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Architecture and Urban Planning Author(S): Dolores Hayden and Gwendolyn Wright Source: Signs, Vol Architecture and Urban Planning Author(s): Dolores Hayden and Gwendolyn Wright Source: Signs, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Summer, 1976), pp. 923-933 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173242 Accessed: 19-10-2016 15:20 UTC REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173242?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://about.jstor.org/terms The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Signs This content downloaded from 150.199.117.76 on Wed, 19 Oct 2016 15:20:21 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms REVIEW ESSAY Architecture and Urban Planning Dolores Hayden and Gwendolyn Wright Architecture has been traditionally a gentleman's profession, and ar- chitects have perceived women not as professionals but as passive clients, be they appreciative or intractable. As one smug architectural educator wrote about "The Architectress" in 1951: "I have included all that an architect needs to know about that uncertain, coy, and useful branch of the human race. ... Architects do not like to employ women in their offices; contractors do not like to build from their plans; people with money to spend do not like to entrust its expenditure to a woman."' Urban planning and landscape architecture have shared this bias against active women practitioners and outspoken women clients. Even today we hear talk about the "man-made environment," and "man-environment relations" from members of these three design professions. Women as designers and as users of environments have been the focus of more work by feminist historians and sociologists than by architects, planners, or environmental historians. We would like to thank Ann Vitiello for her valuable assistance in preparing this essay. 1. Richard Hudnut, "The Architectress,"Journal of the American Institute of Architects 15 (March-April 1951): 111-16, 181-88. For discussions of the Prairie School's attitudes to- ward women as clients see H. Allen Brooks, Frank Lloyd Wright and His Midwest Contem- poraries (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1972), pp. 336-40, and Leonard K. Eaton, Two Chicago Architects and Their Clients: Frank Lloyd Wright and Howard Van Doren Shaw, with an appendix by Elizabeth M. Douvan (Boston: M.I.T. Press, 1969), esp. pp. 232-34. [Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 1976, vol. 1, no. 4] ? 1976 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 923 This content downloaded from 150.199.117.76 on Wed, 19 Oct 2016 15:20:21 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 924 Hayden and Wright Review: Architecture and Planning This essay will describe current areas of research concerning women in architecture and the physical aspects of urban planning and will suggest areas in which additional research is needed.2 It will provide a selective discussion of significant recent work rather than attempt a comprehensive bibliography. The first section deals with women's par- ticipation in the design professions; the second with the impact of en- vironmental design on women's lives and work. Design by Women Although only a tiny minority of architects have been women, there are many individuals whose lives and work merit study by feminist his- torians. At present, we know of only one book that treats this subject: Doris Cole's From Tipi to Skyscraper: A History of Women in Architecture. An illustrated, journalistic survey of the work of many women pioneers in this field, the book encompasses Indian builders, writers on domestic economy, self-trained women, and professionals.3 Cole, a practicing ar- chitect, identifies domestic design as the field where women have made their greatest contributions, and she argues that the profession should give greater attention to this field of endeavor. Gwendolyn Wright con- siders women's marginal participation as an aspect of the hierarchical structuring of the architectural profession in her essay, "On the Fringe of the Profession: Women in American Architecture." She analyzes the ways that the design professions historically have maneuvered women into marginal roles, attributing to them personality types to suit this marginality-the exceptional woman, the anonymous architect, and the architectural adjunct (consultant, programmer, critic). She compares these limited roles to collective building efforts by women outside the profession.4 Two studies now in progress promise to give fuller explana- tions of the profession's willingness or unwillingness to absorb the first two generations of university-trained professional women architects in the United States: Susan Berkon deals with the training and practice of women in the Brown Decades (1865-95); Judith Paine is engaged in an oral history project recording the lives and work of several dozen retired women architects, many of them now in their eighties and nineties.5 2. In this essay we are concerned chiefly with architecture and physical planning. We are not extending this essay to include the full range of sociological, economic, and political issues a multidisciplinary planning review might cover. 