 from 2008, and that English as a medium of instruction for mathematics and natural sciences should start from Grade 4 rather than Grade 1 as envisioned in the new SoS (Aly, December

2006). Although the revised version of the white paper (Aly, February, 2007) repeated that English as a medium of instruction for mathematics and natural sciences should start from Grade 4, it had no mention of teaching English as a subject (pp. 34-35), perhaps because its writers realized that English as a subject had already been mandated to be taught from Grade 1 onward since April, 2003 (Ministry of Education,

GoP, July, 2004, p. 9).

2.29 Current and Projected Status of English in the Government Schools in the National Education Policy (NEP) 2009

Based upon the review and recommendations of the two white papers (Aly,

December, 2006 and Aly, February, 2007 respectively), the National Education Policy

(NEP) — ―a consensus policy agreed to by all the provincial and area governments‖

(Ministry of Education, GoP, November, 2009)—was presented by the Pakistan

Peoples‘ Party (PPP)-led democratic government in November 2009. It noted the unequal access to learning English prevalent in the country. Discussing the social divide in Pakistani society in terms of proficiency in English between the students of elite English medium schools and those of government Urdu/vernacular medium schools and religious seminaries, the NEP 2009, states: A number of factors lead to the differences that allow students of the elite schools to do better. Management resources and teaching quality are their main strengths. Most of these elite schools follow the Cambridge or London University O/A level systems that have a different curriculum, assessment system and textbooks. A major bias of the job market for white collar job appears in the form of a candidate‘s proficiency in the English language. It is not easy to obtain a white collar job in either the public or private sectors without a minimum level proficiency in the English language. Most private and public schools do not have the capacity to develop the requisite proficiency levels in their students. English language also works as one of the sources for social stratification between the elite and the non-elite. Employment opportunities and social mobility associated with proficiency in the English language have generated an across the board demand for learning English language in the country. (Ministry of

Education, November, 2009, pp, 19–20) The national policy document recommended several policy actions directly relevant to my discussion:

 Ministry of Education, in consultation with Provincial and Area education

departments, relevant professional bodies and the wider public, shall develop a

comprehensive plan of action for implementing the English language policy in

the shortest possible time, paying particular attention to disadvantaged groups

and less developed regions.

 The curriculum from Class I onward shall comprise English (as a subject),

Urdu, one regional language and mathematics, along with an integrated

subject.

 The Provincial and Area Education Departments shall have the choice to

select the medium of instruction up to Class V.  English shall be used as the medium of instruction for science and

mathematics from Class IV onwards.

 For the first five years, provinces shall have the option to teach mathematics

and science in English or Urdu/official regional languages; but after five years

the teaching of these subjects shall be in English only.

 Opportunities shall be provided to children from low socio-economic strata to

learn English language.

 A comprehensive school language policy shall be developed in consultation

with provincial and area governments and other stakeholders (Ministry of

Education, November, 2009, p, 20).

The new policy made it mandatory that English should be taught as a subject from 2009 in all government Urdu/vernacular medium schools. The policy action, in a way, validated and perpetuated the decision of teaching English as subject taken under the Education Sector Reforms in April 2003 (Ministry of Education, GoP, July,

2004, p. 9). However, unlike the policy measures taken in the new Scheme of Studies

(Ministry of Education, GoP, February, 2006) in which it was decided that English as a medium of instruction for science and mathematics would start from 2011 from

Grade 1, the new education policy actions postponed that decision for five years. That is, English as a medium of instruction would not be implemented until 2014.

Furthermore, most importantly, the policy recommended that English as a medium of instruction be used from Grade 4 onward rather than from Grade 1 onward. The policy, however, did provide the option to start teaching science and math in the

English medium before 2014, if any province wished to do so. Thus, the present status of English in the contemporary language-in-education policy in the state-owned

Urdu/vernacular medium schools appears to be as follows:

 English is taught as a compulsory subject in principle in Grade 1 onward all

over Pakistan.

 And as far as English as a medium of instruction is concerned, the current

Pakistan Tehreek-Insaf (PTI)-led government of the province of Khyber

Pakhtoonkhuwa (formerly known as North West Frontier Province – NWFP)

has recently ―decided to change the medium from Urdu to English from grade-

1 in the government schools from the coming academic year commencing

from April, 2014‖ (Dawn, October 22, 2013).

 The province of Punjab had already announced that they would start teaching

science and mathematics in English language medium from the academic year

of 2011. Thus, the Punjab province has already implemented this step by

converting all government Urdu medium schools to English language medium

ones. The province of Punjab has provided the same rationale for converting

its schools to English medium which was evident in the agenda of Education

Sector Reforms (ESR).

That is, the ―decision [of initiating the English medium] aims at competing with the globalized world in the field of knowledge‖ (accessed from the official website of the School Education Department, Government of Punjab, http://schools.punjab.gov.pk/?q=englishmedium, on October 4, 2011). So far as the other two provinces such as the provinces of Sindh and Baluchistan are concerned, no any official notification(s) and/or news has so far appeared (and the writer of this dissertation has known till writing these words) regarding how and when the English medium policy mandated in the NEP 2009 will be implemented in their respective provinces. However, it is worth noting that the English medium policy will lead

Pakistan to potential bilingual education. For instance, in Sindh, which is the focus of this study, Sindhi/Urdu as well as English will be used as media of instruction. In

Punjab and Baluchistan, Urdu as well as English will be the main media of instruction. Finally, in Khyber Pakhtoonkhuwa Pashto/Urdu and English will be the media of instruction. Table 2.03 presents the potential/future bilingual educational scenario with the implementation of English medium policy in Pakistan.

Table 2.3: Future Bilingual Educational Scenario in/of Pakistan

Province Meddium/Media First Second Foreign of Instruction Language Use Language Use Language Use

Sindh Sindhi + Sindhi (in Urdu (for English – as a English (for many parts of Sindhi compulsory Sindhi Sindh) Urdu speakers) – as subject and as speaking) Urdu (in those parts compulsory a medium of + English (for of Sindh subject Sindhi instruction Urdu speaking) where Urdu (for Urdu speaking speakers) – as community a compulsory lives) subject

Punjab Urdu + English Punjabi + Urdu + - Seraiki not English - as a learned or compulsory used widely subjects and as a medium of instruction

Balochistan Urdu + English Balochi + Urdu + - Brahvi + English - as a Pashto + compulsory Sindhi not subjects and as learned or a medium of used widely instruction

Khyber Urdu + English Pashto Urdu + Pakhtoonkhwa + Pashto (in (learned or English - as a some areas of used in some compulsory the province) areas of the subjects and as province) a medium of instruction

2.30 Governments’/Policymakers’ Justifications and Rationales for English Medium Education

The first chapter of the National Education Policy (2009) puts forward the governments‘ and/or policymakers‘ rationale for the present and projected role of

English in the public language-in-education policy. Discussing globalization and competitiveness as global driving forces, the policy includes a table of the global competitive index (GCI) of Pakistan which compares Pakistan to the neighboring countries and concludes by saying, ―It can be seen that in education and health related indicators, Pakistan falls behind all other countries. It has to be realized that even the sustainability and improvement of other indicators depend on education‖ (Ministry of

Education, GoP, November, 2009, p. 5).

In another place, it states: On the Education Development Index, which combines all educational access measures, Pakistan lies at the bottom with

Bangladesh and is considerably lower than Sri Lanka. A similar picture emerges from the gross enrolment ratios that combine all education sectors and by the adult literacy measures. The overall Human Development Index (HDI) for Pakistan stands at 0.55, which is marginally better than Bangladesh and Nepal but poorer than other countries in the region. (Ministry of Education, GoP, November, 2009, p. 7) The chapter suggests that Pakistan lags behind the world in general and her neighbors in particular. In addition to these rationales, it is also important to reiterate here that the forging of this new policy was one of steps taken under Education Sector Reforms

(ESR) whose agenda, as aforementioned, was to ―(i) to promote quality education; (ii) to produce responsible, enlightened, and skilled citizens; and (iii) to integrate Pakistan into the global framework of human-centered economic development‖ (USAID, 2008, p. 1).

All these policy justifications and rationales imply that the use of English, not only as a compulsory subject but also as a medium of instruction, among other measures, would help Pakistani state-owned Urdu/vernacular medium schools become abodes of quality education and enable Pakistan to compete with other countries in the region and become a knowledge-based economy (Shamim, 2008). In addition, yawning gap between the rich and the poor will be reduced since the poor will also start getting English medium education in their public school as the rich do in private schools. However, writers such as Hussain (2005), Mitchell, Humayun, and

Muzzafar (2005), Rahman (2005), and Shah (2005) have pointed out that the issues such as meager allocation of funds for the public education sector, poor provision of academic and physical facilities, inefficient mechanisms of in-service training, inadequate accountability and monitoring system, and no comprehensive input from the stakeholder in general and the local teachers and classroom practitioners in particular in such policy formation processes can impact the efficacy and efficiency of the language policy.

Indeed, theoretical scholarship on educational innovations suggests that the classroom practitioners and teachers occupy a central place in the successful diffusion of innovations (Fullan, 2013). If teachers are not heard, innovations run the risk of facing failure and developing frustration. Thus, considering the above discussion and taking the English medium policy into account, it is safe to say that, besides students, teachers are the ones who seem to be most affected by the forthcoming English medium policy, because they are/will be the ones who [will] realize and enact such policies in their classes. In the Pakistani context, despite occupying such a central place in the implementation of educational plans and policies, ironically the government school teachers‘ voices, discourses, attitudes and opinions about the

English medium policy are entirely absent. This study aims at bringing forth the perceptions of the government 34 primary school teachers, serving in the rural and urban areas of province of Sindh, regarding the English medium policy.

2.31 Content-based Instruction (CBI) and Immersion Education Perspectives

As discussed above, it has been decided to use English as a medium of instruction in Grade 4 and onward in the government schools for teaching science and math in 2014. The policy does not identify a specific curricular approach, but based on the proposed language policy in the NEP 2009 for every province, one would assume that the best instructional model would be informed by CBI. The scholarship on CBI shows that the word ―content‖ has been interpreted in multiple ways. There are numerous names for CBI such as Content and Language Integrated Learning

(CLIL), Teaching English through Content (TETC), Content-based Language

Instruction (CBLI), and Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) (Brinton, Snow, and

Wesche, 2003; Snow and Brinton, 1997). CBI approaches underline that content should not be perceived as separate from language or vice versa, thus content- language integration is essential and should be indispensable in education delivered in an L2/FL medium (Lyster and Ballinger, 2011; Mohan, 1986). Due to the intrinsic integration of content and language characteristic of CBI, Stryker and Leaver (1997) have hailed CBI as ―liberating,‖ ―empowering,‖ ―refreshing,‖ etc. (p. 1). Stryker and

Leaver (1997) and others hold that the CBI approach, essentially, advocates for the negotiation of meaning of the content of science, math, geography, etc. The negotiation of the meaning of the content, conducted through L2/FL medium, is thought to make content/input comprehensible to students, which later helps them to learn not only the content but also the L2/FL through which meaning of the content is negotiated (Brinton, Snow, and 35 Wesche, 2003; Larsen-Freeman, 2000; Lyster,

2007). In this context, Lightbown and Spada (2006, p. 92) have, for instance, stated that: In content-based instruction, the focus of a lesson is usually on the subject- matter, such as history or mathematics, which students are learning through the medium of second language. In these classes, the focus may occasionally be on the language itself, but the emphasis is on using the language rather than on talking about it. The language which teachers use for teaching is not selected on the basis of teaching a specific feature of the language, but on leading learners to use the language in a variety of contexts. Students‘ success is in these courses is often measured in terms of their ability to ‗get things done‘ in the second language, rather than on their accuracy in using certain grammatical feature.‖

Content Based Instructional Approach as a Continuum and the Sindh Province

Because the content-based instructional approach has been realized in multiple, therefore diverse, ways, Met (1999) has presented the following continuum

(represented in Table 4) to account for the diversity of curricular programs found under the umbrella of CBI (paragraph, 12). Table 2.4: Continuum of Content and Language Integration

Content-Driven------Language-Driven

Total Partial Sheltered Adjunct Theme- Language Immersion Immersion Immersion Model based classes with Courses frequent use of content 36 for language practice

Met (1999) tried to explain the multiplicity of program models by putting content-driven.

Content Based Language Based

The content that is taught through L2 is The main purpose of the content is to to the main concern. teach L2.

Content learning is priority. Language learning is priority.

Language learning is incidential. Content learning is incidental.

Content objectives determined by course Language objectives determined by goals or curriculum. L2/FL course goals or curriculum.

Teachers must select language objectives. Students evaluated on content to be integrated Students evaluated on content mastery. Students evaluated on language skills/proficiency

She has discussed that the continuum may help to understand the position of various program models in the context of ―the relative role of content and language‖

(paragraph, 4). Thus, it may have certain implications pertaining to specific program model(s) in the context of learning outcomes, assessment, and evaluation for teachers and program planners. Taking these characteristics into account with reference to the proposed

English medium policy in Pakistan, we can assume that a content-driven program model will occur as English is supposed to be initiated as the medium of instruction for the science and math subjects in Grades 4 and 5 in the government primary schools of the province of Sindh, Pakistan. With the initiation of English as a medium of for science and math, content (of the science and math subjects) is supposed to be taught in English. Thus, content learning will be prioritized; language learning will be secondary. Content objectives of each unit or chapter of the textbooks of science and math subjects will be determined by course goals and curriculum. Teachers will need to serve language goals too by focusing upon the content of the subjects. However, students will be evaluated in their mid-terms or final exams for their mastery of the content.

2.32 The Teaching of Mathematics in Primary Schools

Mathematics is a science related to measurements, calculations, discovering relationship and dealing with problems. It involves critical thinking, researching and problem solving of space. It has a particular language in which symbols occupy a most important position (Sudhir and Ratnalikar 2003). Everybody irrespective of class makes use of mathematical knowledge in one way or another. Failure to use appropriate teaching methods and learning aids on learners may lead to rote learning.

Mathematics in Pakistani Schools is being taught in English (from third grade up to

University). Mathematics is being taught in English, which is a foreign language to most Pakistanis. This means that the learners struggle with both language and

Mathematics concepts. According to Natsa (2006) the dominance of English has been a matter of concern. The use of English as a language of instruction in the teaching of subjects such as Mathematics adversely affects the ability of learners to understand and communicate the subject. This study proposes to find out the effectiveness of using English as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools.

The culture has an effect on how a group of people will live and learn. This means that the culture of Urdu has an influence on how the children learn and retain what they are taught in Mathematics at school. One can say this culture can be able to shape even their habits in learning mathematics. This mathematical pedagogy is referred to as ‗ethno mathematics‘. The term ethno mathematics was coined by

D‘Ambrosio, a Brazilian mathematician in the 1980s, who defined it generally as the way different cultural groups count, measure and relate to mathematical concepts

(Nyota and Chikodzi, 2010).

‗Ethno mathematics‘ encourage teachers to know and learn the practices of their learners‘ families and communities and integrate these into their teachings. This includes the use of English as a language of instruction in the teaching of subjects such as Science and Mathematics in the primary schools. The teaching of counting, addition and subtraction, numbers and volume can be fused with the Urdu cultural aspects. Using Urdu language the children can explain and know the quantities. A research on the relationship between maths and ethno mathematics, by Mtetwa (1991) concluded that mathematics can be done in other languages, apart from English.

Mathematics is universal it can be taught in different languages but saying the same things.

2.33 Conclusion

Although Pakistan has been politically liberated but it is still under the grip of colonial polices specially in the language policies. Post colonial language policy has declared English as an official language which reveals retention of supremacy of English as the language of power and prestige. Knowledge of English is usually associated with high socio-economic status and the language is usually regarded as the key to success and a prerequisite for upward mobility.

In context with the use of indigenous language as instructional language there is no clear policy. As a result confused situation is a major hurdle to work on sustainable language development programs. However, the introduction of indigenous languages as medium of instruction in primary schools of Pakistan may help change the status of indigenous languages but the lack of a clear language policy might make it difficult to bring about sustainable language development programs.

The next chapter presents the theoretical framework upon which the research is grounded. In the same chapter the research design and research methods adopted for this research are discussed meticulously.

Chapter 3

3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter expounds the methodology employed for the research, and the research design adopted as most suitable to address the problem at hand, for the construct of the theoretical framework. The study proffers that Urdu is a more suitable medium for instruction, particularly for the subject of mathematics, at the primary school level. The topic demanded the use of primary sources of research, and those were employed in the form of a practical teaching experiment with relevant groups of children, as well as in the form of interviews and questionnaires administered to various segments of the stakeholders. These were indicative of the existing attitudes of the people towards Urdu and English as media of instruction.

3.2 Theoretical Framework

Since this study is related to adoption of a language as a medium of instruction at the national level, language policy and planning feature prominently in the study.

As a precursor, some definitions of language planning are deliberated upon. Haugen

(1989: 29) defines language planning as, ―The activity of preparing a normative orthography, grammar, and dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers in a non-homogenous speech community.‖ Christian (1988: 197) offers a more overt definition: ―An explicit and systematic effort to resolve (perceived) language problems and achieve related goals through institutionally organized intervention in the use and usage of languages (or language varieties).‖ This definition denotes that authorities decide which language(s) should be used or promoted in a given community and at the national level, ostensibly in a multilingual society. Given its diverse speech communities, it is certain that Pakistan can profit by first examining the established language planning theories

3.2.1 Language Planning

Cooper (1989) relates language planning with the efforts by the state authorities to eliminate existing or perceived linguistic concerns by making adjustments, based on sociolinguistic principles, in the corpus and status of a language or languages, or their varieties. Cooper (1989) defines language planning as

―deliberate efforts to influence the behaviour of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of their language codes‖.

Tauli (1984) suggested that early language planning research and practices with its emphasis on purism has failed to provide a dynamic basis for language planning. He argues that for language planning to develop as an independent discipline, a theoretical basis is needed to complement its contribution to the descriptive sociology of language. Bamgbose (1989) suggested that the existing theory of language planning lacked substance and needed to be evolved.

Haugen (1983) developed his model on language planning by fusing the contributions by Ferguson (1968),Kloss (1969), and Neustupny (1974) to highlight status and corpus planning as the two pivotal features of language planning, deliberating also upon how each can be adopted as a policy, and cultivated, to which

Cooper (1989) added the third dimension of language acquisition. Rubin & Jernudd (1971) see language planning as deliberate long-term efforts to change the linguistic orientation of a society in a given social context. Weinstein

(1983) interpret language planning to mean ―government – authorized, long term sustained conscious effort to alter a language itself or to change a language‘s function in a society for the purpose of solving communication problems‖.

Crystal (1997) highlights the close connection between language policy at the macro-level and language planning. He identifies that language planning is influenced by history, and by socio-political, religious and economic considerations. He further suggests that sometimes the authorities may use covert means for language planning policy and implementation, especially given the array of attitudes displayed at the formulation phase, ranging from ―complete support {to}.. total antipathy‖(ibid, 1997).

Francis and Kamada (2001) envision language planning as a process undertaken by some responsible authority to stage some adjustment in the existing language use towards some predetermined end. Often, however, policy makers have the mala fide intent of chalking out a language policy in the interest of their own political expediency, rather than in the interest of the community.

Cooper (1989) resonates similar sentiments when he objectifies the aims of language to be ‗non-linguistic‘. He contends that these objectives largely include consideration of factors like the promotion of nationalism, redressal of grievances of minorities, maintenance of or a break from the status quo in terms of the powers that be, for political gains or even as a tool to gain a footing in the international market.

Obeng (2002) echoes these claims and accuses the successive Pakistani governments of making ostentatious attempts at transformational policy making for language, without intending to implement the same. He argues that the unrealistic policies are flawed from the start, because they are intimidated by strong pressure groups that would go to lengths to prevent any change to the status quo that would affect or undermine their own authority or position. Conversely, Ferguson (2000) believes that a transformation in language policy would serve to isolate Pakistan from the international comity of nations, which in turn would impact its trade and industry, as well as technological development, negatively.

Reagan suggests that language planning can aid to reinforce or promote national identity; it can empower the citizens and serve to create equal opportunities among the different segments of society; and, it can cause a surge in economic activity and development (Reagan, 2002). On the flip side, however, it may be used to suppress the people, so that educational and employment opportunities do not act as vehicles of social mobility for them. This, of course, is in the interest of those who already possess position and authority.

Kerr (1976) proposes four types of tests to measure the success of a language policy. He propounds that in order for a language policy to be deemed effective, it must be one that can claim to be desirable and just to the stakeholders and efficient, both in terms of how realistic the aims are, and how judiciously it makes use of the limited resources that it can avail.

Makanda (2009) asserts that language planning can be either exploitative or advantageous, according to the whims of the government. Often, the major stakeholders are ignored during the framing of the policy, which precludes the chances of any form of intervention which is contrary to the will of the government.

Again, Mutasa (2003) supports the view that the refusal of governments to make other key actors in policy structuring betrays their ulterior motives of gaining or maintaining political control, rather than of safeguarding the interests of the communities that they serve.

Haugen (1959) postulates that language planning can be used advantageously to construct a standard, orthographic grammar and lexis, in order to bring homogeneity to a multilingual speech community.

Roy-Campbell and Gwete (undated:208) purport that language planning is ―a problem solving activity, concerned with deliberate language change for specific aims, which may be social, political or educational‖. Ideally, therefore, language planning would aim to resolve communication issues within a multilingual society, and the choice of a language, or languages, would be guided by the government‘s desire to promote societal integration and facilitate interaction between the multifarious communities coexisting in the country.

Cooper (1989) provides another angle to language planning, when he deems it to be ―the deliberate efforts to influence the behaviours of others with respect to the acquisition, structure or functional allocation of their language codes.‖ Simply stated, he sees language planning as a tool used for authorities to transform people‘s attitudes towards a language, or languages, through making them identify with other members of the community on political, religious and ethnic grounds. This is brought about by ensuring engagement with the language(s) for academic purposes, or as the language of the mass media.

Although there is a distinction between language planning and language policy, it is so marginal that the two terms are often used synonymously. Language policy is consequential to language planning; language planning is the generic activity, while the language policy is the result, as well as the process, of language planning.

Kaplan and Baldauf (1997), Reagan (2002) and Crystal (2003) cite corpus planning and status planning as the two key components of language planning.

Haugen‘s (1983) model of language planning expounds that the foci of status and corpus planning are society and language respectively. That is, status planning includes the choice of a language by society, as well as their acceptance of the language for given purposes, while corpus planning relates to how the language is cultivated.

3.2.2 Status Planning

According to Crystal (2003), status planning gives preferential treatment to a chosen language or languages. This selection is based on several parameters, which include its acceptability by the national and international communities. It takes stock of the social and political consequences of the choice of language. Kaplan and

Baldauf (1997) define status planning as ―those aspects of language planning which reflect primarily social issues and concerns and hence are external to the language(s) being planned‖. Cooper (1989) proposes that two functions of language, i.e., for professional purposes and for for use in the mass media to be added to the ten functions as listed by Stewart (1968) fall under the domain of the aims of status planning. These relate to different spheres of societal life, including the religious, international, official, literary and educational spheres, amongst others. The function of education is the only one relevant to the scope of this study, therefore it needs to be elaborated upon. Status planning involves the decisions about whether a language should attain the status of a national or official language, and whether it should be used as a medium of instruction in academic institutions, and further which level of students it should be used for. It also deliberates upon which of the other functions a language should be retained for, or limited for, or introduced for. These decisions are made by government authorities according to their perception of its political, social or economic utility. Viriri (2003) points out that in order to be successful, status planning needs to be undertaken as part of the comprehensive social planning, rather than in isolation. According to Kloss (1969), in status planning, the status of a language is determined in relation to other languages that exist or are spoken in the country. Fishman (1974), however, feels that it is concerned more with the functions it is apportioned than with its standing amongst other languages.

3.2.3 Corpus Planning

Crystal demarcates the boundaries of corpus planning to include the choice of a national language, and a series of activities to ‗standardize‘ its grammar and lexis

(Crystal, 2003). This also includes decisions about taboo words and about the promotion of language codes that are acceptable in literary books and media, and which reflect the values of the society. Reagan (2002) mentions also that in some developing countries like Pakistan, it also includes the creation or coining of new terminology or lexis, which is necessitated by the rapid technological and scientific advances taking place across the globe. Hence, corpus planning encompasses the adjustments in a language to suit the functions it is ascribed.

Hornberger (1990) associates the codification in terms of the formation of new terminology, development of orthographies, spelling conventions, prescription and description of phonological and linguistic features for the given language, and the standardization of language. Therefore, the people involved in corpus planning are linguists, NGOs concerned with the preservation of language, and also individuals.

The contemporary social, economic and political considerations provide the backdrop and context for corpus planning. It attempts to make adjustments to the form and structure of the language, and therefore involves codification and elaboration. While elaboration refers to the creation of new terminology, or addition to the pool of words, codification involves the creation of comprehensive dictionaries, publication of grammar textbooks, simplification and unification of language, and standardization in terms of form and structure.

Since the purpose of this study is to examine the practicability of using

English as a medium of instruction for the subject of Mathematics at primary schools, the focus of this research lies on status planning.

3.2.4 Acquisition Planning

Cooper (1989) added a third dimension to language planning, that of acquisition planning. As the term implies, this element of language planning is concerned with increasing the number of users of the language. What differentiates status planning from acquisition planning is that the former is concerned with increasing the functions or uses of language, whereas the latter aims at increasing the number of users of the language.

Cooper (1989) clarifies that the term ‗users‘ indicates all the people who need or use the language for any or all of the language skills: speaking, listening, reading or writing. He further identifies three types of acquisition planning: • Acquisition of a language as a second or foreign language, especially for use by immigrants, to ensure their adjustment in the new environment.

• Reacquisition of a language as a vernacular by people who had lost it as an identity.

Maori, Hebrew and Irish languages are cited as examples.

• Preservation of a dying language.

3.2.5 Orientations of Planning

In a multilingual society, people may interpret language in three different ways, according to Ruiz (1984). It may be taken as a problem, or as a right, or as a resource.

3.2.5.1 Language as a Problem

Language presents a problem when there is a communication barrier. It may hinder the integration of immigrants or minorities into the fabric of society. Magwa

(2009) suggests that when language is seen to present a problem, then language planning aims to resolve the problem through a search for alternative solutions.

Mackay (1979) ascertains that in a multilingual society, language is bound to create problems for some segments of society, and the more diverse the ethnicity, the more problems there are likely to arise. Haugen (1972) classifies these language problems as being both linguistic and non-linguistic in nature. Linguistic problems relate to the structure of the language, while non-linguistic issues make it difficult to choose the official language, because of the existing political and social contexts. Thus, language planning involves more than just addressing the language issue itself; the community or the users and non-users of the language have to be taken into consideration as well. 3.2.5.2 Language as a Right

(Mutasa, 2004) believes that everyone has the right to language. Using one‘s own language should not be an obstacle in the way towards progress and development. Since language is closely connected with the beliefs, values and emotions of the speakers of that language, there should be some way to promote each language within the separate communities. Ruiz (1984) recommends equal opportunities for the speakers of all languages within a multilingual society through the option of allowing each language as a medium of instruction within the several regions. Moreover, he suggests the availability of bilingual unemployment benefit forms, bilingual voting forms, as well as the presence of interpreters at government level programs or events. This would also ensure that minority groups get adequate representation in the government and its activities, be it the civil service or judiciary or even the electoral pool.

3.2.5.3 Language as a Resource

Mutasa (2003) states, ―Under the language as resource orientation, the emphasis is on the importance of conserving and developing all of its linguistic resources.‖ Here, language is seen to reflect the identity, culture and values of a people. It mirrors the world as seen by them, and gives an insight into their knowledge and experiences, since it is passed on to future generations. In fact, language is one of the facets that set a people or a nation apart from the rest. In light of this, language may be seen as an asset.

Just as governments have to consider how to use any other resource most optimally, so too does a government think in terms of the use of language. They have to decide the opportunity costs and feasibility of a language for a particular function. Simply put, an opportunity cost is the loss or gain that can be predicted to be accrued by using one commodity or resource rather than another.

