The Underwater Archaeology of Paleolandscapes, Apalachee Bay, Florida Author(S): Michael K

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The Underwater Archaeology of Paleolandscapes, Apalachee Bay, Florida Author(s): Michael K. Faught Source: American Antiquity, Vol. 69, No. 2 (Apr., 2004), pp. 275-289 Published by: Society for American Archaeology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4128420 Accessed: 14-09-2016 18:19 UTC

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THE UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY OF PALEOLANDSCAPES, APALACHEE BAY, FLORIDA

Michael K. Faught

Submerged prehistoric sites investigated in northwest Florida along the margins of the drowned Aucilla River channel (or PaleoAucilla) extend our understanding ofprehistoric settlement patterns and paleolandscape utilization. Bifacial and unifacial tools indicate Late Paleoindian and Early Archaic logistical activities at these sites, as well as later Middle Archaic occupations. Other evidence for terrestrial conditions at these sites include extinct and extant terrestrial faunal remains, in-place tree stumps, and possible eroded middle Holocene shell middens. This report outlines the methodologies used for site investigations, and then discusses the geomorphic setting, character cultural-historical connections, and timing offull inundation for these offshore sites. During late Pleistocene and early Holocene times, the coastline was much farther out on the continental shelf and this segment of the PaleoAucilla was forested and well inland. Later during the middle Holocene stages of transgression, the segment was more of a wide grassy marsh with brackish water tidal creeks and oysters. In this continental shelf setting, submerged archaeological sites remain in clustered arrays accessible by underwater archaeological methods, and the data provide a critical supplement to ourpresent understanding of late Pleistocene and early Holocene settlement patterns and paleolandscape utilization.

Los sitios prehistdricos sumergidos en la placa continental del Golfo de Mdxico presentados en este articulo han producido hallazgos de restos liticos que se han diagnosticado como pertenecientes a los tiempos culturales Paleoindio (epoca geol6g- ica tardio Pleistocenica) y Arcaico (epoca geolo'gica temprana Holocenica). Estos hallazgos confirman y extienden la ocu- pacidn y el patron de asentiamento prehist6rico del noroeste de la Florida alfin de Pleistocenica, que es ya conocida a traves de excavaciones terrestres en esta drea. Al alejarse de la costa, estos sitios representan ocupaciones mds antiguas y asi aumen- tan nuestro conocimiento de las estrategias de poblacidn y organizacidn de los Paleoindios Clovis y sus descendientes. Final- mente, las investigaciones presentadas en este articulofomentan mayores estudios de la placa continental como sitio potencial de restos prehist6ricos. Esta informacidn enfoca en el desarollo de los principios y metodos basicos necesarios para el estu- dio de los sitios prehistdricos sumergidos en otras areas del mundo.

tinental shelf paleolandscapes have good potential Our understanding Pleistocene and early Holocene of settlement North American late for early sites offshore (Anderson and Faught 2000; ranges, coastal occupations, and migration Blanton 1996; Dixon 2001; Easton 1992; Emery pathways is incomplete because post-glacial sea- and Edwards 1966; Erlandson and Moss 1996; level rise submerged paleolandscapes on the con- Faught 1996; Fedje and Christensen 1999; Josen- tinental shelves of both coasts (Dunbar et al. 1992; hans et al. 1997; Masters and Flemming 1983; Mas- Emery and Edwards 1966; Erlandson 2001; Faught ters and Gallegos 1997;). In the eastern and 1996; Johnson and Stright 1992; Masters and Flem- southeastern United States, Clovis-related Pale- ming 1983; Stright 1990, 1995). Underwater oindian and Early Archaic sites are frequent and archaeology is the only way to investigate these set- the adjacent continental shelves are broad and tings, but the underwater archaeology of conti- extensive (Anderson and Faught 2000; Bonnich- nental shelf submerged prehistoric sites is a nascent sen and Turnmire 1999; Ellis et al. 1998; Faught subdiscipline with only a few examples of sus- 1996; Smith 1986). Northwestern Florida, in par- tained research projects. In principle, places in ticular, has abundant evidence for early population North America with concentrations of Paleoindian concentrations and the area of adjacent drowned and Early Archaic sites adjacent to drowned con- continental shelf is substantial.

Michael K. Faught E Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306 ([email protected])

American Antiquity, 69(2), 2004, pp. 275-289 Copyright@ 2004 by the Society for American Archaeology

275 This content downloaded from 131.247.112.3 on Wed, 14 Sep 2016 18:19:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 276 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 69, No. 2, 2004]

.. " Q N St. Johns River

YD (40 m)

SModern Shoreline

Strictly ".a Pateoindian ... sites. ..<,. ,. - I ant Ear Site ?, itt? LGM (ca. 100 m) , =%

Figure 1. Peninsular Florida, showing the distribution of terrestrial Paleoindian and Early Archaic archaeological sites adapted from Dunbar (1991) and Faught (1996, 2004a). The image also includes bathymetric contours (isobaths) of the continental shelf offshore at selected 20-m intervals. The 100-m isobath represents the probable extent of the late glacial maximum (LGM) paleofandscape, the 40-m isobath the possible Younger Dryas (YD) shoreline, and the 20-m isobath the possible shoreline at 8000 B.P. The boundary of Figure 2 (Apalachee Bay) is also shown.