3. Doris Cole, From Tipi to Skyscraper: A History of Women in Architecture (Boston: I Press, 1973). Cole is now working on a book about the Cambridge School, an all-female architecture school. 4. Gwendolyn Wright, "On the Fringe of the Profession: Women in American Ar- chitecture," in The Architect: Historical Essays on the Profession, ed. Spiro Kostof (New York: Oxford University Press, in press). 5. Susan Fondiler Berkon, "The Professional Woman Architect in the 'Brown This content downloaded from 150.199.117.76 on Wed, 19 Oct 2016 15:20:21 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Signs Summer 1976 925 These general historical studies are supplemented by articles and exhibitions about the work of individual women architects, planners, and landscape architects: Catharine Beecher, Louise Bethune, Sophia Hayden, Lois Lilley Howe, Eileen Gray, Catherine Bauer, Julia Morgan, Elizabeth Coit, Eleanor Raymond, and others.6 As with women artists, the work of many women architects has been credited to their male colleagues-husbands, fathers, brothers, partners, employers-so there are serious problems of attribution to be resolved. Important work of reclamation needs to be done on European as well as American design- ers. Why don't we know more about the woman who was Brunelleschi's chief rival in the competition for the design of the Duomo in Florence?7 Was Christopher Wren's daughter also a distinguished designer?8 How much did Margaret McDonald contribute to the work of her husband, Charles Rennie Mackintosh? Some of their drawings are signed with both sets of initials.9 What part of Marion Mahony's work has been credited to her employer, Frank Lloyd Wright, and to her husband, Walter Burley Griffin?10 What was Aino Aalto's involvement in the work of Alvar Aalto?" The American Institute of Architects organized one show in 1974 of the work of women members. A more comprehensive exhibition, or- Decades'" (paper presented at conference on sexual politics and design, M.I.T. Depart- ment of Architecture, January 1975); Judith Paine, "Living Pioneers: Recording the Life and Work of Women Architects" (project description and paper presented at conference on sexual politics and design, M.I.T. Department of Architecture, January 1975). 6. Dolores Hayden, "Catharine Beecher and the Politics of Housework," in Women in Architecture and Design: A Historical and Contemporary Perspective, ed. Susana Torre (New York: George Braziller, in press); Kathryn Kish Sklar, Catharine Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1973). Madeleine Stern, "Three American Women Firsts in Architecture" (Harriet Irwin, Louise Bethune, Sophia Hayden), in Stern, We the Women: Career Firsts of Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Shulte Publishing Co., 1963); Elizabeth Reinhardt, "The Partnership of Three Women Architects: Lois Lilley Howe, Eleanora Manning, and Mary Almy" (paper presented at conference on sexual politics and design, M.I.T. Department of Architecture, January 1975); exhibition of the work of Eileen Gray, the Women's Building, Los Angeles, Calif., spring 1975; Mary Sue Cole, "Catherine Bauer and Public Housing in Government, 1926-1936" (Ph.D. diss., George Washington University, 1975); for material on Morgan, Coit, and Raymond, see Torre. 7. A woman of the Gaddi family, according to Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (London, 1907; reprint ed., New York: Modern Library, 1959), 1:446. 8. "Female Architects," Builder 19 (April 13, 1861): 254. 9. Charles Michal first brought this to our attention. Robert Macleod, Charles Rennie Mackintosh (Felthan, England: Country Life Books, 1968), p. 119, quotes the architect on his wife's abilities: "Margaret has genius; I have only talent." Macleod attributes this state- ment to "the myopia of love"! 10. See Berkon (n. 5 above). Susana Torre has designed an architectural monument to Mahony and Griffin together for a site in Canberra, Australia. 11. Doris Cole raised this question for us. This content downloaded from 150.199.117.76 on Wed, 19 Oct 2016 15:20:21 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 926 Hayden and Wright Review: Architecture and Planning ganized by the Archive of Women in Architecture to take place at the Brooklyn Museum in the fall of 1976, will include the work of historic and contemporary American women designers.
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