North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF) 2019

Nederlandse Archeologische Rapporten 063 North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF) 2019

Retuning the research and management agenda for prehistoric landscapes and archaeology in the Dutch sector of the continental shelf

J.H.M. Peeters, L.W.S.W. Amkreutz, K.M. Cohen and M.P. Hijma | Tot 150 pagina's omvang lijnt de titel op 20 mm lijn

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North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF) 2019

Retuning the research and management agenda for prehistoric landscapes and archaeology in the Dutch sector of the continental shelf

J.H.M. Peeters, L.W.S.W. Amkreutz, K.M. Cohen and M.P. Hijma Colofon Nederlandse Archeologische Rapporten nr. 63

North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF) 2019 Retuning the research and management agenda for prehistoric landscapes and archaeology in the Dutch sector of the continental shelf

Authors: J.H.M. Peeters, L.W.S.W. Amkreutz, K.M. Cohen and M.P. Hijma Cover image: Sampling the subsurface of the North Sea: coring campaign from research vessel Pelagia (photo courtesy of Freek Busschers (TNO)) Copy editor: S. Needs-Howarth Reviewers: J.W.M. Roebroeks (Leiden University), D.E.A. Schiltmans (Archeologie Roterdam), E. Rensink (Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands), B.P. Speleers (Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands), B.I. Smit (Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands) Authorisation manuscript: D.E.A. Schiltmans (Archeologie Roterdam), B.I. Smit (Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands) Layout and production: Xerox OBT, The Hague

ISBN/EAN: 978-90-5799-315-2

Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands P.O. Box 1600 3800 BP Amersfoort www.cultureelerfgoed.nl 3 Contents —

Inhoud

Preface 5 4 The development of management tools 35 4.1 Introduction 35 Summary 7 4.2 Priority: collaboration with industry and private collectors 35 Samenvating 9 4.3 Priority: data sharing 41 4.4 Priority: the spatial defnition of research 1 Introduction 11 potential and threats 42 4.5 Priority: mitigation, conservation, and designation 48 2 NSPRMF 2009: themes, topics, and priorities 13 4.6 Public outreach 49 2.1 Introduction 13 4.7 Conclusions 53 2.2 Summary of the four sections 13 2.3 NSPRMF 2009: context 14 5 Towards a new agenda: opportunities, 2.4 NSPRMF 2009: resource assessment 14 dilemmas, and choices 55 2.5 NSPRMF 2009: research agenda, strategies, 5.1 Introduction 55 and priorities 17 5.2 From potential to new good data points 55 2.6 NSPRMF 2009: management agenda, strategies, 5.3 Strategies and techniques 56 and priorities 18 5.4 Collaboration in research 59 5.5 Management and industry 60 3 Research and knowledge gain 19 5.6 Public outreach 61 3.1 Introduction 19 5.7 Recommendations 62 3.2 Priority: an improved understanding of palaeogeography and chronology 19 Bibliography 65 3.3 Priority: the collection of good data points 26 3.4 Priority: the development of prospection techniques 31 Appendices 75 3.5 Conclusions 34

5 Preface —

An important and sometimes overlooked To this end, the Cultural Heritage Agency of element of the maritime cultural heritage of the the Netherlands commissioned one of the southern North Sea are the submerged original authors to update the framework. With prehistoric landscapes and prehistoric remains the results and experiences of the past ten years which are embedded in the present seabed. now integrated, the framework has been Parts of this cultural heritage may be afected by revitalized. In general, the topics and challenges numerous activities which will occur in the mentioned in the initial report remain relevant coming years in the southern North Sea. and important. This report looks back at the Activities such as sand and gravel extraction, the achievements of the past decade and concludes construction of windfarms, a search for oil and that while good work has been done, there is gas felds and the maintenance of shipping still much more to be done to ensure sufcient routes will all have an impact on this heritage. care of this submerged heritage. It is clear that A new national maritime programme several projects have been successful, but also (Programma Maritiem Erfgoed Nederland), initiated by that in the present and future more atention the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and must be given to this aspect of heritage Science and implemented by the Cultural Heritage management. Furthermore, it is obvious that Agency of the Netherlands aims to safeguard and regulations, practices and work-fows, which are investigate this valuable maritime cultural embedded in practices and experiences in heritage. The submerged prehistoric heritage heritage management onshore, are not easily is one of the elements in this programme. copied or applicable ofshore. Although ten In this respect, the goal is to create a network of years have passed, this report provides actors comprised of governmental and non- suggestions on how to move forward in this governmental organizations, the aggregate respect. industry, research institutions, maritime heritage The Cultural Heritage Agency of the companies, other maritime stakeholders and the Netherlands is not able to resolve all of the general public to access, develop and preserve the issues and address all of the recommendations unique value of this maritime cultural heritage. mentioned in this report. However, there some Fortunately, we do not have to start from recommendations which the Cultural Heritage scratch, as about ten years ago a research and Agency of the Netherlands has identifed as the management framework was devised. This place to start: North Sea Prehistory Research and Management • Stimulating palaeoenvironmental analyses as Framework (NSPRMF) was published in 2009 an integral part of palaeolandscape mapping and aimed to provide an agenda for the research and enlarging our dataset as input for and heritage management of submerged contextual models; archaeological sites and relict landscapes in the • Supporting the registration and Dutch-Belgian and British parts of the southern contextualizing of ex situ (stray) fnds; North Sea. Now, a decade later, new input can be • Facilitating reuse and reprocessing of existing added to this framework, based on renewed and new (geophysical) data; atention being paid to this part of our cultural • Facilitating methodological experimentation heritage. • Maintaining a national portal with up-to- date maps and information, and delivering this information to international portals 6 —

The focus on the above-mentioned Sea assume their responsibilities with respect to recommendations is a start but cannot be the submerged cultural heritage. realized overnight. Heritage management is a It is essential to recognize that the way task for society as a whole and collaborations heritage management is realized in each project remain the key. Therefore, collaborations will be unique. However, these project-specifc between heritage management agencies, solutions should be inspired and directed by governmental and non-governmental general guidelines. The North Sea Prehistory organizations, the aggregate industry, Research and Management Framework 2019 windfarm developers, the scientifc community, provides a sound basis for these guidelines. archaeological companies, museums, private parties and others are imperative. Within the new national maritime programme, the Cultural Heritage Agency of the Bjørn Smit & Barbara Speleers Netherlands will take responsibility for bringing the management of our maritime cultural Project leader & Programme manager heritage to the next level. At the same time, this Programma Maritien Erfgoed Nederland framework is also intended to ensure other parties involved in developments in the North Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands 7 Summary —

The North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Various studies have provided insight into Framework (NSPRMF) 2009 set out to provide an sea-level fuctuation and changing agenda for the research and heritage palaeogeography, factors that are of direct management of submerged archaeological sites archaeological relevance for our understanding and relict landscapes in the Dutch-Belgian and of prehistoric human–environment British parts of the southern North Sea. The interrelationships and socio-cultural processes. framework frst and foremost focussed on: As yet, the collection of good data points (1) maximisation of archaeological information appears to lag behind. Signifcant results have arising from ofshore developments (spatial, been obtained with respect to underwater economic); (2) stimulation of the study of investigation of sites (Roterdam-Yangtzehaven), archaeologically relevant materials and deposits the geological contextualisation of fnds with to broaden the knowledge base for limited context information (Middeldiep, archaeological and management purposes; Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2), as well as systematic (3) stimulation of public understanding and inventorying and scientifc analysis (AMS 14C awareness of the past, and fostering of a shared dating, stable isotope analysis) of stray or sense of responsibility among developers, chance fnds. The number of new good data decision makers, and scientists; (4) development points collected over the past decade is, of a frm basis for heritage management however, limited. judgement, consultancy, and decision-making, To increase the number of good observations notably an internationally recognised and (data points), prospection techniques need to be scientifcally accepted set of resource further developed. The staged approach assessments and research agenda. (geoarchaeological assessment, archaeological In view of the vast body of work that has been sampling, excavation) implemented at carried out since the production of the NSPRMF Roterdam-Yangtzehaven was successful, and 2009 and the ongoing developments in and showed what can be achieved under particular around the Dutch sector of the continental shelf, circumstances and within a particular project and in order to set a fresh baseline for context. However, in view of the variability in management purposes for the coming years, the archaeological manifestations of prehistoric cultural heritage agency of the Netherlands has behaviour known from the North Sea, as well as requested a synthesis and evaluation of the variable character and impacts of economic published material and other spin-ofs in the developments on the seabed, other prospection context of the initial aims of this framework. The techniques (including destructive ones) need to present report provides the outcome of this be considered and developed. analysis. It is structured into three parts: a look back at the NSPRMF 2009 (chapter 2), an With respect to the NSPRMF 2009 management evaluation of the current state of afairs in agenda, a range of initiatives has been taken. relation to the priorities set in the NSPRMF 2009 Some initiatives have permited steps forward, (chapters 3 and 4), and a look forward to whereas others have made it clear that much opportunities, dilemmas, and choices, in order to remains to be done in order to frmly anchor retune or redefne priorities and present possible archaeological interests concerning submerged strategies applicable to the Dutch sector of the prehistoric archaeology and landscapes in North Sea for the coming years (chapter 5). heritage management policies – and in order to develop regulations as well as strategies. Over the past 10 years, a lot of research has been Collaboration with industry and private conducted, in various forms, that is of relevance collectors has been variably successful. In the to the research priorities of the NSPRMF 2009. context of the Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 harbour The extent to which these priorities are met is extension, eforts have led to a strategy that was variable. benefcial for both the scientifc community and Eforts have been geared towards gaining a the economic stakeholders, which involved beter understanding of geological factors fnding solutions for research opportunities afecting the taphonomic histories of submerged within a highly complex project. Within the same prehistoric landscapes, as well as those of seting, activities focussed on public outreach archaeological and palaeontological fnds. spurred collaboration among the developer, 8 —

scientists, and private collectors. This triggered conservation, and designation. The sparseness further initiatives aimed at structural of good data points makes it difcult, if not collaboration between scientists and private impossible, to explicitly make clear which collectors and the recording of fnds. The case archaeological interests are at stake. As a study of the Area 240 Palaeolithic hand-axes, as consequence, geoarchaeological assessments of well as that of the Middeldiep Neanderthal skull individual project areas lead to generic fragment, however, show that collaboration designations of zones of potential archaeological with industry can easily become disrupted due interest, without any follow-up to test the to conficting interests. validity of the believed potential. The systematic recording of fnds made by This leads to a paradoxical situation. Many private as well as professional collectors forms exiting fnds continue to be made, and these an important basis for data sharing. The atract a lot of media atention; they are the SPLASHCOS-viewer, which provides basic hard evidence of human presence in a landscape information about the location and nature of that has become sea. Public outreach activities archaeological and palaeontological fnds, forms have been very successful. But whereas such a platform that permits further data sharing. fnds spark the imagination of a broad audience, Importantly, the SPLASHCOS-viewer database they have not (yet) led to the establishment of a has been integrated into the EMODnet gateway, management approach that demands serious thereby making prehistoric cultural heritage a research to move from assessing potential to relevant aspect of the marine environment that model testing and observation. is made available to a wide array of stakeholders. There is no pressing need to defne a new set of Increasing data availability is highly relevant themes and topics, and priorities have not yet and desirable for the assessment of research been met to such an extent that no further potential and threats. Initiatives have been atention is needed. At the same time, major taken to model potential for the presence of steps have been taken with regard to some prehistoric archaeological remains in the Dutch issues, notably data sharing, collaboration with sector of the continental shelf. These models are private collectors, and public outreach. These coarse-grained due to the relatively low density steps are important, and the related eforts of geological data on which they are primarily should be maintained. In the fnal section, we based, and a high degree of expert knowledge is present some recommendations, which are needed to understand and interpret model meant to serve as guides for further discussion outcomes. Risk assessments are constrained by and for targeting actions in the near future. the coarseness of the models, which do not These recommendations are grouped under permit researchers to evaluate research three headings: contents (the subject of potential and threats at the scale of individual investigation), process (strategies, methods, spatial developments. This limitation hinders techniques), and stakeholders (regulations, risk pro-active approaches to mitigation, assessment, communication). 9 Samenvating —

Het North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Inspanningen waren in belangrijke mate gericht Framework (NSPRMF) 2009 was gericht op het op het vergroten van het begrip betrefende beschikbaar krijgen van een agenda voor onder- geologische factoren die van invloed zijn op de zoek en erfgoedbeheer ten aanzien van tafonomische geschiedenis van verdronken verdronken prehistorische vindplaatsen en land- prehistorische landschappen, evenals die van schapsresten in de Nederlands-Belgische en archeologische en paleontologische vondsten. Britse delen van de zuidelijke Noordzee. Het Diverse studies hebben inzicht gegeven in kader was op de eerste plaats en vooral gericht zeespiegelfuctuatie en paleogeografsche op: (1) maximalisatie van archeologische infor- veranderingen, factoren die direct relevant zijn matie voortkomend uit ofshore ontwikkelingen voor ons begrip van prehistorische relaties (ruimtelijk, economisch); (2) stimulering van het tussen mens en omgeving en socio-culturele onderzoek van archeologisch relevante materi- processen. alen en afzetingen om de stand van kennis te Vooralsnog loopt het verzamelen van goede verbreden ten behoeve van archeologische en datapunten achter. Belangrijke resultaten zijn beheers doelstellingen; (3) stimulering van het verkregen met betrekking tot het onderzoeken publieke begrip en het bewustzijn ten aanzien van sites onderwater (Roterdam-Yangtze- van het verleden, en het voeden van een gedeeld haven), de geologische contextualisering van verantwoordelijkheidsgevoel onder ontwikke- vondsten met beperkte contextinformatie laars, beslissers en wetenschappers; (4) ontwik- (Middeldiep, Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2), evenals keling van een stevig fundament voor erfgoed- de systematische inventarisatie en wetenschap- beheer ten behoeve van afwegingskaders, pelijke analyse (AMS 14C-datering, stabiele advisering en besluitvorming, gestoeld op een isotopenanalyse) van ‘losse’ vondsten. Het internationaal erkende en geaccepteerde waar- aantal nieuwe goede datapunten dat in de afge- dering van bronnen en een onderzoeksagenda. lopen 10 jaar is verzameld, is echter beperkt. Met het oog op de enorme hoeveelheid werk dat Om het aantal goede observaties (datapunten) is uitgevoerd sinds de productie van het NSPRMF te laten toenemen is verdere ontwikkeling van 2009 en de doorgaande ontwikkelingen in en prospectietechnieken nodig. De getrapte bena- rond de Nederlandse sector van het continentaal dering (geoarcheologische waardering, archeo- plat, en om een hernieuwde basis ten behoeve logische bemonstering, opgraving) te Roter- van het erfgoedbeheer te bewerkstelligen, heef dam-Yangtzehaven is met succes toegepast en de Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed laat zien wat bereikt kan worden onder speci- gevraagd om een synthese en evaluatie van feke omstandigheden binnen een bepaalde gepubliceerd materiaal en andere spin-of in de projectcontext. Echter, met het oog op de varia- context van de oorspronkelijke doelstellingen van biliteit in archeologische verschijningsvormen het kader. Het onderhavige rapport presenteert van prehistorisch menselijk gedrag zoals die uit de resultaten van deze analyse en is gestructu- de Noordzee bekend zijn, evenals het variabele reerd in drie delen: een terugblik op het NSPRMF karakter en de variabele invloed van economi- 2009 (hoofdstuk 2), een evaluatie van de actuele sche activiteiten op de zeebodem, zullen andere stand van zaken in relatie tot de in het NSPRMF prospectiemethoden (inclusief destructieve) 2009 gestelde prioriteiten (hoofdstukken 3 en 4), overwogen en ontwikkeld moeten worden. en een vooruitblik op kansen, dilemma’s en keuzes als basis voor de hernieuwde afstemming Voor wat betref de NSPRMF 2009 managemen- of herdefnitie van prioriteiten, evenals een tagenda is een reeks initiatieven genomen. presentatie van in het Nederlandse deel van de Sommige initiatieven hebben het mogelijk Noordzee toepasbare strategieën voor de gemaakt om stappen vooruit te zeten, terwijl komende jaren (hoofdstuk 5). andere duidelijk maken dat er nog veel moet gebeuren om archeologische belangen betref- De laatste 10 jaar is veel onderzoek in allerlei fende verdronken prehistorische archeologie en vormen uitgevoerd dat relevant is voor de landschappen stevig verankerd te krijgen in onderzoeksprioriteiten van het NSPRMF 2009. erfgoedbeleid – en om regulering en strategieën De mate waarin de prioriteiten zijn gehaald is te bewerkstelligen. echter variabel. 10 —

Samenwerking met de industrie/ontwikkelaars De inschating van risico’s wordt beperkt door en private verzamelaars is wisselend succesvol de groforreligheid van de modellen, wat het geweest. In de context van de havenuitbreiding onderzoekers onmogelijk maakt om het onder- van Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 hebben inspan- zoekspotentieel en bedreigingen in te schaten ningen geleid tot een strategie die voordelig was op de schaal van individuele ruimtelijke ontwik- voor zowel de wetenschappelijke gemeenschap kelingen. De schaarsheid aan goede datapunten als de economische belanghebbenden, waarbij maakt het moeilijk, zo niet onmogelijk, om het er om ging dat oplossingen gevonden expliciet te maken welke archeologische konden worden voor onderzoekkansen binnen belangen op het spel staan. Dientengevolge een uitermate complex project. In dezelfde leiden geoarcheologische waarderingen van context bewerkstelligden publieksgerichte acti- individuele projectgebieden tot generieke viteiten samenwerking tussen de ontwikkelaar, aanwijzing van zones van potentiële archeologi- wetenschappers en private verzamelaars. Dit sche betekenis, zonder daarop volgende acties maakte nieuwe initiatieven los die waren gericht om het veronderstelde potentieel te testen. op structurele samenwerking tussen weten- Dit leidt tot een paradoxale situatie. Er worden schappers en private verzamelaars, en de regi- doorlopend bijzondere vondsten gedaan die stratie van vondsten. De casussen van de pale- veel aandacht van de media trekken; ze zijn het olithische vuistbijlen uit Area 240 en van het harde bewijs van menselijke aanwezigheid in Neanderthaler schedelfragment uit het Middel- een landschap dat zee geworden is. Publieksac- diep maken echter duidelijk dat de samenwer- tiviteiten zijn erg succesvol geweest. Maar daar king met de industrie makkelijk verstoord raakt waar zulke vondsten de verbeelding van een vanwege conficterende belangen. breed publiek losmaken, hebben ze (nog) niet De systematische registratie van vondsten geleid tot een managementbenadering die gedaan door private en professionele verzame- verlangt dat serieus onderzoek zich verplaatst laars vormt een belangrijke basis voor het delen van verwachting naar het testen van modellen van gegevens. De SPLASHCOS-viewer maakt en observatie. basale informatie beschikbaar over de locatie en aard van archeologische en paleontologische Er is geen dringende noodzaak om een nieuwe vondsten, en biedt een platform voor het verder set thema’s en onderwerpen te defniëren, en delen van gegevens. Belangrijk is dat de prioriteiten zijn nog niet op een dusdanig niveau SPLASHCOS-viewer database is geïntegreerd in behaald dat deze geen verdere aandacht de EMODnet gateway, waarmee prehistorisch behoeven. Tegelijkertijd moet worden geconsta- cultureel erfgoed een relevant aspect van de teerd dat ten aanzien van sommige aspecten mariene omgeving is geworden en beschikbaar belangrijke stappen zijn gezet, vooral op het is gemaakt voor een brede waaier belangheb- gebied van gegevensdeling, samenwerking met benden. private verzamelaars en publieksbereik. Deze Het vergroten van gegevensbeschikbaarheid is stappen zijn belangrijk en de daaraan gerela- uitermate relevant en wenselijk voor de inschat- teerde inspanningen moeten worden voort- ting van onderzoekpotentieel en bedreigingen. gezet. In het laatste deel presenteren we een Er zijn initiatieven genomen om de potentiële aantal aanbevelingen die dienen als richtingge- aanwezigheid van prehistorische archeologische vende lijnen voor verdere discussie en voor het resten in het Nederlandse deel van het continen- bepalen van actiepunten in de nabije toekomst. taal plat te modelleren. De modellen zijn grof- De aanbevelingen zijn gegroepeerd onder drie korrelig vanwege de relatief lage dichtheid aan koppen: inhoud (het onderwerp van onderzoek), geologische gegevens waarop ze primair zijn proces (strategieën, methoden, technieken), en gebaseerd, en gebruikers moeten over een hoge belanghebbenden (regulering, risicoschating, mate van expertise beschikken om de modeluit- communicatie). komsten te kunnen begrijpen en interpreteren. 11 1 Introduction —

