THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES
AN OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGY
RELATED TO KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA
By
KIM KAUFMANN
A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts
DEGREE AWARDED:
Summer Semester, 1993 The membe~= of the Committee approve the Thesis of ~:ira I(aufmann defonded on June 3. 1993. R~~ff~QH~------ProFessor Directing ThesIs G~----~-- Committee Member
~~ ~J~'-r. _ Geor Fischer Committee Member ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank various individuals and departments for their assistance with the Promise Project. First, I would like to thank thesis committee members Dr. Rochelle Marrinan, Dr. Glen Doran, and George Fischer. I would also like to thank Dr. steve Hale and Frank Rupert for their assistance and expertise with sample analysis. Thanks are due Sandra Forney and the united states Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for issuing a special use permit to conduct research at Promise Sink. I would also like to thank the Department of Anthropology at Florida State University, Florida State University Marine Lab's Academic Diving Program, and the State of Florida Bureau of Historical Research, Underwater Archaeology Division for the use of all equipment used in the Promise project. A special thanks to: Scott Hayes, Nancy Nonweiler, Shelly Sikes, Marjorie Peak, and Kimberly Willyoung for the willingness to help with the Promise project. I would also like to express my indebtedness to Jane Kaufmann for all her hours of proofreading.
iii TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGES LIST OF FIGURES vi ABSTRACT vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2: KARST TOPOGRAPHY IN FLORIDA 5 Sinkhole and Spring Formation Springs Submarine Springs and Sinkholes Hydrology Dating Sinkhole Formation Implications of Karst Features for Archaeology Karst Features in Florida and Preservation
CHAPTER 3: AN OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA RECOVERED FROM KARST FEATURES 27 Chronological Synopsis Settlement Patterns Cultural Inventories Environment Reconstruction Radiocarbon Dates for Karst Features summary
CHAPTER 4: RIVER SINK TRACT 43 Geology of River Sink Tract Sinkholes of River Sink Tract Promise Sink Previous Archaeological Studies
CHAPTER 5: PROMISE SINK PROJECT 63 Research design Promise Sink Project Methodology Analysis Conclusions
iv CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY B9 Status of Archaeological Knowledge of Karst Features Summary of the Promise Project Recommendations
APPENDICES 1-7: TABLES 94
APPENDIX B: PERMIT COPIES 109
BIBLIOGRAPHY 116
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 131
v LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE 1. KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA 2
2. KARST TERRAIN...... 6
3. CHEMICAL WEATHERING 6
4 . KARST TERRAIN...... 6
5. SINKHOLE FORMATION...... 8
6. SUBMARINE SPRINGS...... 13
7. SUBMERGED KARST SITES IN APPALACHEE BAy 15
8. HYDROLOGIC CyCLE 16
9. FLORIDAN AQUIFER 18
10 RECHARGE AREA OF THE FLORIDAN AQUIFER 19
11. RIVER SINK TRACT 44
12. IWODVILLE KARST PLAIN...... 45
13. PREHISTORIC MARINE TERRACES 48
14. OCALA PLATFORM AND THE FLORIDAN PLATEAU 50
15. SULLIVAN SySTEM...... 54
16. PROMISE SINK...... 57
17. PROMISE AND GO-BETWEEN SINKS 58
18. SINKHOLE RAOD AND THE RIVER SINK TRACT .....•.... 60
19. PREVIOUS STUDY AT THE RIVER SINK TRACT 61
20. PROMISE WITH TRANSECT LINES 66 vi LIST OF FIGURES CONTINUED
21. PROMISE DEPTH MAP...... 67
22. PROMISE SUBSURFACE SURVEY MAP 71
23. TANNIC ACID CHART FOR PROMISE 78
24. POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE FOR WAKULLA COUNTY 81
vii AN OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGY RELATED TO KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA
Kira Kaufmann, MA Florida State University, 1993 Major Professor: Rochelle Marrinan, Dr.
This thesis discusses the archaeological literature concerning karst features: what information is available, the sites previously studied, the people who researched karst sites, and historic and prehistoric remains recovered from karst features. It describes specific sites, settlement studies related to karst features, and environmental reconstruction. As background, this thesis also describes geological and hydrological information concerning karst features, such as their sediment history, causes, and formation processes. It then presents geological information specific to one karst feature called Promise Sink. It also suggests a possible method to date sinkhole formation through pollen and floral analysis. Another facet of this thesis presents the results of a preliminary survey of a karst feature called Promise Sink. Through survey and excavation, the archaeological potential of viii Promise sink is evaluated. A mapping gram provides documentation of Promise Sink on many levels: the surrounding area, surface features, physiology, and depth profile. An underwater survey of the sink also included subsurface testing which produced evidence of a prehistoric cultural component.
ix CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Florida is known for its karst topography and karst features such as sinkholes and underwater caves. Karst features are located throughout Florida (Figure 1). Previous archaeological research has shown that there is a close correspondence between water-filled karst features and the earliest human inhabitants, the Paleoindian and Archaic populations (Cockrell and Murphy 1978; Cockrell 1980). Cultural remains have been recovered from a variety of karst features: river runs, springs, sinkholes, shelf zones, ledges, sediment cones, caverns, and caves. Archaeological data from karst features in Florida, however, are very limited. North Florida has perhaps the largest concentration of karst features within Florida, but there has been little systematic scientific archaeological research in karst features. The Page/Ladson site, a submerged sinkhole in the Aucilla River, has been studied extensively within the past few years, revealing Paleoindian through Deptford period artifacts (Dunbar 1987, 1989). Only one spring in North Florida, Wakulla Springs, has received any serious archaeological attention. It has been shown to
1 2
.. .. _-..,. ----_ _ .. _.-...... _ - . -. I' -- ..... -'\ U
·7
1. River Sink Tract 2. Leon Sinks (j J. Wakulla Springs 4. Page/Ladsen 5. Ichetucknee springs 6. Manatee Springs 7. Paynes Prairie 8. Silver Springs 9. Guest Spring 10. Warm Mineral Springs 11. Little Salt Springs 12. Harney Flats ...,.....-' figure 1 KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA 3 have Paleoindian and Archaic period cultural components as well as an excellent assemblage of extinct faunal remains (Bryne 19BB; Fischer 1990).
Springs and spring-fed rivers (also called "runs") in Central Florida have been the sites where cultural materials have been recovered, yet few data are pUblished. In South Florida, only two sinkholes, Warm Mineral Springs and Little Salt Springs, have been studied by archaeologists. Both sites demonstrated associations with Paleoindian and Archaic cultures (Clausen 1975a; Cockrell 19BO; Royal 1960). In Warm Mineral Springs cultural remains have been located on a shelf about 10 m deep and in the sediment cone at the bottom of the sinkhole about 35 m deep (Cockrell 19B7). In Little Salt Springs cultural remains were similarly recovered from the shelf areas (Clausen 1975a) . This thesis brings together geological and archaeological information on karst features. It evaluates the current state of knowledge concerning archaeological data associated with karst features. It also selects a study area associated with a karst feature and reports preliminary research conducted at this area. It then evaluates and assesses the outcomes from this area study. Chapter 2 presents geological information on karst topography, kinds and distribution of karst features, and on 4 formation and dating of karst features. Chapter 3 presents an overview of archaeological data from karst features available state wide. It focuses on Paleoindian and Archaic data. It examines the status of archaeological data relative to major concerns within the discipline: descriptive studies, settlement analysis, and ecological information. It also summarizes available radiocarbon dates associated with karst features. Chapter 4 examines the River Sink Tract in Northwest Florida. This large karst zone is used as the study area to exemplify the problems inherent in archaeological studies of these early time periods. Chapter 5 offers a preliminary study of Promise Sink, a feature within the River Sink Tract, and presents it as a site which is used to attempt to gather archaeological evidence. Chapter 6 summarizes the archaeological data, discusses problems, and makes recommendations for future work. CHAPTER 2
KARST TOPOGRAPHY IN FLORIDA
Many of Florida's natural attractions owe their origins to the dynamic processes of karst geology. To the visitor Silver Springs, Ichetucknee River, Warm Mineral Springs, and Crystal River are all natural wonders. These attractions are directly related to the geological history of Florida, particularly the extensive marine deposits which underlie the state. To the geologist these attractions are only a few of the variety of karst features. To the archaeologist these places have long been considered potential sources of information about Florida's earliest inhabitants. Karstic terrain underlies most of Florida and in some places is estimated to be 200 miles wide (Lane 1986:75). The ancient marine deposits, now limestone, are the major component. Karst features are formed through weathering and erosion of the limestone by water on and below the surface. In addition to springs and rivers, other karst features may be sinkholes, caverns, caves, and areas within them. The beginnings of new karst formations usually occur hidden underground as a gradual but persistent process.