This report focuses on the Donoghue distribution 1997). Early sites ofin Florida a sam- are usually ple of nine submerged prehistoric associated with rivers, springs,sites and located other karst geo- around one segment, or logicreach formations of (Dunbar the 1991). drowned In Table 1 I1 orga- Aucilla (or PaleoAucilla) river nize the channel age and sequence in ofnorthwest regional diagnostic Florida.1 These sites currently artifact styles, lie the6-9 stages km of transgression, from theand the modern coastline, in 4-6 m of seawater. The probable paleoshoreline depths expected offshore. methodologies used and integrity of sites found are It is clear that global sea-level rise occurred in discussed, but the intent is to portray the distribu- two major melt-water pulses interrupted by the tion of sites from a submerged paleolandscape set- Younger Dryas (YD) climatic interval (Fairbanks ting. In Figure 1 the locations of late Pleistocene 1989; Ruddiman and Duplessy 1985; Waelbroeck and early Holocene archaeological sites known in et al. 2001). At the late glacial maximum (LGM) Florida terrestrially are shown, as are selected the western Floridian continental shelf extended bathymetric contours on the continental shelf off- 185 km or more from the modem Aucilla at depths shore (Dunbar 1991; Dunbar et al. 1988; Faught somewhere between 60 and 100 m below present 2004a; Faught and Carter 1998; Faught and sea level (Ballard and Uchupi 1970; Faught and

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Table 1. Culture Historical Sequence Based on Diagnostic Projectile Points and Expected Sea Levels in Northwestern Florida.

Projectile Point Probable Type Names and Maximum Depth Estimated Ages Stage of Transgression of Occurrences Archaic Stemmed Several varieties Last Phases of Submergence 5 to 10 m 8000 to 5000 B.P.

Possible Lacuna of Occupation, change of settlement pattern

Later Corner Notched Bolen, Palmer, Kirk Second Melt-Water Pulse 20 m + Up to 9000 B.P. L/MWP lb

Early Notched Points Bolen, Big Sandy, Taylor End of Younger Dryas 40 m 10,000 B.P.

Unfluted lanceolates Suwannee, Simpson, Quad, Greenbriar Younger Dryas 40 m 10,500 B.P. estimate

Fluted lanceolates Last of Clovis First Melt-Water Pulse 40 m + 11,000 B.P. estimate MWP la Note: Refer to Anderson and Sassaman (1996); Faught and Carter 1998; and Faught and Donoghue (1997) for additional details.

Donoghue 1997). The first major pulse of glacial Florida or the greater Southeast (Ellis et al. 1998; melt-water causing sea-level rise (known as MWP Goodyear 1999). On the other hand, there is plenty la) began after 14,000 B.P. and continued until the of evidence indicating that Clovis-related popula- beginning of the YD at about 11,000 B.P., result- tions settled into the region after 11,000 B.P. and ing in a probable shoreline about 140 km (and ca. survived for several millennia (Faught 2004a). 40-m depth) from the mouth of the modem Aucilla. These data include abundant isolated finds of diag- The rapid expansion of Clovis technology across nostically early artifacts, as well as stratigraphic North America is coincident with the beginning of sequences that include technological changes from the YD (Bonnichsen et al. 1987; Faught 2001; lanceolate to notched points associated with very Haynes 1991). Coastal margins stabilized (or pos- early Holocene radiocarbon ages (Anderson and sibly receded) during this climatic interval due to Sassaman 1996; Bullen 1958; Cambron and Hulse the reduction of melt-water flow as a result of re- 1964; Coe 1964; Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987; advancing glacial margins (Faught 1996:166-168, Driskell 1996; Faught 2004a; Goodyear 1999). In 469). After 10,000 B.P. the second pulse of glacial order to complete and refine Southeastern culture melting (MWP ib) commenced, forcing additional history and understand the extent of early settle- reductions of the paleolandscape and readjustments ment patterns, it is necessary to understand the of human settlements and foraging ranges. This entire paleolandscape setting by finding and inves- took place over the next 5,000 to 6,000 radiocar- tigating prehistoric sites underwater on the conti- bon years (Faught and Donoghue 1997; Frazier nental shelves. 1974).