The North Sea is an internationally recognised The framework frst and foremost focussed part of the continental shelf that is of paramount on: (1) maximisation of archaeological economic value and ecological importance. The information arising from ofshore developments economic value relates to the exploitation of (spatial, economic); (2) stimulation of the study marine food resources (fsh, shellfsh, algae), of archaeologically relevant materials and aggregate dredging (sand, gravel), oil and gas deposits to broaden the knowledge base for recovery, sustainable energy production (wind archaeological and management purposes; farms, hydraulic generators), and infrastructural (3) stimulation of public understanding and works (harbours, navigation channels, cables, awareness of the past, and fostering of a shared pipelines). In one way or another, but to a sense of responsibility among developers, variable extent, these activities all entail decision makers, and scientists; (4) development disturbance of the seabed. In addition, natural of a frm basis for heritage management processes (sea currents, wave action) judgement, consultancy, and decision-making, continuously alter the sea foor topography due notably an internationally recognised and to erosion and sedimentation. This combination scientifcally accepted set of resource of factors signifcantly impacts the various assessments and research agenda.3 ecosystems found in the very same waters and has led environmentalists to try to infuence Today, 10 years afer that expert meeting in politicians to take measures to mitigate the Amersfoort, much has been undertaken and negative efects of this disturbance, and to focus achieved. Several conference sessions in 2008 on sustainable solutions. The legislative basis for triggered the formation of the so-called the use of the sea and its resources was laid Deukalion planning group – comprising sixteen down in 1982, in the United Nations Convention on experts from eight European countries – to draf 1 Peeters, Murphy & Flemming 2009. the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). 2 Peeters, Murphy & Flemming 2009, 8. the outlines of a multidisciplinary project. In 3 Ibid. Underwater cultural heritage received only 2009, this work resulted in the EU-COST 4 Bailey & Sakellariou 2017, xii. 5 E.g. Benjamin et al. 2011; Evans, Flatman marginal atention in the 1982 convention, (European Cooperation in Science and & Flemming 2014; Peeters & Cohen despite its recognition as an asset of the sea Technology) programme Submerged Prehistoric 2014; Bailey, Harf & Sakellariou 2017; Archaeology and Landscapes of the Continental Shelf Flemming et al. 2017; Bailey et al. in prep. foor,. A supplement, the Convention for the 6 E.g. Ransley et al. 2013; Flemming et al. Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, was (SPLASHCOS), led by Geof Bailey (University of 2014; Sturt et al. 2018. 7 York).4 Momber et al. 2011; Moree & Sier 2014, drafed in 2001 and came into force in 2009. In Many books, papers, reports, and 2015. that same year, the cultural heritage agency of datasets have been produced, providing a 8 E.g. Wessex Archaeology 2011; Kuitems et al. 2014, 2015. the Netherlands (Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel wealth of information, much of which either 9 E.g. Hublin 2009; Hijma et al. 2012. Erfgoed) and English Heritage (now Historic applies directly to the North Sea or is of 10 For example, the large, European Research Council-funded Lost Frontiers England) jointly published the North Sea Prehistory signifcance for our understanding of submerged Project (Gafney et al. 2017); the Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF) prehistoric archaeology and landscapes in the Innovation by Science and Technology 2009 1 5 (IWT)-funded Drowned Landscapes of . The NSPRMF 2009 was the outcome of an North Sea. A number of strategic documents the Belgian Continental Shelf PhD expert meeting, held in 2008 in Amersfoort, and papers have been published as well, in the project undertaken at Ghent University and the Flanders Marine Institute (De which brought together researchers form of a research agenda or a discussion or Clercq 2018); and a project focussed on (archaeologists, palaeontologists, earth review paper.6 In addition, targeted research has post-Last Glacial Maximum sea-level rise in the North Sea, conducted by scientists) and heritage professionals from the been conducted ofshore, aimed at the Deltares, TNO-Geological Survey, Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Based on investigation of specifc sites7 and fnd zones8 Utrecht University, Royal Netherlands 9 Institute for Sea Research, and expert knowledge and scientifc results, the and the contextualisation of stray fnds. Newly University of Leeds. NSPRMF 2009 aimed to ‘… improve recognition started research projects have come up with 11 The informal collaboration of members 10 of the Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel of the international signifcance of the southern spectacular and unexpected results. Finally, Erfgoed, the Rijksmuseum van North Sea Basin for early humans in the there has been a combined efort to document Oudheden, the archaeology service of landscape. It is meant to encourage carefully 11 the municipality of Roterdam and analyse the many stray fnds. These (Archeologie Roterdam), and the developed and targeted research in the context undertakings underline the enormous potential Werkgroep Steentijd Noordzee/ of development-led and research-driven Doggerland Research Group had of the seabed on this part of the continental provided overviews of these fnds, as projects and programmes. It is also intended to shelf. More importantly, new initiatives have well as studies on such aspects as underpin the development of conservation isotope and aDNA potential. This demonstrated that carefully planned and collaboration also led to the creation of strategies adapted to the specifc characteristics informed research strategies result in valuable a coherent network of amateur of this record.’.2 new data points, which, in turn, permit a beter archaeologists/palaeontologists and beachcombers and to a re-evaluation of understanding of the archaeological record, not the concept of ‘stray fnds’. 12 —

only ofshore, but also onshore. Importantly, the This will feed into a (re)defned set of aspects (international) exchange of expertise continues that require atention in the (near) future in the to feed into the development and defnition of context of, on the one hand, development- new management targets12 and plays a role in driven research in the Dutch North Sea waters public outreach and the dialogue with industry.13 and, on the other, heritage management practices and frameworks in the Netherlands. In view of the vast body of work that has been In order to cover the full range of aspects carried out since the production of the NSPRMF (archaeology, landscape, geology, management, 2009 and the ongoing developments in and public outreach) addressed in the NSPRMF 2009, around the Dutch sector of the continental shelf, all relevant published work (books, journal and in order to set a fresh baseline for papers, professional reports) has been taken in management purposes for the coming years, the consideration for the current report, as have cultural heritage agency of the Netherlands has materials circulated via websites, newsleters, 12 Workshops commissioned by English and media coverage. Heritage were hosted at Southampton; requested a synthesis and evaluation of these were dedicated to the social published material and other spin-ofs in the dimension of submerged prehistoric The present report is structured into three parts: landscapes and the possibilities (2013) context of the initial aims of this framework. The and role (2014) of predictive modelling. present report provides the outcome of this a look back at the NSPRMF 2009 (chapter 2), an 13 Erkens et al. 2014; Vonhögen-Peeters, evaluation of the current state of afairs in Van Heteren & Peeters 2016; Vonhögen- analysis. Peeters, Maljers & Peeters in prep. For The central question in this report is what has relation to the priorities set in the NSPRMF 2009 an overview of public outreach been achieved in the past decade in terms of (chapters 3 and 4), and a look forward to activities, see table 5. 14 Position Paper 21 of the European defned themes, topics, and priorities. The opportunities, dilemmas, and choices, in order to Marine Board (Flemming et al. 2014); synthesis/evaluation also integrates and refects retune or redefne priorities and present possible A Maritime Archaeological Research Agenda for England (Ransley et al. 2013). upon other relevant strategic frameworks.14 strategies for the coming years (chapter 5). 13 2 NSPRMF 2009: themes, topics, — and priorities

2.1 Introduction

The North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF) 2009 set out to provide an agenda for the research and heritage management of submerged archaeological sites and relict landscapes in the southern North Sea (fg. 1). The framework comprises four sections, which are briefy summarised below. Following this summary, each section is discussed in further detail in order to provide a framework for synthesis and evaluation. This chapter thus describes the situation of about a decade ago.

2.2 Summary of the four sections

Section 1: General outline and context This section (1) defnes the chronological and geographical scope of the framework (the time period prior to the ‘Holocene inundation of what are today the shallowest parts of the North Sea between the British Isles and the Netherlands coastlines’,15 notably the Dutch and Belgian sectors and the adjacent part of the British Fig 1 Geographical scope of the NSPRMF 2009, sector of the Continental Shelf, extending to the comprising the Belgian and Dutch section of the Straits of Dover and the English Channel); (2) Gontinental Shelf areas and adjacent part of the UK defnes the scale of scientifc interest (frst and section (afer Peeters, Murphy & Flemming 2009, Fig. 2). foremost at the landscape level, and including any type of information – not just ‘sites’ – palaeontological and palaeobotanical providing evidence for human activity/presence, assemblages, and archaeological assemblages. even including ‘empty’ space); (3) characterises threats and opportunities in the context of Section 3: Research agenda and strategies spatial developments (economic activities and Based on the resource assessment, this section climate-related impacts on sediment dynamics provided a thematically structured agenda for and coastal change, data collection to fll research on a variety of topics identifed as being fundamental knowledge gaps so as to provide a of potential interest in the context of the sensible basis for decision-making); and (4) southern North Sea. An outline of themes and discusses management embedding (political and topics was followed by a note on research legislative context of heritage management at strategies (targeted research in the context of national and international scales). spatial developments, curiosity-driven research) and the identifcation of priorities (beter Section 2: Resource assessment understanding of palaeogeography, improved This section focussed on the state of knowledge chronology, the collection of good data points, (anno 2008) concerning palaeolandscapes and the development of prospection techniques). prehistoric archaeology, so as to provide a baseline for the identifcation of gaps in our Section 4: Resource management agenda and knowledge and to defne research potential. The strategies survey covered four aspects: stratigraphy and Focussed on the research agenda and strategies, chronological frameworks, landscape surfaces, and in recognition of the difculties that are 15 Peeters, Murphy & Flemming 2009, 9. 14 —

inherent to the specifc nature of prehistoric resource extraction, ofshore and coastal landscapes and archaeology, this section construction works, and coastal risk- explored the main issues of heritage management schemes meant that it was crystal management. An outline of themes and topics clear that action was needed if one were to was followed by a note on strategies (tuning prevent, at least to some extent, the loss of objectives of heritage management and scientifc valuable information. However, there was a research, creating conditions to support the general lack of scientifc knowledge that might development and implementation of appropriate serve to underpin decision-making, and hence research and management strategies) and there was also an uncomfortable feeling, on the priorities (collaboration with industry and private part of researchers that they risked making bad collectors; data sharing on and spatial defnition mistakes. At the same time, researchers of research potential and threats; mitigation, perceived a pressing need to obtain good data conservation, and designation). points (fg. 2). Adding new data points to the record in such a situation inevitably implies disturbance in many cases. Therefore, it was 2.3 NSPRMF 2009: context stated that ‘the risk of damaging in situ contexts through properly resourced scientifc research must surely be accepted in the interest of With regard to context, it is important to stress creating a baseline for beter informed decision- that the geographical scope is of course making later’.21 arbitrary. The choices made were primarily Taking such a position is clearly the result of a driven by practical considerations, notably the deliberate choice, and in the present context it is availability of data and the perceived need also the result of mutually felt responsibility. among Dutch and British researchers and This feeling of responsibility, however, does not heritage professionals to join forces. At the time necessarily line up with regulations and of the Amersfoort expert meeting and legislation at the national and international publication of the NSPRMF 2009, the majority of levels. The ofshore environment – territorial archaeological work focussed on the southern waters and the Continental Shelf – constitutes a North Sea, both in terms of research (surveys at highly complex seting. The cross-border Pakefeld and Happisburgh, mapping of approach taken in the NSPRMF 2009 meant Doggerland using reprocessed legacy seismics, having to deal not just with diferences in collection of palaeontological and archaeological national legislation, policies, and, indeed, material)16 and resource management (aggregate heritage management philosophies, but also 16 Glimmerveen et al. 2004; Verhart 2004; with international conventions that apply to Parft et al. 2005; Bell et al. 2006; dredging, the Maasvlakte 2 extension to Glimmerveen, Mol & Van der Plicht Roterdam harbour),17 and underwater areas beyond national jurisdiction (Convention for 2006; Mol et al. 2006; Bell 2007; Gafney, 18 the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage, Thomson & Fitch 2007; Ashton et al. excavations at Bouldnor Clif (English Channel). 2014. In addition, much geological work had been European Landscape Convention). Continuous 17 Wenban-Smith 2003; Maarleveld & dialogue between national and international Peeters 2004; Fitch, Thomson & Gafney done and was being done on sea-level rise, 2005; Bell et al. 2006; Ward & Larcombe chronology, and palaeogeography.19 bodies is necessary in order to embed practical 2008. approaches in this web of legislation, policies, 18 Momber et al. 2011. Furthermore, the need for research and 19 Rieu et al. 2005; Weerts et al. 2005; management agendas (or frameworks) and the and regulations. However, the cultural heritage Schokker et al. 2005; Shennan et al. sector cannot simply draw its own plans, 2006; Ward, Larcombe & Lillie 2006; development of management tools was being Gafney, Thomson & Fitch 2007; Gupta recognised on both sides of the southern North because many other interests have to be taken et al. 2007; Vink et al. 2007; Gibbard & in account, particularly where it concerns the Cohen 2008; Hazell 2008; Weniger et al. Sea, and the use of these agendas and tools had, 2008. to some extent, become part of archaeological natural environment. 20 Glazebrook 1997; Williams & Brown 20 1997; Brown & Glazebrook 2000; practice. Deeben, Hallewas & Maarleveld 2002; The key question that drove the development Flemming 2002, 2004; Rijksdienst voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek of the NSPRMF 2009 was how to deal with the 2.4 NSPRMF 2009: resource assessment 2006; Peeters 2007; Petit, Gamble & pressure on the submerged – and evidently Last 2008. For an overview of archaeological research frameworks in preserved – (pre)historic environment from the United Kingdom see htps://citizan. ever-increasing economic activity in the In order to set a baseline for the 2009 research org.uk/resources/archaeological- research-frameworks/. southern North Sea. The enormous scale of the and management agenda, it was necessary to 21 Peeters, Murphy & Flemming 2009, 11. fshing industry, aggregate extraction, energy make an assessment of the state of knowledge, 15 —

Fig 2 Schematic representation of the relationship between scientifc knowledge and decision making (afer Peeters, Murphy & Flemming 2009, Fig. 4). i.e. of the (potential) informative value of the dating technique (>35,000 years). A second available data. To structure this assessment, four problem concerns the correlation of specifc aspects (see below) were addressed to lithostratigraphic systems, which difer between provide the building blocks for a sensible nations and have been subject to revision. approach to the prehistoric archaeology of the A strict lithostratigraphic approach independent southern North Sea. of age permits an understanding of formation processes and a translation of geological map Stratigraphic and chronological frameworks units to palaeolandscape situations. Central to this aspect are the development of an Nonetheless, to understand archaeological understanding of archaeological manifestations paterning, there is a need for reliable of human behaviour in the landscape in terms of chronological frameworks in addition to these formation processes and environmental context. lithostratigraphic mappings. Several options are An understanding of the genesis and provenance at hand. These include direct absolute dating of of deposits provides essential information about sediments and/or non-reworked fossil (changing) landscape conditions in time and components (optically stimulated luminescence space, which afect, one the one hand, human [OSL], accelerator mass spectrometry [AMS] 14C), behaviour and, on the other, the preservation direct dating of ex situ components (AMS 14C), context. However straightforward this may indirect ‘absolute’ dating based on mean seem, the development of solid reference sea-level reconstructions (time-depth frameworks is not without problems, due to the correlation), and indirect relative dating based necessity of correlating highly diverse and on lithostratigraphy and interpreted localised phenomena over vast spans of time palaeogeographic meaning (older/younger and space. Even though there is now the than). In addition, indirect typological dating of possibility to obtain ‘absolute’ dates on deposits archaeological fnds provides clues as to the age at purposely sampled point localities, of the sediments from which these derive. chronologies remain spatially and temporally coarse, especially for the period before the Landscape surfaces Holocene transgression (>10,000 years) and for Palaeolandscape mapping is considered to be the period beyond the limits of the radiocarbon highly important for the archaeological 16 —

understanding of prehistoric land use paterns. value; that is to say, they bear information that The combination of sea-level data, on the one may have scientifc value even in the absence of hand, and independent dates and sediment- elaborate contextual information.23 source information, on the other, provides Systematic AMS 14C dating of bone fnds that possibilities for modelling landscape evolution have been identifed to species may reveal and, in turn, provides a context in which paterns in their age distribution that can archaeological data can be interpreted. In underpin inferences drawn from lithological addition, insight can be gained into the survival data and the projection of insights obtained on of ancient land surfaces, which is important for the surrounding land. They may also reveal the signifcance assessment of fnds ‘lacking presence or absence of humans at diferent context’, i.e. those with unknown taphonomy, times.24 Palaeovegetation data from ofshore mostly dredged up during fshing activity or locations are still scarce compared with those found on beaches following beach from terrestrial locations, but palynological replenishment via sea-bed sand extraction. Such analysis (in the form of pollen diagrams showing information is equally important for local and regional vegetation developments) can management purposes, notably for the be used to cross-check and help tune models of development of models of archaeological palaeolandscape conditions that would potential, as well as the mapping of threats. otherwise be based on sea-foor relief and Furthermore, dynamic palaeolandscape models, lithology and analogies.25 Microfossils (pollen, and visualisations thereof, can play an important diatoms, dinofagellates, foraminifera) also role in public outreach. The possibilities for inform about landscape inundation.26 Stable landscape mapping have signifcantly increased isotope data can be informative about diet, as due to the availability of improved analytical can aDNA about, for instance, geographical techniques for (2D and 3D) seismic data, thus species diferentiation at the population level. permiting a beter understanding of the Quantitative information on taxonomy and age stratigraphic characteristics of the seabed, the may provide insight into subregional variability identifcation of landscape elements in species and age composition. (geomorphological entities), and detailed visualisation.22 Combined with borehole data, Archaeological assemblages these techniques have the potential to develop Much of what has been said above about increasingly detailed maps and map time series, palaeontological and palaeobotanical which are needed for targeted research. assemblages also applies to archaeological assemblages, notably with regard to issues of Palaeontological and palaeobotanical context and dating. Of course, artefacts made assemblages out of organic materials (e.g. wood, bone, antler) The vast majority of fnds from the southern can be dated by means of AMS 14C analysis, as North Sea consists of fossil bones dredged up can human remains. In contrast, in the absence from the sea foor during fshing activity and of lithostratigraphic information, the dating of from greater depths in the seabed during inorganic items (mostly lithics) depends on aggregate mining, dredging, and replenishment coarse typological and/or technological activities. Palaeobotanical material is also chronological schemes. Chronological anchoring known from corings, dredged-up lumps of peat of archaeological fnds is, however, crucial for and tree stumps, as well as in situ tree stumps the modelling of (re)colonisation paterns in and organic layers in the tidal zone. In most 22 Gafney, Thomson & Fitch 2007. connection to Glacial–Interglacial cycles and 23 Van Kolfschoten & Van Essen 2004; Van cases, no information about the original palaeogeographical reshaping. In contrast to Kolfschoten 2006. sedimentary context of these palaeontological 24 Glimmerveen et al. 2004; Glimmerveen, palaeontological assemblages, due to their Mol & Van der Plicht 2006; Mol et al. and botanical fnds has been collected, making it generally small size, the unfamiliarity of 2006. difcult to evaluate their representativeness in collectors with certain types of objects, as well 25 Wolters, Zeiler & Bungenstock 2010; Krüger et al. 2017. terms of what was originally present or in terms as diferential preservation, the body of 26 Vink et al. 2007; Sturt, Garrow & Bradley of temporal integrity. Contextualisation of archaeological fnds from the southern North 2013. 27 Today, many more archaeological fnds palaeontological and palaeobotanical material is Sea is too numerically small and biased for are known, and especially the number therefore of importance. What is of importance researchers to atempt any form of quantitative (over 1000) of barbed points permits a quantitative approach (Spithoven 2015). as well is to realise that fnds also have ‘intrinsic’ analysis.27 However, like palaeontological and 17 —

palaeobotanical fnds, archaeological fnds bear The strategic approach to investigating these intrinsic information and can potentially add to themes and topics involves problem-oriented or debates about occupation histories,28 as well as targeted research in either a development- the exploitation of coastal zones and the socio- driven or a science-driven context. In a cultural meaning of the marine environment development-driven context, scientifc choices (e.g. through stable isotope analysis).29 Evidence are required to remain confned to the for pre-/post-mortem pathologies can provide conditions agreed upon with the developer. insights into issues of health and social These conditions are not necessarily restricted to relationships.30 Hence, there is much potential, constraints of time and money; they can also certainly in view of the good preservation of relate to safety and to technical and logistical many fnds. feasibility. Research initiated by academia is science-driven, but it, too, has to meet a number of preconditions with regards to e.g. fnancing, 2.5 NSPRMF 2009: research agenda, the availability of equipment, and ship-time (e.g. strategies, and priorities on research vessels) and therefore ofen consists of research consortia. From the perspective of research, an The assessment of resources formed the basis improved understanding of palaeogeography for the scientifc agenda, which identifes a and chronology, the collection of good data number of themes and topics that are points, and the development of prospection considered to be of importance, that is to say, techniques have been identifed as priorities – for which research relating to the southern on the one hand because palaeogeographic North Sea can be informative and provide models and chronological frameworks provide meaningful data. These themes and topics are an important context for reaching a beter summarised in table 1. understanding of the signifcance of countless

Table 1 Research themes and topics from the NSPRMF 2009 (Peeters, Murphy & Flemming 2009). Numbering adheres to the original document.*

Theme Topics

A. Stratigraphic and chronological frameworks A.1: Lithostratigraphic classifcation and chronological anchoring A.2: Sea level change and glacio-isostacy A.3: Survival of deposits of archaeological signifcance A.4: Biostratigraphies and absolute dating

B. Palaeogeography and environment B.1: Middle/Late Pleistocene reshaping of topography and river drainage B.2: Development of the Weichselian/Devensian landscape B.3: Palaeogeographic evolution afer the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) B.4: Quaternary palaeoecology

C. Global perspectives on intercontinental C.1: North Sea coastal dynamics and human uses of the coastal zone hominin dispersals C.2: Pleistocene North Sea level oscillations and population of islands

D. Pleistocene hominin colonisations of D.1: Early human exploitation strategies in changing environments northern Europe D.2: Natural barriers for hominin expansion

E. Reoccupation of northern Europe afer the E.1: Post-LGM occupation fux Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) E.2: Occupation strategies

F. Post-glacial land use dynamics in the context F.1: Changing landscape structure of a changing landscape F.2: Behavioural diversity among hunter-gatherers F.3: Maritime archaeologies of the North Sea

G. Representation of prehistoric hunter- G.1: Spatial perspectives on North Sea palaeolandscapes gatherer communities and lifeways G.2: The distributional nature of early hominin communities G.3: Enculturated hunter-gatherer landscapes * Despite the fact that theme G primarily focusses on post-LGM hunter-gatherers, topic G.2 was broadly defned, 28 and of equal relevance to theme D. See e.g. Hijma et al. 2012; Peeters & Momber 2014; Roebroeks 2014; Momber & Peeters 2017. 29 Van der Plicht et al. 2016. 30 Hublin et al. 2009; Amkreutz et al. 2018a, 2018b. 18 —

palaeontological, palaeobotanical, and consideration by both heritage managers and archaeological fnds, and on the other hand economic stakeholders. In order to deal with because of the necessity to extend the record of (ofen) opposing interests, it is necessary to have reliable (i.e. contextualised) observations. clear defnitions and to look into efective approaches to protection and preservation. However, several topics also require research 2.6 NSPRMF 2009: management and agreements on how to treat, store, and agenda, strategies, and priorities share data. Importantly, public outreach was explicitly included in the 2009 agenda, touching upon topics believed to be relevant to In addition to the research agenda, an agenda modern-day society. for management purposes was set. It, too, In order to reach these goals, it was deemed identifed a number of relevant themes and necessary to focus on tuning the objectives of topics (table 2), taking into consideration the heritage management and scientifc research, as defned context of the framework, as well as the well as creating conditions to support the resource assessment. development and implementation of The management agenda frst and foremost appropriate research and management focussed on heritage professionals who are the strategies. Several priorities were identifed, frst to deal with economical stakeholders active notably collaboration with industry and private in the southern North Sea. This particular collectors; data sharing; the spatial defnition of context involves a complex legislative and research potential and threats; as well as regulatory seting, at the national and approaches to mitigation, conservation, and international levels, that has to be taken in designation.

Table 2 Management themes and topics from the NSPRMF 2009 (Peeters, Murphy & Flemming 2009). Numbering adheres to the original document. Theme Topics

H. Legislation and preservation H.1: Defning prehistoric cultural heritage H.2: Common ground for the protection of the historic and natural environment H.3: Conservation of submerged prehistoric landscapes in a dynamic environment

I. Assessment and data sharing I.1: Research potential and threat mapping I.2: Surveying I.3: Data sharing and fnd reporting I.4: Co-operation

J. Public outreach J.1: Changing worlds J.2: ‘Them’ and ‘Us’ | ‘Nature’ and ‘Culture’ 19 3 Research and knowledge gain —

and the establishment of chronological 3.1 Introduction frameworks. For a large part, this work involves synthesising analyses of existing data and mapping (bathymetry, geology), complemented As outlined in the previous chapters, as a by newly obtained data and maps.34 All this is strategic document, the NSPRMF 2009 had clear highly relevant to the NSPRMF 2009 for several goals with regard to research: to stimulate reasons: it translates generic ofshore geological efective use of archaeological information mapping (from bathymetry, sea-foor grab arising from ofshore developments for research samples, borehole samples, seismics) to past and management and to stimulate the study of landscape conditions, it forecasts the degree of archaeologically relevant information sources to preservation and the taphonomy of sea-foor broaden the scientifc basis for research and sites, and it helps to contextualise the many management. The scientifc backing of the 2009 stray fnds that have come from the North Sea framework is found in a series of papers bed and hence to increase the informative value published in the period from c. 2004 (publication of these. In addition, for series of time frames, it of results from an expert meeting held in provides an ‘abiotic landscape canvas’ that can London 2003)31 to 2014 (special issue of the be used in the modelling of dynamic Netherlands Journal of Geosciences – Geologie en relationships between landscape and human Mijnbouw).32 behaviour at various scales in time and space. In this chapter we set out to explore what has In order to understand landscape dynamics been achieved with respect to the NSPRMF 2009 and the preservation of deposits in the southern research agenda (summarised in table 1). For the North Sea on timescales of tens of thousands of purpose of the present evaluation, we will look years, it is essential to have a solid at synthetic overviews; studies focussed on the understanding of the position of the main river information value of stray fnds (i.e. fnds with systems and of sea-level oscillations. River limited contextual information); as well as systems defne corridors of signifcant sediment targeted research focussed on archaeology and transport and reworking, while sea-level palaeontology, sea-level fuctuations, and oscillations strongly infuence not only the geophysical mapping of palaeolandscape current size of the southern North Sea but also elements. The emphasis is on work relating to preservation and erosion. River systems are the Dutch sector of the North Sea, but a ‘cross- mapped using seismic and borehole data, while border’ perspective will be taken wherever this is time control is mainly achieved through OSL and deemed useful or necessary. Table 3 summarises AMS 14C dating. Sea-level reconstructions for the main research activities and achievements periods younger than c. 50,000 years ago rely with respect to the themes and topics, and heavily on AMS 14C dating of peat samples that provides an indication of their implications for can be either directly linked to a past sea level research.33 Some work was directly inspired by (i.e. a sea-level index point) or used to defne an the NSPRMF 2009, while other work was more upper limit for sea level. By combining these loosely related to the framework; both reconstructions with models of glacio-isostatic categories are included in the table. In the adjustments and, preferably, accounting for following sections, this will be expanded upon in erosion and sedimentation, it is possible to connection to the (closely related) priorities set determine inundation rates of the southern in the NSPRMF 2009. North Sea. Archaeology-driven research conducted in the context of the Maasvlakte 2 harbour extension has increased the density of 31 Flemming 2004. 32 Glimmerveen et al. 2004, 2006; Van 3.2 Priority: an improved data points concerning Early to Middle Holocene Kolfschoten & Van Essen 2004; Mol et al. understanding of palaeogeography relative sea-level rise in the southern North Sea35 2006; Hijma et al. 2012; Cohen, Gibbard & Weerts 2014; Peeters & Cohen 2014; and chronology for the critical time period around 8,500 years Peeters & Momber 2014; Roebroeks ago that resulted in the drowning of the near- 2014; Van Heteren et al. 2014. 33 Note that table 1 contains references ofshore. Further ofshore work spawned by that are not necessarily repeated in the Considerable work has been done with respect British wind farm activities in the Dogger Bank text. 34 Hijma et al. 2012; Cohen et al. 2014; to the interpretation of geological data for the area, as well as research focusing on De Clercq 2018. purposes of palaeogeographical reconstruction glaciological dynamics (the NERC-funded 35 Vos et al. 2015; Hijma & Cohen, in press. 20 —

Table 3 Main results of ten years of research.