5 6
figure 2 KARST TERRAIN (Lane 1986: 12)
A '- -='--- .J R.I.II.... I.,. young lnrll landlc,p, .hawlng undulvln9 IImuton. bed. and nodv overburden with norm.I, Int" , or.lid .Urf.CI dnln.g•. Solullon fUlur•••n 1u111 beginning to develop In the IIm'lton,. I .,~co, ' .... ,."'.~ .... 11 "-- _'" ..10k.
t_.... IiAoI ...... •...... ",,,·... •...".... M._'"'--'-'... __ figure 3 .....-. - - CHEMICAL WEATHERING '0"__.. d.,.. (Lane 1986:13)
-',-1. . 0".11 01 Flour, 7. lhowlng utly .IIQu o,ln(.1 101m. lion. Llmuton. I. (.I.IN.ly com".I.n! .nd uf...,od.d. Ch.mlc.1 wI.tn.ring I. jul' beginning. wIlh 111111 'nl.tna. dtcuf.11on 01 WII., t/vaugh IN IIm..'one. Swain, ':>---!~;,..c:;.;llolmlno1nclpl.nl .\nlI.hol••, .C'tla cooee.ntlil. ,.chug•.
figure 4 KARST TERRAIN (Lane 1986:14)
CAYCIIHS J c L....__O~'~'~'~l~.._.._a=- ..J Advanced k.rat l.ndlC.p" Orlgln.1 tud.c. h.. b••n low,r,d by .olutlon and .to.lon. Only m./of .If"m. flow In lurhe. chinn.I••nd th.y m.y etau 10 1I0w In d.y IIUlon., Sw.l" and .lnkholu captur, mo.t Ollh. sutl.e. wattr and shUn! It tb Ih. undergtound dtllnao. sYUtm. C.v.mous lon.S III will-d.v.lop.d In (h. Umuton•• 7 Chemical weathering is the most prominent aspect in the process of karst terrain formation (Figure 3). Chemical weathering occurs when acidic water forms and dissolves the limestone. As moisture precipitates to the ground from clouds in the atmosphere, it attracts some carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas to form a weak acid. This water becomes even more acidic when it penetrates the soils and encounters decayed organic material. Because limestone is characteristically cracked with fissures, fractures and joints, it is more susceptible to destruction by acidic water which infiltrates from overlying sand and clay sediment layers. As the water dissolves the limestone it also removes minerals present in the limestone and transports them through the karst terrain to some point of discharge at a spring, sinkhole, river, or the ocean. continual erosion of the limestone by chemical weathering creates increasingly larger cavities and pockets. If they become large enough, these cavities can collapse. Partial collapses of a cavity create a partial subsidence of surface sediments producing such features as swales and hummocky areas in the landscape (Lane 1986). A complete and sudden subsidence of surface sediments due to a collapse of a limestone cavity would create a larger feature such as a sinkhole (Figure 5). Further collapses of limestone cavities and surface sediment overburden create the undulating topography common of a karst terrain (Figures 2 and 4). ~ n ~cn ..... H '1 Z " .~. 0" ::3' :I: r:. 0"o 1-'.:-:' t"'t"' ..... 01 t:j 1-' . .". :> "l (1) '>j C CD 0'1 t(;?;lt) CD!>:'" 0\8 •• H "'0 uZ
- BI ...~ ~."-. .• ~. . .. I C I ':' ~"y • r·"'~~"" ~- .. I A) Cavny has formed in limestone due to circulation of groundwater. Cavity grows upward by stoping (spalling of material from ceiling of a cavity.) B) Enough loose sand has been piped into cavities to cause subsidence l!It surface. The watertable may be lowered due :'0 unrestricted flow into underground drainage. A lowered watertable ml!ly be manifested locally by plants stressed for lack of water, or wells may go dry. C) Continual enlargement of underground drainage and remollaJ of overburden results in the typical, cone-shaped sinkhole. A sudden collapse may swallow trees or buildings. The depression may intersect the watertable, forming a pond. 9 Another common feature of karst terrain is the regional lowering of the land surface (Lane 1986:72) caused by thousands of individual events of chemical weathering. Slumping or sagging of ground surfaces, ponding of rainfall in previously dry areas, sinkholes, or springs may appear. other indicators of karst-related subsidence are the appearance of turbidity in well water, vegetative stress, or structural weaknesses appearing, such as cracks in walls or pavement. An "average" surface lowering was calculated for the northern part of the Florida peninsula by Opdyke in 1984. His estimate projected a lowering by one inch every thousand years because of the dissolution of limestone in karst areas
(Lane 1986:72). For the archaeologist, the most important karst features are sinkholes, springs/and associated rivers or "runs". A brief discussion of sinkhole and spring formation is included here to inform the reader of the basic geological processes involved in the creation and evolution of these features.
SINKHOLE AND SPRING FORMATION
sinkholes begin as depressions in karst topography caused by chemical weathering of limestone. They usually occur in areas of karst terrain having solution cavities. Turner (personal communication 1989) suggests that sinkholes usually form over joints in faults of limestone deposits. 10 Natural or human triggered stresses can also cause surface sediment to collapse into these cavities. An example of a natural stress would be a large decrease in the level of the water table or in the Floridan Aquifer creating an air space in a dissolved limestone cavity. Such a drop in the water table could be caused by periods of drought. Objects weigh less in water because of buoyancy. Therefore, sediments below the water table weigh less than those on the surface. Sand and clay immersed in water weigh 40 percent less than their actual weight (Lane 1986:21). However, when the water table level drops below sediments previously immersed in water, these sediments regain their actual weight and create more downward pressure. If sediments which cannot support their own weight occur over an eroded limestone cavity, they will collapse into the cavity. Saturated sands and clays immersed in the water table level over such a cavity are less likely to collapse because the bouyancy of the water helps the sediment to support more weight. Such saturated sediments will not collapse over an eroded limestone cavity unless triggered by an increase in precipitation or man-made activities. The most common human initiated causes of stress on sediments likely to cause a sinkhole are construction and well related activities (Lane 1986:24). Various construction activities such as building, blasting and excavation create 11 stress on sediments from motion and weight. From the surface, welling activities such as drilling cause stress on sediments by disrupting the cohesive characteristics of the soils. The added weight of heavy drilling equipment also adds stress to surface sedimemts. From below, pumpage from wells can decrease the immediate water table level which will increase the downward pressure of sediments and result in a collapse over a karst cavity. sinkholes are present in Central, Northern, and Northwestern Florida. Some of the best known are: Devil'e Millhopper and Alachua Sink (Gainesville), Vortex (Ponce De Leon), Big and Little Dismal and Emerald (Tallahassee). They are of various sizes and depths. Some sinkhole have no active flow of water while others appear as pools. Sinkholes may form without much notice as has happened recently in Central Florida. Sinkholes are present in marine environments as well. These will be addressed below.
SPRINGS
springs are formed when a sinkhole event occurs, sediments collapse and the water table or aquifer comes in direct contact with the surface. springs are categorized according to the rate of water flowing through the spring. In 1927, Meinzer proposed a classification of springs based on volume of discharge (Rosenau et al. 1977:4-6). A first 12 magnitude spring, for example, has a discharge volume of 100 cubic feet per second (Rosenau et al. 1977:4). Rosenau et al. (1977:5) report that the united states has approximately 78 first magnitude springs; 27 of these are in Florida. Some of the best known springs are Warm Mineral and Little Salt springs (South Florida), Silver springs, Silver Glen Springs, Wekiva springs, and Rock Springs (Central Florida), Ichetucknee, Ginnie Springs, and Peacock Springs (North Florida), and Wakulla Springs (Northwest Florida).