These theoretical insights are central to the study at hand, and the research will be guided by the principles and theories outlined in this chapter, as applied in the context of Pakistan.

3.2.6 Stages of Language Planning

Language planning involves various stages, which are consequential, so that there is room for review and amendment at every stage of the process. Like most other models, Mutasa (2004) suggests three stages of the language planning process: planning, implementation and evaluation. At the planning stage, the problem is identified, and possible solutions are accumulated; the implementation stage requires the outcome of the best possible solution to be undertaken, and evaluation involves the measurement of the success of the chosen option against specified criteria.

Fishman (1974), however, sees the language planning process to involve the selection of a language, decision-making, its codification, then its elaboration, its implementation, and finally its evaluation. There is no decision-making or evaluation stage in Haugen‘s (1983) model, which otherwise replicates Fishman‘s model.

Therefore the suitability of the selected alternative cannot be ascertained.

Perhaps the most acceptable model for the stages of language planning comes from Rubin (1971), which can be applied to both bilingual as well as multilingual contexts. The stages involved are identified to be fact finding, planning, implementation and feedback (evaluation). 3.2.6.1 Fact-finding

First, a thorough understanding of the situational context is required. To understand the problem, the facts _regarding the overall population, the numbers of users and non-users of the language, the nature of the speech community (whether bilingual or multilingual), the various language domains, the variety of dialects or the efficacy of the language as a medium of instruction_ need to be established.

Bamgbose (1991) has a similar inclination towards fact-finding before any attempts at policy formulation. He ascribes to this view because any decision taken after gaining an in-depth insight into the nature of the problem is more likely to be successful since it is more rational. Unfortunately, in Pakistan, this important first stage is delayed to after the implementation stage, because of which policies often fail at achieving a decent measure of success or popularity. Mutasa(2004) surmises that the fact-finding stage involves research into three basic aspects: demographic, situational and attitudinal contexts. Unless these are determined, there is little likelihood of choosing the most effective course for language planning.

3.2.6.2 Planning

Once the facts have been attained, the formulation of objectives and the strategies to achieve those targets are chalked out. Mutasa (2004) emphasizes the need to take stock of external factors that may influence the outcome of the decisions taken, as for example whether the decisions need to be time-bound. This is because there are often non-linguistic factors at play which could affect the expected or intended outcome. 3.2.6.3 Implementation

After the fact-finding and planning stages follows the implementation phase.

This necessitates the involvement of all key stakeholders into the process. Some degree of mutual consensus must be reached at this point in time in order for the decision to be upheld and carried out with any measure of success. In order to reach agreement, the policy planners will need to garner support through motivation and persuasion of the disenchanted groups.

3.2.6.4 Evaluation

In the final stage, the success of the planned policy is measured against given standards. The previous stages are studied for reconsideration and assessment of what worked and what failed, before the decision can be converted into a policy.

Dye (1987:351)deems that an effective evaluation of a policy probes into the following four areas:

 Impact on the target situation or group

 Bearing on situations or groups other than the target (spill-over effects)

 Effect in the prevailing situation as well as in the situation of the foreseeable

future

 Direct cost of the policy plan and implementation.

3.3 The Research Methodology

This study employs both quantitative and qualitative data to validate its findings and recommendations, in order to nullify the negative aspects of each individual method. Makanda (2011) perceives the quantitative method to be invaluable in terms of the reliability of figures to ascertain facts. Qualitative data is interpreted in light of the situation at hand, and is of value to contrast existing studies and theories to the context of Pakistan‘s past and current choices of media of instruction at various levels of the academic lives of its citizens. According to Leedy, as quoted by Mutasa, (2003) qualitative and quantitative differ in the sense that qualitative research data is verbal and quantitative research data is numerical.

3.4 The Research Design

Primary data for this research is gathered using the descriptive survey method.

The choice for this tool is based on Leedy‘s (1993) assertion that this design provides for a thorough investigation of the existing or contemporary conditions of the given context. Babbie (1985) sanctions surveys as being descriptive, exploratory or explanatory in nature. Cohen and Manion (1994) believe that descriptive surveys tend to portray the attitudes and general outlook of the society, as well as the trends that are developing in a community. They are helpful in depicting how present events may have been influenced by other developments that may have taken place over the past. beliefs, points of view or attitudes that are held, processes that are going on; effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing.

Also known as the normative survey, it sees prevalent or contemporary conditions as being constant or fixed variables. Therefore, it sets the parameters for outcomes, and the researcher becomes an active participant in the research. Babbie

(1985), Nachmias and Nachmias (1996) and Collins et al (2003)are unanimous in their support for descriptive surveys for exploring data about specified criteria for a limited population. Bell (1987) and Leedy (1997) also ratify the use of descriptive surveys as means of an in-depth and detailed study of current phenomena. A number of tools, namely a practical teaching experiment, questionnaires and interviews, have been used in this study for data collection and interpretation. Data triangulation is defined by Bailey (1987) as a means of verifying the validity of results of a research by the employment of two or more research methods. This study undertakes data triangulation to confirm whether the conclusions are corroborated through the various methods of research, which should serve to further authenticate the findings.

Terre Blanche and Durrhem (1999) further assert that data triangulation allows the researcher to approach the problem from a variety of perspectives. Mouton and

Marais (1988) declare that data triangulation ―encompasses multiple sources of data collection in a single research project to increase the reliability of the results and to compensate for the limitations of each method‖. Thus, it serves the dual functions of verifying that the data collected is reliable, and at the same time it caters to address the inadequacies of each method on its own. Leedy (1993) suggests that each method complements the other and supplements the others‘ shortfalls.

Finally, this method warrants the active involvement of participants as subjects. The study of scientific objects makes no such allowance, and runs the risk of producing predetermined or predictable results which are taken to be uniform.

Additionally, (Borg and Gall, 1992) cite data triangulation to be an effective way for the researcher to gain insight into the mindsets of the participants and empathize with them without influencing or being influenced by their perspective.

3.4.1 Population and Sampling

According to Best and Khan (1993), population, in terms of research, may be defined as a number of people who have at least one feature in common which is pertinent to the study. The student normally focuses on, and applies to, them. In case the study makes a hypothesis and applies conditions on the subjects, it becomes a deductive study. It is inductive when the behaviour or outcomes are observed and then a conclusion is reached. For the purpose of this paper, representative population samples were taken from all the provinces of Pakistan. The sample population consisted primarily of students for the practical teaching experiment, while teachers and parents made up the population sample for the questionnaires and interviews.

Johnson and Christensen (2000) regard sampling to be the process of selecting people for the purpose of research. Borg and Gall, (1996) and Chiromo (2006) define sampling as a process of obtaining a limited number of people from a vast pool of a distinct population such that they are representative of the whole. This is done for efficiency in terms of the time and money saved by not involving the entire population. The sample is representative of the whole therefore the findings may be applied to the entire population. Bailey (1987) and Melville and Goddard (1996) consider a sample to be a ‗subset‘ of the population as a whole.

Best (2006) defines a sample as a segment of the population that may be controlled or accessed by the researcher. Johnson & Christensen(2012) define sampling as the process of drawing people from a characteristic target population so that it is representative of it.

For the purpose of this study, the sample population was derived from those directly involved in primary school education (teachers and students), as well as those who were indirectly involved, that is, parents.

It was decided to limit the sample population to a sizeable yet manageable number. Therefore, 640 participants were selected. 80 students of grade 4 learners, 20 in each of the 4 groups, at a private school in the federal capital and a public school in Maran , were conveniently selected for the practical teaching experiment.

250 parents and the same number of teachers were selected randomly for the survey.

Equal representation (25%) was allocated for each of the four provinces and the

Federal capital for both teachers and parents. The detailed table is given below.

Table 3 .1: Federal capital for both teachers and parents

Sr. # Area Teacher Parent

1 Punjab 50 50

2 KP 50 50

3 Baluchistan 50 50

4 Singh 50 50

5 Federal Capital 50 50

Total 250 250

A grade 4 class of 40 learners of Beacon House school and another class having the same number of students from Government Centennial Model School

Mardan were conveniently chosen for this study as these are the co- educational primary schools that use English as a medium of instruction in Islamabad and Mardan where the researcher is also based. English medium school was selected as the research design needed a sample of students who could understand Urdu as well as

English. The ratio of girls to boys is about 1: 1. The grade 4 classes are not streamed and can be assumed to be of mixed ability. The sample is also rich in information such that it can be easily generalized to the entire population under research. The only days the researcher had access to the pupils was on Mondays, Wednesdays and

Fridays. A convenient sample of 42 boys and 38 girls was used. Their ages ranged between 8 and 10 years. These learners were selected from those who could speak or understand both Urdu and English. The grade 4 class was divided into four groups of

20 learners each, Group I, Group II, Group III, and Group IV. Group-I and Group III learnt Mathematics using Urdu as the medium of instruction and Group II and Group-

IV was taught the same topics and concepts in English.

The representative sample of teachers is a random one. The teachers had different teaching experiences and qualifications, taught at different levels, and came from various backgrounds, and thus had different vernaculars. These variables were intentionally included in order to get a truly representative outlook of the factors that are at play in the teaching and learning of mathematics through the use of both

English and Urdu media of instruction.

3.5 Data Collection Instruments

The practical teaching experiment for the students, interviews with teachers and parents, and questionnaires answered by teachers and parents were the instruments used for data collection.

3.5.1 The Practical Teaching Experiment

The primary thrust for the research is provided by the practical teaching experiment, with four groups of 20 learners each of grade 4 as the subjects of the study. Kelly and Lesh (2000) argue that teaching experiments offer an opportunity to make direct observations about the learners‘ experiences, perceptions and reactions.

The subject of mathematics was chosen for this study because it requires reasoning and logical processing. The research aims to make inferences regarding the role of the vernacular in aiding understanding of the sample population, in light of the literature reviewed earlier.

The practical teaching experiment spanned over one month in the first term of

2014 at a branch of the Beacon House School System in Islamabad and Governmental

Centennial Model School Mardan. Twelve lessons were designed to be taught three times a week for four weeks. Schools started at 8:30 am each day and ended at 2:30 pm. Each lesson was allocated 40 minutes. The concept of addition and subtraction of large numbers was the topic being taught throughout the experimental teaching sessions. The textbook as decided in the school curriculum, Countdown 5 by Oxford

Publishers, was used for the experiment. The classes were conducted in the students‘ regular classrooms.

Group-I and Group III each comprising 20 learners, was taught Mathematics using Urdu as the medium of instruction, while Group-II and Group IV were subjected to teaching the identical concepts in English. Code numbers were assigned to each of the students, which they had to write for all their written work, in place of their names.

As a preliminary, a diagnostic test worded in English was conducted for all the groups. This allowed for an evaluation of the existing differential gaps in both groups.

Naturally, each child had their own aptitude and reasoning skills to begin with, and these had to be accounted for in order for the generalizations at the end of the experiment to be accurate. The first two weeks that followed after the pre-test were spent teaching addition, while the next two weeks concentrated upon teaching subtraction. 3.5.2 The Questionnaires

(Borg and Gall (1996) define a questionnaire as a ‗form‘ containing a series of questions relevant to the research, and which have quantifiable responses, that needs to be answered by a representative sample. Seliger and Shohamy (1989) also view them as printed forms for collecting data, which are administered to respondents, whose responses are later analyzed. Chikoko and Mhloyi (1995) see it as a tool that reflects the peculiar intelligences of the respondents. The questions or statements must be posed in a way that is not open to interpretation; that is, it should convey the same intended meaning to all of the respondents. The queries might be either open-ended or close-ended. Close-ended questions make up the majority of the questions, since they are more computable, and offer figures and statistics that can help reach reasonable deductions.

Similar to the questionnaires are the interviews, where the respondents are provided a stimulus and their responses to it are recorded. The interview allows for a better insight into the attitudes and perceptions, with regard to the use of Urdu and

English as a mediums of education in schools, of the representative sample. The number of respondents for questionnaires was fixed at 500, half of whom were parents and the other half, teachers. This number was considered to be sizeable enough to be taken as being demonstrative of the perceptions and attitudes residing deep within the minds of the people who make up the society. The main advantages of administering a questionnaire are those of economy of efforts, financial efficiency and efficiency in terms of the time saved. Self-administration gave the opportunity to explain the terms used in the questions, to elaborate the objectives of the study and to answer any queries that might arise in the minds of the respondents. Framing the questionnaire craft-fully ensures that the responses begotten help maintain the focus of the study. Organizing the questions effectively allows data pertinent to the study be gathered easily and efficiently. On the contrary, a questionnaire that is poorly framed will result in inaccurate results, ambuiguities and cause the study to lose its focus. Leedy (1979) refers to the questionnaire as ―a commonplace instrument for observing data beyond the physical reach of the observer‖. Davis (2007) emphasizes the application of questionnaires for the provision of a channel of communication. They must be framed so that they can assist in the true depiction of the characteristic collective thought of a definite population. In this respect, Leedy (1977) stresses upon wording the questions in a way that leave no room for ambiguity, so that the language is ‗unmistakably clear‘. Apart from clarity, he feels that the other qualifying attributes of a well-crafted questionnaire are brevity, simplicity, courtesy, consistency, and universality so that responses are of a general nature rather than subject to the particular circumstances of the individual respondents.

3.5.2.1 Advantages of Questionnaires

Law (2003) underscores an important advantage of questionnaires to be that of efficiency as a tool that can be administered to a number of people simultaneously. It saves costs, efforts and money, and offers an effective method for gathering data for comparative or contrastive analysis.

Seliger and Shohamy(1989) report the added advantage of gaining sensitive information upon the assurance of anonymity. A further advantage is that of the ease of data collection as well as its presentation and interpretation. Moreover, the option of using a variety of open- and close-ended questions makes allowances for probing deeply for the required information.

3.5.2.2 Disadvantages of Questionnaire

The main disadvantage is the unwillingness of people to attempt the questionnaire, since it is time-consuming for them. The rate of return is often low, and many fields, especially those that require a more detailed response, are left unanswered. These factors negatively impact the validity of the results (Seliger and

Shohamy, 1989). Another disadvantage is that a questionnaire might not be the best choice of tools for illiterate people; in case of this study, this did not present much of a problem, although the parents of some students were less literate than others and the researcher was there personally to guide those who could not understand. At times, the questionnaire might be framed so as to get impartial responses. In that case, the validity of the outcomes become questionable if the respondents get an insight into the purpose of the research, since they might be inclined to support a particular viewpoint. In this study, the questionnaire did not give away the purpose of the study.

Gall et al (1996) feels that interviews are more reflective of attitudes and emotions of people than are questionnaires, because the queries and responses are both fixed and cannot be modified or elaborated during or after their administration.

Considering this, interviews were also conducted to solicit the findings from the questionnaires.

3.5.3 Interviews

As per Collins et al (2000), an interview is a personal meeting or encounter between two or more people, with the interviewer(s) posing questions and the interviewee(s) answering them. It is a popular tool employed for research because of its ease of use, especially for the respondents. Denzin and Lincoln (1994) surmise it to be the ‗most favourable methodological tool of the qualitative research‘, which essentially means that it is the most extensively employed tool for the purpose of research.

Interviews may be structured, unstructured or open-ended. Miller and Glassner

(1997) deem interviews to be a reliable tool for making generalizations about the target population, since the conversational, realistic and practical nature inherent to interviews makes it hardly unlikely that the responses may be engineered. Added to this is the obvious advantage that interviews have over questionnaires, namely that of aiding the researcher to understand the real meaning of the respondent‘s message through observing his or her body language.

This study made use of structured interviews with parents and teachers. Since the real decision-makers for the choice of schools in terms of the medium of instruction are the parents, they were interviewed rather than the students. Parents, moreover, can relate to the problems their children face with respect to their comprehension in a particular language. Similarly, teachers observe firsthand the effects of communication in the mother tongue versus a second language when used for instruction.

3.5.3.1 Advantages of Interviews

Clearly, many advantages are associated with interviews, considering they are the most popular choice as tools of qualitative research. To begin with, interviews allow a degree of flexibility that is not allowed in other tools like questionnaires.

Interviews are more personalized, and put the respondents more at ease. Gall et al

(1996) also point out that the level of informality afforded by interviews may prompt the respondent to reveal more information than under different circumstances.

Furthermore, interviews sanction the interviewer to change the parameters to further confine or expand the questions in order to hone in on the results.

3.5.3.2 The Disadvantages of Interviews

One prominently featured disadvantage of interviews is that it is rather time- consuming for the researcher, especially when the sample size is large.

The results may not be treated as impartial or subjective if the respondents are previously acquainted with the researcher. Their responses might become tainted if they are eager to please or be in agreement with the researcher.

Unstructured or open-ended interviews have the added disadvantage of lacking uniformity and going off-target.

The formulation of questions needs to be attempted skillfully so that the sequence does not betray the results that the interviewer wishes to obtain.

Miller and Glassner (1997:99) identify the risk of the imposition of the researcher‘s own narrative about a social reality. Since all reality is perception, it is quite likely the truth, as depicted by the researcher, is nothing more than a reflection of his own beliefs and therefore cannot be objectified.

3.6 Data Collection Procedure

As outlined earlier, data was obtained through the conduct of a practical teaching experiment, conducted to two groups of 20 children each of grade 4, all of whom understood Urdu, for teaching the mathematical concepts of addition and subtraction, spanning over four weeks in twelve lessons. Pre- and post-tests were used to provide quantitative data for measuring the students‘ levels of comprehension in

Urdu for Group-I and in English for Group-II.

Qualitative data was also obtained through questionnaires and interviews. The number of questionnaires administered was limited to 500, half of which were administered to teachers and the rest to parents. The number of interviews conducted was 10. The oral interviews were recorded and later transcribed. Both English and

Urdu languages were used, according to the linguistic background of the respondents.

3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation Procedure

Both the qualitative and quantitative data were interpreted. The quantitative results were tabulated. Computer engineering was employed for processing both the qualitative and quantitative data. Frequencies and percentages were calculated and visually presented. For instance, responses were tallied to determine the frequencies of various responses. Categories were coded under one head and pitted against percentages under another (see annexes).

3.8 Conclusion

This chapter elaborated upon the research methodology adopted for this study.

The descriptive survey was deliberated upon, and the advantages and disadvantages of the three tools employed for the research, namely the practical teaching experiment, questionnaires and interviews were considered at length. Data triangulation was deemed to be the most suitable choice for corroborating and validating results, because of its inherent quality of reliability due to cross-examination and verification through various means. Data triangulation also allows the researcher to approach the problem through a variety of perspectives. The active participation and firsthand observation of the researcher makes room for more uniformity in the collection of results.

The next chapter will focus on the outcomes of the data input, in order to determine the practicability of using English as the medium of instruction, particularly for the teaching of mathematics, in primary schools.

CHAPTER 4

4 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

To begin with, the data was collected, as mentioned in the previous chapter 3, through all of the three research tools: questionnaires, interviews and practical teaching; now here, in this chapter 4, the detailed analysis of the data is going to be depicted. The data is analyzed quantitatively to evaluate the efficacy of English and

Urdu, as media of instruction, in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools, its implementation as well as the attitude of various respondents, in the same concern.

For the said purpose, parents and teachers, from different provinces of Pakistan, were included in the study. Now the procedure undertaken for it is described in the following:

As far as the questionnaire is concerned, it was envisioned to investigate the biographic data of the respondents, to measure their attitudes towards language use and preferences, and finally to solicit their views on ways of promoting indigenous languages and literature for socio-cultural and economic progress. A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed among parents and teachers, and the personal data collected thus is merely to show the representativeness of the sample. The respondents, from all walks of life (professionals in the Ministry of Higher Education, teachers and parents),varied in educational qualifications, gender and age ranging from 20 to 65 years; and they included speakers of both the languages i.e. English and

Urdu. Moreover, to complement the questionnaire data, face to face interviews were also conducted. And it was further aided by the practical teaching, intended to find out the effectiveness of using English and Urdu as media of instruction in the teaching of

Mathematics in primary schools, specifically to grade four learners which was carried out at the Beacon House School in Islamabad and Government Centenial Model

School Mardan. A class of 40 learners of Grade 4, Beacon House School System, was used for practical teaching experiment that involved designing a teaching programme in which twelve 30 minute lessons, on average, were conducted thrice a week. And for this, the researcher herself performed as the teacher. The learners, divided into two groups: Group-I and Group-II, were given a pre-test and post-test in order to find out how they performed in Mathematics when English and Urdu were used as media of instruction.

Similarly a class of 40 learners of Grade 4, in Government Centennial Model

School, was used for practical teaching experiment that involved designing a teaching programme in which twelve 30 minute lessons, on average, were conducted thrice a week. The learners, divided into two groups: Group-III and Group-IV, were given a pre-test and post-test in order to find out how they performed in Mathematics when

English and Urdu were used as media of instruction.

4.2 Data Presentation

The data is divided into three portions i.e. data from the experiment, data from questionnaire, and data from the interviews

4.2.1 Data Analysis of the Experiment

Data analysis of the practical teaching experiment performed is described below. 4.2.1.1 Demographic Information about the Learners Involved in Practical Teaching

The demographic information of all the four groups involved in the teaching experiment is as follow:

a) Gender Wise Distribution of the Sample

Group I and III

Table 4.1: Gender Wise Distribution of Sample Group I and III (N=40)

Group # Gender f %

I Male 09 23%

Female 11 27%

Combined 20 50%

III Male 10 25%

Female 10 25%

Combined 20 50%

40 100

The Table 4.01 shows that among Grade 4 learners‘ of Group-I, 23% were boys and 25% were girls. Whereas, in Group-III, both boys and girls were having

25% representation respectively. The two groups had a total of 19 boys, involved in practical teaching, whilst 21 were girls. There are equal numbers of boys and girls in

Group-III and more girls than boys in Group-I. The ratio of girls to boys is almost 1:1. As a matter of fact, the grade 4 classes at Beacon House School as well as

Government Centennial Model School are not streamed and can be assumed to be of mixed ability. Group-I and III learnt Mathematics using Urdu as the medium of instruction.

The information given in table 4.1 is graphically presented below:

60

50

40

30 Girls Boys 20

10

0 Group I Group III

Figure 4.1: Gender Wise Distribution of the Sample Group I and III

The figure 4.01 shows that among Grade 4 learners‘ of Group-I, 45% were boys and 55% were girls. Whereas, in Group-III, both boys and girls were having

50% percentage each. In this class, the two groups had a total of 19 boys and 21 girls involved in practical teaching. The Bar Graph, in Figure 4.1above, also displays that there are equal numbers of boys and girls in Group-II and more girls than boys in

Group-I. The ratio of girls to boys is about 1:1. The grade 4 classes were divided into two groups, of 20 learners each, coded as Group-I, Group II, Group III, and Group-

IV. Group-I and Group III learnt Mathematics using Urdu as the medium of instruction; on the other hand Group-II and Group IV was taught the same topics and concepts in English. The groups were having equal percentage of both the genders in order to give equal weight to both the genders.

Gender Wise Distribution of the Sample of Group II and IV

Table 4.2: Gender Wise Distribution of Sample Group II and IV (N=40)

Group # Gender Ƒ %

II Male 11 27%

Female 09 23%

Combined 20 25%

IV Male 11 27%

Female 09 23%

Combined 20 28%

40 100

The Table 4.02 shows that among Grade 4 learners‘ of Group-II, 27% were boys and 23% were girls. In Group-IV as well 27% are boys while 23% are girls. The two groups had a total of 22 boys and 18 girls involved in practical teaching. There are more boys than girls in both the Groups. But the ratio of girls to boys is almost

1:1. As a matter of fact, the grade 4 classes at Beacon House School as well as

Government Centennial Model School are not streamed and can be assumed to be of mixed ability. Group-II and IV learnt Mathematics using English as the medium of instruction. The Table 4.02 shows that among all the Grade 4 learners‘ of Group-II and

Group IV, 54% were boys and 46% were girls. In Group-IV as well, both boys and girls were having 54% and 46% presentation respectively. In this class, the two groups had a total of 22 boys and 18 girls involved in practical teaching. The information given in table 4.2 is graphically presented below:

60

50

40

30 Girls Boys 20

10

0 Group II Group IV

Figure 4.2: Gender Wise Distribution of the Sample

The Graph 4.02 shows that among all the Grade 4 learners‘ of Group-II and

Group IV, 54% were boys and 46% were girls. In Group-IV as well, both boys and girls were having 54% and 46% presentation respectively. In this class, the two groups had a total of 22 boys and 18 girls involved in practical teaching.

The Bar Graph, in Figure 4.02 above, also displays that there more boys than girls in Group-II and IV. But the ratio of girls to boys is about 1:1. The grade 4 classes at Beacon House School Mardan and the Government Centennial Model School

Mardan are not streamed and can be assumed to be of mixed ability. Furthermore, to undertake the study, the grade 4 classes were divided into four groups, of 20 learners each, coded as Group I, Group II, Group-III and Group-IV. Group-III and Group IV learnt Mathematics using English as the medium of instruction; on the other hand

Group-I and Group III were taught the same topics and concepts in English. Total Number of Boys and Girls in all the Four Groups

Table 4.3: Gender Wise Distribution of all the Four Groups (N=80)

Group # Male % Female %

I 09 11 11 14

III 10 13 10 13

II 11 14 09 11

IV 11 14 09 11

Total 41 52 39 48

The Table 4.3 shows that Group I had 11% male as well as 11% female.

Group III had 13% male as well as 13% female. Group II had 14% male and 11% female. Group IV had 14% male and 11% female. Both boys and girls were having almost equal representation. In this class, the two groups had a total of 41 boys and 39 girls involved in practical teaching. Group I and Group III were taught Mathematics using Urdu as a medium of instruction while Group-II and IV learnt Mathematics using English as the medium of instruction.

The Table 4.03 show that among all the Grade 4 learners‘ of all the groups.

52% were boys and 48% were girls. In these classes, the four groups had a total of 41 boys and 39 girls involved in practical teaching. The information given in table 4.03 is graphically presented below:

Figure 4.3: Gender Wise Distribution of the Sample

The Bar Graph, in Figure 4.03 above, also displays that there are almost equal numbers of boys and girls in all the four groups. The ratio of girls to boys is about 1:1.

Group I and Group III learnt Mathematics using Urdu as the medium of instruction; on the other hand Group II and Group-IV was taught the same topics and concepts in

English.

b) Distribution of the Students by their Mother Tongue

This particular information, in the study, about the mother tongue is of significance to a great deal. Students were distributed with respect to their mother tongue they spoke. This information was important for the study to find out the ration of students speaking different languages and to prove that all the groups of students were multilingual. Distribution of Group I and Group III by their mother tongue is as follow:

Table 4.03: Distribution of the Students of Group I and III by their Mother Tongue (N=40)

Mother Tongue f %

Punjabi 12 30%

Sindhi 7 18%

Pashto 4 10%

Siraiki 3 8%

Balochi 0 0%

Urdu 11 28%

Others 3 8%

Total 40 100

From Table 4.04, it is clear that of the Grade 4 learners in Group I and III selected for this study 28% used Urdu as their mother tongue, 30 % used Punjabi,

18% used Sindhi, 10% use Pashto as their mother tongue, 8% used Saraiki and 8% of the sample fell into the category of other languages. There was no Balochi speaker in these groups. From Figure 4.04 above it is clear that the highest percentage of students in the classroom is of Punjabi speakers followed by Urdu speakers. While none of them used English as their mother tongue. It shows that it was a multilingual class and selection of a common medium of instruction for such a group is a difficult task. These groups represented the whole students‘ community in Pakistan. So selection a common language of instruction for such a diverse community is a hard- hitting task. Demographic information in Table 4.4 is presented graphically in the form of

Pie Chart, Figure 4.4, below along with the discussion and its analysis.

Figure 4.4: Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners of Group I and Group III by their

Mother Tongue

This particular information, in the study, about the mother tongue is of significance to a great deal. In the figure 4.04, 28% of the Grade 4 learners marked

Urdu as their mother tongue, 30 % used Punjabi, 18% used Sindhi, 10% use Pashto as their mother tongue, 8% used Saraiki and 8% of the sample fell into the category of other languages. None of the students had Balochi as his mother tongue. From Figure

4.04 above it is clear that the class was a multilingual group of students and selection of a common medium of instruction for such a group is not an easy target.