Themes and topics Activity Achievement Implication Reference

Theme A: Stratigraphic and chronological frameworks

A.1: Lithostratigraphic Geological assessment of near- Correlation of ofshore units Potential origin and dating of Hijma et al. 2012 classifcation and chronological coast lithostratigraphy with onshore classifcation and Middle Palaeolithic fnds and anchoring chronology Neanderthal skull fragment

Desktop modelling and Efect of lithology on coastal Understanding of ofshore Hijma 2017 synthetic study morphodynamics lithological build-up

A.2: Sea-level change and Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 Identifcation of Weichselian Major sea-level fuctuation Kuitems et al. 2015 glacio-isostacy targeted sampling sand North Sea high stand during the Weichselian extraction pits

Desktop modelling GIA-modelled transgression of Understanding of unundation Sturt, Garrow & Bradley the southern North Sea during rates and shifing coastlines 2013; Cohen et al. 2017 the Early Holocene

Synthesis of existing sea-level Sea-level database of the Rhine- First sea-level curve for the Hijma & Cohen (in prep.) data Meuse valley transgression of the Rhine- Meuse-Thames valley from Dover to Roterdam

A.3: Survival of deposits of Roterdam-Yangtze harbour Erosion of higher parts of Early/ High potential for archaeological Vos & Cohen 2015 archaeological signifcance seismic mapping and coring Mid-Holocene river dunes and research intact sequences on slopes and adjacent foodplains

Synthesis of seismic and Insight into transgression of this Preserved aeolian dune deposits Hijma et al., 2010 borehole data ofshore Zuid- part of the North Sea. ofshore Scheveningen Holland

A.4: Lithostratigraphies and Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 Identifcation of Weichselian Major sea-level fuctuation Kuitems et al. 2015 absolute dating targeted sampling sand North Sea high stand during the Weichselian extraction pits

Theme B: Palaeogeography and environment

B.1: Middle/Late Pleistocene Synthetic study Reconstruction of proglacial lake – Gibbard & Cohen 2015 reshaping of topography and extents in the southern North river drainage Sea

B.2: Development of the Synthetic study Palaeogeographic – Hijma et al. 2012 Weichselian/Devensian reconstructions of the southern landscape North Sea for the Weichselian/ Devensian (Early Glacial and Pleniglacial)

B.3: Palaeogeographic evolution Desktop modelling GIA-modelled transgression of Understanding of unundation Sturt, Garrow & Bradley afer the Last Glacial Maximum the southern North Sea during rates and shifing coastlines 2013; Cohen et al. 2017 (LGM) the Early Holocene

B.4: Quaternary palaeoecology –

Theme C: Global perspectives on intercontinental hominin dispersal

C.1: North Sea coastal dynamics Synthetic study Theoretical outline of the role of Signifcance of submerged Cohen et al. 2012 and human uses of the coastal coasts in early hominin coastal context for the zone dispersals understanding of occupation paterns

C.2: Pleistocene North Sea level – – – – oscillations and population of islands

Theme D: Pleistocene hominin colonisations of northern Europe

D.1: Early human exploitation Synthetic study Theoretical outline of the role of Signifcance of submerged Cohen et al. 2012 strategies in changing coasts in early hominin coastal context for the environments dispersals understanding of occupation paterns

D.2: Natural barriers for hominin Synthetic study Theoretical outline of the role of Signifcance of submerged Cohen et al. 2012 expansion coasts in early hominin coastal context for the dispersals understanding of occupation paterns

Geological assessment of near- Correlation of ofshore units Potential origin and dating of Hijma et al. 2012 coast lithostratigraphy with onshore classifcation and Middle Palaeolithic fnds and chronology Neanderthal skull fragment 21 —

Themes and topics Activity Achievement Implication Reference

Theme E: Reoccupation of northern Europe afer the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM)

E.1: Post-LGM occupation fux Synthetic study Theoretical outline of the Understanding of spatial and Momber & Peeters 2017 infuence of post-LGM sea-level chronological paterning of rise on human dispersal and archaeological phenomena socio-cultural networks

E.2: Occupation strategies AMS and stable isotope analysis Insight into Postglacial hunter- Potential for dietary studies and Van der Plicht et al. 2016 of human remains from the gatherer diet (terrestrial and modelling of food economies southern North Sea fresh water resources)

Theme F: Post-glacial land-use dynamics in the context of a changing landscape

F.1: Changing landscape Roterdam-Yangtze harbour Insight into the efects of sea- Understanding of how long- Vos & Cohen 2015; Kubiak- structure seismic mapping and coring, level rise on changes in the term landscape change afects Martens, Verbruggen & and palaeobotanical analysis Rhine-Meuse foodplain and possibilities for human Kooistra 2015 estuary subsistence

F.2: Behavioural diversity among Roterdam-Yangtze harbour Insight into exploitation of Understanding of how long- Kubiak-Martens, hunter-gatherers archaeological analysis faunal, botanical and other term landscape change afects Verbruggen & Kooistra resources in the context of possibilities for human 2015; Niekus et al. 2015; changing landscape behaviour Peeters et al. 2015; Zeiler & characteristics Brinkhuizen 2015

Roterdam-Yangtze harbour Evidence for repetative fring of Insight into deliberate infuence Kubiak-Martens, palaeobotanical and the marshy vegetation zone of humans on the local Verbruggen & Kooistra 2015 micromorphological analysis between the river dune and environment foodplain

Description and interpretative Glimpses at various aspects of Insight into the use of raw Amkreutz, Peeters & Smit analyses of fnds dating to the material culture and past materials and symbolism of 2016; Amkreutz et al. 2017a, Middle and Late Palaeolithic, dimensions of hunter-gatherer material culture 2017b, 2018a, 2018b; Mesolithic and Neolithic life Amkreutz & Spithoven in press; Niekus et al. 2017; Peeters & Amkreutz in press.; Niekus & Amkreutz 2018; Storm et al. 2014a, 2014b; Storm 2010

F.3: Maritime archaeologies of Roterdam-Yangtze harbour Identifcation of full marine fsh Insight into the exploitation of Zeiler & Brinkhuizen 2015 the North Sea archaeozoological analysis species dating to gthe Mesolithic full marine resources

Reporting of fnds dating to the Identifcation of Middle Hypothesis about ofshore ritual Peeters 2011; Van de Noort Neolithic Neolithic fint axe blades from behaviour 2011 the Brown Bank area, with an age corresponding to assumed full marine conditions

Theme G: Representation of hunter-gatherer communities and lifeways

G.1: Spatial perspectives on Synthetic study Theoretical outline of the role of Signifcance of submerged Cohen et al. 2012 North Sea palaeolandscapes coasts in early hominin coastal context for the dispersals understanding of occupation paterns

G.2: The distributional nature of Synthetic study Overview and discussion of the Signifcance of submerged Roebroeks 2014 early hominin communities importance of the North Sea for landscapes for the the understanding of early understanding of occupation hominin dispersals paterns

Synthetic study Theoretical outline of the role of Signifcance of submerged Cohen et al. 2012 coasts in early hominin coastal context for the dispersals understanding of occupation paterns

G.3: Enculturated hunter- Synthetic study Overview and discussion of the Signifcance of submerged Peeters & Momber 2014; gatherer landscapes importance of the North Sea for landscapes for the Momber & Peeters 2017 the understanding of Postglacial understanding of occupation cultural processes paterns 22 —

I S N 0 0

Holocene -10 -10 Basal peat Basal peat -20 EH EH B4 -20 Medium sands with clay layers, B5/6 B6 B5/6 -30 some shells and gravel -30 MIS 5? B3 B2 S5 Medium/coarse brownish S5 sands with shells UF UF channel -40 and clay layers Middle Pleistocene (inferred) -40 before Drenthe Early Pleistocene Early Pleistocene MIS 9/7/5? glaciation Early Pleistocene -50 -50 0 5 km II III S Intersection N NW SE 0 0 0 Intersection 0 with III

S3-43 with II Holocene Eurogeul -10 -10 -10 -10 Eurogeul Sand extraction zone Basal peat Basal peat Aeolian Basal peat -20 dune 8.5(d) 8.5(f) -20 -20 -20 EH 8.8(e) EH 10.7(a)10.7(a10.710.7(10.7( ) 7.5. ((b) EH Holocene 8.9(c8.9(c)cc) B5/6 Holocene -30 B5/6 B2/4? -30 -30 B5/6 -30 Shells B3 B2 B2? ? Greyish medium sands, gravel and pink quartz B2 Most likely S5 BNB Medium sands -40 -40 -40 -40 UF? Early Pleistocene UF with iron concretions S5 and older Urk Fm Early Pleistocene (partly inferred) EP -50 -50 -50 -50 0 5 km a. UtC-15346; 9450±70; 10740±151; Hijma and Cohen, 2010 d. UtC-15344, 7700±60; 8490±53; Hijma and Cohen, 2010 0 5 km b. UtC-15403; 6550±70; 7459±66; Hijma, this paper e. UtC-15404; 7910±80; 8773±126; Hijma and Cohen, 2010 c. UtC-15345, 8020±70; 8873±116; Hijma, this paper f. GrN-21460, 7720±40; 8498±43; Hijma and Cohen, 2010 lab.nr a 14C 2σ cal BP Legend Chronology Unit B3: early Middle Pleniglacial, Rhine-Meuse braidbelt deposits Tertiary (marine and shallow marine) Miscellaneous Unit B4: late Middle Pleniglacial, Rhine-Meuse braidbelt deposits Core Unit B5/6: Late Pleniglacial-early Holocene, Rhine-Meuse deposits End of core Unit Aeolian: MIS 2- early Holocene, aeolian deposits Core number (Geological Survey

S5-256 of The Netherlands) Unit MIS 5: Eemian and Early Weichselian shallow marine and estuarine deposits EH Sedimentary unit Unit BP: Basal Peat, early Holocene, pre-transgressional peat layer Water Unit Holocene: Holocene marine deposits

Unit B2: Early Pleniglacial, Meuse meandering channel-belt deposits Variable age, miscellaneous deposits

Fig 3 Geological cross-sections of the onshore and ofshore areas of Roterdam showing the stratigraphical continuity of various sedimentary units, as well as erosion, which is partly induced by modern economic activity, notably the dredging of the Eurogeul (afer Hijma et al. 2012, Fig. 5).

BRITICE),36 has delivered new seismic and Detailed analysis of palaeolandscape borehole data on the Last Glacial ice-marginal conditions, combined with insight into the landscape in that area.37 timing of landscape processes, permits In order to beter understand the origin and researchers to model changes in chronology of fnds from the North Sea, research palaeogeography. At the Roterdam- into the above-mentioned aspects is crucial. Yangtzehaven archaeological site it could be

36 BRITICE is a GIS app which displays A good example is provided by the analysis of shown that, like areas farther inland, the landforms lef behind by the ice sheet available geological data for the Eurogeul and location was initially situated in the Rhine- that covered large parts of Britain and 38 Ireland during the last ice age, 27,000 Middeldiep areas, which has yielded artefacts Meuse foodplain, which gradually transformed years ago (htps://shefuni.maps.arcgis. dating to the Middle Palaeolithic, a fragment of into an estuary due to an approaching coastline com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id fd78b03a74bb477c906c5d4e0ba9abaf ). a Neanderthal skull, and countless (fg. 5). But unlike areas inland, the site 37 Coterill et al. 2017; Sejrup, Clark & palaeontological remains.39 By combining eventually became positioned seaward, of the Hjelstuen 2016; Phillips et al. 2018; Roberts et al. 2018. bathymetry and geological data, insights were mouth of the Rhine-Meuse estuary, leading to 38 Hijma et al. 2012. The Eurogeul is an obtained on the relationship between to the the truncation of the site and allowing for the artifcial navigation channel which preservation of the dune fank, foot, and valley provides access to the Roterdam seabed lithostratigraphy and the terrestrial harbour. The Middeldiep is an stratigraphic record (fg. 3). This permited foor surfaces only, not the dune tops.41 elongated depression within the zone of the Zeeland Ridges (Zeeuwse Banken) researchers to identify the geological origin of Occupation of the river dune by Early and Middle of the Zeeland coast. the archaeological fnds and to interpret them Mesolithic hunter-gatherers continued 39 Hublin et al. 2009. 40 Hijma et al. 2012. within a broader framework of landscape throughout the entire process of this landscape 41 Moree & Sier 2015; Vos & Cohen 2015. dynamics (fg. 4).40 transformation. Humans exploited the terrestrial 23 —

= ~80,000 - 20,000 yr ago = last glacial until LGM LATE PLEISTOCENE: LAST GLACIAL = Weichselian: Early and Middle Pleniglacial ( palaeogeographic scenario ) = MIS 4 -3 -2 lowstand British Ice Sheet Doggerland Elbe ice-marginal river & Scandinavian Ice Sheet ?

LGM Older ? SOUTHERN NORTH SEA

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| 150 ka? ? Bank since ~60 ka 52ºN Eurogeul Rhine-Meuse Z.R.

l Neanderthal e n n a Thames h

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| | | | | | Dover| gorge Artois Scheldt Channel river Ardennes KMC UU 2011 Seine river 2ºE 100 km 4ºE Palaeogeography Last Glacial Rhine-Thames-Channel river and surroundings Resistant strata Rivers and structural geomorphology Last-active braidplains Uplands Palaeocene marine clay Evident from deposits, geomorphology Pleniglacial terraces, with site Brief ice sheet presence Cretaceous chalk Possible additional temporary paths Emerged seafloor and Brief blocked drainage Palaeozoic outcrop Cuestas, major faults, basin hinge line former valleys (higher, lower) Fig 4 Reconstruction of the lowstand situation during the Weichselian Early and Middle Pleniglacial (80–20 ka ago). The map shows periglacial river valleys and possible temporary proglacial drainage systems (afer Hijma et al. 2012, Fig. 16). 24 —

resources of the high foodplain landscape, as Combining palaeogeographical reconstructions well as the aquatic resources (notably fsh and based on fne-grained chronological frameworks starch-rich plants) of the freshwater wetland with archaeological information on human environments (swamp and fenland in the vicinity behaviour permits researchers to make of rivers). The rich use of the later is recorded connections between diferent scales in time within the dune toe basal peat strata, which and space. formed in the last centuries before submergence The Roterdam-Yangtzehaven site is but one by the rising North Sea.42 The site, which was of many inland dune sites in the subtly terraced near the mouths of the Rhine, Meuse, and foodplain preserved on the south side of the Scheldt rivers, is interpreted to have hosted a drowning Rhine-Meuse valley (low terrace base camp that was returned to over multiple levels, abandoned in Late Glacial times). On the seasons and by many generations of hunter- north side of the valley, on a terrace that was gatherers.43 more elevated above the Rhine-Meuse Whereas one might also have expected a foodplain, inland dunes were also present. Their gradual increase in the exploitation of marine lower parts are preserved of Hoek van Holland resources at this site, litle evidence for such an and in the ‘Zandmotor’ sand extraction zone for increase has been found. Clearly, multiple beach replenishment.44 This dune feld became explanations can be proposed for the sparse submerged and subsequently truncated a few evidence, ranging from sample centuries later than its Roterdam-Yangtzehaven representativeness (e.g. the remains of marine counterpart. The northerly river dunes on the resources are simply not represented in the higher terrace are the source area for Mesolithic samples available), to taphonomic bias (e.g. the fnds collected on the human-made Zandmotor remains of the youngest – that is, near-shore – beaches. In the area between Hoek van Holland occupation phases have not survived due to and Roterdam-Yangtzehaven, where the Rhine erosion), to hunter-gatherer subsistence river channel was positioned at the time of strategies (e.g. the technology of the local transgression, barbed points are abundant,45 culture did not adapt to the exploitation of suggesting that estuarine aquatic resources were marine resources, or people made ‘conservative’ exploited in this area in Mesolithic times.46 choices with regard to diet), to natural With regard to sea-level oscillations in the environmental control (e.g. sea-level rise was time periods beyond the AMS calibration limit, very rapid, estuarine river mouth habitats were researchers have to rely on more global shifing inland over large distance at a fast pace, reconstructions of past sea levels, which, in and those habitats allowing for marine fshing general, have much larger vertical uncertainties were not close by for long). An additional than the more regionally constructed sea-level possible explanation is that in the Southern curves. Other approaches to dating include the Bight the shallow North Sea waters may not use of geogenetic signatures of deposits and have become marine immediately, but were fossil components therein and direct absolute initially brackish instead. dating by means of, for instance, OSL. However, The considerable time-depth covered by this as yet, all of these methods come with many hunter-gatherer presence on the river dune – in methodological uncertainties. Research the context of a changing landscape and conducted in the sand extraction pits used for changing possibilities of access (overland and by the Maasvlakte 2 expansion has, however, water) – forms another intriguing aspect. At a shown that useful results can be obtained from a more ‘traditional’ approach. Using a 42 Hijma & Cohen 2010; Vos et al. 2015; localised scale, there is evidence for deliberate Hijma & Cohen in press. manipulation of the vegetation through burning combination of controlled sampling of fossil 43 Moree & Sier 2015; Peeters et al. 2015. marine molluscs from sand extraction pits 44 Hijma et al. 2012; Hijma & Cohen in in the marshy zone between the river dune and press. the foodplain, possibly to improve accessibility. adjacent to the Eurogeul and lithostratigraphical 45 Verhart 1988. data from corings (carried out before the 46 As yet, only a few radiocarbon dates are This fnding must also be seen as an illustration available for the many hundreds of of how palaeogeographical developments and extraction and halfway the process, along the barbed points (Verhart 1988). These fanks of the extraction pit), lower-limit data dates indicate Early to Middle Mesolithic landscape processes infuence the behaviour of activity. A new series of samples for AMS humans and how these humans, in turn, were points were obtained for sea-level positions 14 C dating has, however, been sent to perfectly capable of manipulating these ‘natural’ during the Early Weichselian. Evidence for the radiocarbon facility at the University of Groningen. conditions and set them to their needs. relative high stands post-dating the Last 25 —

Fig 5 Time series of palaeogeographical reconstructions of the Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 area; Roterdam- Yangtzehaven area is indicated by the red rectangle (afer Vos & Cohen 2015, Fig. 3.19). 26 —

Interglacial (MIS 5d-a) was found at 28-32 m of how signifcant results can be obtained from below mean sea level.47 such sites. Indications for marine conditions during the Over the past few years, ofshore Weichselian also come from the presence of developments have been required to conduct fossil bones of colder water marine mammals research to establish the presence/absence of (beluga whale, walrus) in the assemblages layers/levels or prehistoric palaeolandscape trawled from the Eurogeul, the Zeeland Ridges, structures of potential archaeological relevance, and the Brown Bank from various depths above in addition to the identifcation of point-located -40 m and from poorly controlled contexts. objects, such as shipwrecks (table 4). Seismic These bones were encountered amidst profling is used to obtain insight into abundant bones of steppe and tundra land sub-botom lithological structures. In animals. The remains of beluga from various combination with existing geological data, this fnd zones returned radiocarbon dates of seismic data is interpreted in terms of intactness roughly 34,600 to >47,500 BP,48 which of prehistoric land surfaces and presence of corresponds to the Middle Weichselian, during particular landscape features, such as river which sea levels are thought to have been about gullies and river dunes. With the exception of 40-60 m lower than today. Cases of marine the AMS dating of a single peat sample from the mammals, such as seals and dolphins, Q10-P15 pipeline project (table 4), no further swimming up estuaries and farther upstream are data have been collected in the context of development-driven archaeological 47 Kuitems et al. 2015, 370, table 3, Unit known, but in our opinion it is unlikely that MV2-4. beluga would have swum inland from the assessments.53 For the Kampen well site (table 48 Glimmerveen et al. 2004, 48. 49 If one assumes the dates to be reliable English Channel to reach the Eurogeul area. And 4), it was concluded that ‘the currently available (which we do not), then it appears that the chances of fnding exceptions to expected information is insufcient to show whether the for period between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago a marine high stand afected typical behaviour are clearly small in a fossil project area involves the presence of an old the southern part of the North Sea, record that comprises only a few specimens of riverbed or sand dune, which heightens the which would be an exception in the this particular species in total. The ‘surprising’ global sea level record. This would have chance of the presence of prehistoric repercussions for palaeogeographic AMS dates on fossil beluga bones call for an occupation. To be able to determine this, reconstructions for the ofshore and evaluation of Early and Middle Weichselian high onshore areas of the Netherlands, as additional drilling research would be necessary well as models of hominin dispersal at stand options,49 radiocarbon dating in the project area. Such an efort underwater is the time of the coexistence of 50 not in proportion to the limited size of the Neanderthals and modern humans in uncertainty, taphonomic uncertainty, and north-western Europe. north-to-south proglacial drainage routing.51 planned seafoor intervention.’.54 50 Research conducted by Busschers et al. (2014) has demonstrated that molluscs The character of seabed disturbance due to of confrmed Eemian and Early economic activity is variable. The extraction of Weichselian age returned ‘good’ radiocarbon dates when they should 3.3 Priority: the collection of good data sand results in large-scale and deep disturbance not have, since their real age is well points of continuous swaths of the seabed; the beyond the radiocarbon limit. These unreliable dates probably result from installation of windmills comes with localised, biochemical alteration (secondary small-scale disturbances; and the routing of carbonate precipitation). 51 The fossil bones could have been The above examples demonstrate that it is pipelines and cables involves linear and transported over large distances more possible to enhance our insight into relatively shallow disturbances. Clearly, this recently than 34,000–47,500 years ago 55 from areas to the north (e.g. as part of palaeogeography and chronology within the situation ofers variable research opportunities. outwash river transport, a processes context of development-driven projects. The The approaches taken in the projects listed in that is currently being atributed increased signifcance) (Hijma et al. collection of good data points is, of course, of table 4 are, however, similar, despite the 2012; Murton & Murton 2012; Coterill paramount importance. The research conducted variability in the economic developments that et al. 2017; Roberts et al. 2018). Long- distance natural transportation will, during the construction of Maasvlakte 2 has they were a part of. Where it comes to however, show in severe alteration of made a considerable contribution to prehistoric archaeology and landscapes, eforts the fossil bones; here, such alteration does not seem to have taken place. archaeology, palaeontology, and are mostly restricted to desktop studies, which 52 It should be noted that underwater palaeogeographical reconstruction and has combine available geological and excavation of submerged prehistoric sites in British waters is equally rare spawned a lasting infrastructure of monitoring geoarchaeological models. These models are (Bouldnor Clif ; see Momber et al. 2011). and registration of beach fnds from artifcial extremely coarse-grained, but they are 53 Van Lil & Van den Brenk 2018b. beaches. Underwater excavation of sites is, 54 Velthuis 2018, 4. nonetheless being taken at face value. In 55 For a recent example of how such however, exceptional (fg. 6) because they addition, these models have been developed situations can be approached, see present difcult circumstances.52 consecutively, with the aim of refning the htps://www.wessexarch.co.uk/news/ The work in the secrets-doggerland. Yangtze harbour provides an excellent example previous iteration (see section 4.4), but neither 27 —

Fig 6 Underwater excavation of the Roterdam-Yangtzehaven site. A: computer-aided control of the sample grabber, B: a grab sample being brought above water on a pontoon, C: pontoon carrying the grabbing installation, D: flling of big bags with sampled sediment, E: sieve installation designed for large samples, F: sorting of sieve sample residues (photos courtesy of D. Schiltmans, Archeologie Roterdam [A, F], P. Vos, Deltares [B], B. Smit, RCE [C], J. van der Panne, PUMA [D], M. van den Berg, ADC [E]). 28 —

Table 4 Non-exhaustive list of ofshore development projects in which archaeological assessments have been conducted. The primary research focus is without exception on the identifcation of isolated objects (e.g. wrecks, explosives, anchors). Seismic profling is conducted for the purpose of palaeolandscape assessment.