SUBMARINE SPRINGS AND SINKHOLES
Submarine springs discharge below sea level and are located along the continental shelf or coast. Submarine sinkholes are large cavities located underwater on a part of the continental shelf (Figure 6). The existence of these submarine karst features implies that the area in which they occur was probably dry at one time, because these features generally form from stress on the sediments in dry periods. Several submarine springs just off the coast of the Big Bend area are: Bear Creek spring, Crays Rise, Ocean Hole Spring, Freshwater Cave, Cedar Island Spring, and the 8 spring Creek springs (Rosenau 1977:438). Most of Florida's known submarine springs are within one mile of the present shoreline (Lane 1986:60). Another submarine spring located further out on the continental shelf, Ray Hole Spring, has 13
N
, L--Jo '" MILES
o $UUMAnINE SPRlNQS
I. Onr C,..k Sprtll9 '2. c.dM I,l.nd Splint 3. c....., hlMd $pf1n01 4. Cnoo.:l-n"eh" SPfw." e. CI.YI m.. a. Cruet"' S"ch Sutlimlotln,lsPfInt 1.. CrYIII' Ouch $Pf'lnt 8, F,,,"_l.r e_ 9. Mud HoI. Submtlltu $ptln, 10. Ocn" Hoi. SPt'I"", 11. lhy Hoi. SPfint 11. "'d S".PPtl Sink 13. SPlIn\! Onk SprInG_ '4, r"pon Sprlntl 15. nn J.....lllh Ho" 16. UnnM11.s SPfIn, No.4
Floridan Plateau with submarino springs. The Floridan Pia· teau is encompassed by the 300·faet depth contour lin•. Modified from Uchupi, 1967. Submarine springs from Ros.· nau, et aI., 1977.
figure 6 SUBMARINE SPRINGS (from Rosenau et al. 1977:438) 14 associated archaeological remains (Dunbar et al. 1989b). Ray Hole Spring is located 55 miles south southeast of Tallahassee. It is 25 m in diameter and submerged in ocean water about 10 m deep. It is approximately 60 feet deep with a curve angling southeast from 20 m to at least 35 m (Rosenau 1977:446). SUbmarine karst features such as springs and sinkholes are probably more common but have not been discovered because of the difficulty in locating such features underwater. There are probably more of these features with associated prehistoric human occupation, but limited survey and testing have been major factors in the lack of their discovery. An offshore survey in the Apalachee Bay area conducted by Dunbar and Faught in 1986 identified six submarine archaeological sites in the Tertiary karst region on the continental shelf (Figure 7). Using the Aucilla River as a model, they developed markers to improve site identification (Dunbar et al. 1989b). These markers were innundated sinkholes, river channels, and chert rock outcrops (Dunbar et al. 1989b).
HYDROLOGY
The hydrology of Florida is the most important factor in the creation of karst features such as springs, sinkholes, or underground caves. A brief review of the hydrologic cycle involves a discussion of aquifers and ground water and 15
N T
, t !,, I Mile, • • • • •.e, J.. e.,
1. Fitch site 2. Ecofina Channel site 3. Ray Hole
figure 7 SUBMERGED KARST SITES IN APPALACHEE BAY (after Dunbar et al. 1992:119) FORMATION ~ PlANT OF CLOUDS ~ :;::::'-:'~:Fi~:'rNf.,-+J.-' -- EVAPOTRANSPIRATION -~ :,j.::.·:I,····· EVAPORATION',: i: I~A~:::: l! ~ SOLAR : ..... ,, .,!'t' ft M>:I: ,'",'",'. '1": ':- •• ;I ': .: EVAPORATION 00 lRGY ,' I"" + FROM l.ANO 3:
Aquifer (Figure 9). The Surficial Aquifer or Water Table Aquifer consists of Holocene and Late Tertiary soils (Rosenau 1977:19). This aquifer recharges the Artesian Aquifer through lakes, 18
ALABAMA
'0'
EXPLANATION ,,' n AREAL EXTENT OF D THE FLORIOAN AOUIFER
"'Y, :, 'i' ~
.' .'" ..' If .0 (MOOIFIEO FROM COOPER, 19~~1
figure 9 FLORIDAN AQUIFER (from Rosenau et al. 1977:14) 19
EXPl.ANATlON m AIICA' 0' MOST U'[CTIV[ L:::J f1tECHAfltG!,L UNLESS THE AOUIHfIt IS fULL "'" OISCHA#101HO • ","OS WH[IU "[CHAIIOE IS frIIOSn'l' lHftOUOl1 '''EACHES IJol nt[ COO'IHING UYEfIt',.OIt IS A O DISCHARGE .t.IU:~,Oft THE: AQUlU
..' ... " .. ' " .. I MODifl(D '"0M Sl(WAfltT,llhl
figure 10 RECHARGE AREA OF THE FLORIDAN AQUIFER (from Rosenau et al. 1977:23) 20 sinkholes, and porous sands (Rosenau 1977:20). The Big Bend area Surficial Aquifer receives most of its recharge through the overlying porous sands of South Georgia and Leon County (Rupert and Spencer 1986).
The Artesian Aquifer, also known as the Floridan Aquifer, is completely filled with water (Rosenau 1977:20). The entire recharge area of the Floridan Artesian Aquifer (Figure 10) is estimated to be approximately 13,000 square miles (Rosenau 1977:23). In the Big Bend area, the Artesian Aquifer is subdivided into two groups: the upper portion of the Artesian Aquifer which consists of st. Marks Formation and the lower portion of the Artesian Aquifer which consists of Suwannee Limestone, the Ocala Group, and Avon Park Formation (Rupert and Spencer 1986:36). The Artesian Aquifer becomes further downgradient as it encounters layers of impermeable rock and clay believed to be Miocene sediments such as the Hawthorn Group (Rupert and Spencer 1986:16). These confining layers of rock create considerable pressure in the Artesian Aquifer that is greater than the pressure of the atmosphere. Because artesian pressure is greater than atmospheric pressure, water from the Artesian Aquifer will breach confining beds of sediment and flow to the surface given any opening which leads to the surface. Such a flow is called an artesian well. A flow of water from a natural passage breaching the confining bed and leading to 21 the surface would constitute a spring (Rosenau 1977).
DATING SINKHOLE FORMATION
It is not certain that sinkhole formations can be accurately dated. Beyond documentation, such as in historical records, there is no single technique to date the event of these formations. Sinkhole formation may be estimated by the presence of water marks and various geological formations such as drip stones (Cockrell and Murphy 1978; Cockrell 1987). However, these features do not occur at the majority of sinkholes or springs. These formations may also be da·ted by the presence of archaeological remains in situ. However, cultural materials can produce false information because of transformations in depositional history. It is difficult to determine that artifacts have not been moved from their primary place of deposition. Only datable remains, located in §itg and showing evidence of being deposited on dry land, can be considered reliable for relative dating of sinkhole formation. Such in situ finds are rare, however, further restricting ways to date sinkholes archaeologically. This study will propose the use of another technique, pollen analysis of solid core samples. Solid core samples taken to a depth where sterile basement sediments are reached at various locations in a sinkhole floor can produce columns for 22 pollen analysis. The core samples may then be analyzed to determine the relative frequency of different types of pollen in the sediment layers. This technique depends on the continuous deposition of pollen in the environment through time. In sinkholes various plant remains are collected on the surface of the water and eventually sink to the bottom where they are covered by more remains and sediments. studies of Florida's ancient environment have detailed changes in dominance among plant communities through time (Sellards 1916; Watts 1980b, 1986). During dry times, dry adapted plants will flourish and dominate the plant community while during wetter periods, wet adapted plants will dominate. The relative frequency of certain plants and pollens found in association with a specific stratum serves to characterize the environment. Comparing environmental reconstructions with the relative pollen frequencies and other plant remains may help to establish a general time frame for a sinkholes forming.