Numerous fluted points, large biface preforms, Methods and carved ivory fore-shafts indicate a Clovis presence in and around the Aucilla drainage basin (Dun- The basic approach to investigating submerged pre- bar 1991; Faught 2004a; Haynes 1980; Hemmings historic sites on the continental shelf of northwest 1998, 2000). There are, however, no radiocarbon Florida is to reconstruct the pre-inundation pale- ages associated with these earliest artifacts in olandscape, inventory and analyze archaeological

This content downloaded from 131.247.112.3 on Wed, 14 Sep 2016 18:19:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 278 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol. 69, No. 2, 2004] sites, and determine the effects Geomorphic of Settingsea-level transgression upon them (Easton and Moore 1991; Faught 1996:216-219, The2004b). western continental The shelf ofresearch Florida is a low- pro- gram for the PaleoAucilla relief, low-slopeincludes drowned karstboth plain. Itsurvey is riddled and testing operations to withfind karst depressions and investigateand channel segments and sites. Research vessels for working "protruded" by offshoreweather-resistant limestonehave and ranged in size from 6-21 m and chert both outcrops. SCUBAKarst is the result and of chemical surface- ero- supplied air are used for sion ofworking limestone by acidic underwater. conditions in water and Side- scan sonar and subbottom-profiling soils and karst depressions andremote-sensing combinations of devices are used to reconstruct chemical erosion and bottomstructural collapse morphol- create ogy, locate paleochannels, voids of diverseidentify sizes. Chemical sediment erosion is pro- beds, and select targets for nounced diver in the survey.river channels, alongSegments the flood of river channels and other karst void features have plains, and at the interface between river and ocean also been found by studying bathymetric maps and at the coast. Fluvial processes and sediment trans- aerial photographs, conducting offshore survey port are minimal in this karst environment, allow- with fathometers and by towing divers behind small ing for little destruction of artifact arrays in boats. Most survey targets have been located near freshwater settings and little production of sediment paleochannel margins and around rocky outcrops. offshore (Dunbar et al. 1988; Faught and Carter Target locations are recorded using GPS and ini- 1998). We have evidence that lower-order, discon- tial sampling is by diver swim survey and hand fan- tinuous segments of karst river systems, like the ning. Targets producing any artifacts are known as Aucilla is today, occur in the northern, nearer shore, "encounters." If 10 or more artifacts are encoun- portion of the PaleoAucilla research area, and that tered upon initial inspection the targets are given these first-order drainages combine into an allu- Florida Master Site File numbers.2 Diagnostic arti- vially controlled, continuous second-order paleo- facts found at these sites are the best means of con- river channel offshore (Figure 2; Faught and trolling for time and culture (Faught 2004b). Donoghue 1997). This second-order paleochannel Methods for testing prehistoric sites underwa- system has been designated as the PaleoOchlock- ter include hand fanning, vibra-coring, and induc- onee and it combines with the first-order Paleo- tion dredge test pit excavations (Faught 2003, Apalachicola farther offshore. It is the 2004b). Most of the artifacts recovered offshore PaleoApalachicola that would have drained to the have been found by hand fanning, a technique paleocoastline at about the 40-m, Younger Dryas, analogous to shovel testing and effective to about isobath (Figure 1). 50 cm depths. Vibra-coring is of limited success The local marine environment is low energy and for probing sediment in this particular geologic the low slope of the continental shelf promoted environment because the rocky substrate fre- rapid lateral flooding and, theoretically, reduced quently hampers penetration, but the technique alteration of archaeological sites. The geomor- remains valuable for situations with sandier sedi- phology of the PaleoAucilla includes exposures of ments. In this karst setting the best method of rocky outcrops with pockets of deeper sediments exposing sufficient area to find artifacts, work interspersed along the margins, and within the around large rocks, and to make detailed observa- channel itself (Figure 3). There are seven major and tions of sediment beds is by 10-cm and 15-cm- several minor depressions known along the thal- diameter induction dredges (these devices are also weg of this paleochannel segment as indicated by known as hydraulic or water dredges; air lift subbottom profiler remote sensing, bathymetric dredges would also be effective). The sediment analysis, and coring operations. These are discussed spoil is expelled onto floating platforms with 635- in detail elsewhere (Faught 1996:365-400, 2004b; cm hardware cloth installed into the bottoms. Faught and Donoghue 1997). The northernmost Tough fabric "funnels" are connected to the majorbot- sinkhole depression was designated as tom of these floating screen decks to decrease "Locus LI" in 1991 (Figures 3 and 4). The pre- water turbidity and control the location of inundation the "pediment" away from the channel mar- "back-dirt" (i.e., dredge spoil). gins was a cover of sandy soils and muds that

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*-4 SPaleoAucilla Onolo ......

.e J&J H8r unt

SNull suraleoAuillaey targ Otol

IVPaRay Ho leEcSp nfina PaleoSPaleoOchl arks

, .