Distribution of Group II and Group IV according to their mother tongue is as follow:

Table 4.4: Distribution of the Students of Group II and IV by their Mother Tongue (N=40)

Mother Tongue f %

Punjabi 04 10%

Sindhi 03 08%

Pashto 10 25%

Siraiki 05 13%

Balochi 02 05%

Urdu 08 20%

Others 08 20%

Total 40 100

From Table 4.05, it is clear that of the Grade 4 learners in Group III and IV selected for this study 20% used Urdu as their mother tongue, 10% used Punjabi, 8% used Sindhi, 25% use Pashto as their mother tongue, 13% used Siraiki and 0.5% of the students were Balochi speakers. 20% of the sample fell into the category of other languages. From Figure 4.05 above it is clear that both the groups were multilingual.

While none of them used English as their mother tongue. Since one of the Groups was from KP, majority of the students were Pashto speakers. The next highest category was of Urdu speakers followed by Siraiki, Punjabi and then Sindhi.

Demographic information in Table 4.05 is presented graphically in the form of

Pie Chart, Figure 4.05, below along with the discussion and its analysis.

Figure 4.5: Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners of Group III and IV by their Mother Tongue

This particular information, in the study, about the mother tongue is of significance to a great deal. In the figure 4.05, 20% of the Grade 4 learners marked

Urdu as their mother tongue, 10 % used Punjabi, 8% used Sindhi, 25% used Pashto as their mother tongue, 13% used Saraiki and 20% of the sample fell into the category of other languages. From Figure 4.05 above it is clear that the class was a multilingual group of students where Pashto was the first having highest number of speakers and

Urdu was the second having highest number of speakers followed by Siraiki, Punjabi and then Sindhi.

Distribution of all the Four Groups of learners according to their mother tongue is as follow: Table 4.5: Distribution of the Students of all the Groups by their Mother Tongue (N=80)

Mother Tongue f of Group I & II f of Group III Total %

Punjabi 12 04 15 19%

Sindhi 7 03 10 13%

Pashto 4 10 14 18%

Siraiki 3 05 08 10%

Balochi 0 02 02 03%

Urdu 11 08 19 24%

Others 3 08 11 14%

Total 40 40 80 100

From Table 4.06, it is clear that of the Grade 4 learners selected for this study

24% used Urdu as their mother tongue, 19% used Punjabi, 13% used Sindhi, 18% use

Pashto as their mother tongue, 10% used Siraiki and 14% of the sample fell into the

category of other languages. Thus the highest category of speakers is Urdu speaking.

Pashto is the second highest category of speakers having 18% of speakers. The next

category is of Sindhi speakers, followed by Siraiki and then Balochi. From table 4.06

above it is clear that the sample is a multilingual group of students and none of them

used English as their mother tongue. Selection os a single medium of instruction for

such a diverse group of learners is not an easy task and much research is needed by

the policy makers before reaching any decision. Demographic information in Table 4.06 is presented graphically in the form of

Pie Chart, Figure 4.06, below along with the discussion and its analysis.

Figure 4.6: Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners of all the Groups by their Mother Tongue

This particular information, in the study, about the mother tongue is of significance to a great deal. In the figure 4.06, 24% of the Grade 4 learners marked

Urdu as their mother tongue, 19 % used Punjabi, 13% used Sindhi, 18% used Pashto as their mother tongue, 10% used Saraiki and 14% of the sample fell into the category of other languages. From Figure 4.06 above it is clear that the class was a multilingual group of students and Urdu was the second having highest number of speakers. Pashto is the second highest category of speakers having 18% of speakers. The next category is of Sindhi speakers, followed by Siraiki and then Balochi. None of them used

English as their mother tongue. Selection os a single medium of instruction for such a diverse group of learners is not an easy task and much research is needed by the policy makers before reaching any decision. c) Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners by the Language(s) they could Understand/Speak

This particular information, in the study, about the language majority of the learners can understand is of significance to a great deal. Detail of the learners by the languages they understood is given below:

Distribution of the Sample Group I and III by the Language(s) they can Understand/speak

The following table represents the distribution of the two groups i.e. Group I and group III who were taught using Urdu as medium of instruction.

Table 4.6: Distribution of the Sample Group I and III by the Language(s) they can

Understand/Speak

Language F %

English 34 85%

Urdu 40 100%

Punjabi 19 48%

Pashto 04 10%

Sindhi 07 18%

Saraiki 03 08%

Others 03 08%

Table 4.07 represents the distribution of the Grade 4 learners of Group I and

Group III using the language(s) they could understand or speak fluently. 100% of the Grade 4 learners in this study could speak and understand Urdu, 85% could speak/understand English and 48% could speak or understand Punjabi fluently. Thus it is evident from this that in the chosen Grade 4 class, Urdu and English are the common languages being spoken fluently or understood by the learners of both the groups.

The information in Table 4.07 is presented graphically in the form of a bar graph in Figure 4.06, below along with the discussion and its analysis.

Figure 4.7: Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners by the Language they could

Understand/Speak

Bar graph in the figure 4.07, demonstrates the distribution of the grade 4 learners by the language they could speak/understand; and it clearly indicates as well that Urdu and English are the main languages being spoken/understood by the learners. The main reason behind it is that English is the official language, a medium of instruction in schools and has a dominant position in science, technology, medicine, business, mass media and many other areas of human endeavor; hence, it becomes the most widely learnt foreign language. Whereas Urdu, a national language, is widely spoken by the population but not used as a language of instruction in schools, thus enjoys relatively low status as compared to that of English.

Distribution of the Sample Group III and IV by the Language(s) they can Understand/Speak

Table 4.7: Distribution of the Sample Group III and IV by the Language(s) they can Understand/Speak

Language f %

English 24 85%

Urdu 40 100%

Punjabi 19 48%

Pashto 34 10%

Sindhi 03 18%

Saraiki 08 08%

Balochi 02 03%

Others 13 08%

Table 4.08 represents the distribution of the Grade 4 learners of Group III and

Group IV using the language they could understand or speak fluently. 100% of the

Grade 4 learners in this study could speak and understand Urdu, 85% could speak/understand English and 48% could speak or understand Punjabi fluently. Thus it is evident from this that in the chosen Grade 4 class, Urdu and English are the common languages being spoken fluently or understood by the learners.

The information in Table 4.08 is presented graphically in the form of a bar graph in Figure 4.08, below along with the discussion and its analysis.

Figure 4.8: Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners by the Language they could

Understand/Speak

Similarly, the Bar graph figure 4.08, demonstrates the distribution of the grade

4 learners by the language they could speak/understand; and it clearly indicates as well that Urdu and English are the main languages being spoken/understood by the learners. The main reason behind it is that English is the official language, a medium of instruction in schools and has a dominant position in science, technology, medicine, business, mass media and many other areas of human endeavor; hence, it becomes the most widely learnt foreign language. Whereas Urdu, a national language, is widely spoken by the population but not used as a language of instruction in schools, thus enjoys relatively low status as compared to that of English.

Distribution of the Sample of all the Groups by the Language(s) they can Understand/Speak

Table 4.8: Distribution of the Sample Group III and IV by the Language they can Understand/Speak

Language F I & II f III & IV Total %

English 34 24 58 73%

Urdu 40 40 80 100%

Punjabi 19 19 78 98%

Pashto 04 34 38 48%

Sindhi 07 03 10 13%

Saraiki 03 08 11 14%

Balochi 00 02 02 3%

Others 03 13 03 4%

Table 4.09 represents the distribution of the Grade 4 learners of Group III and

Group IV using the language(s) they could understand or speak fluently. 100% of the

Grade 4 learners in this study could speak and understand Urdu, 85% could speak/understand English and 48% could speak or understand Punjabi fluently. Thus it is evident from this that in the chosen Grade 4 class, Urdu and English are the common languages being spoken fluently or understood by the learners. The information in Table 4.09 is presented graphically in the form of a bar graph in Figure 4.9, below along with the discussion and its analysis.

Figure 4.9: Distribution of the Grade 4 Learners by the Language they could

Understand/Speak

Similarly, the Bar graph figure 4.09, demonstrates the distribution of the grade

4 learners by the language they could speak/understand; and it clearly indicates as well that Urdu and English are the main languages being spoken/understood by the learners. The main reason behind it is that English is the official language, a medium of instruction in schools and has a dominant position in science, technology, medicine, business, mass media and many other areas of human endeavor; hence, it becomes the most widely learnt foreign language. Whereas Urdu, a national language, is widely spoken by the population but not used as a language of instruction in schools, thus enjoys relatively low status as compared to that of English.

4.2.1.2 Data Analysis of the Practical Teaching

The data analysis of the Section I of the questionnaire ends here. This section i.e. section II offers the quantitative analysis of the practical teaching to the learners of the Grade 4, in Group-I and Group-II. The results of the experiment are as follow:

a) Data Analysis of the Experiment on Group-I

The data collected from the Group-I is given under in tabulated form, which reflects the results of the pre-test and post-test as well as that of all of the three exercises carried out on the said group.

Table 4.9: Results of the Pre-test and Post-test for Group-I (N=20)

Learner‘s Code Pre-test Marks (%) Post-test Marks (%) 01-A 48 66 02-A 72 88 03-A 60 74 04-A 48 60 05-A 36 48 06-A 44 62 07-A 88 100 08-A 56 76 09-A 60 82 10-A 72 92 11-A 56 78 12-A 56 70 13-A 80 92 14-A 84 98 15-A 24 48 16-A 36 48 17-A 56 78 18-A 68 88 19-A 76 88 20-A 48 60 Mean 59.40 74.80

It is evident from Table 4.10, the data of the pre and post-tests, of Group-I that was taught Mathematics while using Urdu as a medium of instruction. The results of the pre-test indicate that seven of the grade 4 learners did not do well while the rest of them performed well in the test. Here it is important to mention that the standard pass marks, for the pre- and post-tests, was set at 50%. The pre-test was administered in order to test the assumed knowledge on how the learners mastered the concepts of addition and subtraction. Contradictory to it, the results of the post- test reflect that only three learners failed the test, whereas, most of them had shown an improvement in their performance, after the experimental practical teaching.

Statistics shown in table 4.10 above is also graphically presented in figure 4.10 below:

120

100

80

60 Pre- test

40 Post- test 20

0 01-I02-I03-I04-I05-I06-I07-I08-I09-I10-I11-I12-I13-I14-I15-I16-I17-I18-I19-I20-I Fig

ure 4.10: Results of the Pre- and Post-tests of Group-I Learners The Bar Graph above presents the individual performance of Group-I learners in both of the pre- and post-tests. Learner 07-A performed very well in both tests while securing the highest score of 95% in post-test. Seventeen out of the twenty

Group-I learners passed the post-test as compared to thirteen learners who passed the pre-test. An interesting thing to be noted here is that Learners 15-A and 16-A did not pass both the pre-test and post-test. They, actually, were facing problems in understanding the concepts of addition and subtraction. However, all of the other learners in Group-I showed a marked improvement in their performance in the post- test as compared to the pre-test.

b) Results of the Exercises Given to Group-I

The data collected from the Group-I is given under in tabulated form, which reflects the grades of all the three exercises carried out on the said group.

Table 4.10: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-I

Learner‘s Code Exercise 1 % Exercise 2 % Exercise 3 % 01-A 06 60 06 60 06 60 02-A 07 70 08 80 10 100 03-A 06 60 08 80 09 90 04-A 04 40 06 60 08 80 05-A 05 50 04 40 06 60 06-A 05 50 06 60 06 60 07-A 08 80 09 90 10 100 08-A 07 70 08 80 08 80 09-A 06 60 07 70 08 80 10-A 07 70 08 80 08 80 11-A 05 50 06 60 06 60 12-A 06 60 06 60 8 80 13-A 09 90 08 80 10 100 14-A 09 90 09 90 09 95 15-A 04 40 4.5 45 4.5 45 16-A 04 40 4.5 45 05 50 17-A 05 50 06 60 06 60 18-A 07 70 07 70 09 90 19-A 07 70 08 80 08 80 20-A 05 50 05 50 07 70

The statistics of table 4.11 display the scores of marks for the exercises, given to Group-I learners during the weeks they were learning Mathematics while using

Urdu as a medium of instruction, which were given to probe into the matter as how the learners were mastering the concepts of addition and subtraction, when they were being taught in Urdu; the results show that all the twenty grade 4 learners in Group-I were progressing well, and that is well evident from the marks of their last exercise in which almost all the learners scored more than the passing marks of 50%. The use of instruction in local language unlocks communication barriers and allows freedom of interaction among the learners as well as between them and their teacher. Some that the learners in Group-I did not perform well in Exercise 1 as compared to Exercise 3 where three learners answered everything correctly and all the learners passed the exercise. Consequently, it was a marked improvement. It proved that using Urdu as a medium of instruction affects students performance positively. Since communicative method of teaching was adopted for this experiment, Urdu language provided much ease and comfort to the students.

The data provided in Table 4.11 above is also demonstrated graphically in the form of a bar graph below:

Figure 4.11: Scores of the Exercises Given to Grade 4 Learners During the Practical

Teaching

Figure 4.11 shows the scores of marks for the exercises, given to Group-I learners during the weeks they were learning Mathematics while using Urdu as a medium of instruction, which were given to probe into the matter as how the learners were mastering the concepts of addition and subtraction, when they were being taught in Urdu; the results show that all the twenty grade 4 learners in Group-I were progressing well, and that is well evident from the marks of their last exercise in which almost all the learners scored more than the passing marks. The use of instruction in local language unlocked communication barriers and allows freedom of interaction among the learners as well as between them and their teacher. Some that the learners in Group-I did not perform well in Exercise 1 as compared to Exercise 3 where three learners answered everything correctly and all the learners passed the

exercise. Consequently, it was a marked improvement.

c) Data Analysis of Experimental Group-II

Just like data of Group-I, given below is the data collected from the Group-II,

which expresses the results of the pre-test and post-test of the Group-II taught through

the medium of English as well as the finding from all of the three exercises carried

out.

The distribution of marks for the pre-test and post-test of Group-II have been

tabulated and graphically illustrated below in table 4.06 and bar chart 4.06

respectively.

Table 4.12: Results of the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-II (N=20)

Learner‘s Code Pre-test Marks (%) Post-test Mark (%)

01-B 54 65 02-B 46 54 03-B 39 40 04-B 74 89 05-B 28 46 06-B 52 74 07-B 80 86 08-B 48 59 09-B 38 61 10-B 66 70 11-B 28 46 12-B 52 66 13-B 72 74 14-B 85 89 15-B 70 66 16-B 74 86 17-B 75 90 18-B 62 72 19-B 80 81 20-B 56 63 Mean 58.95 68.85

Group-II had also been taught Mathematics but through using English as a

medium of instruction. The statistics of the pre-test and post-test, table 4.12, show that

seven learners failed the pre-test, whereas there were three learners who failed the

post-test. The average marks for the group were 58.95 and 68.85 for the pre-test and

post-test respectively. The learner 03-B, 05-B and 11-B failed both the pre-test and

the post test. Three learners 07-B, 13-B and 15-B scored highly in the post test; each

of them getting more than 70%. Learner 07-B was an outstanding performer who did

very well in both of the pre-test (80%) and post-test (86%).

The data provided in Table 4.12 above is also demonstrated graphically in the

form of a bar graph below:

Figure 4.12: Marks in the Pre-test and the Post-test of Group-II

The data of table 4.12 is presented graphically in figure 4.12 and bars indicate clearly that learners of Group-II improved their performance in the post-test in comparison to that of the pre-test, with the exception of learners 03-B, 05-B, and 11-B who did well in the pre-test but failed the post-test thus showing poor performance.

Whereas the learner 02-B showed tremendous improvement, from having failed the pre-test (46%), in the post-test while securing 64%. It was then observed that some learners, whose backgrounds encouraged communication in English even at home, had no problems in understanding mathematical concepts being taught in English as a medium of instruction; thus they performed very well and such students have a negative attitude towards the use of Urdu in their interaction even outside the classroom learning situation. Such learners showed, in exercises given to them, a clear understanding of the concepts being taught in English. d) Results of the Exercises given to Group-II during the Practical Teaching

The data collected from the Group-II is given under in tabulated form, which reflects the grades of all the three exercises carried out on the said group.

Table 4.11: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-II during the Practical Teaching (N=20)

Learner‘s Code Exercise % Exercise % Exercise % 1 2 3 01-B 05 50 06 60 07 70 02-B 05 5 0 06 60 07 70 03-B 05 50 04 40 04 40 04-B 07 7 0 07 70 09 90 05-B 03 3 0 04 40 04 40 06-B 05 5 0 06 60 07 70 07-B 08 8 0 09 90 08 80 08-B 05 5 0 06 60 07 70 09-B 04 4 0 07 70 06 60 10-B 06 6 0 07 70 07 70 11-B 03 3 0 05 50 04 40 12-B 05 5 0 06 60 07 70 13-B 07 7 0 08 80 07 70 14-B 06 60 07 70 09 90 15-B 07 7 0 08 80 07 70 16-B 07 7 0 08 80 08 80 17-B 07 70 08 80 09 90 18-B 06 6 0 08 80 07 70 19-B 08 80 08 80 08 80 20-B 06 6 0 06 60 07 70

The table 4.13 above shows how the learners in Group-II performed in the three exercises, on addition and subtraction given during the practical teaching experiment, by indicating their better performance in all the work they did after they were being taught in Mathematics through English as a medium of instruction. The basic purpose to give these exercises was to investigate how the learners were mastering the concepts of addition and subtraction being taught in English. Learner

07-B was outstanding as she answered all the exercises correctly. In solving Exercise

1, learners 03-B, 05B, and11-B did not score the passing marks of 50% but improved gradually in other given exercises 2 and 3. Exercise 3 was well attempted by all the learners in Group-II.

The data of the table 4.13 is represented in bar chart, figure 4.13 below:

Figure 4.13: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-II During the Practical Teaching

The data given in table 4.13 is presented graphically in figure 4.13, showing clearly how well the learners in Group-II performed. From both the 4.13 table and the graph it is quite clear that learners 07-B and 16-B showed outstanding progress in all the exercises given to them during the practical teaching. Exercises 2 and 3 were solved accurately by all the learners except 03-B, 05-B and 11-B. The learners showed that they could not understand the concepts of addition and subtraction being taught in English. In Exercise 3 sixteen learners scored more than 70% displaying that most of the tasks given to the learners was understood.

e) Comparison of the Performance of the Learners using Groups Average Marks

The performance of the learners in Group-I and Group-II could also be statistically compared through the use of the Groups average marks in their pre-test and post-test and this is represented as under:

Table 4.12: The Mean Marks for the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-I and Group-II

Group Pre-test Post-test Difference

Group-I 59.40 74.80 15.4

Group-II 58.95 68.85 09.9

Mean 58.29 72.82 5.5

It is quite obvious from table 4.14 above, the Groups mean marks for Group-I pre-test was 59.40 and for Group-II it was 74.80. The pre-test was given to the groups to test the assumed knowledge of learners and to find out a common ground for both of the groups before the experiment was carried out. After the practical teaching to both groups in which Urdu and English were used as a medium of instruction to the

Group-I and Group-II respectively, in teaching Mathematics to a grade 4 class, the class mean for the post-test were 58.29 and 68.85 for Group-I and Group-II correspondingly. For the purpose of comparing class averages of the pre-test and post- test, it is clear that both groups performed well and showed an improvement from their pre-test class average to the post-test class average. Group-I performed better than Group-II. It exhibited a little more improvement in the exercises and tests given, however the marks for Group-II were not bad either as they also revealed a marked improvement in their performance. However no matter how much small but the difference is there. Therefore, it is evident from all this data analysis that the use of the Urdu language instruction could have impacted positively the teaching of

Mathematics to grade 4 learners.

The information given in table 4.14 is also graphically offered below in figure

4.14

80

70

60

50

40 Series 1 Series 2 30

20

10

0 Group I Group II

Figure 4.14: Graph for the Achievement in the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-I and

Group-II

Similarly as shown in table 4.08 above, figure 4.8 also confirms undoubtedly that both groups performed well and showed an improvement in their post-test group average marks. It is quite obvious from table 4.14 above, the Groups average marks for Group-I pre-test was 59.40 and for Group-II it was 58.95. The pre-test was given to the groups to test the assumed knowledge of learners and to find out a common ground for both of the groups before the experiment was carried out. After the practical teaching to both groups in which Urdu and English were used as a medium of instruction to the Group-I and Group-II respectively, in teaching Mathematics to a grade 4 class, the class averages for the post-test were 74.80 and 68.85 for Group-I and Group-II correspondingly. For the purpose of comparing class averages of the pre-test and post-test, it is clear that both groups performed well and showed an improvement from their pre-test class average to the post-test class average. Group-I performed better than Group-II in both of the given tests. It exhibited much more improvement in the exercises and tests given, however the marks for Group-II were not bad either as they also revealed a marked improvement in their performance.

Therefore, it is evident from all this data analysis that the use of the Urdu language instruction could have impacted positively in the teaching of Mathematics to grade 4 learners.

The use of Urdu, therefore, as a medium of instruction in teaching

Mathematics is effective and the learners could even understand more easily the mathematical concepts of addition and subtraction in Urdu without having any problems in language. For this section, thus, it can easily be concluded that a language

(Urdu) which a child knows profoundly should be the language of education and training; and the language used for education purposes should be a language capable of opening up communication barriers. According to Magwa (2008) if a language creates a host of “misunderstandings” then the ―barriers” cannot be easily cleared off.

The use of a local language as a medium of instruction ensures that learners are taught in a language spoken by a large number of people, of which language is useful in local and national life and the language is familiar to both learners and teachers. f) Data Analysis of the Experiment on Group-III

The data collected from the Group-III is given in tabulated form, which reflects the results of the pre-test and post-test as well as that of all of the three exercises carried out on the said group.

Table 4.13: Results of the Pre-test and Post-test for Group-III (N=20)

Learner’s Code Pre-test (%) Post-test (%) 01-C 58 66 02-C 62 78 03-C 57 72 04-C 68 88 05-C 46 48 06-C 34 62 07-C 78 100 08-C 55 76 09-C 50 72 10-C 62 82 11-C 66 78 12-C 66 80 13-C 70 100 14-C 74 98 15-C 22 48 16-C 36 58 17-C 49 68 18-C 60 88 19-C 76 100 20-C 48 60 Mean 56.9 76.1

It is evident from Table 4.15, the data of the pre and post-tests, of Group-III that was taught Mathematics while using Urdu as a medium of instruction. The results of the pre-test indicate that five of the grade 4 learners did not do well while the rest of them performed well in the test. Here it is important to mention that the standard pass marks, for the pre- and post-tests, was set at 50%. The pre-test was administered in order to test the assumed knowledge on how the learners mastered the concepts of addition and subtraction. Contradictory to it, the results of the post- test reflect that only two learners failed the test, whereas, most of them had shown an improvement in their performance, after the experimental practical teaching.

Statistics shown in table 4.15 above is also graphically presented in figure 4.15 below:

120

100

80

60 Pre- test

40 Post- test 20

0 01-I02-I03-I04-I05-I06-I07-I08-I09-I10-I11-I12-I13-I14-I15-I16-I17-I18-I19-I20-I

Figure 4.15: Results of the Pre- and Post-tests of Group-I Learners

The Bar Graph above presents the individual performance of Group-III learners in both of the pre- and post-tests. Learner 07-C and 13-C performed very well in both tests while securing the highest score of 100% in post-test. Eighteen out of the twenty Group-III learners passed the post-test as compared to thirteen learners who passed the pre-test. Learners 5-C and 15-C did not pass both the pre-test and post-test.

However, all of the other learners in Group-III showed a marked improvement in their performance in the post-test as compared to the pre-test.

g) Results of the Exercises Given to Group-III

Table 4.14: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-III

Learner‘s Code Exercise 1 % Exercise 2 % Exercise 3 % 01-C 06 60 06 60 06 60 02-C 07 70 08 80 08 80 03-C 06 60 08 80 07 70 04-C 06 60 07 70 08 80 05-C 05 50 05 50 05 50 06-C 04 40 06 60 06 60 07-C 08 80 09 90 10 100 08-C 06 60 08 80 08 80 09-C 05 50 06 60 07 70 10-C 07 70 08 80 07 70 11-C 06 60 07 70 08 80 12-C 07 70 06 60 07 70 13-C 07 70 09 90 10 100 14-C 07 70 08 80 09 90 15-C 03 30 04 40 04 40 16-C 04 40 50 50 06 60 17-C 05 50 06 60 06 60 18-C 06 60 07 70 08 80 19-C 07 70 08 80 08 80 20-C 48 50 05 50 60 60

The statistics of table 4.16 display the scores of marks for the exercises, given to Group-III learners during the weeks they were learning Mathematics while using

Urdu as a medium of instruction, which were given to probe into the matter as how the learners were mastering the concepts of addition and subtraction, when they were being taught in Urdu; the results show that all the twenty grade 4 learners in Group-III were progressing well, and that is well evident from the marks of their last exercise in which almost all the learners scored more than the passing marks of 50%. The use of instruction in local language unlocks communication barriers and allows freedom of interaction among the learners as well as between them and their teacher.

The data provided in Table 4.16 above is also presented graphically in figure below:

120

100

80

Exercise 1 60 Exercise 2

40 Exercise 3

20

0 01-C 03-C 05-C 07-C 09-C 11-C 13-C 15-C 17-C 19-C

Figure 4.16: Scores of the Exercises Given to Group III Learners During the Practical

Teaching

The bar graph in figure 4.16, represents the same data as in table 4.16. The learners in Group-III did not perform well in Exercise 1 as compared to Exercise 3 where two learners answered everything correctly and all the learners passed the exercise. Consequently, it was a marked improvement. h) Data Analysis of Experimental Group-IV

Just like data of Group-III, given below is the data collected from the Group-

IV, which describes the results of the pre-test and post-test of the Group-IV taught

through the medium of English as well as the finding from all of the three exercises

carried out. The distribution of marks for the pre-test and post-test of Group-IV have

been tabulated and graphically illustrated below in table 4.17 and bar chart 4.17

respectively.

Table 4.15: Results of the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-IV (N=20)

Learner‘s Code Pre-test Marks (%) Post-test Mark (%) 01-D 54 65 02-D 56 63 03-D 39 44 04-D 64 80 05-D 18 46 06-D 42 54 07-D 70 86 08-D 38 55 09-D 28 51 10-D 56 60 11-D 18 26 12-D 42 76 13-D 65 74 14-D 77 90 15-D 68 80 16-D 68 76 17-D 68 80 18-D 56 72 19-D 78 90 20-D 58 63 Mean 53.15 66.55 Group-II had also been taught Mathematics but through using English as a medium of instruction. The statistics of the pre-test and post-test, table 4.17, exposed that seven learners failed the pre-test, whereas there were three learners who failed the post-test. The average marks for the group were 53.15 and 69.55 for the pre-test and post-test respectively. The learner 03-D, 05-D and 11-D failed both the pre-test and the post test. Three learners 07-D, 14-D, 17-D and 19-D scored highly in the post test; each of them getting more than 80%.