IMPLICATIONS OF KARST FEATURES FOR ARCHAEOLOGY
For archaeologists in Florida there has been a historical association of early remains and karst features. The antiquity of karst features was first documented by the recovery of cultural materials and Pleistocene faunal remains in the 1930s at Wakulla springs (Gunter 1931). The development of SCUBA techniques and equipment in the 1950s 23 provided easier access to the depths where material could be recovered. In the 1950s and 1960s SCUBA investigations were conducted at Darby and Hornsby Springs (Edwards and Simpson 1951), Manatee Springs (Bullen 1953), Warm Mineral Springs (Royal and Clark 1960), and Silver Springs (Neill 1958). At Warm Mineral Springs and Silver Springs direct evidence of human presence was recovered. In 1959 human skeletal remains and a controversial human brain were recovered at Warm Mineral Springs (Royal and Clark 1960). The human brain material was considered controversial because it was subsequently stored in a refrigerator for several months with no electricity keeping the refrigerator cold. The remainder of the human brain was then transported to a lab for further study but never reached the lab, disappearing en route (Doran 1993). At Silver Springs, however, only lithic tools were recovered (Neill 1958). Cockrell's (Cockrell and Murphy 1978) work at Warm Mineral springs during the early 1970s continued the exploration of this spring. He pioneered the application of controlled excavation techniques and underwater videography during excavation (Cockrell 1980). Cockrell's project was multidisciplinary involving paleontology, palynology, and paleobotany. Hoffman's (1983) excavations at Silver Springs continued work started by Neill (1958). One of the researchers who has systematically considered 24 the distribution of human cultural materials relative to karst features is James Dunbar. He has adapted Bush's (1982) concept of geohydraulic regions to differentiate three regions in Florida: Tertiary karst regions, marginal regions, and outlying regions (Dunbar 1991:189). Tertiary karst regions often contain chert-bearing limestone existing in outcrops near or at the surface. Marginal regions are areas which surround the Tertiary karst region and have 35 m of clastic sediments covering the Tertiary limestone except where sinkholes and other features expose the limestone. Outlying regions exist beyond the Marginal regions and do not afford access to the chert bearing limestones because they are covered by more than 35 m of sediment. Karst features such as springs and sinkholes are rare in the Outlying regions. Two springs in the outlying region, Warm Mineral Springs and Little Salt Springs, breach the confining sediments because these sediments are relatively thin. Based on Dunbar's (1991:191) research, the Tertiary karst region has the greatest potential for quality lithic material for tool manufacture. The Tertiary karst region is also shown to have a greater concentration of Clovis, Suwannee, and Simpson points. The frequency of these tools diminishes rapidly with increased distance away from the Tertiary karst region (Dunbar 1991:192). Although potable 25 water is exposed more frequently in the Marginal and Outlying regions by perched or superficial ground water systems. Of the Paleoindian sites studied by Dunbar, 90% were located in, adjacent to, or within a day's walk of karst features exposed the Tertiary limestones (1991:197). He also noted that the Paleoindians seemed to prefer lowland areas with karst features connected to the Floridan Aquifer. This suggests that water tables were lower and potable surface water was scarce during the late Pleistocene (Dunbar 1991:194). His study emphasizes the importance of karst features to the Paleoindian population and the potential karst features have for the retrieval of diagnostic prehistoric artifacts. Of the sites studied, 81 sites or 47% are innundated and 122 sites or 71% are located in wetlands or are innundated (Dunbar 1991:210). These statistics indicate the high potential of innundated karst features for the recovery of prehistoric cultural remains.
KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA AND PRESERVATION
Innundated karst features also have a great potential because the wet environment, constant temperature, dissolved carbonates, and sometimes anaerobic qualities create phenomenal organic preservation. Because water migrates through the strata of the Floridan Aquifer, preservation of organic and faunal remains are affected differently depending 26 on where they are located. Karst features such as Warm Mineral Springs and Little Salt Spring have excellent organic preservation because of the anaerobic qualities of the water as evidenced by the recovery of human brain tissue (Royal and Clark 1960; Gifford 1993). Wakulla Springs has excellent preservation of proboscidean remains due in part to the constant temperature and mineral content of the water. A whole mastodon skeleton was recovered here (Gunter 1931). Other innundated karst features such as river channels and sinkholes do not have such excellent preservative qualities. Another factor affecting preservation of organic remains in innundated karst features is secondary attrition by water or acid. Water attrition is not as great a factor in a sinkhole or spring as it is in a karst river channel. Dunbar sUbjected a culturally modified mastodon bone, found in a karst river channel, to scanning electron microscope analysis but concluded that water and acid attrition to the bone obscured details of cultural modification (Dunbar et al. 1989a:491). By comparison, a cUlturally modified bone from Warm Mineral springs was sUbjected to SEM analysis and was found to retain excellent preservation of details of the cultural modification (Dunbar et al. 1989a:491). CHAPTER 3
AN OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA RECOVERED FROM KARST FEATURES
The search for the earliest human inhabitants in North America provoked hotly contested debates among anthropologists and geologists in the early decades of the twentieth century. Remains from Florida were a part of this controversy. In 1915, a geologist recovered human remains in association with the remains of extinct megafauna on the Atlantic coast near Vero Beach (Sellards 1916). Hrdlicka (1918) denounced this find as not being as early as Sellards claimed, but the recognition of Florida as a place where early human remains might be found persisted. Paleontologists in Florida had recovered significant Pleistocene faunal remains from phosphate deposits in Central Florida. There were occasional finds of bones and stone points in the rivers and springs of the state contributing to a recognition of karst features as possible sources of information about Florida's earliest human inhabitants. The following discussion presents a chronological review of Paleoindian and Archaic period data.
27 28
BEFORE 1950
Before the 1950s and the advent of SCUBA, archaeologists were not aware of the significance of karst features. Any archaeological studies associated with karst features dealt with eroded areas of karst rivers and runs. In the literature overview only two professional archaeologists studied sites associated with karst topography: Ripley Bullen (1950), who studied the Chattahoochee River, and Jeffries Wyman (1875), who studied an area on the st. Johns River. Herman Gunter (1931) published an article about the retrieval of mastodon remains from Wakulla Springs by non-professionals purely for the purpose of displaying those remains.
1950s
The archaeology of karst features in the 1950s was dominated by work at 3 sites: silver Springs, Darby Springs, and Hornsby springs. silver Springs was studied by Wilfred T. Neill from 1953 to 1958. Neill excavated a wooded bluff bordering Silver Springs run. He discovered occupational levels possibly existing from the Paleoindian, as evidenced by Clovis-like and Suwannee projectile points at the lowest level. The most recent cultural component that Neill identified was Middle Woodland, based on the presence of a Little Manatee Complicated Stamped sherd (1958). Darby and 29 Hornsby Springs were studied together by William E. Edwards and James Clarence Simpson. They excavated these sites during 1951 and 1952. Because Simpson died soon after their excavations, their findings were not pUblished until 1961 by Edward M. Dolan and Glen T. Allen Jr. (1961). According to Dolan and Allen, both sites represent temporary camps for lithic workshops. Several other sites studied during the 1950s were Manatee Springs and the Paynes Prairie by Ripley Bullen (1953, 1958), the withlacoochee River by B. C. Centrell (1955), and Wakulla Springs by Stanley J. Olsen and six students from Florida State University (1958).
1960s
Even with the advantages of SCUBA, during the 1960s archaeologists still did not search underwater frequently when researching sites associated with karst features. The sites studied during this period were: Crystal River, Darby Spring, Hornsby Spring, silver Springs, Wacissa River, and Wakulla springs. Ripley Bullen and I. Stela began a study of Pleistocene remains recovered from the shore of Crystal River (1964). Dolan and Allen did go back to Darby and Hornsby Springs to resurvey the site and make stratigraphic tests in support of the previous excavations by Edwards and Simpson (1961). Richard A. Martin (1969) did not excavate at Silver Springs but pUblished a book about the springs and 30 archaeological remains recovered. Olsen (1962) also wrote another article about his various discoveries of submerged prehistoric and historic artifacts. In the Wakulla Springs run he recovered a few Pleistocene bison bones which had washed downstream from a submerged sinkhole in the river bottom. Ben I. Waller (1969, 1970) investigated various river channels, some of which were karst, and features which produced a variety of Paleoindian artifacts associated with kill-butcher sites. Along with Bill Franklin, Waller excavated an area in the Silver Springs run in 1966 (Martin 1969) .
1970s
The 1970s were dominated by archaeological research at Warm Mineral springs and Little Salt springs. Cockrell and Clausen were the primary investigators at these two sites. In the Late 1970s a multidisciplinary approach to researching karst features developed. A multitude of other investigators were involved with Warm Mineral springs and Little Salt Springs: Brooks, Cohen, Emilani, Holman, King, McDonald, Morris, Murphy, Sheldon, Stipp, Wesolowski, and Wood. Geologists such as H. K. Brooks studied Warm Mineral springs to determine the geologic history. Botanists, such as James King, performed pollen and plant analysis to establish the prehistoric floral history of Warm Mineral springs. 31 Paleoecologists, such as Gregory H. McDonald, researched the prehistoric fauna to determine the paleoenvironment. Paleontologists, such as Donald H. Morris (1975), analyzed prehistoric human remains discovered over a twenty year period at this site. The other sites studied during the 1970s were: Ichetucknee Springs, Silver Springs, and Paynes Prairie. Clauser researched Ichetucknee Springs in 1973. Charles Hoffman and Sandra Rayl excavated on the banks of Silver springs run, the Guest mammoth site, in 1973. They recovered remains of mammoth, bison, cat, deer, turtle, and alligator (Hoffman 1983). The cultural artifacts they found were a stemless point, st. Johns Incised bowl, and numerous chert flakes (Rayl 1973). Sue Ann Mullins excavated several sites in the Paynes Prairie. She found Late Paleoindian and Early Archaic remains at several sites within the preserve (Mullins
1977).