PaleoOchlockonee

* Artifact ercounters and siles 0 5 km C Null survey target

Ray Hole Spring -ti m

Figure 2. Map of the research area enlarged from Figure 1, including probable trends of paleochannels, the locations of sites and artifact encounters (filled circles), and survey locations without artifacts (open circles). J&J Hunt (8JE740) and Ontolo (8JE1577) are indicated as triangles around the segment of the PaleoAucilla discussed in this report. The boundary of Figure 3 is also indicated. This map was made from bathymetric data published on the NOAA navigational chart of Apalachee Bay, Florida (Chart number 11405).

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Key ( Archaeological Site ? Null survey area

8JE15520 8JE1550 " Figure 4 Stump J&J Hunt E 8JE740 8JE7817 tcus L

8oFluted Pt..base Stump/"Archaic Stemmed Pt

3.66 m

8JE1579

8JE1 575 /

8JE1574

N 0 500 M 8JE1578 /

Ontolo

8JE1577

Figure 3. A segment of the PaleoAucilla channel identified offshore, the approximate trend of the thalweg, and the locations of sites discussed in the text and summarized in Table 2. The locations of two in-place tree stumps and the boundary of Figure 4 are also indicated. blanketed the limestone bedrock and included both the marine sediments above and terrestrially sandy beds in upland settings and hydric soils in derived mud beds below. These horizons often the lowland floodplains. These sediments were include whole and fragmented oyster (Crassostrea) truncated and reworked by transgressing seas to shells and waterlogged arboreal debris indicating varying degrees. Marine sediments are ubiquitous freshwater flotsam and brackish water conditions. now, except where bedrock protrudes, and these are The mud beds are probably residuum from dominated by quartz sand with fluctuating fre- chemical weathering processes. Some are calcitic quencies of whole and broken scallop (Pecten) and (from limestone) and some are dolomitic (the area other shellfish species depending on local condi- is rich' in dolomite). Some of the gray mud beds tions and water depth. Below the marine sands, in encountered in the sediment columns are soft (and protected voids and basins, there are dark organic- possibly reworked), some are firm (probably fresh- rich horizons that represent the transition between water deposits), and some are quite hard (indicat-

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Table 2. Sample Attributes of Nine Sites Located Along the PaleoAucilla (Figure 3).

Name Debitage to Cortex-Free Mean Median Standard Deviation FMSF N Tool Ratio Debitage (%) Weight (g) Weight (g) of Weight Upper Portion of the PaleoAucilla J&J Hunt 8JE740 1740 14.4 82 11.6 2.19 42.9 Area 91-B 8JE781 165 22.57 74 7.2 2.1 21 8JE1550 18 18 83 11.01 25.5 14.88 8JE1552 45 44 77 96.33 3.7 145.12 Lower Portion of the PaleoAucilla 8JE1575 19 No tools 42 14.34 6.4 21.02 8JE1574 31 6.75 52 15.14 5.05 55.98 Ontolo 8JE1577 621 5.03 72 16.80 4.30 44.43 8JE1578 94 17.80 80 8.20 2.65 16.27 8JE1579 51 24.5 65 6.61 3.05 9.41

ing desiccation action, rolling by in surf, or subaerialby sustained wave action. exposure). Evidence for bioturbation The edges of theby majority bivalves, of artifacts are well pre- fish, and other marine fauna occurs in served theand sharp, Onsofter the other hand, a thin beds black in the form of "kro- tovina-like" holes (sulfur?) stain completely, and or partially, tunnels. covers half Tree stumps, roots, and root casts or moreare of the artifacts frequent found at all sites in the Pale- in the harder beds, sup- porting an interpretation oAucilla sample. This black staining enables dis-of terrestrial conditions and indicating covery thein the tan-colored preservation sandy marine deposits, of at least some of the past sedimentary but inhibits adequate study ofprofile. chert sources. A small The outer growth rings of two preserved percentage of theoak artifacts are treecorroded. Corrosion stumps, both growing in hard mud beds here indicates (locations a condition that probably originates indicated on Figure 3), have returned from subaerial ages exposure to ultravioletof rays,7240 caus- ? 100 B.P. (A-6714; wood; 813C = ing "chalking,"-26.6 and then aerobic%o) marine submer-and 7080 + 70 B.P. (Beta- 169503; wood; gence, causing813C ferrous staining = and -26.4corrosion of the %o). Dolomite cobbles and boulders edgesare (Faught found1996:373-375, 2004b; Faughtwith and depth in virtually all sediment exposures Latvis 2000:49-50). Analysis investigated to identify and under- so far. stand these conditions is underway to best deter- Site Integrity mine the formation processes involved and to develop appropriate conservation techniques for Artifacts are them,found but the point is thaton the nature, the condition, surfaceand of rocky sea-floor bottoms and reworked into marine and brackish extent of artifacts can be ascertained. sediment beds by the processes of transgression and sustained submergence (Faught 1988, 1996, Archaeological Sites Distributed Along the 2004b). Artifacts remain clustered but stratigraphic PaleoAucilla relations are conflated. Reworking to some extent occurs at virtually all marine submerged prehistoric Figure 3 is an isometric outline of the PaleoAucilla sites known around the world so far (Andersen channel segment boundaries. The locations of nine 1987; Easton and Moore 1991; Flemming 1983; prehistoric archaeological sites, two encounters of Galili and Weinstein-Evron 1985; Waters 1992). isolated artifacts, and six nonproductive survey Nevertheless, the contiguity of large and small locations are plotted. Table 2 lists these sites, the chipped stone items preserved in clustered associ- numbers of artifacts found at each, the debitage to ations in this offshore setting suggests limited sort- tool ratios, the percentage of items without cortex, ing and lateral movement. Comparison of mean, and the average, median, and standard deviation of median, and standard deviations of weight in Table weight of each collection. The sizes of circles in 2 shows that there is an unsorted diversity of sizes Figure 3 are relative to the numbers of artifacts at the sites discussed in this report. found per diver hour of initial survey, an index that There is no rounding of the artifacts by fluvial acts as a rough proxy for artifact density. Four sites