The data in table 4.17 is presented graphically in figure 4.17 below

Figure 4.17: Marks in the Pre-test and the Post-test of Group-IV

The same statistics as that of table 4.17 is exemplified graphically in figure

4.17 and bars indicate clearly that learners of Group-IV improved their performance in the post-test in comparison to that of the pre-test, with the exception of learners 03-

D, 05-D and 11-D failed both the pre-test and the post test. Whereas the learners 07-

D, 14-D, 17-D and 19-D showed much improvement. It was then observed that some learners, whose backgrounds encouraged communication in English even at home, had no problems in understanding mathematical concepts being taught in English as a medium of instruction; thus they performed very well and such students have a negative attitude towards the use of Urdu in their interaction even outside the classroom learning situation. Such learners showed, in exercises given to them, a clear understanding of the concepts being taught in English.

i) Results of the Exercises given to Group-IV during the Practical Teaching

Table 4.16: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-II during the Practical Teaching (N=20)

Learner‘s Code Exercise 1 % Exercise 2 % Exercise 3 % 01-D 05 50 06 60 06 60 02-D 05 50 06 60 06 60 03-D 04 40 04 40 04 40 04-D 06 60 07 70 08 80 05-D 02 20 04 40 04 40 06-D 04 40 06 60 74 70 07-D 07 70 09 90 08 80 08-D 04 40 05 50 07 70 09-D 03 30 05 50 06 60 10-D 06 60 07 70 07 70 11-D 03 30 03 30 04 40 12-D 05 5 0 06 60 07 70 13-D 06 6 0 07 70 07 70 14-D 08 80 08 80 09 90 15-D 08 8 0 08 80 07 70 16-D 07 7 0 08 80 08 80 17-D 07 70 08 80 09 90 18-D 05 6 0 08 80 07 70 19-D 08 80 08 80 09 90 20-D 06 6 0 06 60 06 60

The table 4.18 above shows how the learners in Group-IV performed in the three exercises, on addition and subtraction given during the practical teaching experiment, by indicating their better performance in all the work they did after they were being taught in Mathematics through English as a medium of instruction. The basic purpose to give these exercises was to investigate how the learners were mastering the concepts of addition and subtraction being taught in English. In solving

Exercise 1, learners 08-D and 09-D did not score the passing marks of 50% but improved gradually in other given exercises 2 and 3. Exercise 3 was well attempted by almost all the learners in Group-IV.

The data of the table 4.18 is represented in bar chart, figure 4.18 below:

Figure 4.18: Results of the Exercises Given to Group-IV During the Practical Teaching

This very information, provided by our collected data, has been illustrated graphically in figure 4.18, showing clearly how well the learners in Group-IV performed. From both of the 4.18 table and graph it is quite clear that learners 14-D, 17-D, and 19-D were outstanding in all the exercises given to them during the practical teaching. Exercises 2 and 3 were correctly answered by all the learners except 03-D, 05-D, and 12-D. The learners showed that they could understand the concepts of addition and subtraction being taught in English.

j) Comparison of the Performance of the Learners of Group III and IV

using Groups Average Marks

The performance of the learners in Group-III and Group-IV could also be statistically compared through the use of the Groups average marks in their pre-test and post-test and this is represented as under:

Table 4.17: The Average Marks for the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-III and Group-IV

Group Pre-test Mean Post-test Mean Difference

Group-III 56.9 76.1 19.20

Group-IV 53.15 66.55 13.40

It is quite obvious from table 4.19 above, the Groups average marks for

Group-III pre-test was 56.9 and for Group-II it was 76.1. The pre-test was given to the groups to test the assumed knowledge of learners and to find out a common ground for both of the groups before the experiment was carried out. After the practical teaching to both groups in which Urdu and English were used as a medium of instruction to the Group-III and Group-IV respectively, in teaching Mathematics to a grade 4 class, the class averages for the post-test were 53.15 and 69.55 for Group-IV.

For the purpose of comparing class averages of the pre-test and post-test, it is clear that both groups performed well and showed an improvement from their pre-test class average to the post-test class average. Group-III performed better than Group-IV in both of the given tests. It exhibited much more improvement in the exercises and tests given, however the marks for Group-IV were not bad either as they also revealed a marked improvement in their performance but the difference was there. Therefore, it is evident from all this data analysis that the use of the Urdu language instruction could have impacted positively in the teaching of Mathematics to grade 4 learners.

The information given in table 4.19 is also graphically presented below in figure 4.19

80

70

60

50

40 Pre-test Post-test 30

20

10

0 Group III Group IV

Figure 4.19: Graph for the Average Marks in the Pre-test and Post-test of Group-III and Group-IV

As shown in table 4.19 above, figure 4.19 also confirms that both groups performed well and showed an improvement in their post-test group average marks. It is quite obvious from table 4.19 above, the Groups average marks for Group-III pre- test was 56.9 and for Group-IV it was 73.1. The pre-test was given to the groups to test the assumed knowledge of learners and to find out a common ground for both of the groups before the experiment was carried out. After the practical teaching to both groups in which Urdu and English were used as a medium of instruction to the Group-

III and Group-IV respectively, in teaching Mathematics to a grade 4 class, the class averages for the post-test were 53.15 and 69.55 for Group-IV. For the purpose of comparing class averages of the pre-test and post-test, it is clear that both groups performed well and showed an improvement from their pre-test class average to the post-test class average. Group-III performed better than Group-IV in both of the given tests. It showed more improvement in the exercises and tests given, however the marks for Group-IV were not bad either as they also revealed a marked improvement in their performance.

k) Comparison of the Performance of the Learners of all the Groups using Groups Average Marks

Table 4.20 Comparison of the Performance of the Learners of all the Groups using

Groups Average Marks

Groups Pre-test Post-test Difference

I 59.40 74.80 17.3

III 56.90 76.10 19.2

Mean 58.15 75.45 36.5

II 58.90 68.85 09.95

IV 53.15 66.55 13.40

Mean 55.02 67.70 23.05

Grand Difference 13.45 The overall result of the learners show that the use of Urdu as a medium of instruction in teaching Mathematics is effective and the learners could understand more easily the mathematical concepts of addition and subtraction in Urdu without having any problems in language. Thus, it can easily be concluded that the language

(Urdu) which a child knows profoundly should be the language of education and training; and the language used for education purposes should be a language capable of opening up communication barriers. According to Magwa (2008) if a language creates a host of “misunderstoods” then the ―barriers” cannot be easily cleared off.

The use of a local language as a medium of instruction ensures that learners are taught in a language spoken by a large number of people, of which language is useful in local and national life and the language is familiar to both learners and teachers.

The data given in table 4.20 is also graphically presented below in figure 4.20

160

140

120

100

80 Post-test Pre-test 60

40

20

0 Urdu (I + III) English (II + IV)

Figure 4.20: Graph for the Average Marks in the Pre-test and Post-test of all the Groups It is quite obvious from table 4.20 above, the Groups average marks for

Group-1 and III pre-test was 58.15 and for Group-II and IV it was 52.02. The pre-test was given to the groups to test the assumed knowledge of learners and to find out a common ground for both of the groups before the experiment was carried out. After the practical teaching to both groups in which Urdu and English were used as a medium of instruction to the Group-I and III and Group III and IV respectively, in teaching Mathematics to a grade 4 class, the class averages show that Group-I and III performed better than Group-II and IV in both of the given tests. It exhibited more improvement in the exercises and tests given. Therefore, it is evident from all this data analysis that the use of the Urdu language instruction could have impacted positively in the teaching of Mathematics to grade 4 learners.

l) Comparison of the Performance of the Learners of all the Groups using

Independent Means Groups t test

Achievements of Students in pre-test

Groups n Means Description SD

I + III 40 57.63 Average 15.736

II + IV 40 56.05 Average 17.798

Total 80 56.84 16.767

The table above shows the achievements of all the students in the pre-test before they were exposed to the treatment. The results show that all the groups had average achievement in the pre-test. That is why equal variances were assumed.

Comparison of Achievement in Pre-test Groups Means Diff. Df. t p

I + III 57.63 .58 78 .419 .676

56.05

The table above shows the result of t test for independent means to compare the achievements of both the categories of students. No significant difference was found between the achievement level of Group I + III and Group II + IV.

Achievements of Students in post-test

Groups n Means Description SD

I + III (Urdu) 40 75.45 Good 16.280

II + IV (English) 40 67.70 Good 15.930

Total 80 71.575 16.105

The table above shows the achievements of all the students in the post-test after they were exposed to the treatment. The results show that all the groups performed better in the post-test. Furhtermore, it was found that the groups who were taught through the medium Urdu performed better than those who were taught through the medium of English.

Comparison of Achievement in Pre-test

Groups Means Diff. Df. t p

I + III (Urdu) 75.45 7.75 78 2.152 .034

II + IV (English) 67.70 Data in the table above show that the groups who were taught through the medium of

Urdu performed better than the groups who were taught through English. The p value

.034 shows the difference.

Comparison of Mean Scores of Group I + III (Urdu) and Group I + IV (English)

Groups Mean Diff T df p

I + III (Urdu) 17.825 6.175 4.018 78 .000

II + IV (English) 11.650

Data in the table above show that the groups who were taught through the medium of

Urdu performed better than the groups who were taught through English. The results support Skinner‘s Theory of Behaviourism which states that if there is a systematic change in the environment, be it the technique and style of teaching, the learners will have a high possibility of assimilating the lessons.

4.2.2 Findings from the Questionnaire

The second tool opted for data collection by the researcher was questionnaire for the teachers and parents. The questionnaire was divided into two parts; part I was concerned with the collection of demographic information and part II related their opinion about the medium of instruction.

4.2.2.2 Background Information of the Parents and Teachers

The detailed information about the sample regarding their gender, age and education was collected through this part of the questionnaire.

a) Distribution of Respondents by Gender The information, concerning the gender composition of the population understudy, was important in order to generalize the attitudes or findings across gender lines.

Table 4.21: Distribution of Respondent Teachers by Gender (N=250)

Category Teachers %

Male 115 46

Female 135 54

Total 250 100

Table 4.21 show that among the respondents i.e. teachers , 46% were male and

54% were female. The two categories had a total of 115 male and 135 female respondents involved in survey. The ratio of male and female is almost 1:1.

The information given in table 4.21 is graphically presented below:

54

52

50

48

46

44

42 Male Female

Figure 4.21: Graph presenting the Distribution of teachers by Gender

Graph 4.21 show that among the respondents i.e. teachers , 46% were male and 54% were female. The two categories had a total of 115 male and 135 female respondents involved in survey. The ratio of male and female is almost 1:1. Table 4.22: Distribution of Respondent Parents by Gender (N=250)

Category Parents %

Male 130 52

Female 120 48

Total 250 100 Table 4.22 show that among the respondents i.e. parents, 52% were male and 48% were female. The two categories had a total of 130 male and 120 female respondents involved in survey.

The ratio of male and female is almost 1:1.

The information given in table 4.22 is graphically presented below:

54

52

50

48

46

44

42 Male Female

Figure 4.22: Graph presenting the Distribution of parents by Gender

Graph 4.22 show that among the respondents i.e. parents, 52% were male and

48% were female. The two categories had a total of 130 male and 120 female respondents involved in survey. The ratio of male and female is almost 1:1.

Table 4.23: Distribution of Respondent Teachers & Parents by Gender (N=500) Category Teachers % Parents % Total %

Male 115 46 130 52 245 49

Female 135 54 120 48 255 51

Total 250 100 250 100 500 100

Table 4.23 show that among the respondents i.e. teachers and parents, 49% were male and 51% were female. The two categories had a total of 245 male and 255 female respondents involved in survey. The ratio of male and female is almost 1:1.

The information given in table 4.23 is graphically presented below:

Figure 4.23: Distribution of Respondents by Gender (N=500)

b) Distribution of Respondents by Age

The main reason to collect the data about the age factor of respondents was to measure the spread of attitudes towards the use of Urdu as a medium of instruction in teaching and learning Mathematics in primary schools. With the development of science and technology the young age groups were measured to find their attitudes towards the use of indigenous languages as a medium of instruction in science subjects.

Table 4.24: Distribution of Respondent Teachers by Age (N=250)

Category F %

20 - 25 years 20 10%

26 – 30 years 55 22%

31- 35 years 57 23%

36-40 years 48 19%

41-45 years 25 10%

46-50 years 16 6%

51-55 years 14 6%

56-60 years 10 4%

Total 250 100

Table 4.24 shows that majority of the respondents were of young age. 45% of the respondents fell between the age 26 and 35%. 19% fell in the category of the age

36 to 40. 10% were of the age 41 to 45 and 10% were of 20 to 25 years. The rest 16% fell between 46 to 60.

The same data is presented through graph No. 4.24 below:

Figure 4.24: Distribution of Respondent Teachers According to Age

Figure 4.24 shows that majority of the respondents were of young age. 45% of the respondents fell between the age 26 and 35%. 19% fell in the category of the age

36 to 40. 10% were of the age 41 to 45 and 10% were of 20 to 25 years. The rest 16% fell between 46 to 60.

Table 4.25: Distribution of Respondent Parents by Age (N=250)

Category F %

20 - 25 years 30 12% 26 – 30 years 55 22% 31- 35 years 58 23% 36-40 years 57 23% 41-45 years 33 13% 46-50 years 17 7% Total 250 100

Table 4.24 shows that majority of the respondents were of young age. 69% of the respondents fell between the age 26 and 40. 12% fell in the category of the age 20 to 25. 13% were of the age 41 to 45 and 07% were of 46 to 50 years.

The same data is presented through graph No. 4.25 below:

% Respondents

20-25 26-30 31-35 35-40 41-45 46-50

Figure 4.25: Distribution of Respondent Parents According to Age

Figure 4.25 shows that Table 4.24 shows that majority of the respondents were of young age. 69% of the respondents fell between the age 26 and 40. 12% fell in the category of the age 20 to 25. 13% were of the age 41 to 45 and 07% were of 46 to 50 years.

Table 4.26: Distribution of Respondent Teachers &Parents by Age (N=500) Category Teachers % Parents % Total %

20 - 25 years 20 10% 30 50 12% 10% 26 – 30 years 55 22% 55 110 22% 22% 31- 35 years 57 23% 58 115 23% 23% 36-40 years 48 19% 57 105 23% 21% 41-45 years 25 10% 33 58 13% 12% 46-50 years 16 6% 17 33 7% 7% 51-55 years 14 6% 00 00 14 3% 56-60 years 10 4% 00 00 10 2% Total 250 100 250 100 500 100

Table 4.26 shows the distribution of all the respondents by age. According to the table majority of the respondents were of young age. 66% of the respondents fell between the age 26 and 40. 10% fell in the category of the age 20 to 25. 12% were of the age 41 to 45, 7% were in the age range 46 to 50 and 03% were of 50 to 55 years and 2% fell in the category of year 56 to 60.

The same data is presented through graph No. 4.25 below: % Respondents

20-25 26-30 31-35 35-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 65-60

Figure 4.26: Distribution of Respondent Parents & Teachers According to Age

Figure 4.26 shows the distribution of all the respondents by age. According to the table majority of the respondents were of young age. 66% of the respondents fell between the age 26 and 40. 10% fell in the category of the age 20 to 25. 12% were of the age 41 to 45, 7% were in the age range 46 to 50 and 03% were of 50 to 55 years and 2% fell in the category of year 56 to 60.

c) Destribution of Respondents by the Level of Education

Level of Education of Teachers

Table 4.27: Level of Education of Teachers (N = 250)

Level F %

FA/O level/A level 20 8%

Bachelors degree 128 51% Masters degree 80 32%

M.Phil/MS 20 8%

Doctoral degree 02 1%

Total 250 100

In Table 4.27 above 8% were untrained teachers who were just holding ‗O‘ and ‗A‘ level certificates. 325 attained a degree qualification with 51% being holders of Bachelor‘s Degrees and 32% being holders of Masters Degrees. The information available in the table above shows that the respondents were from different levels of the academic and professional hierarchy.

The same information is presented graphically below:

Figure 4.27: Distribution of the Teachers According to Education Figure 4.27 above shows that 8% were untrained teachers who were just holding ‗O‘ and ‗A‘ level certificates. 325 attained a degree qualification with 51% being holders of Bachelor‘s Degrees and 32% being holders of Masters Degrees. The information available in the table above shows that the respondents were from different levels of the academic and professional hierarchy.

Education of Parents

Table 4.28: Level of Education of Parents (N=250)

Level f %

Illiterate 40 16%

FA/FSC 40 16%

Bachelor degree 96 38%

Master degree 70 28%

Doctoral 05 2%

Other 04 2%

Total 250 100%

Table 4.27 shows that most of the parents, who participated in this study, were literate, among whom almost 28% were educated to the degree level, that is further can be explained as, 38% of the parents had Bachelor‘s degree and 28% of the parents had Masters degrees and 2% having attained a Doctoral Degree. 16% of the parents had obtained qualifications below FA level of Education and 16% of the parents were uneducated. The levels of education of parents‘ population understudy demonstrate that all key stakeholders in Pakistan‘s education system were having representation in this study of the population included.

The data is presented graphically below:

Figure 4.27: Distributions of Parents According to Education

Figure 4.27 show that most of the parents, who participated in this study, were literate, among whom almost 38% were educated to the degree level, that is further can be explained as, 38% of the parents had Bachelor‘s degree and 28%of the parents had Masters degrees and 2% having attained a Doctoral Degree. 16% of the parents had obtained qualifications below FA level and 16% of the parents were uneducated.

The levels of education of parents‘ population understudy demonstrate that all key stakeholders in Pakistan‘s education system were having representation in this study of the population included. 4.2.2.3 Responses from Questionnaires of Teachers and Parents

This section of the questionnaire is significant as it is concerned with the collection of data about the perception of teachers and parents regarding language as a whole and as a medium of instruction.

a) The Language(s) that Respondents Use in the Societal Contact at Large

The purpose of the question posed was to find out the language(s) that were used by the learners when they used to interact with each other and with their teachers as well. The question was basically intended to find out the linguistic background of the respondents as well as the common languages which were spoken in the society at large by them.

The question about the language(s) being spoken in the society at large was asked to have a clear view of the most common language(s) spoken in the society. It was found out that Urdu is the most common language spoken in the society. There is a strong need to have Urdu as a language of instruction in science subjects being taught at primary schools of Pakistan; while making it crystal clear that the use of a common language, spoken at home will surely remove the inferiority complex among learners which is mainly associated with the use of indigenous languages in schools.

Amongst the indigenous languages, indicated in Figure 4.24, Urdu is the mother tongue that has the highest percentage as compared to other languages. And if it is used as medium of instruction, it can be very helpful in enabling the learners to relate the concepts being learnt with their immediate environment. The use of a known language as a language of instruction ensures creativity among our learners and their interaction with their immediate environment. Table 4.28: Languages that Respondents Speak in the Society at large (500)

Language Percentage

Parents Teachers Total Parents % Teachers % Total %

English 07 03 10 3% 1% 2%

Urdu 90 98 188 36% 39% 38%

Punjabi 27 25 52 11% 10% 10%

Pashto 24 28 52 10% 11% 10%

Sindhi 29 25 54 12% 10% 11%

Balochi 24 26 50 10% 10% 10%

Saraiki 20 25 45 8% 10% 9%

Other 29 20 49 12% 8% 10%

Total 250 250 500 100 100 100

Statistics from Table 4.28 clarify that 38% of the respondents used Urdu as the language of communication, in the society for their day to day activities. 10% of the respondents use Punjabi at their language at home. Pashto was spoken by 10% of the respondents and other languages spoken are 10% as well. Sindhi, Balochi and Saraiki were spoken by 11%, 10% and 9% respectively.

The data in table 4.28 above has been graphically represented in figure 4.28 below. Analysis of this data is described after that.

Figure 4.28: Languages the Respondents Speak in the Societal Contact at Large

Figure 4.28 presents information graphically about the language(s) which respondents used to speak at home and it is clear from the bar graph that Urdu is the most common language spoken in the society. English is not the language spoken at home or in the societal contact in this study but it is the language used in business, administration and as a language of instruction in schools. It is commonly used by elite class people within the community. The need to use Urdu as a language of instruction in schools can be detected from the information on the bar graph.

b) What is the name of your mother tongue?

The purpose of the question posed was to find out the language that was used by the learners when they used to interact with each other at home. The question was basically intended to find out the linguistic background of the respondents as well as the common languages which were spoken at home by them. Table 4.29: The Responses on the Mother Tongue of Respondents (500)

Mother Percentage

Tongue

Teachers Parents Total Teacher% Parents% Total%

Urdu 11 14 25 4% 6% 5%

Punjabi 43 45 88 17% 18% 18%

Pashto 41 45 86 16% 18% 17%

Sindhi 40 45 85 16% 18% 17%

Balochi 49 46 95 20% 18% 19%

Saraiki 42 33 75 17% 13% 15%

Other 24 22 46 10% 9% 9%

Total 250 250 500 100 100 100

Statistics in table 4.29 plainly indicate that 5% of the respondents, who

participated in this study, used Urdu as their mother tongue. Out of that 5%, 4% are

teachers and 6% are parents accordingly, Urdu has the highest percentage of the usage

by the respondents. The question was basically intended to find out the linguistic

background of the respondents. The purpose of the question posed was to establish the

fact about the languages that were used by the learners when they used to interact

with each other at home.

The statistics presented in table 4.29 have also been illustrated graphically in

figure 4.29 below. Analysis of this information is discussed farther below the figure.

Figure 4.29: Responses on the Mother Tongue of the Respondents

The same information on the mother tongue of the parents and the teachers is illustrated graphically in figure 4.29, which reflects the data through bar graph. 5% of the parents and teachers indicated that Urdu was their mother tongue. There is no common language spoken by all the speakers at home. It shows the multi lingual nature of Pakistani community.

c) What language(s) do teachers use to teach Mathematics as a subject in

your/your children’s school?

This question was asked to find out the common language being used in the teaching of Mathematics in schools presently. The purpose of the question was to assess the chances of using English as a medium of instruction in teaching subjects in primary schools against the background of different languages as a medium of instruction in Pakistani schools.

Table 4.30: Language(s) that Teachers Use to Teach Mathematics at Primary Level (N=500) Language Percentage

Teachers Parents Total Teachers% Parents% Total%

Urdu 122 112 234 49% 45% 47%

English 19 21 40 8% 8% 8%

Punjabi 21 20 41 8% 8% 8%

Sindhi 12 17 29 5% 7% 6%

Pashto 19 26 45 8% 10% 9%

Balochi 21 13 34 8% 5% 7%

Saraiki 21 19 40 8% 8% 8%

Other 15 22 37 6% 9% 7%

Total 250 250 500 100 100 100

The statistical information shown in table 4.30 expresses that Urdu language as the language of instruction, in the teaching of Mathematics is widely used in schools. 47% of the parents and teachers indicated in their responses to the questionnaires that Urdu was used as a medium of instruction in the teaching of

Mathematics. The categories of English, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, Balochi, Saraiki is selected by 8%, 8%, 6%, 9%, 7%, 8% and 7% respectively. The use of other local languages as a medium of instruction is utilized informally especially in grade 4 and in other upper grades also.

The statistical information specified in table 4.30 is represented by a bar graph, in the figure 4.30 beneath.

Figure 4.30: Language(s) that Teachers Use to Teach Mathematics at Primary Level in

Schools

Figure 4.30 above graphically indicates the same data as shown in table 4.30 about Urdu, which was used by most of the teachers, as a medium of instruction in teaching Mathematics. The highest percentage 47 for Urdu category was given by the teachers and parents. The question was envisioned for finding out the common language being used in the teaching of Mathematics in schools presently.

The bar graph presents the total responses about the language teachers use when teaching Mathematics. Majority of the respondents pointed out that Urdu was the language used to teach Mathematics in schools.. d) What language(s) do you think should be used as language(s) of

instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics in primary

schools?

The purpose of the question was to assess the chances of using English as a medium of instruction in teaching subjects in primary schools against the background of different languages as a medium of instruction in Pakistani schools

Table 4.31: Responses for Language(s) that should be Used as Language(s) of Instruction in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics in Primary schools (N=500)

Language Responses

Teachers Parents Total Teachers% Parents% Total %

English 46 138 184 18% 55% 37%

Urdu 168 64 232 67% 26% 46%

Others 36 48 84 14% 19% 17%

Total 250 250 500 100 100 100

Table 4.31 shows statistically that Urdu language still enjoys the high status as the medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics while on the other hand

English remains with the low status for the same purpose. From the table 4.31, it is quite clear that 46% of the respondents indicated in the questionnaire, that Urdu should be used as a language of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics. So parents and teachers who voted in favour of Urdu category had the highest percentages of 26 and 67 respectively. Whereas only 37% teachers and parents signaled towards using

English as a medium of instruction for teaching of Mathematics at primary level in schools. The reason behind is that teachers felt enlightened on the problems faced by the students during learning Mathematics if English was used as a medium of instruction and this very thing suggested that there was actually a need to use indigenous languages in the teaching of subjects like Mathematics in schools of

Pakistan.

The data given in Table 4.31 has also been represented graphically in figure

4.31. Analysis of this data has been put forward after the figure.

Figure 4.31: Responses on Language(s) that should be used as Language(s) of Instruction in the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics in Primary Schools

From the bar graph in figure 4.31 it is again clear, just like from the table 4.31 that Urdu still succeeds over English as the medium of instruction in the teaching of

Mathematics in schools. e) Should English be Introduced as a Medium of Instruction at Primary

Level?

The question in fact, was aimed at exploring to what extent English can be accepted as a language of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools. Since teachers and parents are directly or indirectly involved in the process of education, finding their views was of utmost importance.

Table 4.32: Responses on whether English should be Introduced as a Medium of Instruction at Primary Level (N=500)

Respondents Ƒ of No % Ƒ of Yes %

Teachers 178 75 66 26

Parents 72 25 184 72

Total 250 100 250 100

Table 4.32 shows a clear demarcation between the views of teachers and parents about the introduction of English as a medium of instruction. 75% of the teachers are of the view that it should not be and72% of the parents are of the view that English should be introduced as a medium of instruction.

The same data is presented graphically below.

Figure 4.32: Responses on the Introduction of English as a medium of Instruction at Primary Level

Figure 4.32 shows a clear demarcation between the views of teachers and parents about the introduction of English as a medium of instruction. Majority of the teachers are of the view that it should not be. On the other hand majority of the parents are of the view that English should be introduced as a medium of instruction.

f) Are Teachers teachers’ trained/prepared to teach using English as media

of instruction

Table 0‎ .33: Responses on Whether Teachers are Trained/Prepared to Teach Using English as Medium of Instruction in Pakistan (N=500) Language Responses

Teachers Parents Total Teachers% Parents% Total%

Yes 39 16 55 16% 11% 12%

No 186 223 409 74% 89% 82%

Total 250 250 500 100 100 100 The percentages given in table 4.33 above show that most of the respondents i.e. 74 % of the teachers and 89% of the parents believed that Teachers are not prepared for using English as a language of instruction at primary level in Pakistan.

The information in table 4.35 has been graphically offered in a bar graph, figure 4.35 below.

100 90 80 70 60 50 Teachers 40 Parents 30 20 10 0 Yes No

Figure 0‎ .33: Responses on Whether Teachers are Trained/Preparedness to Teach Using English as Medium of Instruction in Pakistan (N=500)

It is evident from the bar graph in figure 4.33 that majority of the parents as well as teachers themselves believe that they are not properly trained and prepared to teach using English as a medium of instruction.

g) Should Medium of Instruction in Pakistan be Completely Switched to Urdu?

The question was aimed at exploring to what extent Urdu can be accepted as a language of instruction in the teaching and learning situation in Pakistan. Since teachers and parents are directly or indirectly involved in the process of education, finding their views was of utmost importance.

Table 0.33: Responses on whether medium of education should completely be switched to Urdu (N=500)

Respondents Ƒ of Yes % Ƒ of No %

Teachers 57 23 193 77

Parents 42 17 208 83

Total 99 40 401 60

Table 4.33 clearly shows that both teachers and parents are aware of the importance of English language. 77% of the teachers and 83% of the parents are against the switching of medium of instruction completely from English to Urdu. It means that English still holds a dominant position in our minds.

The same data is presented graphically below.

Figure 0.33: Responses on whether medium of education should completely be switched to Urdu Figure 4.33 clearly shows that both teachers and parents are aware of the importance of English language. 77% of the teachers and 83% of the parents are against the switching of medium of instruction completely from English to Urdu.

Only 23 % of the teachers and 17% of the parents agreed with this preposition.

h) Whether the use of Urdu can Bring Better Cooperation and Coordination

between School and the Community?

The question was aimed at exploring to what extent Urdu can create a link between schools and community or between parents and teachers as a language of instruction in the teaching and learning situation in Pakistan. Since teachers and parents are directly or indirectly involved in the process of education, their cooperation and coordination is of utmost importance in the education system.