Development Research focus Data collection Result Recommendation Reference

Sand extraction L12C lithostratigraphy; desktop study; geological unknown intactness of core sampling for the Van Lil & Van den Brenk intactness prehistoric data; IKAW; indicative landscape surfaces purpose of 2017 landscape surfaces map of archaeological palaeolandscape research potential (Vonhögen- Peeters, Van Heteren & Peeters 2016)

Maasvlakte export cable river dunes seismic profling absent no further action Van Lil & Van den Brenk routes 2018a

Pipe lines between intactness prehistoric seismic profling; discontinuous no mitigating action; Van Lil & Van den Brenk drilling platforms Q10-P15 landscape surfaces AMS date of basal peat occurrence; AMS date use information for 2018b (GrM-14296, 7997 ± 17 adjustment of models BP)

Neuconnect cable route intactness prehistoric desktop study; risk assessment refne geological models Van den Brenk & Van Lil landscape surfaces geogenetical models; concerning potential 2018 indicative map of presence of prehistoric archaeological potential remains (Vonhögen-Peeters, Van Heteren & Peeters 2016)

Kampen well site (block Pleistocene landscape seismic profling uncertain additional coring for Velthuis 2018 G18 Dutch continental structures confrmation not advised shelf)

Windfarm Zone North prehistoric landscape seismic profling identifed zones of high fnal construction lots Fugro 2017; Van Lil & surfaces and structures potential avoid zones of high Van den Brenk 2018c potential and therefore no mitigating actions needed; watching briefs during construction for potential prehistoric materials

Windfarm Zone West lithostratigraphy; desktop study writen scheme of assessment following htps://ofshorewind.rvo. intactness prehistoric investigation regular management nl/obstructionsw landscape surfaces procedures

Windfarm Zone South lithostratigraphy; desktop study; risk assessment palaeolandscape analysis htps://ofshorewind.rvo. intactness prehistoric geogenetical models; concerning potential nl/obstructionszh landscape surfaces; indicative map of presence of prehistoric archaeological archaeological potential remains assessment (Vonhögen-Peeters, Van Heteren & Peeters 2016); core sampling

Windfarm Zone Borssele assessment of desktop study risk assessment no further action htps://ofshorewind.rvo. archaeological potential concerning the potential nl/fle/download/ presence of prehistoric 44692942 remains

Appraisal Wells B10-04 intactness prehistoric desktop study; geological risk assessment geophysical and Van Lil & Van den Brenk and A15-05 landscape surfaces data; IKAW; indicative concerning potential geotechnical survey to 2018d map of archaeological presence of prehistoric test archaeological potential (Vonhögen- remains expectations (specifed Peeters, Van Heteren & with regard to prehistoric Peeters 2016) landscapes)

Pipeline route D12B to intactness prehistoric desktop study; geological risk assessment no further action due to Van Lil & Van den Brenk D15A landscape surfaces data; IKAW; indicative concerning potential limited depth of 2018e map of archaeological presence of prehistoric disturbance potential (Vonhögen- remains Peeters, Van Heteren & Peeters 2016) 29 —

the diferences among them nor the As has been discussed in the preceding sections, consequences of these diferences are being the reconstruction of palaeolandscapes and the taken into consideration. Consequently, understanding of landscape processes in relation archaeological expectations with regard to to sea-level change is of great interest to the prehistoric cultural heritage are over-simplistic understanding of submerged prehistoric and generic. Model validation has been archaeology in the southern North Sea (fg. 7). conducted to a limited extent, notably in Enhancing geophysical data for the purpose of Roterdam (e.g. Maasvlakte 2-Prinses such reconstruction requires additional research Alexiahaven and Maasvlakte 2- Zwaaikom to inform us about what landscapes actually Amaliahaven).56 looked like in broader environmental terms. In addition, a priori statements/beliefs Although the results of the Doggerland Project of sometimes lead to alarming recommendations, the University of Birmingham are spectacular e.g. in the context of Windfarm Zone Borssele: with respect to the identifcation of ‘(1) No early prehistoric sites have been palaeolandscape structures from 3D seismic identifed within the BWFZ [meaning Windfarm data, it is also very clear that other data are Zone Borssele] itself, the nearest being 9 miles needed to permit dynamic landscape southeast of zone. (2) Where present, prehistoric modelling.59 The follow-up to this project, the remains are located at a depth of 30-40 m below ERC-funded Lost Frontiers Project of the University sea level. This means the site has been of Bradford, aims at precisely such submerged by the expanding North Sea around enhancement, by means of targeted sampling 7000 BCE and therefore possible setlements for palaeoenvironmental research, including will most likely be older. However, population multi-proxy analysis of micro-fossils and DNA density in North-western Europe during these analysis of ancient sediments (sedaDNA).60 early stages of prehistory was very low. Clearly, it makes no sense to randomly sample Therefore, the density of archaeological traces of the seabed; seismic profling is a crucial step in those people is also low while the chance of any selecting zones of high potential for sampling, traces being well preserved is even lower. In that is, to target the best spots for obtaining conclusion, the chances of encountering good data. prehistoric archaeology within the BWFZ are As mentioned earlier, sea-level small (low sensitivity).’57 This leads to the reconstructions provide an important baseline following conclusion: ‘No early prehistoric sites for the modelling of palaeolandscape dynamics, have been identifed within the BWFZ itself and the modelling of sea-level rise and basin the likelihood of encountering prehistoric subsidence rates, and the production of time archaeology within the zone is small. Therefore, series maps showing the transgression. Contrary further archaeological surveys are not to what might be expected in view of the long recommended.’58 tradition of sea-level reconstruction by Dutch As a result of this approach, economic geologists on land and in the North Sea,61 developments thus far have not resulted in new considerable work remains to be done.62 The ofshore archaeological data points. The seismic number of data points below -15 m OD, which data and profles obtained are nonetheless require collecting data ofshore, is particularly (potentially) important, as these can be used for limited. The following statistics illustrate the 63 the improvement of palaeogeographical diferences in data density (situation 2018) : 56 Schiltmans 2015; Vos et al. 2015; reconstructions and chronology (see section 3.2), from Roterdam and surroundings, there are 83 Schiltmans, Kubiak-Martens & Kooistra 2017; Schiltmans 2018. albeit that these are just starting points. To make basal peat data points, of which 46 constitute 57 Netherlands Enterprise Agency 2016, 25. such investigation truly useful – i.e. to ensure accurate sea-level indicators, covering 8300 to 58 Netherlands Enterprise Agency 2016, 27. 59 Gafney, Thompson & Fitch 2007; Fitch that the data and outcomes serve wider goals 3000 cal. BP (depth range: -16 to -1.5 m OD). The 2011; Gafney et al. 2017. than those of underwater archaeology survey Maasvlakte area provides 16 such samples, of 60 Gafney et al. 2017. 61 Jelgersma (1961) was the frst to provide alone – it remains necessary to ground-truth which 3 are accurate sea-level indicators, a relative sea-level curve for the North (validate) inferences made from seismic readings covering 9000 to 8500 cal. BP (-21.5 to -19.5 m Sea. 62 and to obtain independent dates on samples to Kiden et al. 2002; Sturt et al. 2006, 2013; OD). Farther ofshore, for the Rhine-Meuse- Cohen et al. 2017; Vermeersen et al. 2018; chronologically anchor features. As yet, good Scheldt palaeovalley in the Southern Bight Hijma & Cohen in press. 63 data points remain scarce. Sample numbers based on Hijma & (including the confuence with the Thames in Cohen (in press); age and depth ranges British-Belgian waters), 7 isolated data points have been rounded.

30 —

Fig 7 Time series of palaeolandscape reconstructions for the Scheldt estuary, combining information about depositional environments and fauna as known from palaeontological fnds (afer De Clercq 2018). 239 31 —

being just as important for inundation modelling as for archaeology.68 As is widely realised,69 the sea-level rise research eforts underpin and improve the understanding of the Holocene geology and drowning history of the North Sea, and hence the archaeological understanding of how such processes may have afected people living on and near the southern North Sea coast in prehistory.

3.4 Priority: the development of prospection techniques

The work conducted at the scale of sea-foor geological mapping, palaeoenvironmental reconstruction, and sea-level research is of obvious importance, but it needs to be complemented with data commensurate with the more traditional scale of archaeological research.70 This requires appropriate prospection techniques. 64 These time/depth data are considered less accurate. The samples on which Geophysical surveying and core sampling are they are based were mostly collected appropriate means through which to investigate during the pioneering stages of research, in the late 1960s to 1980s, now and map geological and environmental tens of years ago. Depth provenance characteristics of the substrate. However, the measurements were less precise, while Fig 8 Vibrocore installation being sunk into the North radiocarbon dates are conventional and application of such techniques for the detection based on bulk peat samples, which are Sea from the research vessel Pelagia (photo courtesy of of submerged prehistoric phenomena faces now known to be potentially inaccurate M. Hijma, Deltares). (see e.g. Törnqvist et al. 1992, 1998). many problems, as the prehistoric 65 This research is funded by the archaeological record is mostly characterised by participating institutions and the Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed. are known from depths between -34 and -24 m difuse – if sometimes high-density – scaters of 66 htps://www.deltares.nl/en/blog/ OD, the deepest of which may be sea-level occupation waste (ofen lithics) or by ephemeral hidden-secrets-north-sea/; htps://www. 64 deltares.nl/en/blog/improving- indicators for the period 11,000 to 9500 cal. BP. manifestations of human infuence on the projections-of-future-sea-level-rise/; A sampling campaign by TNO-Geological Survey environment (e.g. the presence of charred plant htps://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=wSqfUnfKs2Q of the Netherlands, Deltares, and the Royal remains in deposits, or indications for 67 Dogger Bank: -70 to -30 m; Frisian Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (known disturbances in the vegetation). Anthropogenic Front: -50 to -30 m; Brown Bank: -40 to disturbances of the subsoil, such as pit hearths -30 m; IJmuiden (near shore): -30 to -20 m by its original, Dutch acronym, NIOZ), with OD. participation of the University of Leeds, the Vrije and burial pits, being of restricted dimensions 68 The data will be subject to detailed (up to several square meters), are difcult to analysis (lithological, sedimentological, Universiteit Amsterdam, and Utrecht University, terrestrial botanical, aquatic is trying to fll the gap as best as possible.65 Two detect via prospecting. Larger-scale palynological, dating, geochemistry) in anthropogenic disturbances of the subsoil due order to (1) work up the samples to new expeditions (in 2017 and 2018) with the Dutch data points for the reconstruction of the research vessel Pelagia were geared to the to digging activities, e.g. for the construction of Early Holocene transgressive history and (sunken foor) huts, are relatively rare.71 (2) feed into geophysical models of collection of basal peat samples of the Dutch The regional relative sea-level rise, including coast (fg. 8).66 In order to identify the presence chances of detecting such archaeological the paterns of glacio-isostatic adjustment causing diferential and context of basal peat beds at the target manifestations of human presence by means of subsidence within the North Sea (e.g. depths (below MSL) and within reach of the non- or minimally-invasive techniques are Vink et al. 2007; Sturt et al. 2013; Cohen et al. 2014). hydraulic vibrocorer (mostly up to 4–5 m below therefore close to zero. The discovery of 69 Peeters et al. 2009; Flemming et al. 2017. the seabed), seismic profles were collected and knapped fint and burnt bone – as reliable 70 Sturt et al. 2018. 67 71 See Peeters, Sturt & Westley (in prep.) interpreted onboard. At critical locations, archaeological indicators for human activity – in for a broader discussion of submerged triplets of cores were collected to provide a core samples largely appears to be a mater of prehistoric phenomena in the North 72 Sea and on the margins of the Atlantic series of in situ basal peat samples with luck, be it onshore or ofshore (see section 5.2 Ocean. established palaeolandscape context, the later for further discussion). 72 Verhagen et al. 2013. 32 —

In the case of Roterdam-Yangtzehaven, refraining from further survey in the remainder where a submerged site dating to the Mesolithic of the harbour basin). These target areas were could be investigated at a depth of about -20m then subjected to a geoarchaeological OD, a ‘staged’ geoarchaeological approach was assessment by means of a fairly dense network taken.73 Here, a frst, desktop assessment of the of high-quality cores. Some cores yielded available geological data (regional-scale samples containing knapped fint and burnt reconstruction of palaeolandscape based on bone, providing evidence for an archaeological seismic data and archived core materials) was site. Although the top of the river dune complex undertaken, followed by validation of the had eroded, it was decided to excavate several seismic data by means of cone penetration ‘windows’ on the dune slopes by means of a probing (depth of encounter, preservation of grab-sampler, modifed for this particular palaeosurfaces). In a next step, further seismic purpose to allow for control over sample investigations were used to refne the spatial position and depth. model (i.e. local landscape reconstruction) of the Obviously, the success of detecting a submerged and sediment-buried palaeosurface prehistoric site in this particular project in the Late-Glacial landscape. In this phase of depended on the input of expert knowledge. Is it detailing, inland dune features were identifed, appropriate in this case to also atribute the which are known to have a high potential for the success to luck? Perhaps not, since river dune presence of archaeological remains (as is evident slopes generally bear considerable quantities of from virtually all such sites investigated onshore) occupation waste.74 Given the experience at the (fg. 9). This new model formed the basis for the Yangtze harbour, a similar approach to the selection of some smaller target areas (and for prospection of submerged river dunes farther

Fig 9 Location of Mesolithic sites in and around Roterdam in relation to the river dune complexes identifed by detailed mapping programmes (compiled by Archeologie Roterdam). 1. Roterdam-Maasvlakte 1; 2. Roterdam- 73 Vos, De Kleine & Ruten 2012; Vos & Yangtzehaven; 3. Roterdam-Emplacement Centraal Station; 4. Roterdam-Hillegersberg; 5. Roterdam-Grindweg/ Cohen 2014–2015; Vos et al. 2015. 74 See Amkreutz (2013) for an overview. Argonautenweg; 6. Roterdam-Bergse Bos; 7. Roterdam-De Velden; 8. Roterdam-Blankenburgstraat/ This is not to say that the chances of Hoogvlietstraat; 9. Roterdam-’t Hart; 10. Roterdam- IJsselmonde; 11. Roterdam-Beverwaard Tramremise; 12. fnding such materials in small core samples are statistically high. Hardinxveld-De Bruin; 13. Hardinxveld-Polderweg (afer Peeters et al. 2015, Fig. 7.4). 33 —

ofshore in the North Sea may be fruitful. instance, fnds from fshing nets will always be However, one must bear in mind that hunter- bigger than the mesh size of the nets, whereas gatherer dwelling was not restricted to river fnds from beaches and reject piles will be dunes or to other elevated elements of the smaller than the mesh of the dredging screens landscape in the foodplain. Localised, ‘thin’ and will have a minimum size strongly related to clusters of remains can be present in clayey fats the observational capacities and focus of the in the foodplain,75 but the statistical chance of collector. Leaving aside such biasing factors, the them being detected by means of coring is close question is how such Pleistocene to Middle to zero. Holocene remains are spatially distributed on/in In reference to Roterdam-Yangtzehaven, it is the seabed. For this we have to rely on also worthwhile to pay atention to the inclusion observations onshore. This record demonstrates of charred plant remains – fragments of stems a range of distribution paterns (from extended, and leaves of reeds in particular – in clastic difuse scaters to high-density accumulations) sediments. At Roterdam-Yangtzehaven, in situ that can best be approached from an ‘of-site’ and horizontally embedded reed remains are perspective.78 thought to be the result of deliberate and The discovery in 2007 of more than 80 repeated clearing of vegetation adjacent to the artefacts, mostly hand-axes, originating from dwelling site. Comparable observations have one specifc gravel-extraction pit (Area 240) of been made for other sites in the Netherlands Great Yarmouth, on the British coast, provides (e.g. near Almere)76 and the United Kingdom (e.g. an example of an approach that appears to be at Star Carr).77 Charred plant remains in clastic efective for the detection/exploration of fnd sediments elsewhere could indicate the contexts characterised by extended, difuse presence of dwelling sites nearby. scaters of artefacts.79 In collaboration with The many stray fnds from fshing nets and industry, research consisted of a infrastructural projects indicate that certain geoarchaeological assessment to determine the areas have a high potential for Palaeolithic original sedimentary context of these artefacts, (Pleistocene) and Mesolithic to Neolithic (Early by means of a geological study and grab and Middle Holocene) faunal remains, lithics, sampling aimed at collecting further artefacts in and organic artefacts, as well as human remains. order to corroborate the origin of the initial fnds The majority of these fnds are more voluminous (fg. 10).80 This approach proved successful, and than the Mesolithic remains encountered in the it is without doubt a way forward to increase the Yangtze harbour, and would generally not even chances of locating in situ occurrences of ft auger diameters. Of course, the size prehistoric remains in general. Admitedly, grab- 75 E.g. Mesolithic sites in the Meuse distribution relates to discovery context. For sampling approaches are highly intrusive and foodplain near Well and Aijen, in the province of Limburg (Müller, Tebbens & Flamman 2018). 76 Woltinge 2009. 77 Dark 1998; Milner, Conneller & Taylor 2018a, 2018b. 78 Cf. Foley 1981. The of-site concept as proposed by Foley (1981) takes an explicit taphonomic perspective on the diachronic emergence of distribution paterns at a landscape scale and moves away from the narrow defnition of ‘site’ as a restricted zone arbitrarily delimited on the basis of fnd density that is subsequently considered to represent a functionally labelled type of location. The later approach prevails in archaeological landscape studies (not only in the Netherlands), but comes with many conceptual/methodological problems (cf. Peeters 2007). 79 Middle Palaeolithic ‘sites’ ofen consist of a ‘veil of stones’ (Roebroeks et al. 1992) – a continuous distribution with lower and higher densities of artefacts, resulting from a complex taphonomic Fig 10 Middle Palaeolithic hand-axe uncovered during the geoarchaeological survey of licence Area 240 (afer Tizzard history (cf. Foley 1981). 80 Bicket et al. 2014; Tizzard et al. 2011, 2014, et al. 2014, Fig. 8). 2015. 34 —

destructive, but, as underlined in the NSPRMF investigation of sites (Roterdam-Yangtzehaven), 2009, in order to obtain new good data points, the geological contextualisation of fnds with we must accept some degree of disturbance. limited context information (Middeldiep, However, such coarse-grained data should be Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2), as well as systematic complemented by high-resolution stratigraphic inventorying and scientifc analysis (AMS 14C and palaeoenvironmental research in order to dating, stable isotope analysis) of stray fnds. The provide context and to enable the development number of new good data points collected over of more detailed archaeological investigation. the past decade is, however, limited. To increase the number of good observations (data points), prospection techniques need to be 3.5 Conclusions further developed. The staged approach (geoarchaeological assessment, archaeological sampling, excavation) implemented at Over the past 10 years, a lot of research has been Roterdam-Yangtzehaven was successful, and conducted, in various forms, that is of relevance showed what can be achieved under particular to the research priorities of the NSPRMF 2009. circumstances and within a particular project The extent to which these priorities are met is context. However, in view of the variability in variable. archaeological manifestations of prehistoric Eforts have been geared towards gaining a behaviour known from the North Sea, as well as beter understanding of geological factors the variable character and impacts of economic afecting the taphonomic histories of submerged developments on the seabed, other prospection prehistoric landscapes, as well as those of techniques (including destructive ones) need to archaeological and palaeontological fnds. be considered and developed.81 Various studies have provided insight into In view of these results, it is safe to conclude 81 In 2018, experiments were conducted to sample the top of the (peat-covered) sea-level fuctuation and changing that the themes and topics of the NSPRMF 2009 Pleistocene surface in a development palaeogeography, factors that are of direct research agenda remain topical and relevant area in the Markermeer by means of a GPS-controlled suction sampler (called archaeological relevance for our understanding with respect to international programmes. the Marine Prehistory Sampler; see e.g. of prehistoric human–environment Opportunities to collect new data to increase htps://www.youtube.com/ interrelationships and socio-cultural processes. watch?v=oQdxdWTAbpI). The approach scientifc insights into these themes and topics targets the collection of voluminous As yet, the collection of good data points continue to exist. Hence, there seems to be no samples (2 m3) in order to increase the chance of detecting archaeological appears to lag behind. Signifcant results have reason to consider changes at this point. material. been obtained with respect to underwater 35 4 The development of management — tools

course came with many restrictions in terms of 4.1 Introduction time, money, engineering, logistics, and safety. Mutual trust that all parties involved were reliable, and the recognition that choices had to The NSPRMF 2009 management agenda lists a be made, led to an unmatched project, in which restricted number of themes and topics that not just responsibilities but also opportunities connect to the necessity to bring together were taken. economic stakeholders, heritage professionals, The organisation responsible for the actual and scientists. Although not adopted as a harbour construction works86 assumed an priority, an important aspect of the management important role in the technical realisation of the agenda concerns informing a wider audience. research. This made it possible to investigate The merits of the NSPRMF 2009 concerning archaeological fnd layers at a depth of -20m the management agenda can be traced in an OD.87 The plan was to dredge sand from pits of array of publications, reports, and documents, the coast and adjacent to the Eurogeul – already as well as in management actions. Table 5 known as an important palaeontological fnd provides a summary of activities, achievements, zone – and to use this sand for the construction and implications with respect to the themes and of Maasvlakte 2. It was understood that this topics listed in table 2.82 The following sections sand would, without doubt, yield quantities of discuss these in the context of the NSPRMF palaeontological and, possibly, archaeological management priorities. remains. Hence, procedures were conceived to collect information about the stratigraphic origin of any such materials that were expected to 4.2 Priority: collaboration with industry surface on the new Maasvlakte 2 beach during and private collectors and afer construction.88 The beach itself was surveyed through feld walking and through systematic collection of materials by means of a Industry and private collectors represent two beach cleaner. major, related sources through which The decisions taken during the entire information about prehistoric landscapes and construction process resulted in many important archaeology in the southern North Sea is, or can new scientifc insights, notwithstanding the loss be, delivered, as is expressed in several of detail that had to be accepted.89 But just as publications. Collaboration is perceived as a important are the eforts taken to inform and prerequisite to increase our knowledge and to involve the public. For this purpose, an frmly embed archaeological objectives into a information centre (Futureland) was built on the range of procedures that ofen are connected Maasvlakte itself to receive groups of pupils and 83 82 Note that table 5 contains references with (inter)national legislation and regulations. individuals, initially to inform them about the which are not necessarily repeated in An important step in the collaboration with Roterdam harbour construction, and later to the text. 83 Flemming 2004; Flatman & Evans 2014; industry was taken with the development of a also inform them about the archaeological and Flemming et al. 2014; Salter, Murphy & research framework in the context of the palaeontological research that was being Peeters 2014. 84 84 Manders et al. 2008. Roterdam harbour extension Maasvlakte 2. It conducted. Experts in archaeology and 85 Maarleveld & Peeters 2004. was the outcome of a long trajectory of dialogue palaeontology were present during organised 86 Projectorganisatie Uitbreiding Maasvlakte (project organisation between the harbour authorities, the open days to tell collectors about what they had expansion Maasvlakte, known as archaeological service of the municipality of found, and how such fnds help scientists to PUMA). 87 reconstruct prehistoric landscapes and human Schiltmans & Vos 2015. Roterdam (Bureau Oudheidkundig Onderzoek 88 Kuitems et al. 2015. Roterdam, now Archeologie Roterdam), and life in the past. Assisted by experts, visitors could 89 Moree & Sier 2015. The extensive report go out to try their luck on the beach. In addition, on the investigations in the Roterdam- the Dutch state service for archaeological Yangtzehaven basin and sand wells, and investigations (Rijksdienst voor het in collaboration with Archeologie Roterdam and on materials collected on the beach, the Natural History Museum, the Port of received excellent reviews (Innes 2015; Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek, now the Firth 2016), which applauded the Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed).85 The Roterdam designed a portal (Oervondstchecker) approach as providing an outstanding (fg. 11) where collectors can report their fnds90 example of how to deal with such framework served as a guide for the complicated underwater research development of an approach to obtain and receive replies from experts with regard to setings. 90 htps://oervondstchecker.nl. The Dutch archaeologically signifcant information within their nature and signifcance. word oervondst roughly translates as the context of a highly complex project, which of primeval fnd. 36 —

Table 5 Summary of merits of the NSPRMF 2009 concerning the management agenda.