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...... i iiili,... ""iii 8JE740 - J&J Hunt

Sone bBone3.bed

13135 1m

8JE781 ;! iiiiiiiiiii~iigArea ' l~91-B i~ iiiN :i :::i :~i ::i.:i::ii:ii:2: .i;.i :i ~~i:::.:ii;i~: :i IZ ii::ii:IZ:I 1i: :: i@ ?if:: :;:: :::i i:i;ii; i ~ i iiiii------ii~i ii :i:: :iii~:i f:

...... 60 m. ...

Figure 4. Detailed bathymetric reconstruction of the upper portion of the PaleoAucilla. The base lines set up for study and sampling are indicated at each site.

are located near the north portion, or "head," of the made from subbottom-profiler remote-sensing data paleochannel, including J&J Hunt, which has been contoured using Surfer. J&J Hunt is located on the studied more than any other site in this research northeastern margins of the northernmost deep area. Five sites are located near the southern por- depression at the head of the PaleoAucilla segment tion of the channel segment. The five sites in the (Locus Li) on a peninsular-shaped rocky outcrop. southern group were discovered in 2001, and one J&J Hunt was discovered in 1989, tested by con- of them, Ontolo (8JE1577), was surface collected trolled hand-fanned collections in 1992, and exca- in 2002 (Marks 2002). Two isolated finds between vated every year between 1998 and 2002 (Faught the northern and southern clusters of sites include 1996; Faught and Latvis 2000; Latvis and Faught a probable fluted biface base (Figure 5a) and an 2001; Tobon and Pendleton 2002). This testing Archaic stemmed point (Faught 1996:433-434, includes 34 induction dredge test pits positioned to Figure 8.09a and b). Most sites have been found determine site limits and to discover any preserved on the western margin of the paleochannel because presubmergence sediment beds, of which there are there is less sediment cover there and there are some examples (Faught 2004b). The small black more exposed rocky areas making artifacts more squares arrayed in N-S, E-W orientation in Figure visible. The eastern margin consists of finer organic 4 are the locations of the l-x-l-m (and larger) marine sediment beds, which promote the devel- induction dredge test pits. The group of tests at a opment of sea-grass beds but which inhibit artifact bearing of 240 degrees in the southwestern quad- discovery (Arbuthnot 2002).3 rant of the site is the area of hand-fanned collec- Figure 4 is a detailed bathymetric reconstruc- tions in 1992. Two test pits are indicated as having tion of the northern portion of the PaleoAucilla faunaseg- ("bone beds," Test Pits 99-01 [east] and 02- ment, with J&J Hunt and two other sites (8JE1550 01 [south]). Test pits with whole shell beds possi- and 8JE781) indicated. This reconstruction blywas indicating middle Holocene shell midden