1980 TO THE PRESENT
There has been an increased interest in archaeology concerning karst features within the past ten years. Of all the literature surveyed in various anthropological and geological journals dealing specifically with karst features, 35% has been documented since 1981. No one site has dominated the literary research since 1981. Rather, the 32 focus of archaeology related to karst features has been dominated by a few researchers: Wilburn Cockrell, I. Randolph Daniel, James Dunbar, Michael Faught, John Gifford, S. David Webb, and Michael Wisenbaker. The sites associated with karst features that have been studied are: Aucilla River, Ecofina Channel, Harney Flats, Little Salt Springs, Page/Ladson, River Sink Tract, Silver Springs, Wacissa River, Warm Mineral Springs, withlacoochee River, Wakulla Springs. Wilburn Cockrell continued his excavations at Warm Mineral springs since 1973 under various auspices including Manatee Community College and Florida State University until 1992. During the 1980s he continued his evaluation of the 13 m shelf area. Using deep diving techniques developed for Warm Mineral Springs (Wood 1988:29), he further explored the sediment cone in the basin of the spring. In the sediment cone Cockrell recovered remarkably preserved floral and faunal remains as well as cultural remains, such as a deer bone pin/awl and a human humerus. Of all the sites associated with karst features, Warm Mineral Springs served as the most pUblicized and most extensively studied. Randolph Daniel along with Michael Wisenbaker excavated at Harney Flats as part of the 1-75 Highway Salvage Program. originally, B. Calvin Jones identified 31 sites which Daniel and Wisenbaker narrowed to four sites for phase three 33 testing. Their examinations revealed a Paleoindian component at each phase three site. Based on the lithic artifact density they concluded that Harney Flats is a quarry related site and that the unifacial tool was the hallmark of the tool kit assemblage at Harney Flats (Daniel and Wisenbaker 1983:77) .
James Dunbar, from Florida's Bureau of Historical Research, Underwater Archaeological Division, has studied the Aucilla River, Page/Ladson, the Wacissa River and other karst associated sites with the help of various other researchers such as Faught and Webb. He has been doing on-going research in the Aucilla River at the Page/Ladson site since 1983. The Page/Ladson site has produced Paleoindian through Deptford period artifacts (Dunbar 1988). In the Wacissa River, S. David Webb, James Dunbar, Jerald T. Milanich, and Roger Alexon partially reconstructed a bison skull with an imbedded projectile point (Webb et al. 1983:81). Dunbar along with Michael Faught and S. David Webb executed a site settlement study related to karst features in 1991. Their discoveries are further discussed in Settlement Patterns. Faught also published an article further elaborating on preliminary excavations at the Ecofina Channel site (1988b). Melanie Stright (1987) also worked with Dunbar and published several articles concerning submerged sites on the gUlf coast continental shelf associated with karst topography. 34 Articles documenting Wakulla Springs during the 1980s were written by Stephen C. Bryne, George Fischer, Philip Gerrell, and William C. stone. Bryne studied the lands surrounding the spring and found that this area and along the spring run have been occupied continuously from Paleoindian to Historic periods (1988). He found that the most prevalant cultural component belonged to Weeden Island 1. He also found that lithic artifacts comprised over 40\ of all the cultural remains recovered (Bryne 1988:122). Fischer and Gerrell examined the spring basin and immediate spring run of Wakulla Springs as part of an Anthropological Field class associated with Florida State University's Department of Anthropology and Academic Diving Program. They recovered various cultural and faunal remains; 70\ were historic (Fischer and Gerrell 1990:261). The cultural periods represented by this study were Deptford, Swift Creek, Fort walton, and Historic. Stone (1989) explored the cave in 1987/ making additional observations of Pleistocene fauna deep within the cave. Also during the 1980s, Hoffman (1983) published another article about Silver Springs from research performed in 1973. Sandra Forney (1982) excavated immediately north of the River Sink Tract in st. Joe Paper company land. Her work was accomplished through the united States Forest Service with the help of the Apalachee Anthropological Society. A 35 previous disturbance in the area produced a Bolen Beveled point, pottery sherds from Weeden Island and Fort Walton periods, and a three pointed limestone object reminiscent of stone idols associated with caribbean cultures (Forney 1983a). The 1982 survey produced prehistoric ceramics, some of which were identified as Weeden Island Plain (Forney 1983a:7). Of all the artifacts recovered, 88t were lithic.
SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
In the middle 1960s and 70s, the study of settlement patterns was viewed within the archaeological community as informative direction for interpreting human behavior. Two scholars have addressed the relationships between karst features and human habitation. Using an early settlement pattern modeled after Childe, Wilfred T. Neill (1964) proposed an "Oasis Hypothesis" based on his belief that the availability of potable surface water was scarce during the Pleistocene. He suggested that prehistoric human and animal populations would have concentrated their activities around such water sources. The regenerative quality of the limestone aquifer made it the most reliable water source when the local water table was low. The limestone aquifer also provided the raw materials needed for tool manufacture in those areas where chert outcrops were accessible from the surface. I
36 A site distribution study by James Dunbar (1991), based on plotting of reported artifact distributions, concluded that Clovis and Suwannee age Paleoindian sites clustered around karst features, especially in Tertiary Karst regions of Florida. The study showed that 71% of the sites surveyed were located within Tertiary Karst regions of Florida (Dunbar 1991:210). As noted in Chapter 2, Dunbar also found that 90% of the sites were located in karst features or within a day's walk of a karst feature exposing the Tertiary limestones or Floridan Aquifer (1991:196).
CULTURAL INVENTORIES
For this thesis an intensive survey of the literature was made to identify cultural materials found in karst features. This survey considered all chronological periods and all categories of material culture. The survey included 91 articles dealing specifically with karst features from before 1950 to the present. Most of these articles were pUblished in the Florida Anthropologist or American Antiquity. A sparse few were published in various geological and biological journals. About 30% were unpublished manuscripts from anthropology departments across the country. This literature survey revealed that 70% of the materials recovered were prehistoric in origin. This finding suggests that prehistoric populations were much more drawn to karst 37 features than historic cultures. However, in the author's experience, most karst features contain significant amounts of materials from a variety of cultural periods. Consequently, it is difficult to assess the validity of the frequency of prehistoric versus historic remains reported in the literature. It is highly probable that the interest in reporting the earliest remains has significantly affected reporting of later materials. Several trends were apparent. First, karst features with prehistoric cultural associations seem to have greater concentrations of lithic artifacts and abundant faunal assemblages (both culturally modified and unmodified). Second, karst features with historic cultural associations have concentrations of artifacts consisting largely of metal and ceramic materials. Historic artifacts recovered from or near karst features vary from ballast boulders to European-derived clay pipes (Appendix 1). Many of the historic cultural remains are located along karst rivers, such as the st. Marks, where missions were established (Olsen 1962:26). In sinkholes and springs the historic artifacts recovered are usually more modern, such as beer cans, televisions, and cars. From Wakulla springs, some interesting pieces of nineteenth century ceramics and coinage have been recovered, for example
(Appendix 1). 38 Prehistoric remains include human skeletal remains and the unusual recovery of human brain tissue from Warm Mineral springs. The diagnostic lithic tool assemblages recovered from the Page/Ladson site on the Aucilla River are yet another example of prehistoric materials (Appendix 2). In general the most frequent prehistoric cultural remains recovered are lithic tools and debitage. This is expected since the karst features are often quarry or manufacture sites. Ivory or bone tool artifacts are also found at karst features, though not in the abundance of lithic tools (Cockrell 1986). The most frequently recovered artifacts are bone pins and antler pressure flakers.