Table 0.34: Responses on Whether can Bring Better Cooperation and Coordination between School and Community (N=500)

Respondents Ƒ of Yes % Ƒ of No %

Teachers 204 82 46 18

Parents 193 77 57 23

Total 397 103

Table 4.34 reveals that majority of the parents acknowledge the importance of Urdu for bring the schools in close contact with the community. 82% of the teachers and

77% of the parents agreed with this important aspect of Urdu language.

The same data is presented graphically below.

Figure 0.34: Responses on Whether can Bring Better Cooperation and Coordination between School and Community

Figure 4.34 reveals that majority of the parents acknowledge the importance of Urdu for bring the schools in close contact with the community. 82% of the teachers and

77% of the parents agreed with this important aspect of Urdu language.

i) Which Language(s) is Likely to give you Power and Prestige in Pakistan if

you speak it?

The question was intended to find out which language provides power and prestige in Pakistan and various responses were recorded but the bottom line of the respondents‘ views indicated that English is the language of power and prestige. Its diglossic relationship with indigenous Pakistani languages shows that it is a high variety enjoying high status. 81% of the respondents are of the view that English is the language that gives power and prestige. Urdu has been reduced to a low status position. Though Urdu is an indigenous language that is widely spoken in Pakistani schools and at home and this gives it a good standing in terms of acceptability and use as a language of instruction in schools.

Table 0.35: Responses on Which Language(s) is Likely to Give You Power and Prestige in Pakistan (N=500)

Language Responses

Teachers Parents Total Teachers% Parents% Total%

English 190 213 403 76% 85% 81%

Urdu 35 26 61 14% 10% 12%

Other 25 11 36 10% 4% 7%

Total 250 250 500 100 100 100

The percentages given in the figure 4.35 as well as in table 4.35 above show that the most of the respondents i.e. 76 % of the teachers and 85% of the parents believed that English was the language that can give power and prestige in Pakistan.

On the other hand only 14% of the teachers believed that Urdu was more powerful than English; while only 10% of the parents believed that Urdu dominates English as language of power and prestige. Thus there is an almost equal percentage indicated for both of the teachers as well as for the parents when they expressed the view that

English give power and prestige.

The information in table 4.35 has been graphically offered in a bar graph, figure 4.35 below. 90

80

70

60

50 Teachers 40 Parents 30

20

10

0 English Urdu Others

Figure 0 .35: Responses on which language(s) is likely to give you power and prestige in Pakistan (N=500)

It is evident from the bar graph in figure 4.35 that English is the language of power and prestige, which mostly dominates over other Urdu as shown by the responses of the parents and teachers. English in Pakistan is still the language of business communication. Consequently, this seems to stem from the notion that a well

―schooled‖ child is the one who is conversant and fluent in the English language. The

English language, to be brief, seems to be taking on the position of language for prosperity.

j) Responses on the Reasons why English language is likely to Give Power &

Prestige in Pakistan if you Speak it?

The question was intended to find out which language provides power and prestige in Pakistan and various responses were recorded but the bottom line of the respondents‘ views indicated that English is the language of power and prestige. Table 0.36: Reasons why English language is likely to give you power and prestige in Pakistan if you speak it?

Respondents Reasons why English language is likely to give power and prestige in Pakistan if one speaks it.

Teachers • It is an international language which is understood by different people in different parts of the world.

• It is a medium of instruction in education.

• Urdu is not important in industry, education and commerce and there is no need to speak it.

• In Pakistan one is more marketable in industry and commerce if he is proficient in English.

• Pakistani languages such as Urdu are not recognized in business and official dealings.

• English is more developed than Pakistani languages hence it has various ways of expressing scientific ideas.

• English is more challenging than Pakistani languages.

Parents • It is a global language used in different countries as a language of power and prestige.

• It is prestigious and has a higher status than Urdu.

• It is a language of administration in Government and local Authority.

• English has a wider vocabulary.

Without English language you are useless in terms of employment.

k) Responses on the Reasons why Urdu language is likely to give power and

prestige in Pakistan if one speaks it

Only 14% of the teachers believed that Urdu was more powerful than English; while only 10% of the parents believed that Urdu dominates English as language of power and prestige. The main reasons they gave are tabulated below: Table 0.37: Reasons why Urdu Language is Likely to Give Power & Prestige in Pakistan if one Speaks it

Respondents Reasons why Urdu language is likely to give power and prestige in Pakistan if one speaks it.

Teachers  It gives you identity

 Provides you with the Pakistan‘s cultural heritage.

 It‘s powerful in its development.

 Is now used on internet on search engines such as Google.

 Can easily be accepted in interactions with your colleagues.

Parents  It promotes and develops our cultural heritage.

 It is being accepted regionally in other countries.

 Developed new terminology which can be used in technology.

 Is now used on internet on search engines such as Google.

 Gives one‘s identity

l) Responses on the Link of Urdu Language with the Social, Economic and

Scientific Development

Table 0.38: Responses on the Positive Link of Urdu with the Social, Economic and Scientific Development of a Nation (N=500)

Response Number of Respondents

Parents Teachers Total Parents% Teachers% Total%

Yes 78 105 173 31 % 42% 35%

No 172 145 327 69% 58% 65%

Total 250 250 500 100 100 100

It can be seen from table 4.38 above, parents (42%), teachers (35%) believed that there was a link between Urdu and the social, economic and scientific development of the nation. However, Urdu was not being recognized or used as vehicles of communication or medium of instruction in schools and in economic development circles of Pakistan. Whilst Urdu has been used in unofficial circles and a lot has been achieved, yet it still remains a need that it should be used as languages of instruction as well in schools.

The data given in table 4.38 has been also graphically presented in figure 4.35 as bar graph and the analysis of this data is discussed below the figure.

Figure 0 .35: Responses on the Positive Link of Urdu Language to Social, Economic and Scientific Development of a Nation? (N=500)

The responses presented in table 4.38, are also represented by the bar graph in figure 4.35. It is clear that the respondents did not believe that indigenous languages had a link with the social and the economic development of the country. This confirms respondents‘ belief about the effectiveness of using English as a medium of instruction in the teaching in Pakistan. The respondents (65%), who gave a ‗No‖ response, seem not to agree upon it most probably because they were thinking that

Urdu as indigenous language was not capable of realising the realities of development in areas cited in the question although it has the potential to oil the social engine of development.

m) Responses on Urdu’s Ability to Express and Explain Mathematical and

Scientific Concepts

The question was posed to find out the attitudes of respondents on the effectiveness of using Urdu as a medium of instruction in the teaching scientific and mathematical concepts in education.

Table 0.39: Responses on Urdu’s Potential to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts (N=500)

Responses Teachers Parents Total Teachers% Parents% Total%

Yes 70 80 150 28% 32% 30%

No 180 170 350 72% 68% 70%

Total 250 250 500 100% 100% 100%

From the statistics given in Table 4.39 it is clear that parents (78%), teachers

(42.3%) agree that Urdu cannot express and explain educational and scientific concepts. As a matter of fact Urdu lacks some technical terms which have no equivalents in Urdu language; as well as no authentic translations have been done, and the ones that are there are generally looked down upon.

The information of table 4.39 has been presented in a bar graph as well figure

4.36 below:

Figure 0.36: Responses on Urdu’s Potential to Express and Explain Educational and

Scientific Concepts in the Teaching of Mathematics in primary schools

The graphic representations in figure 4.36 also reveal that the use of Urdu to explain scientific concepts is still considered inferior. This is despite the fact that

Urdu is spoken at work and in day to day social activities. The category of the ‗No‘ response also shows that the parents (78%) believed that the Urdu could not express and explain educational and scientific concepts. Probably this is because of indoctrination and colonial legacy that indigenous languages‘ vocabulary for science and technology is either limited or nonexistent.

According to the figure 4.36 above, 30% of the respondents, who agreed Urdu could express and explain educational and scientific concepts, probably had the idea that Urdu is developed in terms of its vocabulary and orthography and it could be used in science and other areas of learning. On the contrary, 60% of the respondents were of the opinion that Urdu could not express or explain educational and scientific concepts.

n) Reasons why Urdu may not be Able to Express and Explain Educational

and Scientific Concepts in Teaching

The question was posed to find out the views of respondents on the ineffectiveness of using Urdu as a medium of instruction in the teaching scientific and mathematical concepts in education.

Table 0.40: Reasons why Urdu may not be Able to Express and Explain Educational and Scientific Concepts in Teaching

Respondents Reasons why Urdu may not be able to express and explain educational and scientific concepts in teaching

Parents Urdu is a language that may not accommodate technological terms for scientific development.

Urdu can only be applied to a particular subject rather than the whole curricula of the schools.

Urdu lack depth. It is shallow in terms of vocabulary and cannot explain fully the mathematical scientific concepts.

It is a language spoken by under developed minority /ethnic groups.

Teachers Urdu language may not be developed enough to meet the challenges of scientific explanations. These languages are not adequately developed in terms of terminology.

Urdu language is underdeveloped. There is a lack of terminology for mathematical concepts.

There are some technical scientific terms which have no equivalents in Urdu language.

0) Reasons why Urdu is able to Express and Explain Mathematical and

Scientific Concepts in Teaching of Mathematics

The question was posed to find out the views of respondents on the effectiveness of using Urdu as a medium of instruction in the teaching scientific and mathematical concepts in education.

Table 0.41: Reasons why Urdu is able to Express and Explain Mathematical and

Scientific Concepts in Teaching of Mathematics

Respondents Reasons

Parents Urdu has the capacity to communicate just like English and hence can explain any scientific concepts and provide terms to represent the scientific or mathematical ideas are created.

Urdu can easily be accepted in interactions within the learning– teaching situation.

Teachers The use of Urdu language at school is frequent. This explains the nature of exchange of knowledge that take place with the learners and teachers in schools.

Learning of subjects such as mathematics involves the use of Urdu more than English for learners to understand better.

Every language has means and ways of expressing every aspect of its people‘s experiences. Ordinary people talk about these things everyday which is an indication that the vocabulary or terminology is there for the teaching of mathematics.

Mathematical concepts used in our day to day lives such as counting, addition and subtraction can be done in Urdu language.

p) Responses on the Capability of Urdu to be Developed to Express

Mathematical and Scientific Ideas in Teaching.

Those respondents, whose answer to Question 10 was ―No‖, were asked if it is possible for Urdu to be developed to express mathematical and scientific Ideas.

Table 0.42: Responses on Urdu’s capacity to be developed to express educational and scientific ideas? (N=500)

Responses Teachers Parents Total Teachers% Parents% Total%

Yes 162 146 308 65% 66% 62%

No 88 104 202 35% 42% 38%

Total 250 250 500 100% 100% 100%

Some of the respondents (62%) still believe that it is possible for Urdu to be developed to express mathematical and scientific concepts. In this context, 38% of the

‗No‘ category of Question 10 believed that it was not possible for Urdu to be developed to the extent of expressing mathematical and scientific ideas in teaching.

The question was, in fact, intended to notice whether the respondents still had hope that Urdu could be developed to the extent to express and explain scientific concepts being taught in Mathematics; and it was found out that the teachers (65%) and parents

(66%) believed that Urdu language could still be developed to teach scientific mathematics. The data of the table 4.41 is graphically presented in a bar graph, shown in figure 4.37 beneath. The analysis of statistical data in the table is also presented after the figure 4.37.

Figure 0.37: Responses on Urdu to be developed to express educational and scientific

ideas (N=500)

The bar graph in Figure 4.37 shows that 38% of the respondents, who constitute the ‗No‘ category, believed that Urdu could not be developed to the extent to teach Mathematics and scientific concepts. Probably they felt that Urdu weas shallow in terms of vocabulary and could not explain fully the mathematical scientific concepts. Whereas 62% of the respondents still believed that it was possible for Urdu to be developed to express mathematical and scientific concepts in teaching. q) Would You be Happy if all Subjects from Primary to University Level

were Studied while Using Urdu Language as a Medium of Instruction?

The question was posed to find out the views of respondents on the effectiveness of using Urdu as a medium of instruction in education.

Table 0.43: Responses on whether all Subjects from Primary to University level were to be Studied while Using Urdu as a Medium of Instruction (N=500)

Respondents Ƒ of Yes % Ƒ of No %

Teachers 184 74% 66 26%

Parents 70 28% 180 72%

Total 254 51% 246 49%

Table 4.43 indicates that 51% of respondents conceded that they were happy if all subjects from primary to university level were studied while using indigenous language(s) as a medium of instruction. The highest percentage in this ‗Yes‘ category was, actually, from the teachers. On the other hand, the parents in the ‗Yes‘ category indicated that they would be happy if all subjects from primary to university level were taught using Urdu language are only 28%. This shows their positive attitude towards the use of indigenous languages as languages of instruction in Education.

This is contradicts the attitude of the respondents in Question 10 who felt that

Urdu could not be developed to teach scientific and mathematical concepts in education. However, the above information shown in the figure 4.37 specifies that it is possible for Urdu to be developed to the heights of international communication, if its speakers are positive on its uses as a language of instruction in schools.

Figure 4.38, shows that 74% of the teachers among the respondents were

happy if all the subjects were taught in Urdu language from primary to university.

Quite the reverse to it, 72% of the parents among the respondents were not happy at

all.

r) Reasons why respondents were unhappy if all subjects from primary to

university level were studied using Urdu language as a medium of

instruction.

The question was posed to find out the reasons behind the views of respondents on the effectiveness of using Urdu as a medium of instruction in education.

Respondents Responses

Parents  Use of English language will make you appear knowledgeable and intelligent.

 English language may accommodate technological terms for subjects in schools, colleges and universities

 It is a language spoken by under developed minority /ethnic groups.

Teachers  Urdu is a language that may not accommodate technological terms for scientific development.

 Urdu can only be applied to a particular subject rather than the whole curricula of the schools.

 Urdu lack depth. It is shallow in terms of vocabulary and cannot explain fully the mathematical and scientific concepts.

s) Reasons why respondents were happy if all subjects from primary to

university level were studied using Urdu language as a medium of

instruction.

The question was posed to find out the reasons behind the views of respondents on the effectiveness of using Urdu as a medium of instruction in education.

Respondents Responses

Parents  Learners will find it easier to learn in their national language.

 Urdu language can be used in any situation. It is being used in domains such as legislature, school instruction, business and other domains. It is used as media of instruction in primary schools.

 This is a better way of making sure that the National language does not die.

Teachers • If other countries like Tanzania, Botswana, Britain and Germany just to mention a few are using their own language in education then we should also do it.

• It ensures creativity and interaction with our environment.

• Concepts will be easier to understand if the language used at everywhere becomes the language of instruction at school.

• Use of Urdu languages in education will promote Pakistan‘s culture.

4.2.3 Findings from the Interviews

Interview has constantly been a significant strategy inside subjective research

(Hurworth, 2003). As suggested by Hancock (2002), interview technique was used as

a part of data analysis for the current research. A pool of questions is used, especially

like a poll, in an open ended way. For present investigation, an interview on nine

items was produced to record the data from the interviewee in respect of their

perspectives about medium of education. Content as well as face legitimacy of

interview were ensured through a panel of five specialists of the field who were

requested to rate fittingness, appropriateness and comprehensiveness of items in

connection to linguistic, content and practicality of items keeping in view the

objectives of study conveyed to them. The inquiries which were embraced by more

than 80% of authorities were finalized, however items under 80% support/ approval

rate were modified by given suggestions of experts. Two categories of respondents

i.e. teachers and parents have been sampled out, audio recorded and analysed

separately. The selected represent a cross section of interviewees with different levels of educational and professional qualifications as well as different linguistics constituencies.

Qualitative data analysis shows that the respondents i.e. parents and teachers reveal different view about the effectiveness of both the languages. One objective of interviewing the respondents was to investigate their perspectives about the importance of language of instruction. Data shows that respondents reveal different opinions. Major perspectives derived in this regard are given below:

1. Is there any relationship between language and socio-economic development?

2. What are the socio-economic benefits of using Urdu as a language of

instruction in education?

3. What are the problems that are likely to be encountered if Pakistan decides to

use Urdu as an official language of instruction in education?

4. Do you think it is possible to teach Mathematics from primary to university

level using an Urdu language as a medium of instruction?

5. What do you think is the attitude of Pakistani people towards the use of the

English as a medium of instruction in education?

6. Do you think English should continue to be used as the official medium of

instruction in Pakistan?

7. Are teachers in this country fully equipped to use English languages as a

media of instruction in education?

8. Are there any efforts that are being made to promote the use and growth of

Urdu in Pakistan?

9. What do you think should be done to improve the status and function of Urdu

in Pakistan?

4.2.3.2 Parents Interviews

a) English is a Source for Economic and Social Development The interviewee agreed that language is a factor for economic and social development. An interviewee (a parent from Islamabad whose highest educational qualification is Master in political science, mother tongue is Urdu and can speak

English) argued that Urdu as a language of instruction can benefit the community for communication and interaction. She was quick to point out that in the world of work and business communication it has limitations. She said, ―If my child passes Urdu and fails English he cannot have bright future because Urdu is only useful in Pakistan”.

The interviewees further acknowledged that people are able to leave Pakistan and work in other countries because of English. She argued that if our children just learn in Urdu from primary level they will not be able to go into the foreign countries earn money. There is need for our children to continue using English as a medium of instruction. English is a vehicle to the job market. There is nothing wrong in learning the master‘s language but there is also nothing wrong in learning our national language. She noted that Urdu was useful for breaking the communication barrier between the local language speakers of Pakistan such as Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi,

Sariki and many others. From her view Urdu is a neutral language, which enables people to communicate without using their ethnic languages. So on the one hand the respondent would like to preserve Urdu language yet on the other hand, she seems insecure without the use of English.

b) What are the problems that are likely to be encountered if Pakistan

decides to use Urdu as an official language of instruction in education?

The respondents admitted that it is possible to teach Mathematics from primary to university level using an Urdu language as a medium of instruction in education. One of the respondents pointed out that Urdu has been used culturally in counting, addition and subtraction. “Is that not being mathematical?” she asked. She added that there is need to borrow some mathematical terms from other languages and write more books in Urdu for Mathematics. For teaching other subjects in English the teachers need to be trained in that language so that they will not have problems in using it as a language of instruction in education.

c) No Efforts are Being Made to Promote the Use and Growth of Urdu in

Pakistan?

The interviewees argued that politically and as lip service the leaders have always said that Urdu will be made compulsory and the official language. Their response is understood and justified considering that they were aware of the false promises politicians propose especially in language policies and development.

d) English should Continue to be Official Medium of Instruction The interviewees recognized the power of English and put up a case against its discontinued use as a medium of instruction in our education system. One of them equates English to education and prosperity.

The respondents‘ response to the question of the relationship between language and socio-economic development was that language is a vehicle for development. The interviewees admitted that there will be problems if Pakistan decided to use Urdu as an official language of instruction in education. English is globally accepted and it is a neutral language which does not fend tribalism among Pakistan‘s different communities. Urdu is not internationally recognised or popular. They are not commercially viable. It is best suited for our communication in farms. Knowledge acquired through Urdu is limited. Learning in the indigenous language would limit our children‘s access to the labour market.

e) Urdu should be Used as Medium of Instruction for the Teaching of

Mathematics at Primary Level

A respondent (a father, shopkeeper from Lahore whose highest level of education is MA, mother tongue Punjabi can also speak Urdu and English to some extent) revealed that it is not possible to teach mathematics from primary level to university level using Urdu language as media of instruction. Mathematics becomes very difficult because of the language used to express ideas and concepts. He says

“There are no mathematical books written in Pakistan languages on higher level as well as we don’t have subjects experts with the specialties of knowledge of foreign language too”. The response indicates that interviewee is aware of the economic costs involved in taking Pakistan languages on board as media of instruction in mathematics.

With regard to teachers‘ preparedness to teach using English as media of instruction, the interviewee pointed out that there is need for these teachers to be trained in English language.

f) Language Planning Issues

In fact, indigenous language should be seen as bringing national unity, national identity and national development It should be considered as resources for people‘s aspirations and full participation in national development.

Majority of the interviewees strongly agreed that there is a relationship between language and socio-economic development. Language is an important factor for development. They reasoned that in development we look at improving people in terms of infrastructure, production, movement that comes through networking with relevant stakeholders. His argument confirms that language is a resource. The interviewees explained how Urdu could be used as a tool of economic empowerment.

―The Chinese, Japanese and the British have used their own languages to develop themselves so why can‘t we?‖ he quizzed. He stressed that development agents should engage local people such as him through the indigenous language if they are to convince the people about new initiatives and innovations. This allows room for people to adjust their beliefs, norms and values to accommodate new ideas.

On the issue about any efforts being made to promote the use and growth of

Urdu in Pakistan he argued that the government on its own is doing very little. Apart from some educational policies which allow National language to be taught till grade

4 there is nothing tangible it has done. There is no clear language policy with regard to indigenous language that has been put in place. However individuals like Tarik

Rhman have done a lot to promote Urdu.

In this regard, interviewees proposed that a language policy on the use of

Pakistan languages as media of instruction should be put in place. There is need to develop terminology in Urdu language so that they could be used in the teaching of science subjects. Translation of books written in English can also alleviate the problem of inadequate resources such as books written in Pakistan languages.

g) Benefits of using Urdu as a medium of instruction

The respondents agreed that language is a factor for development and that

Pakistan‘s indigenous language can be used for socio-economic development. The benefits of using Urdu as a medium of instruction is that it facilitates understanding and ensures creativity and interaction with our environment technologically. This will enable us to develop it so that we can use it in the internet and computers. An interviewee (a mother from tribal areas from Balochistan whose highest qualification was BA level, mother tongue Balochi and can speak English and Urdu) explained that if indigenous Pakistan languages were used to communicate economic issues more people would be empowered economically. She explains “If many people use our indigenous languages- Urdu as a medium of instruction in all subjects this will enhance our industry, schools and the economy.”She argued that the use of indigenous Pakistan languages as media of instruction is like use of concrete media because there is contextual application, cultural and environmental relevance. The interviewee further argued that use of indigenous Pakistan languages encourages the teacher to have environmental adaptation skills. Apart from thet the teachers are not fully equipped to use the English language as media of instruction.

The interviewee is not aware of any efforts being made to promote the use and growth of Urdu in Pakistan apart from politicians who want to use it as a divide and rule approach under the pretends of unity among people. It is important to note that the interviewee is sensitive on linguistic issues in FATA as the people in this region feel threatened from the use of English language.

The interviewees believed that it would be difficult to teach Mathematics from primary to university level using an indigenous Pakistan language as a medium of instruction. Mathematics has its own terminology which is not found in indigenous

Pakistan languages hence it will not be easy to teach for example, topics like

Logarithms and Exponentials in Urdu. She suggested that ―Mathematics could be taught in Urdu at Primary school level in order to provide a solid foundation for it to be at upper levels”. But currently it‘s a non starter. The response by the interviewee indicates that she is hesitant to use an Urdu language in the learning of mathematics.

h) Language of instruction would expedite things and level of

comprehension

The use of indigenous language for instruction should be confined to the primary school as only. Urdu as language of instruction would expedite things and level of comprehension to the primary school child.A female participant (a mother from Karachi in Sindh whose highest qualification is MA, mother tongue Sindhi and can speak English and Urdu) argued that “English should be allowed to continue to be used as the official language of instruction in Pakistan in higher institutions. She further added that English is an international language which is associated with the best. Using English will help children to access material which has been written in

English”. There is not much reading material in science written in Pakistan languages.

There is no clear promotion on the use and growth of Urdu in Pakistan. She explained that throughout her education she cannot remember any time when a policy was implemented to ensure the use of Pakistan‘s indigenous language in other subjects of learning. This response indicates that there is no language policy that enforces the use of Pakistani languages as media of instruction in schools. If the status and function of Urdu has to be improved, the government should introduce a language policy that ensures that Pakistan languages are recognised as languages of instruction.

In this regard, among the participants, a father said, “The Policies in the

Government are really planning to kill Urdu, but let me assure you it will never die.”

He pointed out that there was need to allow the Pakistan languages continue to be the languages of instruction in schools where the majority speakers use that Pakistani languages as language of communication. He went on further to argue that it is better to use Urdu as the language of instruction in Pakistan.

Participants agreed that English should continue as a language of instruction in schools. He argued that globalisation is synonymous with English. English is a universally accepted worldwide language of communication and it is the language at work places. It is a medium of instruction and research in many disciplines so it‘s difficult to do away with it.

4.2.3.3 Teachers Interwiew

a) language and socio-economic development

The participants strongly agreed that there is a strong relationship between language and socio-economic development. The respondent argued that language forms the basis of communication and participation in economic and scientific development. A respondent teacher (Interviewee, A primary school teacher who has long experience as a teacher, and is currently employed by FG School Bahawalpur, mother tongue is Saraiki and can speak Urdu and English) argued that some languages have got limited vocabulary, which prevents them from being used to express scientific concepts. On the issue of using Urdu as a language of educational instruction, the interviewee maintained that the use of indigenous language is like use of concrete media because there is contextual application, cultural and environmental relevance. The interviewee further argued that use of indigenous languages such as

Urdu, gives environmental adaptation skills. People can manipulate their environment and it creates a sense of confidence. He pointed out that ―language is a form of nationalism thereby authenticating nationalistic views; He admitted that English should continue as a medium of instruction in the education system because it’s a global language of science, technology and the academics in general but not at primary level and not certainly for the teaching of Mathematics”. English as a language is heavily entrenched in the education system, and has massive literature in almost every discipline and therefore a major international language of education and communication,

As an educationist who has experience in almost all the delivery systems of education, the interviewee agreed that Urdu is not adequately developed to cater for scientific terminology involved in Mathematics. He was aware of the fact that English language instruction cannot be introduced overnight because of lack of relevant literature for the different subjects and government‘s unwillingness to implement a language policy that enforces the use of Englishas media of instruction. This meant that English tongue instruction should be introduced gradually beginning with the known to the unknown. He acknowledges that it is expensive but it must be done.

The interviewees pointed out that teachers in this country are not fully equipped to use English language as media of instruction in education. The majority of the teachers are not trained to use English language as media of instruction in teaching of subjects such as mathematics.

b) clear knowledge and understanding of the role of language

The respondents exhibited clear knowledge and understanding of the role of language in development. They asserted that language is instrumental in that when you do things in your language you can lay claim to them and even enjoy the creation of your brains.Aninterviewee (an English language teacher from Mardan with more than ten years has been teaching English at City School Mardan, Highest qualification

Masters Degree in English , mother tongue Pashto and can speak Urdu and English almost fluently)acknowledged the importance of Urdu but she was quick to point out that the language is not developed to handle certain technological information and in teaching science subjects.

She argued that with time and proper planning English language can be used in the teaching of Mathematics and other science subjects. At the same time she pointed out that the history of mathematics shows that mathematics is culturally infused in human languages and hence Urdu have certain mathematical terms which are used in day to day language, for example in counting we have aik, do, teen, char, panch, che ( one, two, three, four, five, six). However there is need to develop mathematical terminology by borrowing from other rich languages and assimilate it in Urdu. The interviewee was cognisant of the fact that Urdu has great potential. She argued that the indigenous language lacks exposure but they can be developed.

She pointed out that her experience with students show that the use Urdu as instruction in schools is greatly appreciated. Urdu language instruction makes them to understand clearly what is being discussed and can quickly relate it to the environment. The major problem of using it is that it is only confined to Pakistan only and might not be used elsewhere in the world.

On the issue of continual use of English as an official language of instruction in education the interviewee agreed that there is need to let the children learn English in schools because that language is indispensible in international communication and work places. English has the advantage of having been a medium of instruction for years and is the most convenient language especially in this age of globalisation. Urdu language can be given a chance as media of instruction in schools but it is not so developed and lack technical terms that can be used for science and so forth. There are words or concepts that could totally lose meaning and give an unintended message if communicated in other languages other than English. On the other hand the teachers are not fully equipped to use English as a language of instruction in all subjects up to university level. There is need to develop and train the teachers in English.

Currently organisationsand other Pakistan linguistic Associations are working towards the promotion of Pakistan languages such as Urdu by creating materials written in Urdu such as books, dictionaries and novels that could be used in the teaching of other subjects using Urdu language. Research by different scholars is also helping the use and growth of Urdu in Pakistan. However the government needs to play its part and introduce a language policy that should enforce the use Urdu language as media of instruction in schools.