This content downloaded from 131.247.112.3 on Wed, 14 Sep 2016 18:19:45 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms REPORTS 283 deposits ofhave 18 percent of the tools, and circleshammer stones make around them. Test pits to the north, west, up an additional 4 percent. and The variety of tools south encountered deeper marine sediments. indicates biface production and other possible Most chipped retooling at J&J Hunt during its use-history.stone The artifacts have been found on the surface and within the first 20 cm of the chipping debris is mostly cortex free, indicating marine beds. Artifacts have been recovered from transport of the raw material from elsewhere; but deeper contexts in both marine- and brackish- no outcropping chert has been found in the exposed derived sediment beds along the northern and bedrock of the site. There is limited evidence for southern margins of the site. On the other hand, no tool-edge maintenance activities (Faught artifacts have been found in terrestrially derived 1996:455). sediments, even though Pleistocene and Holocene The artifact assemblage at J&J Hunt (8JE740) fauna have. One mud bed excavated at J&J Hunt includes several temporally diagnostic bifacial and (Test Pit 99-01; bone bed to the east of the main unifacial tools (Figures 5, 6, and 7). Sixteen, pos- datum on Figure 4) indicated especially prolonged sibly 17, projectile points and projectile point frag- desiccation by its hard consistency, blocky to pris- ments have been recovered from J&J Hunt, matic structure, and organic (pedogenic) staining including one late Paleoindian Suwannee projec- (Faught and Latvis 2000). Broken teeth and frag- tile point base (Figure 5b) and one possible Suwan- ments of the mandible and maxilla of a juvenile nee preform (not illustrated because it is severely mastodon were found in the upper portions of this corroded; hence the difficulty in counting total hard bed and in the eroded contact above it (Faught numbers). Five side-notched Bolen projectile points and Latvis 2000). Root casts (filled with marine have been recovered in surface and excavated con- sediments) indicated the locations of now-degraded texts (Figure 5e-h and Figure 6a); one of these is trees in the hard mud bed. No artifacts were found unifacial (Figure 5g), three have beveled blade with the mastodon teeth embedded in the hard mud edges (Figure 5e, f, and h), and one is known locally bed, although great effort was made to discover as a "high-notched" Bolen (Figure 6a; Bullen such an association, but artifacts were found in the 1975:52). Other tools found at J&J Hunt diagnos- eroded contact above. These artifacts included a tic of early Holocene age and activity include one unifacial end scraper and a side-notched Bolen broken adze bit and two formal unifacial side scrap- point diagnostic of ca. 10,000 B.P. (Figure 5f). The ers known locally as Hendrix scrapers (Daniel and mastodon dentition and bone were submitted for Wisenbaker 1987:70-74). Hendrix scrapers are radiocarbon dating but they were too depleted of associated with Bolen points at site 8LE2105 in collagen for reliable results. Nevertheless, this bed northwestern Florida in strata with multiple radio- demonstrates the likelihood that preserved primary carbon ages averaging ca. 10,000 B.P. (Faught deposits remain to be found offshore. A second 2004a; Goodwin et al. 1996). The site would have deposit with abundant bone fragments (almost 5 kg been located well inland during these late Pleis- in weight and including Pleistocene and Holocene tocene-early Holocene occupations as the pale- faunal elements) was excavated on the southern oshoreline was much farther out on the continental margin of the site in 2002 (Test Pit 02-01). Analy- shelf (Table 1). Two shouldered, straight-stemmed sis of this material is ongoing, but preliminary projectile points have been recovered from J&J observations of the condition of the bones suggest Hunt (Figure 6b and c) which may indicate later predator "chew," rather than food processing debris early Holocene age, Early Archaic activities, per- or midden trash. haps around 9,000 radiocarbon years ago, but this Artifacts are most frequent along the northern is speculative and they could also be designated as margins of the site, but tools (of which there are Savannah River or Hamilton projectile points that 121 in the sample) are most frequent in the south- would be later, middle Holocene-aged artifacts western quadrant, nearest to the paleochannel mar- (Bullen 1975:35, 38). gins. Tools consist of unifacial scrapers (22 Middle Archaic activities are also indicated at percent), whole and broken bifacial items (42 per- J&J Hunt by diagnostic artifacts (Figure 7a-d). cent), and utilized flakes (21 percent). Cores Three Florida Archaic straight-stemmed points (mostly without much cortex) combine for a total (Figure 7a, b, and c) and one contracting-stemmed

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Figure 5. Diagnostic projectie points Ifound offshore indicating late Paleoindian anrd Eary Archaic occupations, incud- ing a possible fluted point base (a, ocation of discovery shown on Figure 3), ate Paleoindian (Suannee) lancedate base (b) found at J&J Hunt (8JE740), Suwannee lanceolate pro ectile point (c) found at Ontolo (8JE1577) late Paloindianr (Suwannee) preform d) is ifrom Area 91-B (8JE781). Eary rchaicr notched Boen points (s, f. g, and h) are from J&J Hunt (8JE740). Speci men (e) is unifacial

Figure 6. Diagnostic pro ectile points found ofifshore indicating possible later Eay Archaic (a), or early M dde Archaic (middle Ho ocene) occupations (b and c). These exanmples are ess reliable for age and cuiture group af liation.