ENVIRONMENTAL RECONSTRUCTION
Three types of information are available that can inform us about environments around karst features during the Paleoindian and Archaic periods: faunal remains, floral
remains, and pollen. Faunal remains recovered from or near karst features vary from modern species of turtles and birds to extinct species such as mastodon and sabre cat (Appendix 3). Perhaps the most interesting species recovered are those of the Pleistocene Rancho La Brean fauna: mammoth, mastodon, sabre cat, and ground sloth. Mammoth and mastodon remains have been recovered at such karst features as Wakulla Springs, 39 Ichetucknee Springs and run (Clauser 1979), Silver Springs and run (Neill 1958), Hornsby Springs (Dolan and Allen 1961) , Warm Mineral Springs (Cockrell 1980), Little Salt Springs (Clausen 1975), Half Mile Rise, the Page/Ladson site (Dunbar 1988), and the Cutler fossil site (Carr 1986). Giant tortoise was recovered from Little Salt Springs (Clausen et al. 1979). Warm Mineral Springs produced remains of the extinct sabre cat and ground sloth. Information on floral remains from karst features is very limited and very site specific (Appendix 4). At most of the karst features only the vegetation of the modern climate has been identified. Only two karst sites have reported floral information recovered from excavations. At Warm Mineral Springs the prehistoric flora ranged from fern species to various hardwoods. At the Page/Ladson site the flora ranged from cypress to Elodea. However, this site did not produce an extensive floral collection because the degraded condition of the plant material made identification difficult (Dunbar et al. 1989a:482). The Late Pleistocene period has been characterized as being climatically cooler and dryer than present day climate by Watts (1980a, 1986), based on his pollen and plant analysis from Mud Lake and Lake Annie (1971, 1975). Cockrell also has described the Late Pleistocene and Early Holecene as cooler and dryer based on drip stones and water marks now J
40 sUbmerged at Warm Mineral Springs. These geological indicators were first described by Cockrell and Murphy in 1978.
RADIOCARBON DATES FOR KARST FEATURES
Appendix 5 lists the available radiocarbon dates for karst features. Most of these dates are from individual sites. There has been only one study to comprehensively date karst features suspected of having prehistoric cultural associations. Dunbar et al. (1989b) located and identified submarine springs in Northern Florida. In general,
radiocarbon dates on karst features range from 12,330 +/- 110 years B.P. at the Page/Ladson site to 5,160 +/- 100 years B.P. at the Ecofina Channel site (Dunbar et al. 1989b).
SUMMARY
Florida's richness of karst features makes it uniquely suited to produce archaeological information concerning early prehistoric cultures. As seen from Warm Mineral Springs, it can also produce phenomenal preservation as well. However, even with the introduction of SCUBA in the 1950s, the archaeological literature is very sparse for reporting Paleoindian and Archaic period data from karst features until the 1970s. Of all the 91 articles reviewed for this literature survey, 70% were written from 1970 to 1993. 41 within the past ten years an increased accessibility to reliable and user-friendly SCUBA equipment, more submerged karst sites are being investigated by amateurs as well as professionals. The number of submerged karst sites that is being researched by professionals is still incredibly small compared to the number of divers who participate in artifact hunting at these sites. For the archaeologist, it is important to take advantage of the diving community for two reasons: first, divers bring an added database which otherwise might not be available, and second, to make the diving community aware of the archaeological resources and enlist their help in protecting these resources from further destruction. Reportage of recovered material culture is biased toward early lithic remains. The artifacts of later prehistoric and historic periods are under reported or are omitted entirely. Overall, the field is not well developed in the archaeological literature. Very few karst related sites have been researched with a mUltidisciplinary approach in mind. Therefore, there is much information that is missing from the archaeological literature. It is only possible to make very basic statements about settlement trends and environmental reconstruction relevant to karst features. As might be expected, there are very few radiocarbon dates. However, the radiocarbon dates that are available suggest a long 42 association of Paleoindian cultures with karst features. CHAPTER 4
THE RIVER SINK TRACT
The River Sink Tract (Figure 11) is located in the Woodville Karst Plain (Figure 12), a major geological feature of Northwest Florida. The Tract features numerous sinkholes, natural bridges, hummocky terrain, and underwater caverns and caves. It covers approximately 330 acres just outside the Apalachicola National Forest in Leon and Wakulla Counties. Although the Tract is close to the city of Tallahassee and its karst features are popular swimming sites, it is largely unstudied by archaeologists.
GEOLOGY OF THE RIVER SINK TRACT
The River Sink Tract is located in township 02 South, Range 01 West, in sections 20, 21, 28, and 29. This area has a sediment history beginning in the Cenozoic Erathem (Table 1). The Cenozoic Erathem includes three major deposits: Suwannee Limestone, st. Marks Formation, Chattahoochee Formation. Suwannee Limestone is characterized as recrystalized calcarenitic limestones which are fossiliferous (foraminifera) and often contain dolomite. This formation 43 , • •( ,• ~ 1, , 1> .; " '"~ < ~ V> n ,i
~l . 0. I ~L " "1 _._._._ . ...J. " " E ": ...d >c V) ... • •· "·
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figure 11 RIVER SINK TRACT 45
: =
a 0. IV E :co e-o E o Gl C!l
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f' \~OODVIL:lgure 12 (from RupertL;nKARSTd SpencerPLAIN1988:9) 46 TABLE 1: SEDIMENT HISTORY OF WAKULLA COUNTY
ERATH EM SYSTEM SERIES SEDIMENT cenozoic Quaternary Holocene Undifferentiated Pleistocene sands and clays Tertiary :Pliocene; Upper: Jackson Bluff Formation :Pliocene; Lower: unknown Miocene; Upper: unknown Miocene;Middle: Intracoastal Formation Bruce Creek Limestone Miocene; Lower: Hawthorn Group Torreya Formation : st. Marks Formation :Oligocene;Upper: unknown :Oligocene;Lower: Suwannee Limestone : Eocene; Upper : Ocala Group : Eocene; Middle: Avon Park Formation : Eocene; Lower : wilcox Group Undifferentiated :Paleocene;Upper: Wilcox Group :Paleocene;Lower: unknown Mesozoic cretaceous Upper Unnamed Chalky Limestone Eutaw Formation Atkinson Formation Lower unknown Jurassic Upper : Cotton Valley Group Haynesville Formation Middle Louann Salt Lower unknown Triassic Upper Eagle Mills Formation Middle unknown Lower unknown Paleozoic Permian unknown :Carboniferous: unknown Devonian undifferentiated Silurian undifferentiated Ordovician unknown Cambrian unknown Precambrian: unknown (Rupert and Spencer 1988:20) 47
dates to the Lower Oligocene era (36,000,000 years B.P.). It underlies all of Wakulla County. The st. Marks Formation also consists of calcarenitic limestone, but is described as downdip limestone facies. It dates to the Lower Miocene (25,000,000 years B.P.) and may contain fossil mollusks and foraminifera (Sorites and Archaias). It also underlies all of Wakulla County, but intertwines with the Chattahoochee Formation in the west and northwest region of the county. The Chattahoochee Formation is described as updips of silt and clay facies also dating to the Lower Miocene. Overlying the Cenozoic Erathem are sediments of Pleistocene and Holocene age. They are described as undifferentiated sands and clays consisting of quartz sands, clays, silts, and other surface sediments such as gravel, peat, and carbonate deposits. Most of the Pleistocene sediments were formed as marine terraces deposited dissimilarly across previous formations.
In \~akulla County, five of these terraces are present: the Wicomico (70 to 100 feet above mean sea level), the Penholoway (42 to 70 feet above mean sea level), the Talbot (25 to 42 feet above mean sea level), the Pamlico (10 to 25 feet above mean sea level), and the Silver Bluff (0 to 10 feet above mean sea level). The Pleistocene marine terraces were formed from prehistoric shoreline erosional processes caused by the advances and retreats of prehistoric sea 48
.~ 0 0 N ~. 0 ~ , •, •N 0 :~ .. N , ~ 0 ~ .. ~~ ~ • •N 0 i ~! ~ .. .. 0 z .. ~ ~ ~ 0 .. Q ...... 0 ~ ..~ .. ~ · ~ ...... z ..>- ~ .. ~ .. S 0 ~ .. >- :> ~ <>: >- .J 0 0 ~ ..J .J >- 0 a. :; 0 0 0 •0 0 x ::; .. ~ x ..oJ 0 X ~ > w .. .. .J 0 i .. >- ~ M • [i]• @] I'i. !IDH21~.••..,I i
A.LNnO::J A.L~3811 z-----
figure 13 PREHISTORIC MARINE TERRACES (from Rupert and Spencer 1988:8) 49 levels. The boundaries of these relict beaches can be seen in Figure 13. Holocene sediment deposits are mostly fine quartz sands which are difficult to distinguish from earlier Pleistocene sediments. According to Rupert and Spencer (1986), these undifferentiated sands and clays cover the st. Marks Limestone and Suwannee Limestone in depths generally less than twenty feet thick in the eastern part of Wakulla County. In the western part of the county, these sands and clays may overlie older formations such as the Hawthorn Group and the Jackson Bluff Formation in thicknesses of 35 m (Rupert and Spencer 1988). Two subsurface structures near the Big Bend area which might influence the subsurface structure of Wakulla County are the Floridan Plateau and the Ocala Uplift (Figure 14). The Floridan Plateau is an area which extends from South Florida underneath and along the west side of present day Florida into the study area. It is the foundation of the Floridan Aquifer and was a shallow marine shelf until limestone, dolomite, and shell fragments precipitated onto it during the Tertiary period. More sediments of sand, silt, and clay were deposited into Florida by river systems. subsidence of the Floridan Plateau along with gradual sea level increases, sediment deposition, erosion, and chemical weathering have covered the karst terrain known today as the 50
ALABAMA . - .. _.. _-_ .. - .. -\ _ , GEORGIA -'--.'-'.-.