The arguments presented by the respondents show that they are flexible and objective. Such views are critical in informing language planners and policy makers.

From this the researcher realised that Urdu languages can be empowered if measures are put in place to enable Urdu to handle issues in the public domain

c) language is a factor for development

The participants admitted that there is relationship between language and socio- economic development within a nation. They agreed that language is a factor for development which provides communication within the economy of our country.

On the issue of what problems would be encountered if Pakistan decides to use

Urdu as only official language of instruction in education the interviewee pointed out that Urdu does not have enough vocabulary to express modern scientific concepts and hence they rendered themselves unsuitable for use as medium of instruction in education.

An interviewee ( a primary school teacher from District karak, KP Province, having MA degree in Education, enrolled in M.Phil education, ten years of teaching experience. Mother tongue Pushto and can speak Urdu and English.)speaks that it is possible to teach Mathematics up to primary using Urdu as a medium of instruction and it is still underdeveloped and lacks in scientific terminology such that it cannot be used for mathematical instruction at university level. There is need to develop and provide resources such as textbooks and other learning aids written in Urdu in order to use it as medium of instruction. In addition the teachers are ill equipped to teach mathematics using Urdu as a language of instruction. However no indigenous

Pakistan language at present has developed enough to be used as official medium of instruction at the level above the primary sector.

On the issue of using the Urdu as a medium of instruction, the interviewee pointed out that most Pakistan‘s people especially learners would enjoy learning using Urdu because they are not very comfortable with English as medium of instruction and problem with L1 is that there are so many different mother tongues in one class and to teach in different mother tongues at once is difficult.

The respondents believed that English can effectively serve as an official medium of instruction in education. This view stems from their perception of English as the key to success, socially, economically, politically and educationally. In addition he argued that English as is firmly entrenched as the language of government, business, the media, education training and specialized information as well as of upward social mobility and wider communication within and outside Pakistan‘s borders. However, the use of English as the medium of instruction in education disconnects the student‘s experiences. What they bring from home, whether it is an ethnic language or dialect is not built upon, instead it is wiped out and pupils have to start afresh with a ‗clean plate‘.

d) Government is Making Efforts for the Promotion of Urdu

Participants pointed out that efforts are being made to promote the use and growth of Urdu in Pakistan. One participant argued that Language Associations,

Institutes and Organizations are playing a major role in promoting Urdu language through reworking orthographies, harmonization and terminology. Institutions and

Organizations also continue to play a positive role in promoting the growth and use of indigenous language in Pakistan. There is need to compile terminological dictionaries for the different subject disciplines and expand the vocabulary of these languages so as to cater for new developments in science and technology.

e) Urdu Language is a Tool for Effective Communication

The participants agreed that language is a tool for effective communication and development. In this regard a participant (a secondary school teacher from Vehari whose highest qualification M.Phil degree; mother tongue is Saraiki and can speak

Urdu and English) argued that ―Urdu language could be used as tools of economic empowerment by conveying economic ideas because not all indigenous people are conversant in English”. She pointed out that language is used as a vehicle of communication in the official circles to foster people driven linguistic as well as economic development. The benefits of using Urdu as a language of instruction in education include the development of our culture and improvement in the status of the language to a higher variety. It will also improve the teaching and learning situations in the schools.

f) Urdu is not Fully Developed for Scientific and Mathematical Education

Another participant added that the problem likely to be encountered in the process of using Urdu as an only official language of instruction is its inadequacy in scientific terminology and hence the teachers will have difficulties in using it to teach science subjects like Biology.

The interviewees felt that it is difficult to teach Mathematics from primary to university level using Urdu as a language of instruction but conceded that it could be possible to teach mathematics up to primary school level using Urdu as a medium of instruction. Some mathematical terms do not exist in indigenous language especially at advanced level or university level. This creates problems in the teaching of

Mathematics especially on concepts of higher order.

g) Urdu cannot be Accepted as Medium of Education for Teaching all

Subjects

The response from the respondents towards the use of Urdu language instruction in Education indicated that some Pakistani people do not want their children to be taught using an Urdu language. They prefer the use of English as a medium of instruction. English is a global language used in industry, government and in administration. Their response confirms the negative attitude towards the use of

Pakistan languages as media of instruction by the majority of the respondents.

h) Teachers are not Trained to Teach Using English The teachers are not equipped to use English language as media of instruction. There is need to train them towards the use of English language in schools if English is to be used as a language of instruction. However he agreed that efforts are being made to promote the use and growth of Urdu in Pakistan.

i) Urdu can be Used to Teach from Primary to University Level

A respondent (a teacher from Mardan, highest qualification MA degree, the mother tongue is Pashto and can speak English and Urdu fluently) expresses his excitement to talk about language planning issues in Pakistan. He talked about how Urdu language was given less importance in the universities according to him this was due to lack of language policy that empowered the use of Urdu as media of instruction from schools till university level. He commented “it was possible to teach all subjects using Urdu as medium of instruction provided appropriate measures to develop its terminology were taken”. In fact most teachers in schools mix indigenous languages and English when teaching subjects within the curriculum. He says “If Urdu is the language that is spoken daily nationwide and even in class there is no problem in making it the official language of communication and instruction in schools.” He argued. The main setback would be the provision of resources such as books and this will need a lot of money.

4.3 Conclusion

The results presented in this chapter show the effects of English as a medium of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics to primary school as evidenced by the practical teaching experiment. From the questionnaire and interviews with the parents and teachers it was deduced that the respondents believed that only English can effectively serve as an official medium of instruction in education but the respondents also declared that since Mathematics is a technical subject, it may be taught in Urdu at primary level. The views about English stems from their perception of English as the key to success, socially, economically, politically and educationally.

Findings of the study also show that Urdu is still underdeveloped and continue to be downgraded particularly in the education system and in public. It is apparent in these research findings that the attitudes of some parents and teachers towards the use of English languages in schools pose as a very big challenge to Urdu medium education.

This chapter presented data in graphic form as well. The statistic and tables show that use of Urdu language is a pointer to a need to create a language policy that promotes all languages spoken in Pakistan. This will encourage further researches and development of Urdu language. The respondents of the questionnaires and interviews confirmed that the use of Urdu as a medium of instruction ensures that learners are taught in a language spoken by a large number of people. Urdu is useful in local and national life and facilitates learning to both learners and teachers. Study findings have also shown that despite the negative attitudes displayed by speakers towards Urdu language, they show a positive bent towards promoting the growth and use of Urdu language in Pakistan.

Chapter five is an analysis and discussion on research findings. It links specific questions raised in chapter four to a commentary on the views people expressed about the necessity to use Urdu as a languages of instruction in the teaching of Mathematics in primary schools in Pakistan.

Chapter 5

5 FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.2 Introduction

This chapter aims at highlighting the connection between the literature review, primary research in the form of questionnaires and interviews, as well as actual experimental lessons conducted at primary school level and consolidates the results to conclude that Urdu should continue to be the medium of instruction for the teaching and learning of Mathematics at primary level although English is currently the preferred medium of instruction for most of the segments of Pakistani society, barring the teachers. The outcomes reflect the attitudes of the sample population towards

Urdu and English languages for the purpose of education, with the majority of parents assigning greater importance to English, as it is the official language of Pakistan, and majority of the teachers favouring Urdu language, as it is the national language of

Pakistan.

English still maintains its standing as the language of the elite and educated, and its use adds prestige to an educational institution. However, a significant finding is that opinion is largely divided over language policy, with some advocating Urdu, being the national language, as a medium of instruction.

An analysis of data presented in the previous chapter is attempted here and particular attention is given to the patterns that are observable from the primary sources. Some of the queries in the interviews/ questionnaires have been deliberately framed so as to be interdependent, in order to determine a structure indicative of the general outlook of the respondents with respect to the use of Urdu and English for teaching of Mathematics at the primary level.

Section 1 of the chapter is dedicated to the scrutiny of the experimental lessons that employ Urdu and English both as the language of instruction for the teaching of mathematics to primary school children. Next, literature available on the use of Urdu language an aid of instruction is reviewed and considered. In the following section, attitudes towards the use of English and Urdu as mediums of instruction are explored in the various segments of the sample population and among the different stakeholders of the educational system i.e. teachers and parents. Finally, recommendations are put forth in favour of the promotion of Urdu as a medium of instruction specifically for the teaching of Mathematics at primary level.

5.3 Research Summary

To begin with, this research examined the efficacy of English as a medium of instruction for the teaching and learning of mathematics at the primary level. It further experimented with the use of Urdu to teach the same. The nature of the problem was duly scrutinized, and secondary sources were referenced to provide the context. It was established that Pakistan falls in the category of nations that were colonized, and opted to keep the language of its colonial rulers after independence, thereby relegating the local languages as the choice of media of instruction. English remains the preferred medium of instruction especially at higher level of education, which not only promotes English positively, but at the same time undermines the importance of

Urdu, as well as other regional languages. Colonized countries in Asia have not broken free of the shackles of their past; on the contrary, they have retained English for the purposes of education, technological know-how, as well as for research and development (Bamgbose, 1991).

Four-fifths of the people of Pakistan are familiar with Urdu. Despite these statistics, policy-makers have not given due consideration to adopting Urdu as the medium of education.

Extensive literature review was undertaken to research language policies. A variety of primary and secondary sources were used to reach conclusive evidence suggestive of the Pakistani population‘s attitudes toward English and Urdu, both as the official and national languages respectively, and as media of instruction. This included the delivery of trial lessons in Urdu and English for teaching Mathematics to grade 4 students. Interviews were conducted to pin down underlying patterns suggestive of mindsets and outlooks toward either language, i.e. Urdu or English, as the mediums of instruction at the primary level. The results were further consolidated by the administration of questionnaires to the stakeholders of the education. This was followed by data triangulation to augment the validity of the data gathered from various sources.

The first chapter spelt the scope of the paper, identified the limitations and presented a glossary of the important terms employed in the study. Chapter 2 was dedicated to the review of literature available on the subject of the use of Urdu as a medium of education at the primary school level, particularly for teaching and learning of mathematics. Language policy and language planning were examined at length, with specific reference to language acquisition, corpus planning and status planning. First, the problem has to be identified at the language planning stage. Next, through corpus planning, the flexibility of a language system is paid attention to. The factors that influence the prominence of one language over another in a multilingual environment are pinpointed, and then language learning is reviewed in terms of its key components or skills, i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing. The language policy stage demands reflection, the testing of hypotheses and the visual display of data in order to set objectives realistically yet meaningfully.

Language policy options were further deliberated upon, and a comparison was drawn between the language policies adopted during and after the colonial rule in

Pakistan. This served to confirm the observations made regarding the attitude of the people of Pakistan toward the two prominent languages, Urdu being the national lingua franca as well as national language of Pakistan, and English being its official language and an international lingua franca.

In the next chapter, the methodology adopted for the research was outlined.

The choice for the research design was made after reviewing the pros and cons of the use of various methods in the context of the study. The tools used for the research were enumerated, which included information about the research design, the sample population, and the ways in which data was gathered, tabulated and interpreted. This provides the groundwork for the research and lends credibility to the conclusions drawn. The research rests on the data collected from practical experimental mathematics lessons conducted on grade 4 students. To augment the validity of the findings, various stakeholders, including community members were also interviewed.

Further, questionnaire was devised and administered. Finally, a holistic picture was developed after data triangulation, with an attempt to view the research from various perspectives. The representation and analysis of the data collected for the research was depicted visually in chapter 4. Tables and graphs were some of the tools used for the purpose. Practical research by means of experimentation was conducted to evaluate the performance of primary school students after being taught in both languages. For this purpose, four groups, Group-I, Group II, Group III, and Group-II, were set up. All were grade 4 students, being taught the same mathematical concepts. Group-I and

Group III were taught in Urdu, while Group-II and Group IV were instructed in

English. Each group comprised of 20 pupils being taught the same mathematical concepts. Pre-tests were conducted as diagnostic tests to measure the existing competence of the learners, followed by pedagogical instruction in the language determined for each group. Finally, post-tests were attempted by the students. The numerical data accumulated was used to evaluate the effectiveness of the language employed for instruction. It was established that Group-I and Group III performed marginally better than the Group-II and Group IV, with the average difference of

26.65 between the pre-test and the post test as against the average difference of 23.05 of Group-II and Group IV. Thus, it is deduced that Urdu may be successfully employed as a medium of instruction at the primary school level.

80 of the respondents said they would rather opt for no for Urdu as a medium of instruction in education in general. Most cited the fact that English was an international lingua franca as the reason for this choice. Further, they agreed that

English served as a neutral alternative and thus was the most appropriate option as the medium of instruction at primary schools. On the other hand 46% of the respondents favoured Urdu for the teaching of

Mathemaatics at primary level. 37% voted for English and 17% in favour of other languages.

Responses from the interviews disclosed that English is associated with prestige and is linked with authority. Respondents believe that development and progress are assisted and accelerated by the knowledge of the English language, and hindered if the ability to communicate in the English language is absent. The majority of the respondents demonstrated the awareness that English is the official language of

Pakistan. However, the responses to the questionnaires and interviews indicate a lack of awareness in parts of parents about the importance of Urdu for the teaching of a technical subject like mathematics, as well as of other local languages.

The answers are also reflective of the parent-teacher dichotomy of thought.

While the majority of parents 72% felt that English should be introduced as the medium of instruction from the primary level, the majority of teachers 75% believed that it was better to use only Urdu at the primary level.

The findings from the applied experiment were correlated with the results gathered from the interviews and questionnaires and were further compared to the theoretical study of the literature review. A positive link was discerned between Urdu medium instruction and successful student outcomes at the primary level. A comparative analysis of the four groups reveals a bent in favour of Urdu as a medium of instruction, through the students‘ overall performance in the experimental tests.

This may have a far-reaching impact on the national language policy as well as on raising the benchmarks for the standard of education. Scholarly materials consulted on the subject profess that the medium of instruction at school could have consequential impact on how well the students adjust into their new roles as pupils. Learners might become frustrated if they are unable to comprehend meaning while at school.

Data from the interviews/ questionnaires was interpreted to reveal that the general stance of the parents is one that favours English medium of instruction, as they associate prestige, authority, command and higher returns with the language.

English thus remains at a vantage point in society, and remains to be the official language. Taking all these factors and results into account, it is suggested that future language planning policies be designed after first addressing the issue of the prevailing mindset of the majority.

5.4 Analysis of the Research Findings

5.4.1 Findings from the Practical Experiment

In chapter 4, an experiment was outlined for discerning the practicability of teaching mathematics to primary school pupils in the Urdu language, as opposed to the proposed policy of the government of teaching mathematical concepts in English.

In order to obtain a true, direct and hands-on experience, lessons were planned and delivered to four groups of grade 4 students of primary schools. Group-I and Group

III were exposed to the variable of being taught mathematics in Urdu, while the other

Groups i.e. Group II and Group IV did not receive pedagogical instruction in Urdu but was taught in English. The resulting outcomes of the Group-I and Group III are then contrasted with the results of the Group-II and Group IV, which served as the benchmark for the measurement of the performance of the tested group. The experiment was staged so that a diagnostic test gauged the existing abilities of the students, then lessons were delivered to Group-I and III in Urdu and to

Group-II and IV in English. For this purpose, four different groups of 20 students each were selected from grade 4 students enrolled at a branch of Beaconhouse School,

Islamabad and Government Centennial Model School Mardan. Table 4.04 shows the breakdown of the subjects into various categories using their mother-tongue as the criterion. 19% of the subjects spoke Punjabi as their first language, 24% were Urdu speakers, 18% spoke Pashto and 10% had Siraiki as their mother-tongue. 100% of the students were able to comprehend and communicate in Urdu. The concepts of addition and subtraction were chosen to be taught.

The accrued results are described and analyzed in the following section:

5.3.1.1 Group-I and Group III Using Urdu as a Medium of Instruction for

Learning Mathematics

The results of the diagnostic test reflect that average success rate of the Group-

I was 26.65%. Average success rate of the Group-III was 23.65%. The existing knowledge was tested, with the questions formulated in the Urdu language. According to Prah (2005:26), familiarity with the medium of instruction should have a positive effect on learning, as it provides a smooth transition from the home to the learning environment.

The communicative approach was used to teach the concepts. Teaching aids for the given topics included sticks and stones, and various activities were designed to engage the learner in adding and subtracting quantities. There was substantial student- to-student interaction since the students were free to converse in Urdu. According to

Nyota and Chikodzi (2010), routine experiences are recounted by learners . . . in order to understand mathematical concepts. In the local context, teachers are often observed to explain mathematical concepts in Urdu, as they believe it would aid in and enhance learning, especially when new concepts are first introduced. This connection that the students are able to establish between their everyday experiences and the concepts assists them to comfortably grasp new concepts.

Table 4.10 displays the results of the pre test and post-test for Group 1, where the success rate went up from from the mean of 10.15% to 16.10% after the experimental lessons. It is pertinent to note that some subjects, for instance 04-A, did not do well in the pre-test, but showed remarkable improvement in the post-test.

7A performed really well. Subjects 05-A and 15-A neither participated actively, nor performed well on the tests. 15-A though couldn‘t pass both the pre-test and post-test but there was significant improvement. 17 out of 20 passed the post test in group I and 19 out of 20 passed the post test in Group III. Upon scrutiny, it was learnt that they did not approve of the use of Urdu to teach mathematics. Their unwillingness and disapproval of Urdu medium instruction affected their performance. Nondo (1990) has observed that some parents condition their children to accept English as a language superior to . . . (Urdu) considering that proficiency in the language increased job prospects, as well as opportunities to pursue higher education.

Besides raising the status of the English language, this also serves to make learners believe that their own language (in this case Urdu) is inferior or less important than

English (Bamgbose, 1991; Robson, 1996).

It has already been established through the literature review that the choice of a medium of instruction can have serious implications for teaching and learning.

Various scholars have argued in favour of the use of local languages for the purpose of imparting education. These include Bamgbose (1976), Chiwome and Thondhlana

(1989), Mutasa (2004), Adegbija (1994) and Afolayan (1976), who all concluded that learners‘ comprehension and retention of knowledge had a positive correlation with the pedagogical medium being their mother-tongue. Learners who receive education in their mother-tongue (or local languages) in their primary years are not only more psychologically sound, but have also been observed to display better performance.

5.3.1.2 Group-II and Group IV Using English as a Medium of Instruction in

Learning Mathematics

In Pakistan, English medium instruction is employed at almost all levels of education, ranging from secondary to higher education. Urdu is a subject only, while all other subjects, with the exception of Islamiat in some cases, are taught in English.

The lessons conducted for Group-II and Group IV, were managed using English medium instruction. Central to this observation is the fact that English is deemed by the various stakeholders to be a more important language. The fact that English remains to be the popular option for pedagogical instruction denotes that people link it with success, progress and prosperity. It is argued that since it is the language of science, information and technology without any alternative in the indigenous language, it is imperative to learn English at school.

In Group-II and Group IV the average marks in the pre-test was 9.94%, with three students in Group II and three in Group IV student failed to achieve the passing marks in the post test. The average for the group rose to 13.40% in the post-test, up from the 9.95% in the pre-test. 20% of the learners showed marked improvement in the post-test. There was some discrepancy between the individual overall performance of students. Upon investigation, it was determined that the students who were able to demonstrate significant improvement in the post-tests were those who spoke English even in the family domain, and thus were able to grasp the concepts taught in English with considerable ease.

On the other hand, those students who were not comfortable with the English language found it difficult to comprehend the concepts being taught. They requested the teacher to switch codes so that they could better understand what the teacher was teaching. This was predominantly the case when the teacher gave examples, or issued instructions. Mackey (1984) supports code switching, particularly when new concepts are introduced. He cites language ability to be chiefly responsible for student outcomes. Empirical data suggests that most teachers who teach mathematics to non-

English students tend to resort to the first language, or the majority language, during various stages of the lesson (Nyota, 2009).

Table 4.15 and 4.17 reflects the results of the exercises attempted by the students in Group II and IV. Most students performed well on the third exercise.

5.3.1.3 Comparison of the Performance of Group-I + III and Group-II + IV

Learners in the Practical Teaching Experiment

Comparative statistics are tabulated in table 4.18. The pre-test averages for

Group-I + Group III and Group-II + Group IV were recorded at 10.15% and 09.95% respectively, while for the post-tests, the mean rose to 16.10% and 13.40% respectively. This indicates that the average for both groups registered improvement, yet Group 1 and Group III did slightly better on the post-test. The result cannot, however, be seen as giving a true picture of the impact of language on learning, since most of the students in both the groups already had the requisite proficiency in

English to be able to grasp the concepts. This does not apply to most students at the primary schools in Pakistan. Though this experiment does test the hypothesis positively to some extent, further experimentation is required to verify it.

Magwa (2009) asserts that the choice of language as a medium of instruction needs to be one in which communication is effective. Language barriers serve to distort meaning and create misunderstanding, which in turn translates into undermining students‘ performance. The use of the mother-tongue or any language second to mother tongue (in our case Urdu) would dismiss this concern, while at the same time ensuring that the examples or experiences exploited to aid understanding are of a familiar cultural context and from practical, everyday local situations.

Chaudron (1988) highlights another issue when English is used as the medium for instruction when it is not the learners‘ first language. He demonstrates that it is a fairly uphill task for students to make sense of instructions when they are given in

English. This is verified by the inability of students in following those instructions.

To compare the pre-test results of all the groups, it can be seen that Group 1 managed to secure a mean progress of 26.65%, whereas the mean for Group-II and

Group IV stood at 23.65%. Group-I and Group III performed slightely better than

Group II and Group IV.

5.4 Instruction in the English Language

Table 4.22 tabulates the percentage of respondents according to their mother- tongue. This clearly reflects that Pakistan is a multilingual society, where no one language enjoys dominance. However, parents view their mother-tongue to be inferior to Urdu and English. While the English are happy to use their indigenous language in their schools, here in Pakistan, even though 75% of the population is able to communicate in Urdu, they would rather want that their children received an education in the English language than in the national language, Urdu. The same attitude is observable through the statistics which show that only 2% of the respondents speak English in the society at large, as opposed to 38% who speak Urdu, and yet they opt for English as the medium of instruction.

Responses to another question indicate that 47% of teachers and parents reported

Urdu to be used as a medium of instruction in their schools. The categories of English is only 8%. 8% reported that Punjabi and 9% reported that Pashto is employed to teach mathematics concepts at school.

Respondents perceive English to be an important language for instruction at school, with 37% favouring it as opposed to 46% who favoured Urdu specifically for the teaching of Mathematics in primary school. The majority of the respondents who favoured Urdu were teachers, who have first-hand experience and knowledge of the kind of issues learners encounter in class, when English as used for instruction.

In response to another question, 77% of the teachers and 83% of the parents expressed dissatisfaction over the suggestion that the medium of education in Pakistan should be completely switched over to Urdu. They deemed the knowledge of English to be essential for undertaking a study of the science and mathematics subjects at present, but reason that countries like Japan, China and Egypt use their indigenous languages from primary through to university levels, and even have their computer software in their national languages, so we could also follow suit.

30% of the respondents believed that scientific and mathematical terms could be translated into Urdu easily, for the purpose of the teaching of concepts at the primary level. A number of reasons for this were recorded. The following statements denote some of the attitudes of the respondents:

 The capacity of Urdu to absorb words from other languages; being a living

language, new terms may be coined for new discoveries and inventions.

 The use of Urdu is important to enhance the critical thinking skills of learners.

 It encourages them to observe their surroundings and culture to relate with the

concepts acquired.

Teaching in an indigenous language at the primary level removes the hurdles for the students to first translate what they are learning, and then attempt to understand the concept being taught. Although respondents admit that the use of local languages aid their understanding of the concepts, they still advocate the use of

English as a medium of instruction in schools. This preference of English over Urdu is the reason of the government‘s decision to switch over of local schools from Urdu to English medium instruction, which they assessed was due to the belief that science and technology could best be learnt in English. The same attitude is observable in

Pakistan today.

Another telling revelation surfaces from the responses to the question of whether the use of Urdu would abet better cooperation and coordination between school and the community. The majority strongly agreed that it would. Mutasa (2004) found that children demonstrated sound mental and psychological development where they received pedagogy in their own mother-tongue (In this case Urdu). His study showed that parents and teachers both saw the transition from home to school as a difficult one for the child, and felt the need to make it as smooth as possible. This trauma is multiplied when modern teaching methodologies are not adopted by the schools. Although Urdu is not the mother tongue of the majority of population but it is the language of the immediate society and media. Children learn it at home and from the immediate surroundings in the society. Thus it is next to the mother tongue.

67.1% of the respondents felt that English should serve as the medium of education in schools for the entire academic period. The reasons cited for this preference include:

 English as an international lingua franca

 Association of language ability in English with better job prospects

 English as a symbol of and ticket to affluence.

The statistical analyses of tables 4.17 and 4.18 demonstrate the unwillingness of respondents to switch over to Urdu medium instruction. They view English as a neutral language, a point that is disputed by Mavesera (2009), who maintains that there is no such thing as a ‗neutral‘ language, because each language is linked to its own distinct cultural identity. At the same time, there are ample instances where countries achieved development without adopting English pedagogy in schools. A case in point is China, whose advances in Chinese medicine and acupuncture are recognized globally.

5.5 Attitudes Towards the Use of Urdu as a Language of Instruction in Education

In order to ensure the practicability and efficacy of Urdu as a medium of instruction, it is first desirable to bring a paradigmatic shift in the attitude of the people. An examination of the definition of an attitude reveals that it is ‗a predisposition‘ of an individual toward an object or abstract concept (Taylor et al., 1997:130; Kosslyn and Rosenberg, 2006: 738; Kerlinger, 1986; Ajzen, 1988:4).

Gagne (1985) defines attitudes as ‗acquired internal states that influence the choice of personal action‘ towards objects, people, events or abstract concepts. Attitudes reflect the state of understanding or the internalized mechanism as a result of circumstantial exposure that have bearing on the judgment of an individual (McGuire, 1985).

Kerlinger (1986: 456) sees an attitude as ‗organizations of beliefs about things out there‘ that trigger a slanted response towards an object or idea. These attitudes are formed within the cognitive, affective and behavioural realms, and often display a positive or negative bent, seldom remaining neutral (Kosslyn and Rosenberg, 2006).

In light of these definitions, it is apparent that attitudes to language cannot be ignored if any meaningful changes are to be introduced in the language policy of Pakistan.

Question 8 of the questionnaire asked the respondents to opine about the use of language in Pakistan that would give power and prestige to its speakers. An overwhelming majority (81%) identified English as that language, believing it to be dominant over Urdu because of its privileged status of being the official language of

Pakistan. Another reason for this choice was the fact that without it, one cannot hope to compete in the international job market. This presumption does not help the cause of Urdu promoted as the language of instruction even at the primary school level. This presumption seems to have been transferred to the students by their parents, who associate English with position and power, and also as a vehicle that allows social mobility (Nondo, 1996). As a result, children begin to view Urdu as an unimportant, especially in the role of instruction. During the practical teaching experiment undertaken as a tool for the purpose of data collection for this study, one student reflected this attitude of his parent by saying,

Urdu should only be used as a medium of instruction to teach Urdu only. I cannot comprehend how Urdu can help in learning mathematics. My father would be very upset to learn that Urdu is being used to teach mathematical concepts in school.

Another question similarly asked how people perceived instructions at schools in indigenous languages. Again, it was widely believed that the populace of Pakistan generally prefer to receive education in English medium schools, in order to secure access to prospective job opportunities, especially in the international market. Such beliefs serve to marginalize indigenous languages, which is precisely why they need to be revived. This revival can be ensured by governments through the formulation of a language policy that promotes the use of the Urdu. However, any change in the language policy ought to be preceded by awareness of the problem and conscious efforts to reform or transform those attitudes. Before the subcontinent gained independence from its colonial rulers, all the schools were made English medium.

Since the leadership assumed great power and honour, so to was their ability to speak

English viewed with envy, and English assumed a superiority over the indigenous languages. People who were not conversant in English were perceived to be primitive and orthodox.