Fiure 7. Middle Archaic stemmed points fro JJ H E74 indcating idd e Hoocene age ocupatons

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point (Figure The diagnostic artifacts 7d) found at Ontolo includerepresent evidence for middle Holocene oneage, Suwannee lanceolate Middlepoint (Figure 5c) that is Archaic activities between 7500 and unquestionably5000 of late PaleoindianB.P., age, three at which time the site was fully inundated straight-stem projectile points, arguably classifi-(Bullen 1975:32; Faught and Donoghue able 1997).as Wacissas (Early Archaic?; NeillBeds 1963), and of whole but disarticulated oyster shell another Hendrix inside scraper (notsome illustrated, but test pits indicate possible eroded oyster see Marks and Faught shell2003). A Kirk-like stemmed refuse deposits (shown on Fig- ure 4 as circles projectile point is the youngest ofaround the points of pre- test pit symbols) that are inferred sumedto early Holocenebe age (Bullen representatives 1975; Coe of this middle Holocene 1964).occupation Additional research is being conducted at (Faught 2004b; Faught and Latvis 2000; Ontolo to identify Latvis more about the distribution of and Faught 2001; Tobon and Pendleton artifacts 2002). and site formation processes representedOne of these beds produced a radiocarbon by this large chippedage stone array, as wellof as to ascer- 5970 ?40 B.P. (BETA-169504; on charcoal; tain the specific 613Cactivities taking place there. = Other -26.7 %o). Two other sites in sitesthe southern portion ofin the PaleoAucilla the northern group also indicate Late appearPaleoindian to be dense clusters of artifacts, possibly and Early Archaic presence. Area 91-B indicating (8JE781) one large area of settlement at the south- was found in 1991 and sampled in 1992 ern end of this discontinuous(Faught karst segment. The 1996:433-438). At Area 91- B, also located age, function, and affinity of nearthese sites will be the the head of the PaleoAucilla segment, focusadditional of additional research in the future. evidence for late Paleoindian occupation Table was 3 presents radiocarbon indicated ages of floral and by small bifacial flaking debris, a unifacial faunal specimens found in different geomorphicscraper, and a Suwannee preform (Figure 5d). contexts thatAnother inform on the chronology of the sub- Hendrix side scraper was collected with mergence process.chipped These specimens come from stone debris at 8JE1552. No tools were collected from 8JE1550. the northern portion of the PaleoAucilla and include Of the sites found in the southern portion of the in-place tree stumps and wood from gray mud beds, paleochannel segment, the Ontolo site (8JE1577) flotsam wood from brackish sediments, oyster is by far the largest lithic scatter (Figure 3). Ontolo shell, and charcoal from possible coastal resource was found in 2001 by side-scan sonar remote sens- procurement activities at the end of the submer- ing for outcropping rock and then diver reconnais- gence process. These data indicate fully terrestrial sance to test for artifacts (Latvis and Faught 2001; conditions until after 7000 B.P., near coastal con- Marks 2002; Tobon and Pendleton 2002). While the ditions after 6000 B.P., and full submergence of the research is just beginning at Ontolo, the site has a paleochannel segment after 5000 B.P. high artifact density and lower debitage-to-tool ratio than any other site found offshore so far (Table 2). Conclusion Artifacts without cortex make up the majority of debitage. Tools consist of unifaces (35 percent) and This research demonstrates that evidence for past bifaces and biface fragments (37 percent). Expedi- settlement and resource-procurement systems can ent tools have been identified from the debitage, be located in continental shelf settings and that including simple edge-damaged flakes, a few with underwater archaeological techniques can be used notches, and some lightly shaped spurs. These items to study them. The intent is to understand the past make up 20 percent of the tools inventoried. Cores landscape setting, the extent and character of set- make up eight percent of the tools, but no hammer tlement, and the site formation processes that affect stones have been identified yet. These data contrast sites offshore. These data contribute to under- with J&J Hunt, which has more evidence for bifa- standing of how to find and investigate submerged cial tool production, and more cores and hammer prehistoric sites and supplement terrestrial settle- stones, but less evidence for utilization of the arti- ment pattern data. facts. The diversity and frequency of tools at Ontolo Bathymetric enhancement, subbottom-profil- suggest a wider range of logistical activities taking ing, and side-scan sonar remote sensing are effec- place at the location than at J&J Hunt (Marks 2002). tive tools for reconstructing the courses of

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Table 3. Radiocarbon Ages for In-Place Tree Stumps, Flotsam Wood, Charcoal, and Oyster Shell, from Sediments Sampled at the Upper End of the Paleoaucilla Segment that Indicate Past Environmental Conditions.

Interpretation Radiocarbon Age Lab Number Comments Near coastal human activities 5,970 ? 40 BETA 169504 Charcoal in possible shell midden Brackish water 6,135 + 80 AA-10508 Crassostrea around in-place oak stump at 4.5-m depth Brackish water 6,375 + 80 AA-11045 Crassostrea around in-place oak stump at 4.5-m depth Freshwater conditions 6,785 + 80 AA-8859 Flotsam wood Freshwater conditions 6,825 ? 120 AA-10510 Flotsam wood Freshwater conditions 6,755 + 60 AA-10513 Wood from gray mud Freshwater conditions 7,010 + 80 AA-11047 Wood from gray mud Freshwater conditions 7,160 + 95 AA-10511 Wood from gray mud