...
...... •
figure 14 OCALA PLATFORM AND THE FLORIDAN PLATEAU (from Rosenau et al. 1977:12) 51 Floridan Aquifer. The Ocala Uplift, or Ocala Platform, is a structurally high feature consisting of Tertiary sediments located in Northern Florida. Because sediments were deposited thinly on the surface of the Uplift, carbonate rocks and limestone of the Ocala Group and the Avon Park Formation are exposed at the surface near the crest of the Uplift and comprise another part of the Floridan Aquifer system. The presence of these formations accounts for the fact that there are more springs near the Ocala Uplift than anywhere else in Florida (Lane
1986) . Two surface features which influence the Wakulla County landscape near the River sink Tract research area are the Lake Munson Hills and Wakulla Sand Hills (Figure 12). The Lake Munson Hills overlie an area of intermixing between the
\~oodville Karst Plain to the east and silt and clay sediments to the west. These relict sand dunes extend about one mile into Wakulla County near Hilliardville. The Wakulla Sand Hills, also relict sand dunes, stretch southeast from woodville into Wakulla county about two miles ending at the prehistoric Pamlico shoreline. The Wakulla Sand Hills reach elevations of 15 m above sea level and suggest that during their deposition there was a Paleo-wind coming from the northeast (Rupert and Spencer 1986:10). Located among these geologic features are the Woodville 52 Karst Plain and sinkhole formations. The Woodville Karst Plain underlies all of the eastern half of Wakulla County (Figure 12). It varies in elevation from about 16.5 m above mean sea level to 7.5 m below mean sea level. It consists of gently sloping undifferentiated sandy soils over limestone. These sands may be as deep as 6 m where the limestone is exposed. In the Woodville Karst Plain, the limestone is either st. Marks Formation or Suwannee Limestone. This limestone has undergone extensive solution by ground water creating karst features such as sinkholes, springs, natural bridges, and hummocky terrain.
SINKHOLES OF THE RIVER SINK TRACT
within the River Sink Tract there are nine sinkholes; four more lie along its borders. Although two of these sinkholes, Kini Spring and River Spring, have been listed in the geological literature as first magnitude springs (Rosenau 1977), research from this study (1989) and personal observation suggest that they are actually sinkholes which have broken into and become connected with the underground river system. Of these two "springs," Kini Spring is located within the River Sink Tract (Figure 11). Kini Spring is also known as Upper River Sink. It measures 120 by 135 feet and angles north to south, has a recorded temperature of 68 degrees Fahrenheit (or 20 degrees Celsius), and was 53 discharging 176 cubic feet per second in 1972 (Rosenau 1977:7).
River Sink Spring, also known as Lower River Sink, is located outside of the River Sink Tract (Figure 11). Measuring 65 by 160 feet, it angles northwest to southeast. It also had a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius in 1972 and an average flow of 164 cubic feet per second from 1942 to 1973 (Rosenau 1977: 7) . A final surface and subsurface feature that must be mentioned is called the River Sink System. Through the years, cave divers have determined that all nine sinkholes on the River Sink Tract are connected to Sullivan Sink, their point of origin. Consequently, the group has been renamed the Sullivan system (Parker Turner, personal communication 1989). The Sullivan System is characterized by underwater caverns and caves connecting sinkholes with a flow that angles from the northwest to the southeast (Figure 15).
PROMISE SINK
Promise Sink is located within the River sink Tract lands operated by the united States Forest Service. This tract covers 331.04 acres of National Forest land just east of the main boundry of the Apalachicola National Forest
Preserve (Figure 11). The flora of this tract is divided into two groups: 54
St. :Joe PO-pH Co", p0."") "o.,,~ c.leo..r cor £",ero.lo Si~K Sink
'(ren eft Sin K _-llOl- - ereClrri - ~ - S ;I1K 6(J' 8efUl,Prt Sirrk ~c;r-Prorn ise Sinl<.
u. S. ~ore~t Se.rvice. lo..1\~
Upper River Sin )<
7ro.r\seri beel fro"" EXle~ o.."~ Gooa",o.f\ Iq81 figure 15 SULLIVAN SYSTEM (after Exley and Goodman 1981:93) 55 overstory and understory. The overstory is dominated by pineland hardwoods, but it also includes southern magnolia, longleaf, loblolly, and spruce pine, maple, beech, sweet bay, and various oak and hickory species (Forney 1983:1). The understory consists of various low ground cover such as dogwood and holly. The present vegetation in the River sink Tract is considered to be the climax vegetation for this area and has been estimated to be about 60 years old (Forney 1983:1). The climate is modern North Florida climate which is fairly moderate, ranging in temperature from 10 degrees Celsius to 35 degrees Celsius. Summers are very hot and humid while winters are cool and rainy. Promise Sink has mostly upland longleaf and loblolly pines on the hilly area surrounding the sinkhole basin. Interspersed infrequently among these pines are broad-leaved trees such as oak. Directly surrounding the basin at the shoreline at various places are also cypress trees. The understory surrounding Promise Sink has less low ground cover with decaying leaves from the broad-leaved trees. The floral life within Promise Sink consists mostly of a species of eel grass, duckweed, and algae. There was, however, a fairly large patch of Elodea along the south western shore. The known modern faunal types in the River Sink Tract are raccoon, squirrel, rabbit, and deer. Various insects can also be found in the area such as spiders, beetles, 56 mosquitos, and red ants. Within Promise sink only two types of fauna were observed: hundreds of fresh water shrimp and a solitary sunfish.
Promise sink angles northwest to southeast in the shape of a peanut (Figure 16). It is about 63.45 m long and about 25 m at its widest point in the southern half of the sinkhole. The hilly land surrounding Promise varies from 3.6 m to 6.1 m above mean sea level. The sinkhole water level itself is about 2.4 m above mean sea level. This sinkhole ranges in depth from about 1 m in the center of the sinkhole to about 24 m near the cave entrance at the most southeast point in the sinkhole. Just west of Promise is another sinkhole called Go- Between because it has a small underwater arch in the center (Figure 17). Swimmers can dive down to swim under the arch and "Go-Between" the two areas of the sinkhole. There is one foot path which separates Go-Between and Promise ending at the remains of a campfire. Another foot path is located north of Promise across a large open area and winds three quarters of a kilometer, towards the north eventually terminating at Woods Sink. An old dirt road enters the southwest but was blocked by several purposely cut fallen logs. This road leads to Fish Hole Sink about half of a kilometer southwest from Promise. Another road, recently cut , enters from the northwest and connects with "sinkhole 57 -. ".,.,,.,-, . . ./ " "- \
.. ,.... wlvC'
~ ~ • •< ~ '; , .- u·• .0 ~ , "';~ I • "• If' / ~• . t » .../ ~ " ./ -~ .( t •, .? .. ~ < o " ..t ,~, " <, . , .... "
.~. .1 ./'
• :! ' r' ,• • ~, " .. .. , ~ ~I II J!, .~ .~ -;, figure 16 PROMISE SINK - _. -- - ,. ==-;. c-iLt-- P~thto N• ., l
PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES
There has been only one previous archaeological study in the River Sink Tract. This study was conducted in 1982 by the Appalachee Anthropology Society and the united States Forest Service under the direction of Sandra Jo Forney (Forney 1983a). The study was a shovel test survey of a northwestern corner of the River Sink Tract (Figure 19). Screened shovel tests were taken every 25 m according to an arbitrary grid system developed for the study. Each shovel test extended to at least 1 m stopping at 20 cm level intervals. The stratigraphy, contours, and colors of the soil layers were recorded from the shovel tests. Soil color~ were determined with the use of a Munsell color chart. During this survey, 30% of the test units yielded cultural material. Of these cultural materials, 39% were lithic shatter fragments, 36% were non-decortication flakes, 13% were decortication flakes, and 12% were ceramics (Forney 1983a). A tin turpentine collection cup was also recovered from one of the test units. There was a low frequency of 60 " .r+ f \ :ro~ Po-per (o'"r~) J.. 0..,,0 o ...... , ...... •' c:;:::) ve"Tore
WDod"
'P •p "• ~ '''1 • , O ,~,. Ftrll. ',~ · ,, · :n0 '-0 ." ° <: ° ",' <0:• • .,..oj ·.• U. 5. Fo(t~t lerv;te & ° ( . . 1.. ..."0 .~ : o ° ...'- . CJ 0..... F;sh. Hole "-~...... '" .