Themes and topics Activity/Context Achievement Implication Reference

Theme H: Legislation and preservation

H.1: Defning prehistoric European Marine Board – European Marine Board Joint geoscience-humanities Flemming et al. 2014 cultural heritage SUBLAND Position Paper 21 strategy for European Continental Shelf Prehistoric Research

COST-Action TD0902 Scientifc publications; EMB- EU-wide network of Bailey et al. 2012 SPLASHCOS supported workgroup researchers and heritage SUBLAND; professionals

H.2: Common ground for the European Marine Board – European Marine Board Joint geoscience-humanities Flemming et al. 2014 protection of the historic and SUBLAND Position Paper 21 strategy for European natural environment Continental Shelf Prehistoric Research

H.3: Conservation of submerged Exploration of predictive Joint eforts by governmental Shared sense of responsibility prehistoric landscapes in a modelling bodies – dynamic environment

Theme I: Assessment and data sharing

I.1: Research potential and Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 Research framework Defned research potential and Manders et al. 2008 threat mapping scope for the Maasvlakte 2 development

Increasing ofshore economic Assessment of the possibility to Development of an indicative Erkens et al. 2014 activity develop an indicative map of map of archaeological values archaeological values afected can only be done in phases by high degree of variability in data resolution

Increasing ofshore economic Geoarchaeological map of Indicative map of preservation Vonhögen-Peeters, Van activity potential preservation of potential of prehistoric remains Heteren & Peeters 2016 prehistoric landscape remains in the Dutch sector of the North Sea for management decision- making

12 mile zone sand extraction Assessment of preservation Indicative map of preservation Vonhögen-Peeters, Maljers- potential within the 12 mile potential of prehistoric remains Oosterwijk & Peeters in prep. zone based on modelled in the 12 mile for decision- preservation of basal peat making in respect to sand dredging

I.2: Surveying Impact assessments of ofshore Geophysiscal mapping of Integration of submerged Van den Brenk & Van Lil 2018; developments potentially important zones for prehistoric archaeology in Van Lil & Van den Brenk 2018a, prehistoric archaeology impact assessments 2018b, 2018c, 2018d, 2018e; Velthuis 2018

I.3: Data sharing and fnd COST-Action TD0902 SPLASHCOS-viewer (web portal Availability of information htp://splashcos.maris2.nl/ reporting SPLASHCOS to submerged sites on the about submerged prehistory European continental shelf)

EC DG MARE initiative Marine EMODnet data portal Integration of submerged htp://www.emodnet.eu/; Knowledge 2020 landscape data and data on htp://www.emodnet.eu/ human activity human-activities

Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 Portal for fnd reporting Fosters data collection based htps://oervondstchecker.nl on fnds reported by private collectors

I.4: Co-operation COST-Action TD0902 EU-wide network of researchers Fosters cross-national projects Bailey et al. 2012 SPLASHCOS and heritage professionals

Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 Solutions to the integration of Co-operation between Symposium 20 Meters Deep!; prehistoric archaeology in industry, scientists and heritage Weerts et al. 2012; Moree & Sier complex ofshore developments professionals 2015

Theme J: Public outreach

J.1: Changing worlds Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 Visitor centre ‘Futureland’; Fosters enthousiasm among www.futureland.nl harbour extension ‘meet the experts’ open days; economic stakeholders, public accompanied fossil collecting and heritage professionals/ on the Maasvlakte 2 beach scientists 37 —

Themes and topics Activity/Context Achievement Implication Reference

Book on world history of the Opening chapter in nationally Provides a very wide audience Amkreutz & Dusseldorp 2018 Netherlands: very succesful book on Dutch with a glimpse of the potential ‘Wereldgeschiedenis van history of North Sea prehistoric Nederland’ archaeology

Expert ‘open days’ specifcally Documenting fnds; creating a Creates increased public RMO on prehistoric fnds and fossils network of knowledgeable awareness and a network of from the North sea in the enthusiasts information National Museum of Antiquities

The long draw of creativity: Public oriented publication Creates public awareness Pits 2018 ochre and engraved lines oldest art

Steinaxt aus Doggerland Public oriented publication core Creates public awareness Angelicka Franz 2013: axe htp://www.spiegel.de/ wissenschaf/mensch/ doggerland-artefakte-fnden- sich-in-der-nordsee-a-905737. html; appeared earlier in British Archaeology

Various smaller exhibitions on Exhibitions in national Museum Creates public awareness RMO North Sea prehistoric of Antiquities/RMO archaeology (Krijn; handaxes Area 240; Archeologie van Nederland) and important position in permanent exhibition

Book Schaten van het Drawing the atention of media Increased activity of private Van Ginkel, Reumer & Van der Mammoetstrand and public collectors Valk 2014

Press releases concerning fnds Drawing the atention of media Increased activity of private See table 6 and research and public collectors and informing the public about human- environment interrelationships

J.2: ‘Them’ and ‘Us’ | ‘Nature’ Press releases concerning fnds Drawing the atention of media Increased activity of private See table 6 and ‘Culture’ and research and public collectors and informing the public about human- environment interrelationships

Since its launch in 2014, more than 11,000 fnds atention of the scientifc community (fg. 12) – have been reported via the Oervondstchecker notably human remains, Pleistocene hyena portal,91 of which about 240 were determined to coproliths, a range of Palaeolithic artefacts be archaeological in nature. Finds are also being (including a hand-axe made out of Wommersom reported to e.g. the national museum of quartzite), bone points, a projectile point antiquities (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden), embedded in a red deer mandibula, Mesolithic Archeologie Roterdam, the Rijksdienst voor het stone tools, and a wealth of fossil bones. These Cultureel Erfgoed, and universities. Apart from eforts have boosted the atention of the media the Oervondstchecker portal, the informal for the topic of submerged archaeology and Doggerland Research Group (Werkgroep landscapes (see section 4.6). Steentijd Noordzee) has established a database These initiatives have also created a good of the active community of amateur basis for the reporting of fnds by individual archaeologists and palaeontologists and their amateur collectors. There are also (semi-) collections. Extra expertise days with a specifc professional collectors who have been very archaeological focus are organised on a regular active when the (beam-trawling) fshing and basis to serve as a means of documenting most aggregates industries were still bringing discoveries. The gain is that potentially quantities of palaeontological and, to a lesser signifcant fnds become known to the research extent, archaeological materials ashore, but community and that contacts with collectors these collectors have been in close contact with 91 guarantee further reporting of new fnds. And This number includes objects that were museums for a while now, notably the natural erroneously believed to be fossils or indeed, many exciting fnds have come to the history museum in Roterdam (Natuurhistorisch artefacts when reported. 38 —

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Fig 11 Home page of the online ‘oervondstchecker’. 39 —

Fig 12 A small selection of fnds from the southern North Sea (photos courtesy of RMO unless stated otherwise). Top lef: Mesolithic core axe fshed up in the Brown Bank area; top right: fragment of a barbed point on the artifcial beach of Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 (photo courtesy of M. Spithoven); middle lef: Mesolithic perforated red deer antler from Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 (photo courtesy of D. Mol); middle right: Late Palaeolithic decorated bone fshed up southwest of the Brown Bank; botom: Mesolithic human remains from the North Sea and beach. 40 —

Museum Roterdam), the Naturalis museum and investigations in the Netherlands, and the fnder the national museum of antiquities of the artefacts was exemplary – indeed, it (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden), both in Leiden. received the British Archaeological Award for Because beam trawling is no longer practiced, Archaeological Discovery of the Year in 2008 (fg. the number of fnds is rapidly decreasing; it is 13). However, the wharf in Flushing prohibited estimated that there has been 95% reduction in any further collecting of materials on its the number fossils being brought ashore,92 and premises, citing economic damage due to a the number is predicted to decrease further in lesser quality of gravel, which subsequently had the years to come. to be delivered from diferent pits.93 Similarly, The aggregates industry, however, remains afer the widespread atention for the discovery a factor of importance and concern, and here of a Neanderthal skull fragment at another problems emerge with respect to the wharf, amateur palaeontologists were banned accessibility of wharves. Authorisation to access from that wharf. ‘Reasons of security’ were wharves to look for palaeontological and mentioned, whereas security was never said to archaeological materials on reject piles is be problematic before (there were contracts in difcult to obtain due to the perception on the order to prevent liability). Eforts by the part of companies that they risk intervention by Rijksmuseum van Oudheden and the Rijksdienst legal authorities in the case of important fnds. voor het Cultureel Erfgoed to solve this problem For example, the discovery of a collection of remained unsuccessful; there appear to be no Middle Palaeolithic artefacts on a Dutch wharf in legal means at the moment to change the Flushing, but originating from license Area 240 atitude of wharf owners towards collectors. The in British waters, led to an intervention by outcome may very well be that the information English Heritage, which was readily accepted by fow from active amateurs to the scientifc world the British dredging company. The collaboration will dwindle because the atention garnered by between the dredging company, English their fnds may ultimately result in them having Heritage, the state service for archaeological to give up their hobby.

92 Personal communication Mr. K. Post (November 2018). Fig 13 The winning team of the British Archaeology Award 2008 for the archaeological discovery of the year, with 93 The upcoming exit of Great Britain from representatives of Hanson Aggregates Marine, and Mr. Jan Meulmeester (second from right), who discovered tens of the European Union might complicate maters even further. hand-axes on a wharf in Flushing. 41 —

Fig 14 Home page of the SPLASHCOS-viewer.

nature of fnds, and references. A glance at the 4.3 Priority: data sharing map immediately makes clear to the viewer that major diferences exist with regard to the numbers of data points for the various nations. Important steps have been taken with respect to The southern Baltic region has the highest data sharing. The EU-COST project SLASHCOS number of data points, and this is directly has triggered several initiatives. The frst is the related to the intensity of underwater surveys so-called SPLASHCOS-viewer,94 which intends to conducted by both professional and sport divers, provide basic information about the age of and the relatively easy accessibility of submerged sites and fnd zones and about the archaeological materials due to shallow waters nature of fnds. The other is the integration of and good visibility. The North Sea, including the data on human activity, including archaeological Dutch sector, also has a considerable number of data, in the EMODnet gateway.95 data points, but these are concentrated in the The SPLASHCOS-viewer is the result of input near-coast zone. Data points far ofshore are as from all nations involved in the SPLASHCOS yet rare, and in the majority of cases, precise project, which includes the Netherlands (fg. 14). locations are unknown. This is, for instance, the It was not conceived as a research tool, but, case for data points in the Brown Bank area, rather, as an information retrieval system that which correspond to fnds trawled up in can be used for outreach and management kilometre-long fshing stretches. Coordinates purposes. The map can be queried for are ‘best estimates’, but imprecise. Nonetheless, archaeological period and a restricted number of the SPLASHCOS-viewer is a good step to make specifc phenomena, such as ‘setlement’ or otherwise scatered information available to a ‘grave’. Each data point is associated with larger group of professionals as well as 94 htp://splashcos.maris2.nl/ interested members of the general public. 95 htp://www.emodnet.eu/human- information about location, dating, fnd depth, activities; EMOD stands for European presence/absence of organic materials, the Marine Observation and Data Network. 42 —

Fig 15 The EMODnet Human Activities portal, with data ploted for prehistoric archaeology.

EMODnet is the gateway to marine data in Europe. Its philosophy is one of ‘collect once and 4.4 Priority: the spatial defnition of use many times’, and it depends on the input of research potential and threats many players in the marine feld. EMODnet provides a number of portals, each of which collect data in one specifc category: bathymetry, Predictive models have played, and still play, an geology, seabed habitats, chemistry, biology, important role in archaeological heritage physics, human activities, and coastal mapping. management in the Netherlands.96 On land, from The human activities portal provides access to a the 1990s until recently, the map of range of datasets concerning not just archaeological potential (Indicatieve Kaart present-day activity, but also past cultural Archeologische Waarden, IKAW) provided a heritage (fg. 15). The dataset of prehistoric nation-wide model of the chances of cultural heritage in fact represents the encountering archaeological materials, SPLASHCOS-viewer data. Integration of this indicating where values were high, medium, or dataset in EMODnet ensures the structural low.97 The IKAW has now been replaced nation- embedding of information about submerged wide by more detailed regional maps and serves prehistoric archaeology in a well-conceived management overview rather than management structure. As such, submerged prehistoric policy. For the Dutch sector of the North Sea, cultural heritage is explicitly considered a such indicative maps have long been lacking. relevant asset of the marine environment and is At the request of Rijkswaterstaat (the Dutch made accessible to the many stakeholders in this Ministry of Infrastructure and Water 96 Groenewoudt & Peeters 2006. arena. 97 Deeben, Hallewas & Maarleveld 2002; Management) an initial map, based on the Deeben 2008; Deeben & Smit 2015. presence (higher probability) or absence (lower 43 —

probability) of basal peat was produced in 2002 it is found below the coastal plain, at the base of (fg. 16).98 the Holocene coastal-deltaic sequence, as a Ofshore basal peat results from Early marker bed separating post-transgression Holocene marshes, mires, fens, and swamps deposits (‘Holocene’) from pre-transgression that, immediately in advance of marine surfaces (‘Pleistocene’). Where it survives, it transgression, formed extensively across various functions a relatively erosion-resistant bed, due types of terrain. The term ‘basal peat’ is carried to compaction, ofen covered by 1-4 m of shelly over from the onshore context, where such peat sand of the active sea bed. Basal peat beds have

Fig 16 Indicative map of archaeological potential for (pre-)Mesolithic remains based on the presence/absence of basal peat. Dark tones: high potential; shaded: presence of peat and gytja (afer Maarleveld & Peeters 2004, Fig. 14.3). 98 Deeben, Hallewas & Maarleveld 2002. 44 —

favourable seismic refection properties, systematically obtained baseline that informs allowing their mapping using geophysical about sequences of deposits that have their techniques. Besides being datable and a source particular geogenetic origin, and that it permits for sea-level rise reconstruction (see section 3.2), researchers to draw inferences about the fnding it preserved indicates that the terrestrial potential survival of archaeological contexts surfaces that the peat buried during its dating from diferent periods. The result is a formation have also escaped erosion. map that diferentiates zones of potential Hence, where a bed of submerged basal peat archaeological survival for the main is mapped, the chances of survival of Mesolithic archaeological periods represented within the and Palaeolithic remains within and below are upper 30 m below the sea foor, notably the higher than where it is eroded. Basal peat Neolithic, Mesolithic, Late Palaeolithic, and mapping therefore provides a fair indication for Middle Palaeolithic (fg. 18).102 The map also the potential survival of Mesolithic and Late demarcates zones where no survival is expected, Paleolithic remains. However, it was realised – in as well as a zone where archaeological potential 2002 and in the further studies discusses here is possible based on geomorphological features. – that for indicating absence of prehistoric It is clear, however, that, due to low data density, remains altogether, just mapping extents of such models remain extremely coarse-grained basal peat would not do. Archaeological and and rough estimates at best. Their practical use palaeontological remains dating to the Middle is therefore limited. Palaeolithic, for instance, can of course be A more fne-grained model of archaeological present in deposits pre-dating the basal peat. survival has been developed for the 12 mile Due to the increase in economic activity in zone, which is of particular economic the southern North Sea and new insights with importance for sand extraction (as building respect to the survival of palaeolandscape material and for beach replenishment). Based on structures, several actions have been initiated to borehole data, a quantitative model with a 250 × develop new spatial models expressing 250 m grid cell resolution was calculated for the expectations with regard to the potential presence/absence of basal peat, using a presence of prehistoric remains. Ward and sequential indicator simulation, nearest- Larcombe proposed a geogenetic approach to neighbour interpolation, and ordinary kriging such modelling.99 A pilot study was conducted to geostatistical modelling.103 This simulation assess the possibility of modelling output was then combined with seismic data, archaeological expectations by combining such leading to a simplifed map with a 1 × 1 km grid geogenetic information with archaeological cell resolution (aggregated simulation results, expert knowledge (fg. 17).100 From the test areas prioritized for presence of peat). The selected, it became clear that the variable preservation of basal peat increases the chances quantity and quality of geological data resulted of survival of Mesolithic and Palaeolithic remains in spatial models with highly variable resolution. within and below the peat. An atempt was It was concluded that the development of a made to chronologically specify the predictive model, or ‘ofshore IKAW’, by using a archaeological signifcance by combining this uniform, ‘one-size-fts-all’ approach would not basal peat data with onshore archaeological be feasible, and that several phases of model data. An emerging problem is the fragmented calibration will need to be gone through to survival of the basal peat (fg. 19). Several zones obtain a useable result. have been defned on the basis of how these In a follow-up action, eforts were geared at a remnants are scatered over an area. Some lithostratigraphical approach to the entire Dutch zones show highly scatered distributions of sector of the North Sea.101 Drawing on existing small patches of peat, while others show larger borehole information from depths of up to 30 m swaths of peat. The later are mainly found of 99 Ward & Larcombe 2008 Roterdam and adjacent areas of the coast and 100 Erkens et al. 2014. below the sea foor, spatial models of the 101 Vonhögen-Peeters, Van Heteren & distribution of defned lithostratigraphical of the Wadden isles. A further zone with Peeters 2016. preserved peat is present of IJmuiden. 102 It should be noted that ‘Middle members and units, as well as sequences Palaeolithic’ in this map also includes (providing information about erosion), formed Here a problem arises: the uncertainty Lower Palaeolithic potential. 103 Vonhögen-Peeters, Maljers-Oosterwijk the basis for an archaeological assessment. The present in the peat model, notably due to the & Peeters in prep. advantage of this approach is that it results in a variable density of reliable observations and the 45 —

Fig 17 Map of one pilot area (Dogger Bank) showing palaeolandscape features as a basis for the assessment of archaeological potential. Yellow: early holocen gullies/tributaries; beige: early holocene drylands; blue: early holocene wetlands (afer Erkens et al. 2014, Appendix A, map P). 46 —

Fig 18 Map showing the preservation potential (in diferent colours) for archaeological remains dating to various prehistoric periods within the frst 30 m below the sea foor. The model is solely based on lithostratigraphical data. The area shown in grey has no potential, but the zone shown in shading has possible potential in view of geomorphological characteristics (afer Vonhögen-Peeters, Van Heteren & Peeters 2016, Fig. 4.5). 47 —