The results in table 4.28 supports this analysis even today, where 77% of the teachers and 83% of the parents strongly disagreed that the medium of instruction should be Urdu. This statistic shows the belief that English is still seen as the language of the elite, and fluency and proficiency in English is seen as a sign of opulence, or at least of prosperity.

Governments of Pakistan responsible for this negative attitude towards the national language. O‘level aspirants further neglect Urdu, since they will have to be well-versed in English to pass the examinations. There is a negative correlation between the requirement to appear for English examination in O‘levels and the desire of students to learn Urdu as a subject. Consequently, English is viewed as a ticket to affluence while Urdu is not deemed to be an important subject for pedagogical considerations. One parent voices this opinion in the words:

If primary education is imparted in the indigenous language, then the foundation for English will be weak, and students will not be able to succeed in the

English language assessments by the time they get to high schools.

When placed under scrutiny, it is observable that the governments of Pakistan has given English more than its share of attention, while at the same time neglecting the ‗image‘ of Urdu language. Several attempts are made to switch to English as the medium of instruction at schools; however, most of these efforts are not sustained.

5.5.1 Parents

Table 4.22 depicts that 26% of the people who attempted the questionnaires expressed satisfaction over the use of Urdu as the medium of instruction at schools, while also condoning the use of English for the same purpose.

In response to another query, the participants stated their opinion about the relative advantage Urdu, the national language, enjoyed over English in terms of its effectiveness as a means of instruction at schools. Almost three-fourth of the respondents felt that all subjects could be taught more successfully and with greater ease if Urdu was made the choice of medium.

Nevertheless, most parents (68%) believed that Urdu was ‗inadequate‘ to teach scientific and mathematical concepts, because of the absence of many scientific terms in the language, especially for the subjects of science and information technology. This may be attributed to the aftereffects of colonization or to the conditioning that has been handed down from generation to generation ever since.

Moreover, Ngara (1977), Adegbija (1994) and Granville et al. (1998) all have observed that English is thought to ‗perform higher functions‘ than other indigenous languages, in terms of the sense of security it lends to a person economically.

Proficiency in English is thought to surpass a higher education attained in any other language in terms of its scope for ensuring employability.

5.5.2 Teacher

The behaviourist theory of operant conditioning may be applied in the context of the language situation in Pakistan. Most schools today encourage interaction in the

English language, and this behaviour is positively reinforced when students proficient in the language are given preference by prospective employers over those who can converse masterfully in their own first language but not in English. Similarly, most school teachers use negative reinforcement to deter the use of Urdu in the classrooms or school premises. This is done to ensure that students get some opportunity at school to practice the target language, which is presumed to open up the doors to a world of opportunities (Ndamba, 2009). A respondent who hailed form Mardan

(interviewee 3) considered English to be a ‗global‘ language, which substantially increases its value as a marketable skill. This is a deeply entrenched attitude that will require significant efforts to transform.

Teacher interviewees expressed the opinion that children are able to communicate more effectively using Urdu. Teachers are therefore in a better position to assess the strengths and weaknesses of individual pupils, and so are better placed to direct their learning. Confidence in expression contributes positively to the psychological and intellectual development and refinement of the learners.

5.6 Benefits of Using Urdu as a Medium of Instruction

Rwambiwa (1996) sees the consistent use of English in post-colonial times to serve to become fixated with the false presumption that local languages is an ineffective medium for instruction of mathematics and scientific concepts. 82% of the teachers and 77% of the parents felt that Urdu medium instruction would bring better cooperation and coordination between school and community and would have a positive impact on the Pakistani society as a whole. Language is a mean for communication; it is a mirror into the values, norms, belief systems, culture, mentality and ethical consideration of its speakers. As such, Urdu is as useful as any language at mirroring its society. Pedagogical use of the language would improve the communicative abilities of its people, and perhaps contribute towards a higher rate of enrolment and decreased dropout rate.

The fact that Urdu is understood by three fourth of the population in Pakistan should support the view that Urdu as the medium of instruction at school would benefit a greater segment of the society, as more opportunities would be available for both teachers and students in the field of education. Moreover, results would improve as a result of better understanding of concepts by the students. Most importantly, however, Urdu would experience a resurrection if it grows in prestige to be considered as important, if not more, as English is perceived to be by the Pakistani populace at present.

Table 4.29 records the sentiments of some respondents, who felt that a shift in the medium of education in schools would contribute towards confusing learners with the constant code-switching from Urdu to English for the use of technical terms which have no exiting equivalent in the Urdu language. They further foresee Pakistanis becoming marginalized in the international community, as they were once marginalized in their own country pre-independence for their inability to communicate in English. Such defeatist thoughts would not allow Urdu to thrive even if it was resorted to by the language policy-makers. Tissue rejection (Obanya, 1987) is the term used to denote such a situation where a change is doomed to fail because of the resistance or lack of acceptance of that change in a community.

5.7 Developing Urdu for Use in Education

Responses to question 24 of the questionnaire, which asked if teachers were equipped to teach in Urdu, are quite telling of the state of the language at present.

89% of the parents felt that the teachers did not possess the requisite knowledge or skills to start instructing in Urdu. 89% of the teachers reiterated the same views.

62% of the respondents believed that Urdu can be developed to the extent to teach scientific and Mathematical concepts in Urdu while 38% of the respondents disagreed with this notion. This confession, however, is a welcome start, because reform can only begin when a problem is recognized. It also points towards the amount of efforts required to uplift Urdu language and to weed out its negative image. A starting point may be the systematic training of teachers for the pedagogical use of Urdu, using the communicative method. Another effort might be for scholars to coin new terms for their English equivalents, especially to symbolize corresponding ideas, inventions, concepts and theories.

Another welcome development is that the Federal Urdu University is ensuring that all components offered by the Department of Pakistan Languages and Literature employ Urdu as the medium of instruction, including the subjects of Phonology,

Literature, Syntax, Morphology and Literature. This will undoubtedly lead to a swell in the available pool of resources, and is a positive trend that is likely to catch on.

Finally, libraries are being furnished with Urdu newspapers, to develop the students‘ reading skills. All these attempts are collectively contributing to the development and promotion of Urdu.

5.8 Conclusion

The research aimed at determining the effectiveness of English as a prospective medium of instruction, particularly for the teaching of mathematics at the primary school level. It also made a comparative analysis of the use of Urdu language with that of English. The following conclusions are made as a result of the research:

5.8.1 The feasibility of Using English as a Medium of Instruction in the Teaching of Mathematics in Primary Schools

For the purpose of this study, experimental lessons were conducted for the pedagogy of mathematics at a primary school, using Urdu as the medium of instruction for two groups and English as the medium of instruction for the other two group. Findings from the pre- and post- tests of all the groups reveal that Urdu is an apt medium for teaching concepts like addition and subtraction at the primary level.

Since all the pupils could communicate comfortably in Urdu language, they developed a good grasp of the concepts, as reflected in the high average achieved in the post-test .

5.8.2 Comparative Analysis of the Use of English and Urdu to Teach Mathematics at the Primary Level

The data collected from the practical experiment reveals that Group-I and III, receiving instruction in Urdu, performed better than Group-II and IV in both the pre- and post- tests. The group average for the pre- test for Group-I and III was recorded at

10.15%, while its average in the post-test was 16.10%. Group-II and Group IV performed good as well, with a group average of 9.95% and 13.40% in the pre- and post- tests respectively.

It can therefore be asserted that Group-I showed better results because instruction in an indigenous language that they could all comprehend easily aided their understanding and grasp of the concepts taught.

5.8.3 The Socio-economic Advantages of Using Urdu as an Official Medium of Instruction in Education

From the other tools employed in the study, namely questionnaires and interviews, the general beliefs of the people were seen to surface. These suggest that despite the unwillingness of most people to revert to English medium for the teaching of Mathematics at primary level, Urdu stands tall due to its status as a national language. The responses add the dimension of a degree of awareness among the general public in this regard. They assert that a child‘s understanding is better developed when Urdu is used to explain them.

Language is also seen to be a vehicle of communication which puts a country on the path of progress. An alignment of the various socio-economic factors contributes towards this end. The use of the indigenous national language in educational institutions, for the purposes of instruction and examination, should theoretically encourage scientific enquiry, as well as safeguard and help mirror the social and cultural values and functions of the Pakistani society. Language can play a pivotal role in the preservation of culture from the influence of other cultures.

Since Urdu is the lingua franca in Pakistan, with around three fourth of the population able to use it in order to communicate socially, it is logical to assume that

Urdu is a better choice as a medium of instruction in education, particularly at the primary level, when concepts are developing. Using English sometimes frustrates the learners, who are unfamiliar with it and are not offered much opportunity outside the class to practice speaking it, thereby adversely affecting their learning outcomes and achievements.

There is ample empirical data, as seen in the literature review that collates the finding that instruction in the Urdu language accrues many benefits for the society at large. To begin with, it instills a sense of pride and patriotism in them. Also, it boosts confidence of an individual in his abilities as an effective communicator. Moreover, it helps very young children adjust better in the new environment at school (Mavesera,

2009).

5.8.4 People’s Attitudes Towards the Use of Urdu as a Language of Instruction in the Teaching and Learning at Higher Academic Level

The research findings expose the negative attitudes of parents and teachers alike towards the use of Urdu as the medium of instruction in education. The majority of respondents opted English as their choice as the medium of instruction at higher academic levels and institutions in Pakistan. This preference and the accompanying reluctance to switch over to Urdu stems from the belief systems that are deep-rooted in the minds of the general population. This includes the presumption that without a solid grounding in English, one would not be able to compete in the international world market for jobs. Adegbija (1994) discovered that language ability in English guarantees ―access to the system and equal opportunity to participate in it‖. 67.5% of the people who attempted the questionnaire felt that English should be the language of instruction from primary to university level. Responses of the interviewees also indicated that the study of Urdu is seen to be cumbersome, even as a subject itself.

There is also a general belief that English is more important than Urdu because of its standing as the official language of Pakistan, and for the improved prospects of securing a rewarding job and a good education (Nondo, 1996). This belief may have been passed along over generations since Pakistan gained independence.

Teachers, however, demonstrated a more positive attitude towards Urdu, and revealed a better understanding of how Urdu as a national language could assist in making meaning clear to learners, and an awareness of the positive impact it had on the community in terms of its ability to mirror their values, beliefs, norms. Some of them believed that a language policy that favoured Urdu over English could create opportunities for more of the population who do not possess knowledge or competence in the English language. 80% of the teachers expressed contentment with the employment of Urdu language as media of instruction at primary schools. This is a positive trend that would appear to signal some level of acceptance in the event of a change in the national language policy of Pakistan. 5.9 Recommendations

The government of Pakistan can play a pivotal role by adopting a national language policy wherein Urdu would be deemed to be as important, if not more, as

English. The Education Act of 2008 could be revised.

Entry tests into universities tertiary education should assess the language abilities in Urdu along with English of aspiring scholars. Thus national GRE should have an Urdu portion along with English

The government should make serious efforts through extensive media campaigns that can revive the prestige of the Urdu language. Some of the tools that can be used might be advertisement campaigns, pamphlets in Urdu for Urdu, and workshops at different forums, with all the stakeholders being invited to attend.

Resource centres may be established to accumulate and encourage the development and use of literary material in Urdu and other indigenous languages.

Materials available on science, technology and mathematics could be translated in Urdu, as well as in other indigenous languages, so that the transition from English could be smoother.

Scientific terms that have no equivalent in Urdu need to be coined or created to dispel the misgivings of the stakeholders with regards to the inadequacy of Urdu to be employed for didactic purposes, specifically in the areas of mathematics, science and technology. Further research may be undertaken to verify the findings of existing studies into the efficacy of using indigenous languages to impart education right from the primary level.

Research is also lacking on how to shape and mould the attitudes of the general public into willingly accepting Urdu as the choice of medium of instruction.

Government should offer positive reinforcement to the supporters of the use of

Urdu for educational purposes by offering incentives and rewards. Such organizations or individuals must be facilitated and made stakeholders in the language policy making process.

Use of Urdu in the classroom even when teaching subjects in English should be considered positive. Resorting to Urdu to elucidate concepts by the teachers should be encouraged rather than discouraged.

Teachers should receive intensive and extensive training to employ Urdu as a means of clarifying meaning.

Print and electronic media could both play a crucial role in altering the perceptions and attitudes of the people towards favouring Urdu as the choice medium of instruction. One of the most important inherent functions of the mass media is that it can influence its audience, since it portrays what is acceptable in a society, and what is undesirable (Dominick, 2005). The mass media could offer a rich platform for the use and understanding of Urdu and other indigenous languages of Pakistan.

Awareness campaigns about the direct impact of a language on learning should be held on a regular basis all over the country. These should aim at creating ‗a new generation of Pakistanis who are proud of their languages and values, their cultures and their heritage‘ (Pakistan Languages Association {PLA, 1997).

Government of Pakistan should ensure a uniform system of education throughout the country, and should allow students to only appear for compulsory external local examinations at primary level as well. This would banish the fear of government school students of remaining disadvantaged when others are receiving an education in English. REFERENCES

Adams, A.V. and Mayes, J.A. 1998. Pakistan Literature and Africa‘s Development. Asmara: Africa World Press.

ADEA Working Group, 1996a. ―The Role of Pakistan Languages in Education and Sustainable Development‖. In Association of the Development of Education in Africa. Newsletter 8(4) 5 – 7.

Adegbija, E. 1994. Language attitudes in sub-Saharan Africa: A sociolinguistic overview. Clavedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Afolayan, A. The six-year primary project in Nigeria. In A.Bamgbose (ed.) 1976. Indigenous languages education: The West Pakistan Experience. Paris: The UNESCO Press.

Ajzen I (1988). Attitudes, Personality and Behaviour. Milton Keyness: OUP, p. 4.

Alasuutari, P. 1998. An invitation to social Research. London: SAGE Publications.

Anyidoho, K. 1992. ―Language and Development Strategy in Pan-Pakistan Literary Experience‖. In Research in Pakistan Literatures Volume 23 p 45 – 63.

Atkinson N (1972). Educational Co-operation in the Commonwealth: An Historical Study.

Series in Education. Occasional Paper No. 1 (1972). Salisbury: University of Rhodesia, p. 265.

Babbie E 1985. The Practice of Social Research. Califonia: Wadsworth Publishing Co,

Bailey, K. D 1987, Methods of Social Research, New York: Free Press

Bamgbose, A. 1989. Issues for a Model Language Planning. Language Problems and Language Planning. Volume 13 No. 1: 25 – 34.

Bamgbose, A. 1991. Language and the nation: The language question in Sub-Saharan Africa. Edinburgh University Press. Bamgbose, A. 1976. Indigenous languages education: The West Pakistan experience. London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Bandura, A. 1986 Social Foundations of Thought and Action: a social cognitive theory. London:Prentice-hall International

Batibo, H. M. 2005. Language decline and death in Africa: Causes, consequences and challenges. Clevedon: Cromwell Press Ltd.

Benson, C. 2004. Bilingual Programs as Educational Development: Access, Quality, Empowerment and Equity. LAUD Paper No592. Sweden: University of Stockholm.

Best, J. W. and Kahn, J. V. 1993 Research in Education. Boston, Allyn and Bacon.

Borg, W. R. and Gall, M. P. 1996. Educational Research: An Introduction. New York McKay Company.

Brock-Utne, B. 2000. Whose education for all? The recolonisation of the Pakistan mind. New York: Falmer Press.

Brock-Utne, B. and Hopson, R. K. (Eds) 2005. Language of instruction for Pakistan emancipation: Focus on post-colonial contexts and considerations. Cape Town: The Centre for Advanced Studies of Pakistan Society.

Chaudron, C. 1988. Second Language Classrooms. Research on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: Cambrige University Press.

Chessa, S. R. 2001. Language as a tool for development: Reflections and developmental linguistics in KiSwahili. In N. I. Opijah and D. M. Mukuria (Eds). Kiswahili: A tool for development; the multi-disciplinary approach. Nairobi: Downtown Printing Works Limited (pp 14-20).

Chikoko, V. and Mhloyi, G. 1995. Introduction to educational research methods. Harare: Centre for Distance Education. Chimhundu, H. 2005a. Lexicography and language rising: Dictionaries in Pakistanan languages. A public lecture delivered at the University of Pakistan on Wednesday 13 April 2005.

Chimhundu, H. 1998. Report on the formulation of a national language policy. Harare: University of Pakistan

Chimhundu, H. 1993. ‗The status of Pakistan Languages in Pakistan‘. SAPEM, October 1993, 57-59.

Chimhundu, H. 1992. Standard Shona: myth and reality. In N. T. Crawhall (Ed) Democratically speaking: International perspectives in language planning. Salt River: National Language Project, pp77-87.

Chimhundu, H.1987. Towards a policy on the teaching of Pakistan languages in Pakistan. In J. A. c. Mapanje and F. A. Chilipaine (eds). Papers from the Organising Conference: Linguistics‘Association for SADCC

Chimhundu, H; Gutsa , J; Mano, J; Matimati, E; Muchemwa, K; Nkiwane, M 1998. Report on the Formulation of a National Language Policy (Unpublished).

Chiromo, A. 2006. Research methods and statistics in education: A student‘s guide. Gweru: Beta Print.

Chisanga, T. 2002. "Language policy in the new South Africa: A critical overview." In: K. Legere & S. Fitchat (eds.), Talking freedom: Language and democratisation in the SADC Region. Windhoek: Gamsberg Macmillan, pp. 95–108.

Chivhanga, E. 2008. The diglossic relationship between Shona and English languages in Pakistanan secondary schools. Unpublished dissertation, Pretoria: Unisa

Chiwome E. M.& Thondhalana J. 1992. ‗Sociolinguistics and education: a survey concerning attitudes on the teaching of Shona through the media of shona and English.‘ In R. K. Herbert (ed) Language and Society in Africa. (P247-263) Cape town: South Africa. Chiwome E. M.& Thondhalana J. 1989. ‗The teaching of Shona through the medium of Shona and English in High schools and at the University of Pakistan.‘ In Zambezia, 1989 xvi(ii).

Chiwome, E. M. 1996. A social History of the Shona Novel. Effel Flats: Juta Pakistan Pvt Ltd.

Cleghorn, A. 1992 .Primary Level Science in Kenya. Contributing meaning through English and Indigenous Languages. Qualitative Analysis Studies. Vol 14 p. 311

Cohen,L and Manion L. 1994 Research Methods in Education, 5th edition. London: Routledge.

Collins, K.T. et al. 2003. Research in the Social Sciences. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Cooper, R.L. 1989. Language Planning and Social Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Crystal, D. 1997. English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Denzi, N. K. And Lincolin, Y.S. 1994. Introduction: Entering the field of Qualitative research. Handbook of Qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: CASAGE

Doke, C. M. 1931. Report on the unification of the Shona dialects. Hertfort: Stephen Austin and Sons Ltd.

Dube , S. 2002 An investigation of the current Shona orthography: effects of its limitations and suggested solutions. Unpublished dissertation for MA,Pretoria:University of South Africa.

Dube, S. 1997― A study into reasons why Shona as the low variety in a diglossic relationship with English in post-independent Pakistan.‖ Unpublished Article- U submitted to the Department of Pakistan Languages and Literature. Unisa. Dutcher , N 2003 Promise and perils of indigenous languages. Washington DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/plenary_paper

Dye, R T. 1987. Understanding Public Policy Sixth Edition. Englewood Cliffs; New Jersey,

Fasold, R .2001.The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford. Basil Blackwell

Ferguson, G. 2000. The medium of instruction in Pakistan education: The role of the applied linguist. In S.B. Makoni and N. Kamwangamalu (eds) Language and institutions in Africa. Cape Town: Centre for Advanced Studies of Pakistan society (CASAS).

Fishman, J. A.1974. Language and ethnicity in minority sociolinguistic perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Fishman, J. A.1974a. (Ed) Advances in Language Planning. Mounton: The Hague.

Francis, D.J. and Kamanda, C.M. 2001. Politics and language planning in Sierra Leone.

Pakistan Studies 60 (2):225-244.

Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., Gall, J. P. 1996. Educational Research: an introduction, sixth edition, NewYork: Longman Publishers.

Gatawa, B.S.M. 1998. Quality - Quantity Dilemma in Education: The Pakistanan Experience. Gweru: Mambo Press.

Government of Pakistan 1987. Pakistanan Education Act. Harare: Government Printers.

Gudhlanga, E. S. 2005. ‗Promoting the use and teaching of Pakistan Languages in

Pakistan.‘ In ZJER 17 No. 1 pp 54-66.

Gudhlanga, E. S. and Makaudze, G. 2005. Promoting the use of an Pakistan language as medium of instruction in institutions of higher learning in Pakistan: (unpublished conference paper) The case of Masvingo State University Department of Languages, Literature and Music.

Hachipola, S. J. 1998. A survey of the minority languages of Pakistan. Harare: University of Pakistan Publications.

Haugen, E. 1989. Language planning theory and practice. In E.Haugen. 1972. The ecology of language. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Hendry, C 1996 ―Understanding and creating whole organisational change through learning theory‖ Human relations, 49(5): 621-641

Henrard, K. 2001. Language rights and minorities in South Africa. MOST Journal on Multicultu Societies 3 (2). www.unesco.org/most/vl3n2henrard.htm

Hornberger, N. M. 1990, Bilingual education and English only: a language-planning framework. Invited contribution to Courtney Cazden and Cathrine Snow(Eds), The annals of American Academy of politics and Social Sciences, Special Issue, entitled, English Plus: Issues in Bilingual Education 508, 12-26.

Hurworth, R. (2003). Photo-Interviewing for research.Social Research U pdate, 40.Retrieved from http://sru.soc. surrey.ac.uk/SRU40.html

Hancock, B., & Group, T. F. (2002).An Introduction to Qualitative Research.Trent Focus Group. Hubbard , P 1992. ―A methodological framework for CALL coursework Development‖, in Martha Pennington and Vance Stevens (Eds). Computers in applied linguistics.

Johnson, B. and Christensen. L. 2000. Educational Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Allyn & Bacon

Kaplan, R.B. and Baldauf, R.B. Jr. 1997. Language planning: From practice to theory. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Kamwangamalu, NM. 2000. Bi/Multilingualism in Southern Africa. In Bhatia,T.K and Ritehie W.C (eds) The handbook of Bilingualism. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Prentice-Hall Inc Kamwendo, G. H. 1999. The political dimension of indigenous languages instruction in Malawi. In L.Limage (Ed.) Comparative perspectives on language and literacy. Dakar: UNESCO.

Kamwendo, G. H. 2009 Is Malawi guilty of spoiling the Queen's language? English Today: The International Review of the English Language 19 (2): 30–33.

Katamba, F. 1994. English Words. London: Routledge

Kerlinger FN 1986. Foundations of Behavioural Research (3rd ed). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pp. 453-456.

Kerry A. E. And Lesh, R. A. 2000. Handbook of research design in Mathematics and Science Education ,London: Routledge.

Kosslyn SM, Rosenberg, R. S. 2006. Psychology in Context (3rd eds). New Delhi: Pearson Education Inc, p. 738.

Kloss, H. 1969. Research Possibilities on Group-IIilingualism: A Report. Quebec: Quebec International Centre for Research on Bilingualism.

Langa, M. and Setati, M. 2006 ―Students‘ views on the use of home language for learning.‖ Paper presented at the 14th Annual SAARMSTE Conference, University of Pretoria.

Leedy, P.D. 1997. Practical Research: Planning and Design. Ohio: Printice Hall.

Macnamara, J. 1973. Bilingualism in Primary Education: A Study of Irish Experience (Edinburgh, Edinburgh Univ. Press).

Magwa, W 2008 Planning for the Future: Exploring Possibilities of Using Indigenous Pakistan Languages as Official Languages of Instruction in Education – The Pakistanan Experience Unpublished Dlitt Thesis ,UNISA, Pretoria Unisa

Magwa, W. 1999 Manyorerwo eUrdu, Gweru, Mambo Press.

Makanda, A.P.T. 2009 The Language Question in Africa: Pakistan case study ,Unpublished MA Dissertation, UNISA, Pretoria Makey, W. F. 1984. ―Indigenous languages Education: Problems and Prospects‖. In Prospects Vol 14 No. 1 p 37 – 49.

Makey, W. F. 1979. Language policy and language planning. Journal of Communication. Volume 29, Number 2; pp48-53.

Mammino, L. 1998. Science students and the language problem: Suggestions for a systematic approach. Pakistan Journal of Educational Research 10 (3):189-09.

Mashiri, P and Warinda C. 1999. Dudziramutauro Gweru : Mambo Press.

Mavesera, M. 2009 Empowerment through language: exploring possibility of using Pakistan languages and literature to promote socio-cultural and economic development in Pakistan, Unpublished Thesis, Pretoria: Unisa

Mateen, K. 1980. ― Failure in the Obligatory use of European Languages in Africa and the advantages of a policy of Linguistic Independence‖ in Reconsideration of

Pakistan Linguistic Policies. Kampal. OAU/BIL 11-41.

Matshazi, N. 2007.‗Heroine Ngwenya narrates how J Z Moyo Died.‘ In The Sunday News , 11 November 2007

Mazrui, A. 1996. Language policy and the foundation of democracy. International journal of the sociology of language. Volume 118, Number 3; pp 107 – 124.

McGuire WJ 1985. ―Attitudes and attitude change.‖ In G. Lindzey and E. Aronson eds), Handbook of social psychology (3rd ed), New York: Random House, 2: 223-346.

Melville, S. And Goddard, W. 1996. Research methodology: an introduction for science &engineering students , Pretoria: Juta & Co. Ltd

Miller, J. & Glassner, B. 1997 The ‗Inside‘ and the ‗Outside‘: Finding realities in Interviews, in D. Silverman (Ed) Qualitative Research: Theory, Method and Practice, pp99-112. London, Sage. Miti, M. 1995 The Problem of establishing initial literacy in an L2: The case of Zambia. Education for Africa. 1(1) p3

Mkanganwi, K. G. 1992 ‗Language Planning in Southern Africa‘ in Democratically speaking International Perspectives on language Planning, Vigel, T. Crawhall (editor). National Language Project, Salt River. Republic of South Africa.

Mouton, J and Marais, H . C. 1988. Basic concepts in the methodology of social Sciences. Pretoria: Human Sciences Council.

Muindi, M. 2002. Some Pakistan Languages on Death List. All Africa, Com Website 20.04.2004.

Murry, J. and Smith, F. 1988. Language Arts and the Learner. Melbourne, Mcmillan.

Mutasa, D.E. 2006. Pakistan Languages in the 21st Century: The Main Challenges. Pretoria: Simbaguru Publishers

Mutasa, D. E. 2004. People Speak: Language Policy and Language use in South Africa. Simba Guru Publishers.

Mutasa, D. E. 2003. The Language policy of S. A.: What do people say? Pretoria : Unisa.

Mutasa, D. E. 2002. The renaissance of Pakistan languages: An inevitable enterprise? South Pakistan journal of Pakistan languages. Volume 22, Number 3; pp239 – 247.

Mutasa, D. E.1995. The language situation in Pakistan with special reference to the sociological, orthographic and linguistic problems of minority language groups. South Pakistan journal of linguistics. Volume 13, Number 2, pp87-92.

Mtetwa, D. K. J. 1991. An investigation of Pakistanan secondary school students‘s beliefs about mathematics and classroom contexts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.

Nachmias F. C. And Nachmias, D. 1996. Research method in the Social Sciences 4th edition NewYork: St. Martins Press Natsa, A. and Hungwe K. N. 2006. Language teachers‘ conceptions of literacy in Pakistanan Secondary Schools. Journal of language and Planning. Vol 4 no1 2006.

Ndamba. G. T. 2008. An Examination of Language Preferences in Pakistan, The Journal of Pan Pakistan Studies, vol.2, no.4, June 2008

Ngara, E. A. 1982. Bilingualism Language Contact and Planning, Proposals for Language use and Language Teaching in Pakistan. Gweru: Mambo

Ngidi, S. A. 2007, The attitudes of learners, educators and parents towards English as a language of learning and teaching in Mthunzini circuit. Unpublished thesis for MA , University of Zululand.