TerrestrialFreshwater conditions conditions 7,080? 707,130 BETA _ 169503 75 AA-8872 In place tree Wood stump from at 4.2-m gray depth mud Terrestrial conditions 7,240 ? 100 A-6714 In place tree stump at 4.5-m depth Note: Data from this report and Faught and Donoghue 1997. paleoriver channels, studying bottom types, and merged paleolandscapes are important sources of generating locations for diver survey. Use ofdata about the prehistory of this enigmatic culture. regional prehistoric culture histories and terrestrial Whether submerged prehistoric sites will present analogs of settlement patterns known locally evidence for early Clovis activities in coastal set- increase the potentials for artifact recovery. While tings, or whether later Paleoindian and Early this geomorphic situation (a drowned karst plain) Archaic sites are all that are to be found, remains is conducive to site discovery, research projects to to be seen by research in deeper water, farther out find sites in different geomorphic environments inon the continental shelf. the Gulf of Mexico or along the Eastern Seaboard Acknowledgments. This research has benefited from the are more than warranted. The growth in knowl- assistance of the Dorothy C. Fitch Foundation, EarthWatch, edge of submerged prehistoric continental shelf National Science Foundation Grant number BIN 9100515, archaeology will come from sustained investiga- the College of Arts and Sciences at Florida State University, tions--either by divers or by remotely operated the Division of Historical Resources and the Bureau of devices Archaeological Research of the Florida Department of State (with the assistance of the Historic Preservation Board), and Overall, five of the diagnostic artifacts from the the Florida Institute of Oceanography. Equipment for this PaleoAucilla indicate late Paleoindian (Suwannee) research has come from a diverse range of sources, but presence, 13 indicate Early Archaic (Bolen) pres- thanks in particular go to the Florida Museum of Natural ence, and six indicate Middle Archaic presence. History and the College of Arts and Sciences at Florida State This is not an unexpected ratio of evidence for early University for excavation gear, vessels, and remote sensing prehistoric occupations in Florida, even though equipment. Also thanks to Jim Dunbar, David Webb, Joseph Latvis, Ryan Pendleton, Camila Tobon, Lynette Norr, David extrapolating from this data is questionable because Thulman, Brian Marks, Michael Arbuthnot and James the sample is small and biased relative to the Eberwine for their input. Camila Tobon translated the amount of time spent at each site, and to materials abstract into Spanish and Brian Worthington drew the arti- exposed on the sea floor bottom or to within about facts. a meter of deposition. Nevertheless, these late Pleis- tocene and early Holocene sites are older, more References Cited abundant, and larger in size than other submerged Andersen, Soren H. prehistoric sites known elsewhere in North Amer- 1987 Tybrind Vig: A Submerged Ertebolle Settlement in ica, including those along the West Coast where Denmark. In European Wetlands in Prehistory, edited by early coastal migration pathways have been demon- John M. Coles and Andrew J. Lawson, pp. 254-280. Clarendon Press, New York. strated (Dixon 2001; Erlandson 2001; Fedje and Anderson, David G., and Kenneth E. Sassaman Christensen 1999; Josenhans et al. 1997; Stright 1996 The Paleoindian and Early Archaic Southeast. Uni- 1995). Because Clovis ancestry can be tracked for versity of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa. Anderson, David G., and Michael K. Faught several millennia through stylistic evolutionary 2000 Paleoindian Climate, Dating and Artifact Distribu- sequences in the Southeast, it follows that these sub- tions on a Very Large Scale: Evidence and Implications.

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Notes research by Anuskiewicz and colleagues found chipped stone debitage at Ray Hole Spring, a sinkhole about 38.5 km south 1. Several other submerged prehistoric sites have been of the mouth of the Aucilla, at a depth of 11 m, and near the found out to a distance of 21 km during research operations PaleoOchlockonee I (shown in Figure 2) (Anuskiewicz 1988; have organized (Faught 1996; Faught 2004b; Faught and Dunbar et al. 1992:131-132). This brings the combined num- Latvis 2000; Latvis and Faught 2001; Tobon and Pendleton ber of artifact encounters and sites to 37 in the Big Bend . 2002). Remote sensing operations have logged more than 500 2. The farthest encounter out on the shelf is 15 km from linear km of track lines within the research area described in the mouth of the modern Aucilla. There are 18 designated Figure 2 and Figure 3. Survey operations have occurred at 57 sites and 12 encounters recorded. targets. The resultant sample from all survey and testing oper- 3. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection ations is 30 locations of artifact encounters producing over prohibits dredging in sea-grass beds. 4,500 pieces of chipped stone, including diagnostic projectile points, formal chipped stone tools, and debitage. Ancillary geoarchaeological data include faunal bone, wood, mollusks, and sediment samples. Seven other sites are recorded in the Received September 17, 2002; Revised November 14, 2003; Florida Master Site File (FMSF) for Apalachee Bay, and prior Accepted November 17, 2003.

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