Fig 19 Model of preserved peat within the 12 mile zone. Red: peat present, green: peat absent, grey: presence/absence of peat unknown (afer Vonhögen-Peeters, Maljers-Oosterwijk & Peeters in prep.). The map of the Netherlands shows the coversand surface (deep purple <15m below sea level; light yellow: <0m below sea level; dark yellow >0m above sea level), ice-pushed ridges (orange), and stream valleys (purple). Black dots represent Late Palaeolithic sites in the 'near- coast zone' as registered in the national database Archis (sites known further inland are not shown). vast number of grid cells with unknown face value. And, just as importantly, absence of presence/absence of peat, due to the absence of peat by no means implies absence of observations. This is particularly the case in the archaeological remains, either in situ or ex situ. zones characterised by scatered, small-sized Meanwhile, archaeological landscape patches. The question is not just whether or not mapping and management programmes on land preservation of peat is indeed fragmentary, but have developed into a multi-layered approach, also what ‘fragmented’ occurrences may where the archaeological potential for the represent in the context of landscapes. A high Palaeolithic and Mesolithic is separated from degree of expert knowledge is required to that for the Neolithic and subsequent, younger 104 understand the signifcance of observations and time periods. This development was intimately 104 Groenewoudt & Smit 2017; Lauwerier model outcomes, as these cannot be taken at linked with developments in geological et al. 2017. 48 —

mapping, which has moved from borehole- resources had been known about for a based lithostratigraphical profle-type mapping considerable period of time.111 The targeted (burial depth and preservation mapping of investigation of the harbour basin provided hard palaeosurfaces)105 to digital, polygon-based evidence for a well-preserved archaeological geomorphological mapping (storing site, maybe even several sites. The Dutch mining chronological information of individual regulations (Mijnbouwwet, 1 January 2003) state landscape elements), 106 to an integration of the that there is an obligation for the ofshore two.107 This integration has allowed industry to take archaeological heritage into archaeological landscape mapping, in which consideration.112 This sets a baseline for geomorphological and geological features are mitigation of large-scale disturbances that are converted to archaeological potential defned by directly related to economic activity. However, it the expected nature of archaeological was evident that opportunities for arranging in manifestations present. The systematics can be situ conservation or designation of the applied to the present surface of palimpsest Maasvlakte 2 as a protected area were zero, upland and historically reclaimed lowlands,108 as given the economic interests at stake. It was well as to buried and submerged landscapes of therefore decided to focus on the targeted older Holocene time windows.109 investigation of the areas to be disturbed, and to Researchers projecting knowledge gained on collect data to permit contextualisation of land to litle-investigated landscapes ofshore known fnds and possibly expand the must bear in mind the possibility that the archaeological record with new fnds collected archaeological potential of entities onshore is under controlled conditions.113 not necessarily the same as that of entities In view of the number of portals and datasets ofshore. An important question remains: to integrated in the EMODnet gateway, it is very what extent is the known onshore clear that the economic interests in the southern archaeological record representative of areas North Sea are enormous. Archaeological work which are now submerged? Spatial conducted in connection with planned ofshore (geographical) and chronological diferentiation wind farms – including the laying of cables – and changes in behaviour may efectively have makes clear that responsibility has been taken, led to a more variable archaeological output in the sense that the potential archaeological than is currently known.110 value of designated project areas is being assessed (table 4). But this is a recent development, and, as mentioned earlier (section 4.5 Priority: mitigation, conservation, 3.3), none of these eforts have led to follow-up and designation research or to subsequent agreements about, for instance, fnancial compensation for loss, to be invested elsewhere.114 Mitigation, conservation, and designation are The chosen approach is paradoxical. critically dependent on the other two Geophysical investigations permit researchers to management priorities. This goes particularly for gain insight into lithological and structural 105 Weerts et al. 2005; Berendsen 2007; conservation and designation. The conservation features beneath the sea foor, but these cannot Van der Meulen et al. 2013. 106 Berendsen, Cohen & Stouthamer 2001, and designation of areas or sites is only possible trace archaeological remains. Given the 2007; Cohen et al. 2012, 2014; Pierik, when solid arguments can be given with respect difculties of tracing prehistoric remains in Cohen & Stouthamer 2016. 107 Cohen et al. 2014, 2017; Vos 2015; Pierik, to the particular value of swaths of the seabed general, and those in ofshore situations in Cohen & Stouthamer 2017. or specifc locations. In view of the difculties particular, and given the perceived ‘limited 108 Rensink et al. 2015, 2017. 109 Cohen 2017; Cohen et al. 2017. encountered in research, such conditions are extent’ of disturbance, follow-up is essentially 110 Cf. Peeters 2007. hardly ever met, and in the current situation, excluded in advance. Hence, palaeolandscape 111 Glimmerveen, Mol & Van der Plicht 2004, 2006; Mol et al. 2006. interests other than cultural heritage interests mapping is more or less taken as compensation 112 Maarleveld & Peeters 2004, 112. will quickly prevail. for the potential loss of (wholly unknown) 113 Manders et al. 2008. 114 Of course, follow-up is not necessary in In the case of the Maasvlakte 2 expansion of archaeological data, yet there is no provision for the total absence of indications for the Roterdam harbour, the (potential) impact of the the reprocessing of such data to enhance potential preservation of archaeological insights. archaeologically relevant remains of sand extraction and harbour deepening zones prehistoric human behaviour. on archaeological and palaeontological 49 —

Neanderthal skull dredged from the Middeldiep 4.6 Public outreach of the coast of the province of Zeeland, boosted broad media coverage (see appendix 1 and 2). The submerged prehistoric archaeological and North Sea prehistory has received considerable palaeontological remains and landscapes in the 115 See remarks on radiocarbon dating atention over the past decade (table 6). The southern North Sea appeal to the imagination of limits in the North Sea in section 3.2. media have covered several topics, notably many, maybe because they relate to issues of Whether the Weichselian age is a true age is disputed. It is the only sabretooth concerning individual fnds (e.g. the fragment of sea-level rise and its consequences for human cat bone from Europe with a a Neanderthal skull, a hyena coprolite, and a populations, a subject that is highly topical in Weichselian date. In Europe, the species light of climate change. In addition, and without is otherwise mainly known from cave decorated piece of bone) and broader issues of flls and was last encountered 250,000- submerged prehistoric landscapes or events, doubt more important, there is an aspect of 400,000 years ago, far beyond the 14C limit. such as the Storegga landslide and the surprise (sometimes termed the ‘Atlantis efect’) 116 Rensink & Peeters 2006. subsequent tsunami. In addition, as noted that there are traces of prehistoric habitation 117 Particular mentions go to the team of from the sea that was once land and that it is North Sea Fossils (www.northseafossils. above, the information centre Futureland is com) and to amateur archaeologist Jan aimed at informing the public about the possible to map long-forgoten landscapes by Glimmerveen. It is important to note archaeological and palaeontological research means of modern technology. that the North Sea Fossils team commercially (but selectively) sells conducted in relation to the extension to Another aspect of this media coverage that is palaeontological objects from the North Roterdam harbour. Sea on a legal basis, the income from at least as important is that the coverage made which is reinvested to fnance trawling The interest of the Dutch media was clear how non-professional collectors play a key expeditions and conservation of fossils. Their website states: ‘In recent years triggered by the reporting of spectacular role in the advancement of archaeological fshing methods have evolved drastically palaeontological fnds – notably the fragment of insights into the signifcance of the North Sea for due to technological developments and 115 environmental considerations. a sabretooth cat dated to the Weichselian – our understanding of the prehistoric past Traditional trawling methods, in which and the results obtained by the University of (fg. 20). The vast body of fnds is preserved nets dredge the sea foor, are becoming rare. Most of our fossils are found with Birmingham’s work on 3D seismic data to thanks to individuals who spend lots of time, exactly this technique, which means reconstruct palaeolandscapes. This was just and ofen considerable money, collecting fossils that our supply from this source has prior to the NSPRMF expert meeting in now been reduced. We are however still and artefacts on beaches and from the reject fnding fossils from sand extracting Amersfoort in 2008. One question posed was piles of the aggregates industry.117 These are activities in rivers and old estuaries, whether and how the precursor of the which belong to the North Sea realm individuals who also, ofen pro-actively, inform and share the same characteristics as Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed intended and interact with the scientifc community, our traditional fossils. In addition to to pay atention to such fnds and integrate enabling the timely discovery of interesting this, we also organize several dedicated fossil trawling expeditions each year, insights into submerged prehistoric landscapes fnds. Futureland and its associated activities are fshing for Pleistocene treasures in into its approach towards maritime cultural also geared at this particular aspect: the especially fossil-rich areas of the North Sea. Fossils of primary scientifc heritage. This more or less coincided with eforts possibility of meeting experts (fg. 21), of importance are never sold, but are to bring both onshore and ofshore early showing them one’s fnd, and of hearing about donated by us to appropriate museums, institutes or specialists. Other pieces, prehistoric archaeology into the spotlight of what the fnd is and what it means has proved which are ofen still of museum quality, archaeological heritage management in a an enormous stimulus for collectors to go out but not so rare or unique to be of the utmost scientifc importance, are sold broader sense.116 and look for more and, indeed, report any through our website. All fossils sold by The reporting of further spectacular fnds additional fnds to the experts through North Sea Fossils have been legally procured. All fossils can be freely sold from the North Sea, notably a collection of oervondstchecker.nl. Gradually, we seem to be and do not fall under CITES or any other Middle Palaeolithic hand-axes from British moving towards a form of ‘citizen science’. legal restrictions. On request certifcates of authenticity and/or provenance can waters (see section 4.2) and a fragment of a be supplied for all purchases.’ 50 —

Table 6 Non-exhaustive overview of items in the Dutch media and museums concerning North Sea prehistory.

Medium Author Title Item Date

Newspaper

NRC Weekend Theo Toebosch Bijvangst Saber tooth cat fossil September 2007

De Volkskrant David Davidson Op zoek naar de oude Submerged landscape 2008 bewoners in de zee and archaeology

NRC Next Theo Toebosch De laatste jagers in Prehistoric fnds from September 2016 Doggerland the North Sea

Leidsch Dagblad Wilfred Simons Rijke verleden van Submerged landscape October 2015 Doggerland and archaeology

NRC Next Theo Toebosch De taaie laatste jagers Isotopic evidence November 2016 op het land dat hunter-gatherer diet Noordzee werd

Leids Nieuwsblad Archeologen Isotopic evidence November 2016 ontdekken het hunter-gatherer diet ‘Doggerland-menu’

NRC Weekend Hester van Santen De zoekers naar het The search for April 2017 verzwolgen Doggerland Noordzeeland

>20 newspapers, Based on press release Late Palaeolithic art February 2018 including NRC/De and human remains Volkskrant/Trouw en Leisch Dagblad

Leidsch Dagblad Rob Overmeer Het DNA van een DNA from a Mesolithic July 2018 Katwijkse kaak human mandible

De Volkskrant Maarten Keulemans Met stukjes mens naar Report on expertise November 12th 2018 het museum day prehistoric human remains North Sea

Radio

Radio 1 Late Palaeolithic art February 2018 and human remains

2DOC Mathijs Deen De eerste Europeaan Older Palaeolithic 2014 VPRO radio hominin dispersals

Television

News/Talk show De Wereld Draait Door Maasvlakte 2 Hyena coprolith from 9-12-2010 Maasvlakte 2

Documentary National Geographic Stone Age Atlantis Drowning of 2010 Doggerland

Documentary BBC Horizon First Britons Drowning of 2015 Doggerland

News NOS Journaal Oldest modern human 13-2-2018 and art from the North Sea

News NOS Jeugdjournaal Oldest modern human 13-2-2018 and art from the North Sea

News TVWest Oldest modern human 13-2-2018 and art from the North Sea

Popular Book

Rap, Amsterdam Mathijs Deen Over oude wegen Older Palaeolithic February 2018 hominin dispersals

Magazine

Elsevier Simon Rozendaal Onze sabeltandtijger Fossil fshing on the September 2007 North Sea

Natuur, wetenschap & Theo Toebosch Het lage land dat Drowning of October 2007 techniek verdween Doggerland 51 —

Medium Author Title Item Date

New Scientist Laura Spinney Where are the bodies? Why don’t we fnd November 2008 graves?

National Geographic Laura Spinney Searching for What happens when December 2012 Magazine Doggerland people lose their homeland

National Geographic Tessa Guntlissbergen Oudste stukje mens Oldest modern human May 2018 Magazine and art from the North Sea

Internet

Blogs TNO/Deltares/NIOZ Hidden secrets in the Reconstructing sea- July 2017; July 2018 North Sea level rise

Youtube TNO/Deltares/NIOZ Hoe is de Noordzee Sea-level rise and October 2017 ontstaan? ‘birth’ of the North Sea

Newsweek Dana Dovey Early humans: 13,500 Oldest modern human February 2018 (htps:// year old bison bone and oldest art www.newsweek. with mysterious Netherlands / North com/early-humans- carvings discovered at Sea 13500-year-old-bison- botom of the North bone-mysterious- sea carvings-discovered- botom-813875)

Fox News James Rogers ‘Oldest Dutchman’ Oldest modern human February 2018 discovered: Fishermen and oldest art (htps://www. fnd prehistoric skull in Netherlands / North foxnews.com/science/ North Sea Sea oldest-dutchman- discovered-fshermen- fnd-prehistoric-skull- in-north-sea)

NOS Oudste Nederlander Oldest modern human February 2018 uit de ijstijd gevonden and oldest art htps://nos.nl/ Netherlands / North artikel/2216920- Sea oudste-nederlander- uit-de-ijstijd- gevonden.html

LiveScience Tom Metcalfe Ancient Human Oldest modern human February 2018 remains from beneath and oldest art htps://www. the North Sea Netherlands / North livescience.com/61880- Sea oldest-dutchwoman- photos.html

Museum

RMO Amkreutz Vuistbijlen uit de Exhibition on the 2008; RMO Noordzee Meulmeester fnd of hand-axes and associated tools

RMO Amkreutz Eerste Nederlandse Exhibition on the frst 2009; RMO Neanderthaler Dutch fossil fnd of a Neanderthal

RMO Amkreutz Archeologie van First two exhibits in 2011-present; RMO Nederland the permanent exhibition of the Archaeology of the Netherlands feature the North Sea and prehistoric North Sea archaeology

RMO Amkreutz Archeologie van Planned exhibition, 2020/21; RMO verdronken possibly traveling on prehistorische drowned prehistoric landschappen North Sea archaeology Noordzee 52 —

Fig 20 Front page of the science quire of the NRC Weekend edition of the national newspaper NRC, which devoted four pages to the activities of collectors and scientists under the title heroes of the North Sea land. 53 —

study of the Area 240 Palaeolithic hand-axes, as well as that of the Middeldiep Neanderthal skull fragment, however, show that collaboration with industry can easily become disrupted due to conficting interests. The systematic recording of fnds made by private as well as professional collectors forms an important basis for data sharing. The SPLASHCOS-viewer, which provides basic information about the location and nature of archaeological and palaeontological fnds, forms a platform that permits further data sharing. Importantly, the SPLASHCOS-viewer database has been integrated into the EMODnet gateway, thereby making prehistoric cultural heritage a relevant aspect of the marine environment that is made available to a wide array of stakeholders. Increasing data availability is highly relevant and desirable for the assessment of research potential and threats. Initiatives have been taken to model potential for the presence of prehistoric archaeological remains in the Dutch sector of the continental shelf. These models are Fig 21 Meeting the experts: private collectors show their coarse-grained due to the relatively low density fnds to professionals (photo courtesy of L. Amkreutz, of geological data on which they are primarily RMO). based, and a high degree of expert knowledge is needed to understand and interpret model outcomes. Risk assessments are constrained by 4.7 Conclusions the coarseness of the models, which do not permit researchers to evaluate research With respect to the NSPRMF 2009 management potential and threats at the scale of individual agenda, a range of initiatives has been taken. spatial developments. This limitation hinders Some initiatives have permited steps forward, pro-active approaches to mitigation, whereas others have made it clear that much conservation, and designation. The sparseness remains to be done in order to frmly anchor of good data points makes it difcult, if not archaeological interests concerning submerged impossible, to explicitly make clear which prehistoric archaeology and landscapes in archaeological interests are at stake. As a heritage management policies – and in order to consequence, geoarchaeological assessments of develop regulations as well as strategies. individual project areas lead to generic Collaboration with industry and private designations of zones of potential archaeological collectors has been variably successful. In the interest, without any follow-up to test the context of the Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 harbour validity of the believed potential. extension, eforts have led to a strategy that was This leads to a paradoxical situation. Many benefcial for both the scientifc community and exiting fnds continue to be made, and these the economic stakeholders, which involved atract a lot of media atention; they are the fnding solutions for research opportunities hard evidence of human presence in a landscape within a highly complex project. Within the same that has become sea. Public outreach activities seting, activities focussed on public outreach have been very successful. But whereas such spurred collaboration among the developer, fnds spark the imagination of a broad audience, scientists, and private collectors. This triggered they have not (yet) led to the establishment of a further initiatives aimed at structural management approach that demands serious collaboration between scientists and private research to move from assessing potential to collectors and the recording of fnds. The case model testing and observation. 54 —

The NSPRMF 2009 priorities were particularly private collectors. Although not originally focussed on one of the management themes, defned as a priority, public outreach has been notably ‘Assessment and data sharing’. With very successful, and activities should be regard to data sharing and fnds reporting, major continued and expanded. Other topics and steps have been taken, and these should be themes, however, need further atention. continued. The same goes for collaboration with 55 5 Towards a new agenda: — opportunities, dilemmas, and choices

their scientifc value, in that, on the one hand, 5.1 Introduction they bear intrinsic information and, on the other, they aid in the evaluation of the representativeness of the overall archaeological The NSPRMF 2009 defned a broad set of record. The combination of geophysical research and management themes and topics research, geogenetic interpretations, and dating for which the southern North Sea was deemed of lithostratigraphical sequences provides to be of relevance. Several priorities were insight into the potential origin of such fnds, as identifed with respect to research and well as useful data for palaeogeographical management. The preceding chapters have reconstructions. provided an evaluation of the framework However, registration and analysis of ex situ focusing on the Dutch sector of the North Sea, fnds also has its limits, most certainly with answering the question ‘Where do we stand respect to strategic decision-making. The much- afer a decade of work?’ The conclusions to needed increase in high-quality data points chapters 3 and 4 make clear, on the one hand, cannot come from such fnds alone, no mater that progress has been made with respect to a how interesting the results of analytical results number of issues and, on the other, that a lot may be. To validate geoarchaeological remains to be done. At present we are still far assumptions warranting strategic decision- from a situation where priorities are met, in the making, the establishment of context of chance sense that insights obtained permit the seting fnds occurring during and afer the execution of of new priorities that can build on these insights. ofshore infrastructural works, collecting data This implies that the themes and topics of the from purposely selected locations is a necessity. NSPRMF 2009 (tables 1 and 2) remain topical The work conducted in Area 240 to obtain and relevant. insight into the original context of the Middle In this fnal chapter, suggestions are made Palaeolithic artefacts collected from a reject pile how to move forward in the coming years within at a wharf in Flushing demonstrates how this the context of archaeological heritage can be achieved.119 The results obtained in the management in the Netherlands. This chapter context of the site of Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 can serve as a basis for the development of provide an example of how a well-thought-out further (or new) strategies, not necessarily only strategy can deliver contextual information for in the Dutch context. Position Paper 21 of the fnds collected on artifcial beaches prior to, European Marine Board can be taken as a baseline during, and afer the construction of the new for a cross-national perspective, being based on harbour.120 Critical analysis of existing geological an EU-wide assessment of achievements, data can permit additional contextualisation of challenges, and problems and an understanding stray fnds, such as has been done for the of data resources and available research Middeldiep Middle Palaeolithic fnds.121 At the technology.118 same time, it should be mentioned that these are sparse examples that came about in a specifc seting, i.e. the elaborate Roterdam- 5.2 From potential to new good data Maasvlakte 2 programme and the assertive points operating possibilities of English Heritage. We should bear in mind that the situation for the Netherlands is not that diferent from that in The vast majority of work conducted is strongly Great Britain. There, too, litle targeted in-depth focussed on the registration and publication of research has been conducted.122 Whereas the stray fnds, as well as the mapping of lithological Dutch tend to take British projects as an sequences and identifcation of palaeolandscape example of what can be achieved, British 118 Flemming et al. 2014. (geomorphological) structures. The results colleagues do the reverse, taking Dutch projects 119 Tizzard et al. 2011. corroborate existing insights with respect to the as examples.123 As of recently, the potential for 120 Kuitems et al. 2015. 121 Hijma et al. 2012. enormous archaeological potential of the Dutch submerged prehistoric remains is being 122 Compare e.g. Bynoe (2018) and Sturt sector of the North Sea. The analysis of fnds considered in impact/risk assessments for et al. (2018). 123 See e.g. the reviews of the Maasvlakte 2 either lacking or having only limited stratigraphic ofshore economic developments. But as yet, research report by Innes (2015) and Firth and palaeoenvironmental context underscores this has not led to new good data points. There (2016). 56 —

Table 7 Various stakeholders have diferent interests.

Stakeholder Interest

scientists analysis and modelling; scientifc knowledge

developer accountability of investment; positive press

heritage managers signifcance assessment as a basis for policy making

decision makers informed knowledge

public evidence-based narratives

is much to gain here by involving more experts Heritage managers, for their part, need good in sampling and in the interpretation of seismic data points for signifcance assessment and and borehole data. The same holds for the policy making; in the long run, saying that an selection of sample locations and planning of area has ‘potential’ will no longer sufce. They seismic investigations. To achieve this also need good data points for decision-making, involvement, it will have to be forced upon in because this involves risk management, and risk the early stages of project design. management is predicated on reliable In order to maximise the archaeological value information or informed knowledge. And in the of work to be conducted especially in the end, good data points are needed for all forthcoming years, particularly in the context of stakeholders to move from speculative development-driven projects, it will be narratives towards evidence-based narratives. necessary to beter defne what constitutes a ‘good data point’ and to beter defne how useful results for archaeology can be obtained 5.3 Strategies and techniques within the existing framework. From an archaeological perspective, a good data point involves the georeferenced results of a The collection of good data points and the consistently conducted analysis of observations/ availability and choice of prospection or survey recordings (whether geological, techniques are manifestly closely related, as are palaeoenvironmental, or archaeological) of management issues of project planning and which the archaeological relevance is explicitly budget negotiation, and site location (e.g. near made clear. This forms the basis for the vs. far ofshore, water depth, disturbance management of the expectations and demands depth). Prehistoric remains in the Dutch sector of funders, both the developers and the funding of the North Sea date to the Stone Age. Human bodies for research.124 activity from this time period is by defnition Good data points are necessary not just for difcult to detect. The British approach to the discipline of archaeology itself, but also for ofshore projects is mostly to apply grab developers, heritage professionals, decision sampling. Core sampling is typical of the ‘Dutch makers, and the general public (table 7). As approach’ to the detection and identifcation of pointed out in section 3.3, geophysical prehistoric ‘sites’ onshore, where it is also a investigations in the context of recent economic default choice in soil, geomorphological, and developments have not seen any follow-up, for geological mapping (dubbed ‘physical various reasons. The results themselves are of geographical investigation’ in the Dutch limited archaeological value, since no data have archaeological sector). As such, using cores has 124 Sturt et al. 2018. been ‘copied’ to the ofshore situation. The 125 Besides purposely collected shallow been collected that might allow researchers to sub-botom geophysical data in current actually say anything about the presence or application of sub-botom profling for ofshore projects (examples on ofshorewind. archaeological risk assessment in development rvo.nl), archaeological research groups absence of archaeologically relevant (Bradford: Europe’s Lost Frontiers; phenomena, or even landscape if defned more areas seems to have become routine.125 Gafney et al. 2017) and national broadly than just an assemblage of geological surveys also make use of Sub-botom profling is an established marine reprocessed legacy seismic data, geomorphological features (see section 4.5). At investigation technique also because gathered in past projects and originally some point, developers will wonder why such targeted at mapping features at geophysical surveys are much easier to execute intermediate depths. investments are being required of them. over vast water surfaces than on land. This 57 —

technique was routinely deployed and as such reconstructions, notably mapping of past land adopted in drowned landscape surfaces. Sub-botom profling is not intended geoarchaeological mapping.126 To what extent to detect archaeological sites/phenomena, but, current use of the marine geophysical surveying rather, to obtain insight into stratigraphic and coring campaigns is technically efective and buildup and geomorphological structures strategically sufcient for ofshore beneath the sea foor. This profling may help in archaeological research and prehistoric heritage determining whether or not there is a potential management will be discussed below. for prehistoric remains to be present, or, put Coring may help in detecting potentially diferently, whether or not there is a risk of interesting landscape contexts and layers for encountering such remains when disturbing the bulk sampling; (slopes of) river dunes, for sub-soil. Seismics and other sub-botom instance, carry ‘dirty’ occupation layers, which techniques are useful to map and trace buried are beter observable. Coring also provides land surfaces (e.g. underneath basal peat access to materials suitable for dating and refectors), as well as erosional contacts (channel palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. The bases). Combined with coring, land-surface detection of prehistoric archaeology by means mapping can be far more powerful ofshore than of core sampling is highly problematic, in on land. It should be noted though, that the particular with regard to early prehistoric (i.e. mapping of ancient land surfaces alone does not Stone Age) sites. Although core sampling is constitute palaeolandscape mapping. routinely practised onshore, it is clear from years Palaeolandscapes must be reconstructed on the of development-driven work that early basis of interpreted data (among which seismic prehistoric sites ofen escape detection by this data), and this data involves more than just the method.127 A quantitative assessment of the physical features of ancient land surfaces, efectiveness of core sampling to detect Stone including, additionally and notably, the Age sites consisting of scaters of materials reconstruction of vegetation and fauna, soil (mostly fint) with variable density has shown conditions, and hydrology. Also, whereas that only extended, high-density scaters stand seismics can reveal stacked and intersecting a reasonable chance of being discovered,128 and landforms allowing the inferring of relative age that discovery requires a dense sampling grid (20 and depths of features and hence allowing × 25 m), a large auger diameter (12 cm), and a correlation to sea-level curves, they provide no small sieve mesh size (3 mm).129 With decreasing means of numeric age control. Seismics can be density and extent of the scaters, even denser used to identify optimal location for cores to sampling grids are required. A ‘best practices’ sample for dating. Lastly, it is necessary to note approach such as this, which has been proven that palaeolandscape reconstructions are only problematic to apply even onshore,130 appears to meaningful to archaeology if these permit the be unsuitable ofshore, because core sampling drawing of inferences about, for instance, for the purpose of retrieving the fint artefacts or prehistoric land-use variability and taphonomic other occupation debris typical of Stone Age processes. sites will be inefective due to the fact that the The above critical remarks are meant to draw core sampling grid will always be wide because atention to the limitations of routine of fnancial restrictions, and sample volumes will application of ‘established’ techniques. A wide always be restricted as a result of small auger range of technologies exist that could be used in diameter. Any discovery of such materials in a the search for submerged prehistoric core sample is basically a mater of coincidence. archaeology and research of landscapes To establish whether or not prehistoric remains (fg. 22).131 The key issue here is that the choice of 126 Sub-botom profling is a stepped are present in a zone of high archaeological specifc technologies is a mater not just of technique which involves geophysical potential, large-volume (i.e. grab) sampling, technical/condition requirements for their data collection, noise suppression, which is destructive, is the only option. Cores time-depth conversions of the raw application in relation to the conditions in the signals, and overlaying geological can help to decide where to place the grab zones targeted, but also of scale and objective interpretation on the processed data. 127 samples. Peeters et al. 2017. (fg. 23). Geophysical and remote sensing 128 Verhagen et al. 2013. Sub-botom profling is certainly useful, but it technologies, which are principally used in the 129 Verhagen et al. 2013, 246, table 8. 130 Peeters et al. 2017. represents just one technique for collecting data context of landscape mapping, are particularly 131 Flemming et al. 2014; Missiaen, that can be used for palaeolandscape suitable for that purpose as they are Sakellariou & Flemming 2017. 58 —