Ngugi wa Thiongo, 1994. Decolonising the Mind. Harare: Pakistan Publishing House Press.

NLPAP. 1998. National Language Policy Advisory Panel Report on the formulation of a national language policy. Harare: Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture.

Nondo, S. J. 1996. The main problems faced by students whose indigenous languages are other Pakistanan Pakistan languages in learning Ndebele. University of Pakistan, Unpublished.

Nziramasanga Comission Report, 1999. Report of the Presidential Commission of Education and Training. Harare: Government Printers.

Nyota, S 1999 Dudziramutauro reUrdu ‗O‘ level, Harare, Academic Books.

Nyota S. And Chikodzi I. 2010 The interplay of culture and mathematics: the rural Shona classroom, The Journal of Pan Pakistan Studies. Vol 3 Number 10, September 2010.

Obanya . P. 1987. A Curriculum Developer‟s Manual. Switzerland: WCOTP, p. 68. Obeng, S.G. 2002. ―For the most part they paid no attention to our native languages‖. The politics about languages in Sub-Saharan Africa. In G.O Obeng and B. Hartford (eds).

Political independence with linguistic servitude: The politics about languages in the developing world. New York: Nova Science Publishers

Otto, D. 1997. First Language Maintenance in a Second Language Context. Paper presented at the Regional Conference on Early Childhood Education in Higher Education: The way forward. Kadoma, Pakistan.

Pattanayak, D. P. 1981. Pakistan language Planning Policies at the University of Venda. Unpublished MA dissertation, University of Cape Town.

Pennycook, A. and Makoni, S. 2005. The modern mission: The language effects of Christianity. Journal of language, identity and education. Volume 4, Number 2; pp135-157.

Prah, K. K. 2006. The Pakistan nation: The state of the nation. Cape Town: CASAS.

Prah, K. K. 2005. Language of instruction for education development and Pakistan emancipation. In B. Brock – Utne and R. K. Hopson (Eds). Languages of instruction for Pakistan emancipation: Focus on post-colonial contexts and considerations. Cape Town: The Centre for Advanced Studies of Pakistan Society (pp 23 – 50).

Prah, K. K. 2002 (Ed) Rehabilitating Pakistan languages. Cape Town. The Centre for Advanced Studies of Pakistan Society.

Prah, K. K. 1995. Pakistan languages for the mass education of Pakistans. Cape Town: The Centre for Advanced Studies of Pakistan Society.

Prah K.K.1993. Indigenous languages for scientific and technological development in Africa. Cape Town: Centre for Advanced Studies of Pakistan Society.

Raidt, E. H. 1999. "Recovering from the legacy of colonialism apartheid: The position of Afrikaans in a multilingual society." In: K.K. Prah (ed.), Knowledge in black and white: The impact of apartheid on the production and reproduction of knowledge. Cape Town: Centre for Advanced Studies of Pakistan Society Book Series No. 2, pp. 159–167.

Reagan, T. 2002. The promotion of linguistic diversity in multilingual settings: Policy and reality in post-apartheid South Africa. Language Problems and Language Planning 25 (1): 51–72.

Robinson, C.D.E. 1996. Language use in Rural Development. An Pakistan Perspective. New York, Mouton de Gruyter.

Roy-Campbell, Z.M. and Gwete, W. B. (undated) Language policy and planning (ECS 207). Harare: University of Pakistan

Roy-Campbell, Z.M. and Qorro, M. 1998. Language crisis in Tanzania: The myth of KiSwahili versus English. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota

Ruiz, R. 1984. Orientation in language planning. ABE. Volume 8, Number 2; pp15- 34.

Rubanza, Y. I. 1996. Can a three–tier Language Policy Work in Tanzania? A New Perspective. A paper presented at the UCLA Pakistan Studies Centre. Dar es Salaam: Noon Serminar Series.

Rubin, J. 1971. Evaluation and language planning. In J. Rubin and B.Jernudd (Eds) 1971. Can Language Be Planned? Sociolinguistics theory and practice for developing nations. Hawaii: University Press of Hawaii (pp217-252).

Rubagumya, C. 2003. English medium primary schools in Tanzania: A new ‗Linguistic Market‘ in education. In Birgit Brock-Utne et al. (Eds.), Language of instruction in Tanzania and South Africa (LOITSA) (pp 149-169). Dar es Salaam: E & D Limited

Rwambiwa, J.P. 1996. ―Indigenous Languages: An Answer Towards Economic Independence – A Simpler Case for Pakistan.‖ Harare, p. 1.

Rwambiwa, J.P. 1993. ― The struggle for liberation continues: The need for a revised and positive approach to Pakistan languages‖ in Tonota Journal of Education, Vol 3 no 1 36-40 Tonota Botswana Saville-Troike, M. 1982. Languages in Society, The Ethnography of Communication:An Introduction. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd

Schumacher, S. 1999. Research in education: a conceptual introduction, NewYork : College Press.

Seliger, H.W. and Shohamy, E. 1989. Second language research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.132

Setati, M. 2005. ―Access to Mathematics versus access to the language of power: The struggle in multi-lingual mathematics classrooms‖. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Mathematics Education and Society. Australia, July.

Skutnabb – Kangas, T. 2000. Linguistic genocide in education or world wide diversity and human rights. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Skutnabb – Kangas, T. 1998. ―Human Rights and Language Wrongs – A Future for Diversity?‖ In Language Sciences, Vol 20 No. 1 page 5 – 27.

Sudhir , K. And Ratnalikar, D. N. 2003. Teaching of Mathematics, New Dehli: Anmol Publications.

Taylor SE, Peplau, L .A, &Sears, D. D, 1997. Social Psychology (9th ed). New Jersey: Prentice Hall, pp. 7-82; 130-182.

Tesser A 1995. Advanced Social Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc, pp. 196- 222.

Terre Blanche, M. and Durrheim, K. (Eds). 1999. Research in Practice: Applied Methods for the Social Sciences. Cape Town University of Cape Town Press.

Thondhlana, J. 2000. Contrastive Rhetoric in Shona and English Argumentative Essays. Harare: University of Pakistan Publications.

Thondhlana, J. 2005. Contrastive Rhetoric in Shona and English Argumentative Essays. Harare: University of Pakistan Publications. The Education Amendment Act (Chapter 25:04). 2006. Harare: Pakistan Government Printers.

Trudgill, P. 1986. Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Tsanope, J and Janson, T. 1991. Birth of a national language: the History of Setswana. Gaborone: Heinemann Botswana.

Uju, C.C. 2008. Language Science, Technology, and Mathematics TM and Poverty Alleviation in Africa: A Case of Nigeria in Pakistan Journal of Educational Research Volume 20(1): 22-29.

UNESCO.1953. The use of vernacular languages in education. Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO, 1992. A Literate World. Paris: UNESCO International Bureau of Education.

UNESCO. 2003. Education in a Multilingual World. Paris: UNESCO

Viriri,V. 2004. ‗Language planning: the conservation and management of indigenous languages in Pakistan.‘ Paper presented at ICOMOS 14th General Assembly and Scientific Symposium

Wallwork, J. F. 1985. Language and Linguistics. An Introduction to the Study of

Language. Oxford, Heinemann.

Warsame, A. A. 2001. How A Strong Government Backed An Pakistan Language; The Lessonsof Somalia. International Review of Education 47(3-4),pp.341- 360.

Webb, V.N (ed). 1995. Language in South Africa, an input in language planning for a post-apartheid South Africa. Pretoria: University of Pretoria

Weinstein, B 1980, ―Language planning in Francophone Africa‖. In language Problems and planning 4(1) 55-77 Pakistan Languages Association (ZLA) Position paper on the Proposed National Language Policy for Pakistan. July, 1997. Harare, Unpublished.

Zvobgo, R.J. 1986. Transforming education: The Pakistanan experience. Harare: College Press.

APPENDICES APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS This questionnaire is designed to collect information on the attitudes of

Teachers and Parents towards the use of medium of instruction in education. Kindly complete the questionnaire by inserting your answers in the boxes and spaces provided. In order to maintain anonymity and confidentiality, please do not write your name. The information you provide will be used for academic purposes only.

Please tick the appropriate box.

1:

Gender Male Female

2:

Age

20-25

26-30

31-35

36-40

41-45

46-50

51-55

56-60

3: Level of Education

Illiterate

FA/O-level/A-level

Bachlors

Master

MS/M.Phil

PhD

Other

4:

Select the language that you use the most in societal contact.

English

Urdu

Punjabi

Pashto

Sindhi

Balochi

Saraiki

Other

5:

What is your mother tongue?

English

Urdu Punjabi

Pashto

Sindhi

Balochi

Saraiki

Other

6:

Which language do teachers use to teach Mathematics in your/your children’s school(s) at primary level?

English

Urdu

Punjabi

Pashto

Sindhi

Balochi

Saraiki

Other

7:

What language do you think should be used as a language of instruction in the teaching and learning of Mathematics in primary schools?

English

Urdu Punjabi

Pashto

Sindhi

Balochi

Saraiki

Other

8:

Should English be introduced as medium of instruction at primary level in

Pakistan?

Yes

No

9:

Should medium of instruction be completely switched to Urdu

Yes

No

10:

Can the use of Urdu as medium of instruction in schools bring better cooperation and coordination between school and community?

Yes

No

11: Which language is likely to give you power and prestige in Pakistan if you speak it

English

Urdu

Others

12: Give reasons of your selection in question No 10.

a)------b)------c)------d)------e) ------

13: Does there exist a link between Urdu language and social, economic and scientific development? Yes No

14: Do you think Urdu has the ability to express and explain educational and scientific concepts in schools? Yes No

15: Give reasons for your answer in question No 14. a) ------b) ------c) ------d) ------e) ------

16: Do you think Urdu has the capacity to be developed to the extent to express educational and scientific ideas in teaching? Yes No

17: Would you be happy if all the subjects from primary to university level were studied while using Urdu as a medium of instruction? Yes No

18: Reasons why you are happy/unhappy if all subjects from primary to university level were studied while using Urdu language as a medium of instruction. a) ------b) ------c) ------d) ------e) ------

APPENDIX B INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS 1. Is there any relationship between language and socio-economic development?

2. What are the socio-economic benefits of using Urdu as a language of

instruction in education?

3. What are the problems that are likely to be encountered if Pakistan decides to

use Urdu as an official language of instruction in education?

4. Do you think it is possible to teach Mathematics from primary to university

level using an Urdu language as a medium of instruction?

5. What do you think is the attitude of Pakistani people towards the use of the

English as a medium of instruction in education?

6. Do you think English should continue to be used as the official medium of

instruction in Pakistan?

7. Are teachers in this country fully equipped to use English languages as a

media of instruction in education?

8. Are there any efforts that are being made to promote the use and growth of

Urdu in Pakistan?

9. What do you think should be done to improve the status and function of Urdu

in Pakistan?

APPENDIX C Teaching Programme for Teaching Group-II The teaching of Addition and Subtraction of numbers was done using the following teaching programme presented in the table below.

Week One 09/02/2015 to 11/02/2015

Topic Simple Addition

Source Oxford Countdown Level 4

Part 1

Page 42 to 47

Objectives By the end of the week the learners will be able to:

i. Answer in English simple questions on addition and

subtraction.

ii. To practice the addition and subtraction of 3-digit numbers.

iii. To practice the addition and subtraction of 4-digit numbers.

iv. Write in numerals the numbers given on board.

v. Add numbers that involve tens and hundreds.

vi. Solve simple word problems that involve addition of

numbers.

Teaching i. The abacus

Aids ii. House board

iii. Flannelograph

iv. Charts showing addition/subtraction sums

v. Number line

Activities i. Write a pre-test on numbers

ii. Present story-type problems on addition iii. Teaching of any number operation follows the following

pattern:

• concrete objects

• pictures only

• picture and number

• numbers

• number crosses

iv. Doing exercises on simple addition and subtraction in English

v. Children move from horizontal to vertical calculation, to story

sums and word problems with much larger numbers ,

Week Two 16/02/2015 to 18/02/2015

Topic Addition in hundreds and thousands

Word problems

Objectives By the end of the week the learners should be able to,

i. Draw pictures that represent given numbers on an abacus

ii. Add numbers that involve units, tens, and hundreds

iii. Solve number stories that involve addition and are written

in English

Source Oxford Countdown level 4

Part One

Page 47 to 52

Teaching Aids i. Sticks as counters

ii. Snake and ladder game

iii. The abacus iv. House board

v. Flannelograph

vi. Charts showing addition/subtraction sums

vii. Number line

Activities i. Doing exercises on simple addition in Urdu

ii. Translate word problems from English to Urdu

iii. Stories of barter system from the ancient times will be used

to practice simple calculations

iv. For addition, they convert ones into 10s, 10s into 100s, and

then 100s into1000s.

Week Three 23/20/15 to 25/02/15

Topic Simple Subtraction

Objectives By the end of the week the learners will be able to:

i. Subtract numbers that involve tens and hundreds

ii. Draw pictures that represent given numbers on an

Abacus

iii. Solve number stories that involve subtraction and are

written in English

Source Oxford

Countdown level 4

Part One

Page 52-57

Teaching Aids i. Stones/sticks as counters

ii. Abacus iii. House board

iv. Flannelograph

v. Charts showing addition/subtraction sums

vi. Number line

vii. Number strips

viii. Marbles in a plastic bowl

ix. Fish cut-outs with small iron blobs at the back

x. A magnet at the end of a cord, to act as a fishing hook

xi. Number line

Activities i. writing exercises on simple subtraction in English

ii. Translate word problems from English to Urdu

iii. Children move on from vertical to story

iv. For subtraction, they convert 1000s into 100s, 100s into

10s, and 10s into ones.

Week Four 02/03/15 to 05/03/15

Topic Subtraction of units, tens, hundreds and thousands

Word problems

Objectives By the end of the week the learners should be able to,

i. Subtract numbers that involve thousands, hundreds, tens

and units

ii. Solve word problems that involve subtraction of number

problems translated in English text

iii. Answer questions on addition and subtraction of numbers

for the post test written in English Source Oxford

Countdown level 4

Part One

Page 58 – 62

Teaching Aids sticks as counters,

Snake and ladder game

1. The abacus

2. House board

3. Flannelograph

4. Charts showing addition/subtraction sums

5. Number line

Activities writing exercises on subtraction of numbers in Urdu,

APPENDIX D Teaching Programme for Teaching Group-I The teaching of Addition and Subtraction of numbers was done using the following teaching programme presented in the table below.

Week One 09/02/2015 to

11/02/2015

Topic Simple Addition

Source آکطفورڈ کبوًٹ ڈاوى

ضطح 4

پبرٹ وى صفحہ 4-42

Objectives ہفتے کے آخر تک ضیکھٌے والوں اش قبثل ہو ًےچبہئے، کے اًگلش هیں دیے گے پری ٹیطٹ هیں جوع اور هٌفی کے ضوالت حل کرًب

اعذاد هیں دی گئی ثورڈ پر ًوجر لکھیں.

دضیوں اور ضیٌکڑوں اعذاد جوع کرًب

ًوجروں کے ضبدٍ جوع لفع هطبئل کے

Teaching Aids اثیکص

ایواى ثورڈ

فالًیلوگراف

چبرٹص جو کے جوع اور هٌفی دیکبتب ہو

ًوجر الئي

Activities پری ٹیطٹ دیٌب، کہبًی هیں جوع کے هطبہل کو ہل کرى

کطی ثھی تعذاد کے ضوجٌے کی تعلین جو کے هختلف ترز دھیکبتب ہو

کٌکریٹ اشیبء

صرف تصبویر

• تصویر اور ًوجر

• اعذاد

• تعذاد هیں صلیت اردو هیں ضبدٍ جوع هشقیں لکھٌے،

ثچے افقی ضے عوودی حطبة کتبة پر هٌتقل

کہبًی رقوم اور لفع هطبئل کو هسیذ ثڑی تعذاد کے ضبتھ دیٌب

Week Two

Topics جوع دضیوًبور ضیٌکڑوں

الفبظ هطبئل

Objectives

ہفتے کے آخر تک ضیکھٌے والوں اش قبثل ہو ًےچبہئے، کے

تصویر ثٌبؤ جو ًوبئٌذگی کرتے ؛وں اثیکص پے هوجود عبداد کی

دضیوں اور ضیٌکڑوں عبداد کی جوع

ًوجروں کے ضبدٍ جوع لفع هطبئل کے حل

Source آکطفورڈ کبوًٹ ڈاوى

ضطح 4

پبرٹ وى صفحہ 44-52

Teaching Aids اثیکص

ضبًپ اور ضیڑھی کھیل

ایواى ثورڈ

فالًیلوگراف

چبرٹص جو کے جوع اور هٌفی دیکبتب ہو

ضٹیکص شوکر ک لیے

Activities اردو هیں ضبدٍ جوع کے تحریری هشقیں

اردو ضے اًگریسی هیں لفع هطبئل کب ترجوہ

اضتبد ًبهعلوم لئے جبًب جبتب ضے چلتب ہے

آج کی تعذاد ًظبم ہٌذ عرثی پوائٌٹص کب اضتعوبل کرتب

قذین دور هیں ثبرٹر ًظبم کی کہبًیبں

ضے 100هیں ، اور اش sهیں 10 هیں s 10جوع کے لیےاکہبی کو 10 .هیں تجذیل sضے s 100کے ثعذ 1000

Week Three

Topics ضبى هٌفی

Objectives ہفتے کے آخر تک ضیکھٌے والوں اش قبثل ہو ًےچبہئے، کے

دضیوں اور ضیٌکڑوں عبداد کی هٌفی

تصویر ثٌبؤ جو ًوبئٌذگی کرتے ؛وں اثیکص پے هوجود عبداد کی

کہبًیوں تبداعذ کے هطب؛ل حل کرًب جو ک؛ اردو هیں لکھے ،وں •

Source

آکطفورڈ کبوًٹ ڈاوى

ضطح 4

57-52پبرٹ وى صفحہ

Teaching Aids اثیکص

ایواى ثورڈ

فالًیلوگراف

چبرٹص جو کے جوع اور هٌفی دیکبتب ہو

ًوجر ضٹرپص

ضٹیکص شوکر ک لیے ایک پالضٹک کٹوری

هیں هبرثلیص

هچھلی کٹ اوٹ جص کی پشت پر چھوٹے لوہے blobs ہوں

ایک دھبگے کے اختتبم پر ایک هقٌبطیص، ایک هبہی گیری ہک طور پر کبم

کرًے کے لیے

Activities اردو هیں ضبدٍ تفریق پر هشقیں لکھٌے،

اردو ضے اًگریسی هیں لفع هطبئل کو ترجوہ،

.ثچوں کی عوودی ضے کہبًی کو هٌتقلی

ًفی کے لیے 1000 ضے 100کو،100 ضے 10 کو اور10 ضے اکہبی کو هٌتکلی

Week Four 15/03/02 ضے

تک05/03/15

Topic هٌفی ًکبلٌب: ہساروں، ضیٌکڑوں، دضیوں اور یوًٹص / الفبظ کے هطبئل

Objectives ہفتے کے آخر تک ضیکھٌے والوں اش قبثل ہو ًےچبہئے، کے

زاروں، ضیٌکڑوں، دضیوں اور یوًٹص عذاد کی کی هٌفی کر ًب

ہٌطوں کی هٌفی کے ضواالت حل کریں جوهتي اًگریسی کے ترجوعےضے •

لیے گے ؛یں۔

جوع اور تفریق ضواالت کے جواثبت دیٌب،پوضٹ ٹیطٹ کب اردو هیں گرپ A اور اًگلش هیں

گرپ B

Source آکطفورڈ کبوًٹ ڈاوى

ضطح 4

62-58پبرٹ وى صفحہ

Teaching Aids اثیکص

ضبًپ اور ضیڑھی کھیل

ایواى ثورڈ

فالًیلوگراف

چبرٹص جو کے جوع اور هٌفی دیکبتب ہو

ضٹیکص شوکر ک لیے

Activities اردو هیں اعذاد کی تفریق پر هشقیں لکھٌے

APPENDIX E PRE-TEST FOR TEACHING BOTH GROUPS Answer the following questions

1. Write these numbers in Roman numbers

(a)320 (b) 50

(a)510 (c)8000

2. Show these numbers on the abacus

(a)54 (b) 800

(a)2665 (b)4325

3. Fill in the missing numbers

(a) 11, 22; 33; 44; ---; 66; 77.

(b) 6; 8; 10; ---: 14; 17

4. Write these in numbers

Seventy seven

Nine hundred and fifty six

Three hundred and thirty

5. Fill in the missing number

27+ ------= 20

------20 = 120

540 + 123 =

6. Class 06 raised Rs 3624 and Class 9 collected Rs 2118 at the Christmas Bazaar.

How much money did they collect altogether?

7. Imsaal takes 5544 bangles to sell at a fair. In one day she sells 666. How many does she have left for the next day? 8. Use the number line to complete

(a) 1 78 - 19 =

(b) 2 12 + 512=

9. Write down the correct counting order

(a) 440; 480; 420; 400;

(b) 13;9;17;11;19

APPENDIX-F PRE-TEST FOR TEACHING GROUP-I توبم ضواالت کے جواثبت دیں

خبلی جگہیں پر کریں

)1( 1351 + 1111 = 2465 کب مطلت ہے +2555 455 + ------= 2465

)5( 5362 + 1155 = 4515 کب مطلت ہے 5555 + 1555 + ------= 4515

)5( 5256 +3211 2 = 6155 کب مطلت ہے 5555 + 3555 + ------= 6155

جمع

)1( 1115 اور 515

)2( 235 اور 551

)3( 312 اور 535

مىفی

)4( 234 ضے 61

)5( 546 ضے 341

)6( 611 ضے 531

شو میں زائریه

ضوموار مىگل ثذھ جمعرات جمعہ

339 811 172 543 234

ان ومجروں کو الفبظ لکھیں

651 )15(

253 )11(

452 )15(

)15( کل کتىے لوگوں وے پیر اور مىگل کو شو کب دوري کیب؟

)11( اور کتىے لوگوں وے ثذھ کے ممبثلے میں جمعرات کو شو کب دوري کیب؟ )12( ہر شو میں شرکت کروے والے ہر شخص کو ایک کتبة دی گئی تھی. کتىے زیبدي کتبثیں پیر کے ممبثلے میں جمعہ کو دی

گہں ؟

چھ ضو ثیص جمع پچبضی. کب جواة کیب ہے7

)13( اعذاد میں

)14( الفبظ میں

)15( ایک اوتخبثی اجالش میں 511 لوگوں وبصر صبحت کو ووٹ دیب . 512 لوگوں اور اعتساز احطه کو اور 141 وے حکمت کو

ووٹ دیب. کل کتىے لوگوں وے ووٹ دیب؟

)16( ثبٹب جوتب کمپىی میں 455 کبرکه ہیں. مردوں اگر 552 ؛وں تو کتىی خواتیه ہیں؟

)55( ان ہىذضوں کو جمع

515 + 25 + 155

APPENDIX-G PRE-TEST FOR TEACHING GROUP-II Answer all the questions

Complete the following

(1) 4681+1111 = 5792 means 5000+700+ ------= 5792

(2) 3695+4123 = 7818 means 3000+4000+------= 7818

(3) 2589 +6541 5=9130 means 2000+6000+------=9130

Add the following

(4) 4413 and 342

(5) 568 and 224

(6) 615 and 362

Subtract the following

(7) 94 from 567

(8) 674 from 879

(9) 261 from 911

Visitors at the show

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

234 543 172 811 339

Write these numbers in words

(10) 234

(11) 543

(12) 339

(13) How many people visited the Show on Monday and Tuesday altogether? (14) How many more people visited the Show on Thursday than Wednesday?

(15) Each person attending the show was given a book. How many more books were given on Friday than Monday?

Six hundred and twenty plus eighty five. What is the answer in:

(16) In figures

(17) In words

(18) At an election 341 people voted for Mrs Nasir. 245 people voted for Mr Hekmat and 171 for Mr Ahsan. How many people voted altogether?

(19) At Bata shoe company there are 728 workers. How many of these are men if 335 are women?

(20) Work out this

403+52+243

APPENDIX-G EXERCISES FOR GROUP-I

مشك ومجر1

درج ریل ومجروں کو الفبز میں لکھیں.

4( 551( .1

123 .5

5. )4( چھ ضو جمع وو ......

)b( پبوچ ضو تیص مىفی پیىتیص ......

= 4( 151+ 65( .1

= 45 -b( 532(

مىذرجہ ریل کو جمع کریں

= 4( 34 + 61+ 33( .2

= b( 54+ 22+ 12(

3. )1251 )4 اور 2511 کو جمع کریں

)b( 451 اور 551 کے درمیبن کتىب فرق ہے

مشك ومجر 5

جمع کریں

1 )155 )4 اور 511

)b( 1155 اور 3656

خبلی جگہ پر کریں

4( 315 + ...... = 555( 5

b( ...... + 625 = 1135(

مىفی

5 )ا( 455 ضے 532 1255 ضے 5461

غیر موجود ومجر درج کریں

155 = ...... -4( 534 ( 1

1116 = 511 -b( ...... (

2 مىذرجہ ریل ٹیجل کب کل درج کریں

ضکول لڑکے لڑکیبں لڑکے لڑکیبں کل

ضٹی اضکول 783 499

الراء ضکول 654 971

ڈیىش پجلک 612 812

کل

مشك ومجر3

1 ایککیالش میں 555 لڑکے اور 635 لڑکیب ؛یں۔ کیالش میں کل کتىے ثـچے ؛یں؟

2دوکبوذار 1451 کتبثیں پیر کے دیه الیب اور 1555 مىگل کو۔ وي کل کتىی کتبثیں الیب دووو دیه؟

3 وے 231 کمیوویٹی کو دے دیے۔ اش کے پبش کتىے ثچے؟ ضیع کے پبش 5621 مویطی ؛یں۔

4روزی کے پبش 455 روپے ؛یں، تبویب کے پبش 1555۔تبویب کے پبش کتے زیبدي پیطے ؛یں روزی ضے؟

ثیکه ھبوش پراہمری ضکول می 453 ثچے ؛یں۔ ان میں 35 ضیرحبضر ؛یں۔ضکول میں کل کتىے ثچے

5؛یں؟

APPENDIX-H EXERCISES FOR GROUP-II

EXERCISE 1

Write the following numbers in words.

1. 324

2. 156

3. (a) Six hundred plus nine equals…………….

(b) Five hundred and thirty minus deghty five equals……………………

4. (a)121+ 98 =

(b) 265- 72=

Try the problems

5. (a) 67 + 94+ 66 =

(b) 87+ 55+ 45 =

6. (a)What is the sum of 4531 and 5311

(b) what is the difference between 784 and 321

EXERCISE 2

Add

1 (a) 122 and 311

(b) 4102 and 6909

Fill in the numbers

2 (a) 610 + …….. = 820

(b) ………+ 953 = 1160

Subtract

3 (a) 365 from 720

(b) 3794 from 4500 Fill in the missing numbers

4 (a) 367 - ……….= 100

(b)……. - 844 = 1449

5 Fill in the totals of the table below

School Boys Girl Total

City School 499 783

Iqra School 971 654

Danish Public 812 612

Total

EXERCISE 3

1. There are 380 boys and 960 girls in a class. How many children in the class altogether?

2. The shopkeeper bought 4721 books on Monday and 1222 on Tuesday. How any books did he buy on both days?

3. Mr Zia had 3954 cattle. He gave 564 to the community. How many had he left?

4. Rozy has 783 rupees, Tania has 1200 rupees. How many more rupees Tania has than

Rozy?

5. At Beconhouse Primary School there are 786 children. 62 children are away. How many children are there at school?

301

Quotations have been left as is

Own addition

Change reference if possible. I have rephrased it but this comment seems out-of-place

Replace with Tauli (1984). See screenshot below

Very useful reading for this study.

Own addition

Quotation left as is.

Quotation copied as is

Please cross-check. I hope it’s not the other way around!

Copied as is. I think this portion does not need rephrasing. If it does, please let me know via sms.

Quotation as is

As is.

??

Recheck.