Fig 22 Diagram showing the wide range of technologies that can be applied in research into submerged prehistoric archaeology and landscapes (afer Missiaen, Sakellariou & Flemming 2014, Fig. 2.3).

non-invasive and permit researchers to cover It is timely to deploy these techniques as part of large areas in a small amount of time. Sampling investigation in the North Sea, too. However, the technologies are used in the context of site availability of high-tech equipment is not detection and signifcance assessment, but these sufcient; without clearly targeted areas, the are invasive and time consuming. chances of fnding anything relevant are slim, An obvious question that arises is whether but come at a high costs.134 geophysical and remote sensing techniques are In principle, high-resolution (in the order of 10 suitable for archaeological prospection. The cm) sub-botom proflers permit the registration

132 See Flemming et al. (2014) for an answer to this question is not a simple ‘No’. For of small-sized subsoil disturbances, such as burial overview of available techniques. the detection of materials surfacing on the sea pits and even pit hearths. The biggest problem 133 See e.g. Hansson et al. 2016. 134 An frequently heard complaint foor, the use of remotely operated vehicles and here is how to identify such phenomena in the regarding the North Sea is limited autonomous underwater vehicles equipped with ‘tsunami’ of data produced. Ground-truthing of underwater visibility due to murky and turbulent waters. Recently made high-resolution cameras (sub-botom, swath larger-scale geological features by means of underwater video records of the bathymetry)132 allows for targeted surveying of coring is relatively easy, but targeting small-scale sampling of basal peat (see section 5.3) demonstrate that this view is an over- the sea foor at greater depths. As yet, no such archaeological features (those measuring only a simplifcation and that visibility can work has been done in the southern North Sea, few m2 at most) is problematic, and maybe even surpass 10 m (personal communication F. Busschers and M. Hijma, November but examples from the Baltic Sea area unrealistic, notably due to imprecisions in 2018). demonstrate the potential of such technology.133 geo-referencing seismic lines. 59 —

Fig 23 Diagram showing the connection of technology to scale, environment, and application stage (afer Missiaen, Sakellariou & Flemming 2014, Fig. 2.2).

Well-conceived protocols and strategies need to be developed in connection with the specifc 5.4 Collaboration in research opportunities ofered by ofshore developments. Routine application of technologies,135 no mater how powerful they may be in and of themselves, Sharing data and expertise is a necessity if we bears the risk that time and money will be are to move beyond ‘potential’ and if we are to invested in a technology that does not provide avoid a loss of continuity.136 The aspect of archaeologically useful results in the short term. continuity is one to take into serious More tailored application – optimized to the type, consideration, because the research and size, and execution pace of the project, as well as management community in the feld of to the archaeological expectation (suspected site submerged prehistoric archaeology is small, and taphonomy) and palaeoenvironmental context – therefore even minor changes in this population is to be favoured if beter results are to be due to developments in personal careers make it obtained. Tailored approaches involve that a difcult to maintain momentum.137 Loss of successful approach and result in one project, continuity results in a decline in achievements cannot be directly copied over to next projects. and expertise, inevitably leading to However, the successful, staged approach and reidentifcation of problems and ‘reinvention of engineering solutions at Roterdam-Yangtzehaven the wheel’. As a consequence, the focus will are not simply adapted to other projects. Each remain on the defning of potential, instead of project difers in character with respect to planned the testing and validating (materialising) of disturbance of the seabed, construction potential. It is therefore necessary to take requirements, and economic-political context, supportive measures that can foster and not every project will ofer the same scientifc collaborative structures beyond those of opportunities in relation to the NSPRMF research temporarily fnanced projects with restricted agenda. The starting point for the development of duration – let alone unfunded projects that rely a research strategy at the project level should on the enthusiasm of the researchers and therefore be which questions we want to answer amateur archaeologists/palaeontologists (with the NSPRMF providing the scientifc involved. guideline) and which questions we can likely For such structures to emerge, efecting answer in the specifc context of the project synergy of existing capacities may prove the 135 Sturt, Dix & Grant 2017. 136 (applicability of techniques, nature/context of the Sturt, Dix & Grant 2017; Sturt et al. 2018. most efective at this point. An example of how 137 Salter, Murphy & Peeters 2014; Sturt et al. planned development). this can be established can be given here. In 2018. 60 —

2016, TNO-Geological Survey was asked to send palaeoenvironmental, and archaeological work in a research proposal that would make use of in the North Sea, writing down the terms of free free ship-time of the Dutch research vessel exchange of equipment, staf, and ship-time, as Pelagia (see section 3.3). This led to a joint well as sharing and management of data. Even a proposal by TNO-Geological Survey and Deltares cross-national ‘centre for North Sea prehistoric focussed on ofshore mapping and sampling of environments’ could be envisaged. Such a peat for the reconstruction of Holocene structure would also beneft cultural heritage sea-level change.138 Their frst expedition took bodies, which would be able to count on expert place in 2017.139 At the same time, the Flanders knowledge. Marine Institute and Ghent University had been Cooperation between researchers working on planning an expedition (for 2018) involving submerged sites and researchers working on the sub-botom mapping of specifc target areas in analysis and publication of stray fnds and their the southern North Sea, notably the Brown Bank potential is also important, as a combined area, making use of free ship-time of the approach will have the most impact and research vessel Belgica. In order to maximize support. For researchers to be efective at their research eforts and the ship-time communicating the importance of what happens available, these two expeditions joined forces in ‘out there’, the stakeholders, including the 2017, with additional involvement of academic general public, need to be aware of what the institutions and specialists (University of research is about. For instance, the hand-axes Bradford, University of Groningen). Further found at the wharf at Flushing have triggered expeditions were conducted in 2018, visiting research in extraction Area 240 in the British part Brown Bank and Dogger Bank. With respect to of the North Sea that has high scientifc impact the later area, contact with the leading German – also because this particular ofshore area institute for coastal research (Niedersächsisches connects to clifed coastal sections of Sufolk Institut für historische Küstenforschung and Norfolk with rich Middle and Early Wilhelmshaven) was revived and may lead to Palaeolithic archaeology. As another example, further collaboration. the results of the isotope study on human Management-wise, the benefts of this remains, which are all stray fnds, underlines the informal collaboration was to share information, value of the North Sea concerning the topic of collectively select target areas for sampling, human responses to climate change. Identifed make use of each other’s equipment for submerged sites and stray fnds provide sampling, and share cores for laboratory complementary datasets and should therefore sampling. It is hoped that, ultimately, the be used in a complementary fashion in research. outcome of this work will permit targeted archaeological prospection of areas that are known to have delivered archaeological 5.5 Management and industry materials (artefacts made out of stone and bone/antler, as well as human remains). An important question is how this synergy of Dialogue and collaboration with industry have capacities can be maintained. The participating long been identifed as being of central researchers (13 in total) are all connected to importance for research into the prehistoric past established institutions, mostly fnanced by their of the southern North Sea and, indeed, any respective states. The research vessels also other parts of the European continental shelf.140 belong to national institutions, which allocate However obvious this importance may be, the 138 The project was partly funded by the the ship-time funds. Grant money (universities), practical side of it continues to be a mater of Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed. programmatic budget reservations (knowledge 139 htps://www.deltares.nl/en/blog/ concern. The Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 and hidden-secrets-north-sea/; htps://www. institutions), and strategic investments (both) Roterdam-Yangtzehaven archaeological deltares.nl/en/blog/improving- fnance the post-cruise research costs: cool projections-of-future-sea-level-rise/; projects became a success, but only because of htps://www.youtube.com/ storage, sampling, lab analysis, temporary- continued dialogue, mutual understanding, and watch?v=wSqfUnfKs2Q. employment salaries. To foster the established 140 Flemming 2004; Peeters, Murphy & a shared sense of responsibility. In view of the Flemming 2009; Flatman & Evans 2014; partnerships, eforts could, for instance, be unknown outcome and lack of experience, these Flemming et al. 2014; Salter, Murphy & geared at an inter-institutional memorandum of Peeters 2014; Sturt, Dix & Grant 2017; projects were set up as an ‘experiment’; within Sturt et al. 2018. understanding on geological, the limits of what was realistic (see section 4.2), 61 —

risks were taken, as if those involved were and economic targets. Risk management is at probing a black box. Gradually, uncertainty the fore, and industry will abandon any made room for enthusiasm on the part of the intervention that may lead to problems, as funder and the heritage bodies and scientists quickly as possible. Mostly, when it comes to involved. Engineers from the constructing archaeology, uncertainty about lead time and company PUMA sought solutions to problems of costs causes the biggest problem. This above-water investigation of underwater uncertainty, however, is created by the archaeological layers. And the spectacular results archaeological community itself, as it does not could be turned into a success story in the eyes speak with one voice and apparently fnds it of a broad audience of professionals and difcult to make choices. Certainly, we do not non-professionals. This also formed a much possess well-tested research frameworks with valued opportunity for the Port of Roterdam which to calculate, monitor, and evaluate costs, harbour authorities to atract media atention in impact, and output. However, we must move a positive way, as a responsible organization. away from ‘We don’t know what to expect and Just like onshore developments, ofshore what should be done’ and towards ‘This area developments involve many stakeholders, each permits this type of investigation, and this is with their own interests. Each project comes what we want to focus on’. with a diferent composition from among the In order to successfully communicate within overall group stakeholders, and the cards are this particular context, it is necessary to agree reshufed. The obvious problem here is a lack of upon a national strategy regarding submerged continuity, in that interests need to be clarifed, prehistory and landscapes, and to subsequently discussed, and negotiated each and every time. repeat the message of that strategy in dialogue But this cannot be avoided. A question that is with industry. Once we are clear about what we sometimes raised is whether ‘the industry’ is want to achieve (that is, archaeologically relevant willing to pay atention to prehistoric information) and what we reasonably can archaeology. We would point out that ‘the achieve (in terms of research strategy and industry’ is not a monolith: it is diverse in its technology) within the context of development- nature and goals, and there are many players in driven projects, it will be much easier to turn the feld, having diferent responsibilities and negotiation into collaboration. In this context, taking diferent risks. Having insight into the making choices is essential. A national strategy diversity present within the industry, and the can facilitate the dialogue with industry. responsibilities and risks faced by the industry, Umbrella organisations of major stakeholder will undoubtedly help those approaching this groups, such as the gravel and sand aggregates same industry. This insight will also help to industry, will likely be more open to dialogue clarify archaeological interests, which come with when archaeologists can provide clarity about their own responsibilities and risks. The what archaeology asks from industry, and that industry’s atitude towards archaeology largely the archaeological sector is prepared to make depends on how the archaeological community choices. In the end, this may lead to actual delivers its message, and this, of course, is a collaborations, in which the engineering aspect mater of communication. is taken up by the industry itself. Despite all the complexity of the project and all the interests at stake, the Roterdam- Maasvlakte 2 project was perhaps relatively 5.6 Public outreach easy, in that the Port of Roterdam harbour authorities was the leading party at the negotiating table. Other ofshore developments, As is clear from section 4.6, the past decade has notably aggregate extraction and construction witnessed an increased interest by the media in of wind farms, involve many diferent initiatives the subject of submerged prehistoric that are more or less developed in isolation, archaeology and landscapes, as well as direct although they are mostly part of broader involvement of non-professionals (‘the public’). national policy and result from political It is important to seek the continuation and decision-making. All of these initiatives have to reinforcement of activities that promote such reach their goals, within a myriad of regulations interest. In fact, the achievements in the 62 —

Roterdam-Maasvlakte 2 development are reach, how we want to reach them, and how to perceived in other nations as an example to ensure continuity.144 follow.141 The impact of the analysis and publication of archaeological stray fnds in association with coordinated media coverage is 5.7 Recommendations also proving a very successful and valuable strategy. The Neanderthal skull fragment, isotope research on Mesolithic human remains, The preceding sections have discussed various and the investigation of the oldest Dutch human aspects that we consider to be of paramount and the oldest art fragment from the North Sea importance for the next 10 years. As stated in the have demonstrated this (see appendix 1 and 2). introduction to this chapter and the conclusions Investigation of the drowning history of North to chapters 3 and 4, the NSPRMF 2009 themes Sea palaeolandscapes draws particular atention and topics remain topical and relevant. There is in relation to issues of climate change. no pressing need to defne a new set of themes But certainly there is still much to be gain and topics, and priorities have not yet been met gained. As is the case with ‘industry’, ‘the public’ to such an extent that no further atention is also comprises variable interests, with some needed. At the same time, major steps have been members of the public strictly oriented towards taken with regard to some issues, notably data archaeology and exiting fnds and other sharing, collaboration with private collectors, and members oriented towards broader topics, such public outreach. These steps are important, and as climate change and what this does to people. the related eforts should be maintained. In this Clearly, climate change and socio-cultural fnal section, we present some recommendations, dynamics are also topics that are intricately which are meant to serve as guides for further related and complementary. ‘The public’ also discussion and for targeting actions in the near displays diferences in age and level of future. These recommendations are grouped knowledge. Private collectors who are actively under three headings: contents (the subject of searching for all sorts of items on beaches are investigation), process (strategies, methods, dedicated non-professionals who have techniques), and stakeholders (regulations, risk developed considerable knowledge. All of these assessment, communication). 141 Sturt, Dix & Grant 2017, 434. subgroups of the general public should be 142 Satchell 2017. 143 Amkreutz & Dusseldorp 2018. approached and involved in diferent ways.142 Contents 144 Because the archaeology of the drowned prehistoric landscape of the North Sea is The importance of education and A. Defne the meaning of a ‘good data point’ to a national and international topic per engagement cannot be underestimated. Afer involve accurately georeferenced results of a se, the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden has defned it as a focus area for research, all, prehistoric archaeology is not just for consistently conducted analysis of geological, collection, and public outreach. Among archaeologists and scientists working in related palaeoenvironmental, or archaeological other things, this entails that the national museum of antiquities disciplines. For non-professionals to feel that observations/recordings of which the regularly organises contact-days for they are being taken seriously, is necessary for archaeological taphonomy and relevance is people involved in and interested in North Sea prehistoric archaeology, archaeologists to make them feel part of what explicitly made clear. actively participates in research archaeology wants to achieve. A good example B. Accept the possibility of loss of information networks, and works at creating and of this is presented in the opening chapter of the expanding public interest. This has due to methodological and technological resulted in, among other outcomes, a recently published book Wereldgeschiedenis van limitations. private fund aimed at stimulating these Nederland (world history of the Netherlands),143 activities, as well as plans for organising C. Do not restrict palaeolandscape mapping to a (travelling) exhibition on North Sea which focuses on Neanderthals, and which land-surface mapping. Instead, include prehistoric archaeology in 2020–2021, with venues to include the coastal places the fnd of the frst Dutch Neanderthal palaeoenvironmental analysis in order to provinces of the Netherlands. (nicknamed Krijn) – and the importance of the provide data for contextual models, which Additionally, due to its long-term unsurpassed archaeological treasure trove of are crucial for the archaeological involvement in North Sea archaeology (starting in the 1960s), the national our coast – centre stage. Active engagement understanding of prehistoric human- museum of antiquities is actively nourishes a sense of shared responsibility, also environment relationships. working at obtaining a representative national collection of these fnds. The within the communities of industry, heritage D. Support eforts to register and contextualise current collection encompasses many professionals, and scientists. It is therefore ex situ (stray) fnds to increase their dozens of fnds dating to the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic important to develop an outreach strategy, information value for the assessment of and includes lithic and organic fnds of which outlines what we want to achieve, what ofshore potential and support of decision bone and antler, as well as human remains. message to bring across, whom we want to making. 63 —

Process can be assessed with regard to submerged A. Develop a clear strategy/work plan at the prehistory and prehistoric landscapes. project level that covers the entire C. Refrain from archaeological potential archaeological process (including assessment assessment of a development area where for archaeological potential) and that makes chances of any follow-up have already been clear choices with respect to which questions deemed excluded or unrealistic. Instead, are to be answered, and by means of which focus on geological mapping and technology, for development areas where palaeoenvironmental mapping for generic chances of follow-up are realistic. knowledge purposes, including B. Guarantee the reprocessing of data for the archaeological purposes, such as the updating of spatial models in cases where a contextualisation of chance fnds. follow-up to ground-truth archaeological D. Accept loss of information due to restrictions potential is unrealistic, and put in place imposed by technology, logistics, and safety, funding for this reprocessing. in addition to those imposed by time and C. Involve experts at the front end of any money. project, in order to anticipate the many E. Work towards a principle of fnancial uncertainties underlying the modelling, reallocation in relation to developments surveying, and sampling of submerged where a reasonable assessment of prehistoric archaeology and landscapes; the archaeological potential and possible interpretation of data; and the development follow-up for research is excluded, whereby of strategies for sampling, dating, and the developer is required to put aside a sum sub-botom profling. of money equivalent to what the developer D. Stimulate (and co-fnance) methodological would have to have paid had there been experimentation at all stages of project follow-up research and allow this money to execution between initial desktop study and be used for ofshore archaeological research fnal reporting. elsewhere, so as to broaden the basis for E. Consistently evaluate projects in relation to future decision-making. locations of comparable geographical and F. Emphasize the potential atractiveness of archaeological potential, in order to support submerged archaeology in public outreach and methodological development; set up an in contributing to the societal responsibility and expert group for this purpose. role of the industry involved.

Stakeholders Our fnal recommendation, which cross-cuts the A. Ensure that geoarchaeological spatial models three main headings above, is that an about the potential preservation of interdisciplinary and cross-national ‘centre for prehistoric remains and landscapes (i.e. North Sea prehistoric environments’ be potential for collecting good data points) established that can serve as a platform for express diferences in spatial resolution long-lasting scientifc collaboration (sharing (resulting from data availability) and are expertise and equipment, joint funding, training constantly updated using the latest insights. networks) and as a knowledge centre for Make only the most up-to-date maps research and management, and that can also available to stakeholders, via a single support outreach initiatives of other national portal (e.g. the cultural heritage organisations. The establishment of such a agency), and kept up-to-date on centre will require a lot of efort and an initial international portals (e.g. EMODnet). investment that will need to be supported by the B. Defne (parameters of) ‘archaeological state, but in our opinion the establishment of 145 The European Research Council Synergy potential’ and defne by which means potential such a centre is feasible.145 grants provide potential opportunities.

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I Results of press releases II Web items concerning the Neantherthal skull fragment ‘Krijn’

77 Appendix I — Results of press releases

This appendix provides a summary of the media B Results of the press release ‘Earliest Human, coverage resulting from press releases Earliest Art’ concerning the fnd a a Neanderthal skull fragment (named ‘Krijn’), and fnds representing The publication in Antiquity of a human parietal the earliest modern human and art known from and decorated bone from the North Sea and the Dutch sector of the North Sea. The ‘total dated to the Late Palaeolithic was associated media value’ is the value of media items if they with a press release by the national museum of had to be bought, and provides an indication of antiquities. This also drew enormous media impact value. Combined with all other received atention (newspapers, television, radio). Again, media coverage, this impact is enormous. this media atention reached well beyond the Dutch borders. A Results of the press release KRIJN • 73 items in printed media (full page in ‘Neanderthal from the North Sea’ Archeologie Magazine, Dagblad van het (also see Appendix 2) Noorden, Leeuwarder Courant, Leidsch Dagblad., NRC Handelsblad) with a total The divulgation of the frst fossil bone of a media value of € 110,468 Neanderthal from Dutch territory by Minister • 5 items on radio and television RTV Plasterk in the national museum of antiquities • 35 items online (exhibition ‘Neanderthaler uit de Noordzee’) in 2009 received enormous atention from the media. Reporters were present in large numbers on behalf of e.g. NOS news (broadcast of 16:00, 20:00 and 22:00 pm), RTL4 news (broadcast of 16:00 pm), radio stations (e.g. Radio 1 news, ANP, BNR news radio), and virtually all national newspapers; in addition many science editors were represented. The press release of the national museum of antiquities was under strict embargo, and was supported by further press releases by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (Leipzig) and the National History Museum (London). Media atention of newspapers, radio, television and the internet reached well beyond the Dutch borders. • 174 items in printed media (full page in the national newspapers NRC Handelsblad, De Volkskrant, Trouw, Algemeen Dagblad, Spits, Metro) with a total media value of € 298,715 • 13 items on radio and television • 37 items online 78 — Appendix II Web items concerning the Neantherthal skull fragment ‘Krijn’

Overview of web items retrieved from Meltwater News:

Neandertalerknochen aus der Nordsee gefscht news.de – Mo, 27 Jul 2009 15:27 Anthropologie

Nordlicht Welt Online – Mo, 27 Jul 2009 04:00 Neandertaler in der NordseeHamburg – Im Fang eines niederländischen Muschelkuters ist das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen entdeckt worden. Wie das Magazin “Geo” in seiner August-Ausgabe berichtet, haben Leipziger Anthropologen bei der Untersuchung des Relikts festgestellt, dass es mindestens 40 000 Jahre alt ist – und damit der älteste je unter Wasser gefundene Menschenknochen.

Neandertaler-Knochen aus der Nordsee gefscht Badische Zeitung – Mo, 27 Jul 2009 00:44 HAMBURG (dpa). Ein sensationelles Objekt hat ein niederländischer Muschelfscher mit seinem Fang eingeholt: ein mindestens 40 000 Jahre altes Stirnbein eines Neandertalers.

PALÄONTOLOGIE: Der Neandertaler aus der Nordsee News4Press.com – So, 26 Jul 2009 15:04 Gruner+Jahr, GEO: Hamburg (ots) – Im Fang eines niederländischen Muschelkuters ist das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen entdeckt worden. Wie das Magazin GEO in seiner August-Ausgabe berichtet, haben Leipziger Anthropologen um Jean-Jacques Hublin bei der Untersuchung .

PALÄONTOLOGIE: Der Neandertaler aus der Nordsee Studenten.de – So, 26 Jul 2009 09:42 Hamburg (ots) – Im Fang eines niederländischen Muschelkuters ist das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen entdeckt worden. Wie das Magazin GEO in seiner August-Ausgabe berichtet, haben Leipziger Anthropologen um Jean-Jacques Hublin bei der Untersuchung des Relikts festgestellt, dass es mindestens 40.

Knochen von Urmensch in Nordsee gefunden SZON News – So, 26 Jul 2009 14:17 Bild: Neandertaler. Bild: Neandertaler. Ein sensationelles Objekt hat ein niederländischer Muschelfscher mit seinem Fang eingeholt: das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen.

Knochen von Neandertaler aus Nordsee gefscht Kronen Zeitung – So, 26 Jul 2009 14:13 Einen sensationellen Fund hat ein niederländischer Muschelfscher mit seinem Fang gemacht: In seinem Netz fand sich nämlich das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen. Der mindestens 40.000 Jahre alte Teil des Neandertaler-Kopfes ist jedenfalls der älteste je unter Wasser gefundene Menschenknochen, wie Leipziger Anthropologen um Jean-Jacques Hublin (links im Bild) bei der Untersuchung des Relikts feststellten.

Muschelkuters – PALÄONTOLOGIE: Der Neandertaler aus der Nordsee NewsXL – So, 26 Jul 2009 11:36 Hamburg (ots) – Im Fang eines niederländischen Muschelkuters ist das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen entdeckt worden. Wie das Magazin GEO in seiner August-Ausgabe berichtet, haben Leipziger Anthropologen um Jean-Jacques Hublin bei der Untersuchung des Relikts festgestellt, dass es mindestens 40. 79 —

PALÄONTOLOGIE: Der Neandertaler aus der Nordsee.... FTOR – Finance-Community – So, 26 Jul 2009 11:03 Hamburg (ots) – Im Fang eines niederländischen Muschelkuters ist das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen entdeckt worden. Wie das Magazin GEO in seiner August-Ausgabe berichtet, haben Leipziger Anthropologen um Jean-Jacques Hublin bei der Untersuchung des Relikts festgestellt, dass es mindestens 40.

PALC4ONTOLOGIE: Der Neandertaler aus der Nordse Telelino – So, 26 Jul 2009 10:56 PALÄONTOLOGIE: Der Neandertaler aus der Nordsee Hamburg (ots) – Im Fang eines niederländischen Muschelkuters ist das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen entdeckt worden.

> PALÄONTOLOGIE: Der Neandertaler aus der Nordsee Cityvisits.de – So, 26 Jul 2009 10:35 Hamburg (ots) – Im Fang eines niederländischen Muschelkuters ist das Stirnbein eines Urmenschen entdeckt worden. Wie das Magazin GEO in seiner August-Ausgabe berichtet, haben Leipziger Anthropologen um Jean-Jacques Hublin bei der Untersuchung des Relikts festgestellt, dass es mindestens 40.

Metmann: Kleine Gemeinschaf RP Online – Mi, 22 Jul 2009 09:56 Ein Team mit dem Vorgeschichtler Ralf W. Schmitz hat nachgewiesen, dass die Population des Eiszeitmenschen weitaus geringer als früher angenommen war. Er wanderte vom Neandertal bis nach Kroatien.

The Mysterious Downfall of the Neandertals Scientifc American – Di, 21 Jul 2009 02:19 Paleoanthropologists know more about Neandertals than any other extinct human.

Inside This Issue: Neandertals and General Relativity Scientifc American – Mo, 20 Jul 2009 14:14 More from the Magazine August 2009 Issue Sustainable Developments Good News on Malaria Control [Extended version] Updates Whatever Happened to the Mars Rovers? In Brief News Scan Briefs: Killer Smile Buy the Digital Edition It was August 1856, three years before Charles Darwin would publish On the Origin of Species.

The Early Lateglacial Re-colonization of Britain: New Radiocarbon Evidence From Gough’s Cave, Southwest England Anthropology – Fr, 17 Jul 2009 04:19 Jump to Comments News from Gough’s Cave in Cheddar Gorge, where Britain’s earliest inhabitants following the Last Glacial Maximum are rumoured to have holed up; the paper is in press, (behind a paywall) via Quaternary Science Reviews.

Openingstoespraak van de Prins van Oranje tijdens de MARE conferentie ‘People and the Sea’ te Amsterdam, 9 juli 2009 Het Koninklijk Huis – Do, 09 Jul 2009 22:41 De toespraak is uitgesproken in het Engels. Ladies and gentlemen, Have you ever heard of Krijn? Krijn walked the earth around 50,000 years ago. A fragment of his skull was fshed out of the North Sea, just of the coast of Zeeland, several years ago. 80 —

Trawler fsker Neandertal-kranie op af Nordsøen Videnskab.dk – So, 28 Jun 2009 05:30 En del af et neandertal-kranie, fanget med trawl i Nordsøen, er det første fund af sin art.

Oudste muziekinstrument ter wereld gevonden Elsevier – Do, 25 Jun 2009 19:15 Archeologen hebben met de vondst van een 35.000 jaar oude fuit in Zuid-Duitsland, het oudste door mensen gemaakte muziekinstrument ter wereld ontdekt.

Feestelijke oplevering Stiens centrum Oost, Leeuwarderadeel Nieuws Bank – Mi, 24 Jun 2009 00:55 Gemeente Leeuwarderadeel Feestelijke oplevering Stiens centrum Oost 23-06-2009 16:26 Op vrijdag 26 juni a.s. zal de renovatie van de woningen en herininrichting van de straten in de wijk Stiens Centrum Oost feestelijk worden opgeleverd.

Digitale knipselkrant 23 juni 2009 Universiteit Leiden – Di, 23 Jun 2009 19:13 Voor deze digitale knipselkrant ‘Universiteit Leiden in het nieuws’ puten wij uit de database van LexisNexis. Door op de titel te klikken kunt u het bijbehorende artikel lezen.

Neanderthal Skull Fragment Energy Digger – So, 21 Jun 2009 23:35 A Neanderthal skull fragment was retrieved from the North Sea. At the time Neanderthals occupied the area sea level was much lower than it is today.

First Dutch Neanderthal man found Congoo – Sa, 20 Jun 2009 08:28 At last the Netherlands also has their Neanderthal man. Minister of Science Ronald Plasterk revealed the remains of the primeval Dutchman at the Leiden Museum of Antiquities.

Verband tussen vondstmeldingen 2007-2008 en Neanderthalervondst Blik op Nieuws – Do, 18 Jun 2009 18:07 Middelburg – De vondst van het oude schedelfragment van een Neanderthaler houdt verband met eerdere vondstmeldingen in 1998 en 2007-2008 bij Stichting Cultureel Erfgoed Zeeland (SCEZ) in Middelburg. Regelmatig worden van de Noordzeebodem grote hoeveelheden fossiele beenderen van mammoeten en andere ijstijddieren opgediept en soms ook stenen werktuigen van Neanderthalers.

Neanderthal found in North Sea Living in the O – Mi, 17 Jun 2009 22:36 A fantastic Neanderthal skull fragment has been found at the botom of the North Sea. This is a really important fnd as it shows that Neanderthals were living around Britain around 60,000 years ago.

Neanderthal fossil found in North Sea Breitbart.com: United Press International – Mi, 17 Jun 2009 04:48 LEIDEN, Netherlands, June 15 (UPI) -- Researchers in the Netherlands say they have confrmed a skull fragment dredged from the North Sea was that of a young adult male Neanderthal.

Neanderthal fossil found in North Sea Times of the Internet – Di, 16 Jun 2009 05:12 LEIDEN, Netherlands, June 15 (UPI) -- Researchers in the Netherlands say they have confrmed a skull fragment dredged from the North Sea was that of a young adult male Neanderthal. 81 —

Ein Neandertaler aus der Nordsee Berliner Morgenpost – Mi, 17 Jun 2009 04:00 Reste eines Neandertalers hat ein belgischer Sammler in Baggeraushub aus der Nordsee gefunden. Das Material war bei der Granatensuche gesiebt worden, dabei war das Schädelfragment entdeckt worden.

60,000-year-old Neanderthal skull fragment trawled up in North Sea HNN – Mi, 17 Jun 2009 02:15 Source: Times (UK) (6-16-09) Part of an ancient human skull has been recovered from the North Sea in an area described as a drowned Stone Age hunting ground.

60,000-year-old Neanderthal skull fragment trawled up in North Sea Times Online – Di, 16 Jun 2009 16:37 Part of an ancient human skull has been recovered from the North Sea in an area described as a drowned Stone Age hunting ground. The bone fragment is believed to belong to a late Neanderthal man and has been dated at around 60,000 years old.

Digitale knipselkrant 16 juni 2009 Universiteit Leiden – Di, 16 Jun 2009 22:01 Voor deze digitale knipselkrant ‘Universiteit Leiden in het nieuws’ puten wij uit de database van LexisNexis. Door op de titel te klikken kunt u het bijbehorende artikel lezen.

Twiter Self-picks for June 2009 Jafapete’s Weblog – Di, 16 Jun 2009 20:34 Must watch RT @NASA: Dramatic changes our world has gone through in just 10 years, as captured by NASA spacecraf: htp://tr.im/oA6q [Permatwit] Birth control by sterilizing male mosquitoes b4 mating renders female (mates once in life) eggs dud htp://bit.

Fossiel van een neanderthaler ontdekt Parool – Di, 16 Jun 2009 20:10 Kenmerkend is de dikke wenkbrauwboog van de neanderthaler, die van wetenschappers de naam Krijn heef gekregen. Foto GPD LEIDEN – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een neanderthaler ontdekt.

Der Neandertaler aus der Nordsee Die Zeit – Di, 16 Jun 2009 19:35 Vor Hollands Küste ging einem Fischer das Knochenstück einer Augenbraue ins Netz. Jetzt fanden Forscher heraus: Es stammt von einem Neandertaler und ist mehr als 40.

Volkskrant onderschrif: “Neanderthaler Minister Plasterk geef maandag uitleg” Retecool – Di, 16 Jun 2009 17:41 Linkdump Kabinet spreekt als uit één mond Heden te zien op htp://www.volkskrant.

Neandertaler in der Nordsee Epoc – Di, 16 Jun 2009 17:21 Während der letzten Eiszeit, als die Meeresspiegel so tief lagen, dass die Nordsee trocken lag, streifen nicht nur unsere Vorfahren durch die trockenen Tiefebenen – sondern auch unsere nächsten Verwandten, die Neandertaler.

De eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler Universiteit Leiden – Di, 16 Jun 2009 17:16 De vondst langs de Zeeuwse kust van een stukje Neanderthaler is de eerste in Nederland. Wil Roebroeks hoopt dat ‘Krijn’ de stap zal zijn tot onderzoek en bescherming van het Noordzeebodemarchief. 82 —

De eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler Nieuws Bank – Di, 16 Jun 2009 01:25 Universiteit Leiden * Nieuws De eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler De vondst langs de Zeeuwse kust van een Neanderthaler is de eerste in Nederland. Wil Roebroeks hoopt dat `Krijn’ de stap zal zijn tot onderzoek en bescherming van het Noordzeebodemarchief.

The Dutch Press Review 16 June 2009 SXM Island Time – Di, 16 Jun 2009 16:45 HOLLAND – First the headlines; * Amsterdam * archaeology * Arnhem * bilingual * Dutch history museum * Dutch Press Review * Eberhard van der Laan * epidemic * fu * Geert Wilders * Neanderthal.

60,000-Year-Old Neanderthal Skull Fragment Found in North Sea – Science News | Science & Technology | Technology News - FOX News.com – Di, 16 Jun 2009 10:17 Part of an ancient human skull was recovered from the North Sea in an area described as a drowned Stone Age hunting ground. The bone fragment is believed to belong to a late Neanderthal man and has been dated at around 60,000 years old.

De eerste Zeeuw Provinciale Zeeuwse Courant – Di, 16 Jun 2009 09:04 dinsdag 16 juni 2009 | 08:18 Tekstgroote © Kennis&Kennis, 2009 De eerst bekende Neanderthaler in Nederland was een Zeeuw. Drie jaar geleden is een stukje van zijn schedel opgediept in het Middeldiep, zo’n vijfien kilometer uit de kust van Schouwen.

Een Neanderthaler: eindelijk BN DeStem – Di, 16 Jun 2009 07:45 ‘Is dat nou alles, jongen? Dat verzuchte de moeder van de Leidse archeoloog Wil Roebroeks, toen hij haar maanden geleden het botfragment liet zien. En inderdaad, het stukje schedel dat onderwijs minister Ronald Plasterk gisteren in het Leidse Rijksmuseum van Oudheden Leiden met veel aplomb onthulde, oogt weinig indrukwekkend.

Fossiel Neanderthaler gevonden Nijmegen Nieuws – Di, 16 Jun 2009 07:36 Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler gevonden, een stukje schedel van een jonge man. Het fragment, met de voor Neanderthalers zo kenmerkende forse wenkbrauwboog, is langs de Zeeuwse kust ontdekt en afomstig van de Noordzeebodem.

Sea gives up Neanderthal fossil HNN – Di, 16 Jun 2009 07:06 Source: BBC (6-15-09) Part of a Neanderthal man’s skull has been dredged up from the North Sea, in the frst confrmed fnd of its kind. Scientists in Leiden, in the Netherlands, have unveiled the specimen – a fragment from the front of a skull belonging to a young adult male.

Archeologen willen Noordzee-Instituut Provinciale Zeeuwse Courant – Di, 16 Jun 2009 05:49 maandag 15 juni 2009 | 17:03 Tekstgroote LEIDEN (ANP) – Nederland heef ook zijn Neanderthaler. Het werd tijd, 153 jaar geleden werden de resten van een Duitse Neanderthaler ontdekt; de Belgen waren nog veel eerder (in 1829) maar hadden dat toen niet in de gaten. 83 —

Archeologen willen Noordzee-Instituut Nieuwsblad Geldermalsen – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 17:00 LEIDEN (ANP) – Nederland heef ook zijn Neanderthaler. Het werd tijd, 153 jaar geleden werden de resten van een Duitse Neanderthaler ontdekt; de Belgen waren nog veel eerder (in 1829) maar hadden dat toen niet in de gaten.

Met Krijn heef Nederland nu ook een eigen neanderthaler De Twentsche Courant Tubantia – Di, 16 Jun 2009 03:19 De schedel van Krijn, de eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler. Foto: Marcel Antonisse LEIDEN – ; Nederland heef ook zijn neanderthaler. Het werd tijd, want 153 jaar geleden werden de resten van een Duitse neanderthaler ontdekt.

First Neanderthal Fossil Dredged From North Sea Anthropology – Di, 16 Jun 2009 03:11 Jump to Comments A fragment of a Neanderthal skull, dated to between 40,000 and 60,000 years has been recovered from the botom of the North Sea, marking the frst ever occasion such a fnd has been made, according to researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, in collaboration with the University of Leiden.

De oudste Zeeuw Trouw – Di, 16 Jun 2009 02:59 Na diverse vuistbijlen en andere gereedschappen is daar eindelijk het echte tastbare bewijs: een origineel stukje Nederlandse Neanderthaler.

Troythulu’s Nu’z 1.15.6 Sociolingo’s Africa – Blog – Di, 16 Jun 2009 01:29 [1] Sea gives up Neanderthal fossil; Part of a Neanderthal man’s skull has been dredged up from the North Sea, in the frst confrmed fnd of its kind… [2] Herschel telescope opens ‘eyes’; Europe’s new billion euro Herschel space observatory, launched in may, has achieved a critical milestone… [3] Uncool Monkey News! A chimpanzee apocalypse in Tanzania; Tanzania’s chimpanzee population has plummeted by more than 90%, from 10,000 a few years ago, to just 700 today, according to a report from the Tanzania

Dutch Neanderthal Fossil unveiled by Minister Idredge – Di, 16 Jun 2009 01:26 (PalArch) Spectacular discovery of frst-ever Dutch Neanderthal Fossil skull fragment unveiled by Minister Plasterk in National Museum of Antiquities For the frst time ever, a fossil of a Neanderthal has been discovered in the Netherlands.

De lessen van onze Neanderthaler Elsevier – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 22:33 1. Het journaal deugt niet U hebt het allemaal gelezen. Er is voor het eerst een botje van een Neanderthaler gevonden die tienduizenden jaren geleden leefde in het grondgebied van wat we nu Nederland noemen.

Eerste Nederlandse neanderthaler had tumor DePers – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 22:32 Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het meer dan 40.000 jaar oude stukje schedel van een jonge man is gevonden langs de Zeeuwse kust en is afomstig van de Noordzeebodem. 84 —

Eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler had een tumor Het Nieuwsblad – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 22:25 LEIDEN – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het meer dan 40.000 jaar oude stukje schedel van een jonge man is gevonden langs de Zeeuwse kust en is afomstig van de Noordzeebodem.

Opzienbarende vondst eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler Blik op Nieuws – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 22:02 Leiden – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het meer dan 40.000 jaar oude schedelfragment met kenmerkende dikke Neanderthalerwenkbrauwboog is gevonden langs de Zeeuwse kust en is afomstig van de Noordzeebodem.

Cofee Break: June 15 Science Fair – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 21:05 NASA fxing leak on shutle fuel tank ... Amazing facts about the moon ... The science behind sneezes and coughs ... Bacterium called “resurrection bug” revived .

Researchers Find Partial Neanderthal Fossil In North Sea redOrbit – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 20:41 Scientists in the Netherlands have found part of a Neanderthal man’s skull that has been dredged up from the North Sea, BBC News reported. The specimen is a fragment from the front of a skull belonging to a young adult male and experts say it is the frst confrmed fnd of its kind.

Leidse archeologen onthullen eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler Leidsch Dagblad – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 19:14 leiden – Is dat nou alles, jongen? Dat verzuchte de moeder van de Leidse archeoloog Wil Roebroeks, toen hij haar maanden geleden het botfragment liet zien.

‘Neanderthaler uit de Noordzee’ te zien in RMO Sleutelstad – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 19:12 LEIDEN – 15 juni 2009 – Vanmiddag heef minister Plasterk het unieke schedelfragment van de eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler onthuld in het Leidse Rijks Museum van Oudheden. Het meer dan 40.000 jaar oude schedelfragment, met kenmerkende dikke Neanderthaler-wenkbrauwboog, is gevonden langs de Zeeuwse kust en afomstig van de Noordzeebodem.

SEA GIVES UP NEANDERTHAL FOSSIL Nigerian Best Forum Blog – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 19:07 By Paul Rincon Science reporter, BBC News The fragment of skull belonged to a young adult male Part of a Neanderthal man’s skull has been dredged up from the North Sea, in the frst confrmed fnd of its kind.

Eerste Neanderthalerfossiel in Nederland Rtlz – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 18:55 Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het gaat om een stukje schedel van meer dan 40.000 jaar oud.

Neanderthal Skull Fragment Dredged from North Sea Sofpedia – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 18:06 The species was our close “evolutionary cousin” 85 —

Eerste Nederlandse Neanderthaler gevonden NOS – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 17:53 Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het is een schedelfragment van meer dan 40.000 jaar oud, dat werd gevonden in de Noordzee.

Nederland heef eigen Neanderthaler De Gelderlander – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 17:03 Tekstgroote Minister Plasterk geef maandag in Leiden uitleg aan de hand van een gereproduceerde schedel van een Neanderhaler over het gevonden botfragment.

Eerste Neanderthaler fossiel gepresenteerd in Leiden Radio TV West – Delf Westland – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 16:54 Tell a friend LEIDEN – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het meer dan 40.000 jaar oude stukje schedel is gevonden op de bodem van de Noordzee.

Eerste Neanderthaler fossiel gepresenteerd in Leiden Radio TV West – Den Haag Haaglanden Zoetermeer – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 16:54 Tell a friend LEIDEN – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het meer dan 40.000 jaar oude stukje schedel is gevonden op de bodem van de Noordzee.

Resten Neanderthaler in Noordzee AD.nl – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 16:49 ROTTERDAM – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het is een stukje van een schedel van meer dan 40.000 jaar oud.

Eerste Neanderthaler had een tumor AD.nl – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 16:49 LEIDEN – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het meer dan 40.000 jaar oude stukje schedel van een jonge man is gevonden langs de Zeeuwse kust en is afomstig van de Noordzeebodem.

Eerste ‘Nederlandse’ Neanderthaler gevonden FOK Frontpage – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 16:10 Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler gevonden. Het gaat om een stukje schedel van de uitgestorven mensachtige. Het fragment is op de storthoop van een schelpen verwerkend bedrijf in Zeeland ontdekt en is het eerste menselijke fossiel ter wereld dat uit zee afomstig is.

Botfragment Nederlandse Neanderthaler gevonden Trouw – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 15:53 (Novum) – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler ontdekt. Het veertig duizend jaar oude schedelfragment is enkele jaren geleden gevonden langs de Zeeuwse kust in de Noordzee. Daar worden al decennialang botfragmenten boven water gehaald, maar een Belgische amateurpaleontoloog die de vangst van een schelpenzuiger uitpluisde, stuite op het bijzondere stukje bot.

Resten Neandertaler gevonden in Zeeland Provinciale Zeeuwse Courant – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 15:22 maandag 15 juni 2009 | 14:02 | Laatst bijgewerkt op: maandag 15 juni 2009 | 14:31 Een deel van de schedel van een Neandertaler met de kenmerkende wenkbrauwbogen. 86 —

Sea gives up Neanderthal fossil [ dredged up from the North Sea ] Free Republic – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 15:19 Scientists in Leiden, in the Netherlands, have unveiled the specimen – a fragment from the front of a skull belonging to a young adult male. Analysis of chemical “isotopes” in the 30,000-60,000-year-old fossil suggest a carnivorous diet, matching results from other Neanderthal specimens.

Eerste ‘Nederlandse’ Neanderthaler gevonden De Volkskrant – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 15:07 14:00, bijgewerkt op 15 juni 2009 14:11 LEIDEN – Voor het eerst is in Nederland een fossiel van een Neanderthaler gevonden. Het gaat om een stukje schedel van de uitgestorven mensachtige.

Botje Nederlandse Neanderthaler gevonden Elsevier – Mo, 15 Jun 2009 14:00 Eindelijk heef ook Nederland zijn neanderthaler. Vanmiddag heef minister Ronald Plasterk (PvdA) van Wetenschap in het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden het restant van de ‘oer-Nederlander’ onthuld.

Onthulling van bijzondere archeologische vondst door minister Plasterk Nieuws Bank – Do, 11 Jun 2009 17:16 U hebt een pagina opgevraagd uit het Nieuwsbank persberichtenarchief en u bent geen abonnee. Daarom vragen wij u nu een kleine bijdrage voor het onderhoud van onze persberichtenverzameling.

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Copyright © Meltwater, Inc. 2007. All Rights Reserved. It is general knowledge that the southern North Sea harbours a vast array of submerged prehistoric archaeological and environmental remains. In 2009, the North Sea Prehistory Research and Management Framework (NSPRMF) set out a broad set of research and management themes, topics and priorities which were deemed relevant regarding the prehistoric cultural heritage of the southern North Sea. Now, in 2019, we address the question: Where do we stand afer a decade of work? In the past ten years, a lot of work has been done and progress has been made; however, we are still far from meeting all of the priorities defned. While the themes and topics of the NSPRMF 2009 remain relevant today, based on the experiences over the years, they have been revised and updated for this NSPRMF2019.

This scientifc report is intended for archaeologists and other professionals, as well as amateur enthusiasts, interested and involved in the research and heritage management of the prehistoric archaeological and landscape remains hidden below the southern North Sea.

The Cultural Heritage Agency of the Netherlands provides knowledge and advice to give the future a past.