Note: r/1 .. p M~ Jr..",(\ j 0 " ..Ie · figure 18 SINKHOLE ROAD AND THE RIVER SINK TRACT 61
~ ../..- ..... -
:<;. '.- ~:_-, '!o:'Q "...... , '-"--"·u .. l.gure PREVIOUS STUDY AT THE RIVER SINK TRACT (from Forney 198Ja:17) 62 materials recovered. This was partially due to the low volume of testing accomplished compared to the greater numbers of materials recovered when the immense areas of st. Joe Paper Company lands were exposed during deforestation. This previous study concluded that because of the limited testing, temporary and functionally distinct areas within the River Sink Tract were unidentifiable. This study did, however, find areas of archaeological significance for the River sink Tract and created a predictive model for areas most likely to have been places of prehistoric habitation or occupation (Forney 1983a). The areas of archaeological significance are: 1) the only known possible quarry site in the karst plain of the National Forest, 2) that there has been a lengthy span of prehistoric occupation in the River Sink Tract, and 3) that the River Sink Tract might contain sites suggesting possible Caribbean influences in Florida (Forney 1989). The predictive model further describes areas most likely to contain evidences of prehistoric human occupation. Such areas would have been within 20 feet of the modern sea level, within one hundred meters of the sinkholes, within areas containing moderately well-drained Blanton soils, but outside of the designated hundred year floodprone areas (Forney 1983a:9). CHAPTER 5
PROMISE SINK PROJECT
The Promise sink Project was initially designed to help the U. S. Forest Service evaluate the archaeological resources located within one of the sinkhole features in the River Sink Tract, so they could determine the best possible ways to preserve these resources before developing the area for pUblic use. In 1992 the Forest Service developed an area two miles northwest of the River Sink Tract. This area, now designated the Leon Sinks Geological Area, also has many sinkholes and other karst features. The preserve consists mainly of hiking trails and is similar to what had been planned for the River Sink Tract. The Promise Project attempted to evaluate the underwater archaeological potential of Promise sink through survey and excavation.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Underwater archaeological research requires much more equipment, different techniques, and more specialized personnel training than that required for research in terrestrial sites. This thesis project is an excellent
63 64 example of the difficulties involved. It is worthwhile to consider both the research as it was conceived (the ideal construct) and the research that was actually feasible (the real outcome). The research design, as initially proposed, was comprised of six parts (Kaufmann 1989). First, information regarding previous research in the River Sink Tract was located (Forney 1983a, 1986). These data have been presented in Chapter 4. Second, a review of the literature on archaeology of karst features was conducted. These findings have been presented in Chapter 3. Third, a mapping procedure using transect lines with fixed datum points (permanent markers) was planned for Promise Sink. This map would provide documentation about the dimensions and form of the sink. It would be a document against which future ohanges or assessments could be made. The mapping procedure was completed as planned (Figures 11, 16, 17, 18, 20, and 21). A surface collection of the submerged floor of the sink was the fourth part of the research design. The datum lines established for mapping would be used to fix the position of any recovered cultural materials. From this collection, distribution of materials could be plotted. It would be possible to represent different time periods and types of material. Two subsurface tests (lxl m) were planned for the shelf 65 area in the fifth part of the research design. These tests would provide stratigraphic control for recovered cultural materials while allowing observation of the sedimentary sequence in the sink shelf.
The sixth and final part of the research design called for the recovery of solid core samples from the sink bottom adjacent to the shelf. These cores would penetrate the sediments and provide materials from reasonably controlled locations and depths. In the execution of this research design, several problems arose with the underwater components (parts 4 through 6). These will be presented in the following discussion. 4. Surface Collection The surface collection of the submerged floor was not possible because of heavy siltation and deposition of floral matter (leaves, twigs, branches, etc.). 5. Tests on the Shelf A single test was conducted on the shelf, but its findings were limited. Instead of a limestone shelf, the test revealed that the shelf was comprised of clays. Consequently, the surficial strata were very thin and provided no new information. A second shelf test was considered unnecessary.
6. Solid Core Samples Perhaps the most disappointing problem encountered was 66 .+. j >
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figure 20 PROMISE WITH TRANSECT LINES 67
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In summary, the project succeeded in mapping the sink, examining and evaluating shelf features, and obtaining vibracore samples. A macroscopic analysis of the vibracore samples has been conducted.
PROMISE SINK PROJECT METHODOLOGY
Initial Surface Reconnaissance
An initial surface reconnaissance to assess the site, in particular the shelf zone of the northwest cavern, took place on April 1, 1989. originally, the project had planned to focus most of its effort on the shelf zone located in the southeast basin area based on the knowledge that a whole Weeden Island bowl had been found buried there. However, further investigation discovered that the shelf zone in the southeast basin was solid sediment thought to have been limestone. This material was later identified as part of the Miocene clay bed. This hard stratum made subsurface testing 69 of this area, the shelf zone, impossible. There are no other "shelf zones" in Promise. A shelf zone is considered to be an area where there are a series of connecting ledges or shelves on a wall. There are, however, some interspersed ledges along the southwest walls at the entrance to the southeast cavern. These ledges are originally where the Weeden Island bowl was thought to have been found. Surface Reconnaissance
Surface reconnaissance was done on three levels: aerial, ground, and underwater. Aerial surface reconnaissance was accomplished through the use of aerial photographs of the area from the Department of Transportation and from united States Geological Survey topographic maps. From these sources and from personal visual reconnaissance, a general area map was created (Figures 11 and 18). Ground level reconnaissance was accomplished by a walking survey, photography, and mapping with the use of a transit and measuring line (Figures 16 and 17). A bottom level surface survey of Promise Sink was accomplished by: an underwater survey, photography, surface collection, fanning, water depth survey, slope survey, and mapping with the use of permanent datums, an underwater compass, and measuring line (Figures 20 and 21). Subsurface reconnaissance was accomplished by strata depth measurements and descriptions, and an underwater auger survey in the northwest basin and cavern areas. A 70 depth map of Promise was created from this survey (Figure 21) . Subsurface Survey
The subsurface auger survey consisted of fourteen cores taken along two transect lines placed arbitrarily next to the south wall of the northwest cavern. The cores were placed 2 m apart on the transect lines with one core in between the two transect lines near the most southern part of the cavern. The two transect lines were parallel angling 25 degrees east of North where North is magnetic north. The two transect lines were exactly 2 m apart from each other. The south transect line was labeled transect "A" while the north transect was labeled transect "B" (Figure 22). Coring began on April 17, 1989, on which day four cores were taken. These cores were numbered by transect and core number so that the first core was labeled Transect A-Core 1, the second core was labeled Transect A-Core 2, etc. On April 18 only one core, Transect A-Core 5, was taken due to technical difficulty. On April 19, the remaining nine cores were taken. The one core in between the two transect lines was labeled Transect A/B
Core eight. Dive operations Each auger test was controlled by the person running the engine. This person gave the diver at the auger head (the auger diver) three minutes to get the auger head in place. 71
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figure 22 PROMISE SUBSURFACE SURVEY MAP 72 The engine was then started to create the suction needed for operation. The engine was left running for one minute and was then shut off. A diver at the surface (the support diver) then followed the blue hose down to the diver at the auger head and brought a clean one-quarter inch mesh bag. Following the blue hose was mandatory as visibility was zero. The full mesh bag was removed from the auger by the auger diver to be exchanged for the clean mesh bag. The full mesh bag was then brought to the surface by the support diver, while the auger diver attached the clean mesh bag and moved the auger head to a new position to begin a new core. The support diver, upon reaching the surface, gave the full mesh bag to the surface support person or divemaster. This surface support person took the full mesh bag, emptied its contents into a heavy-duty garbage bag, and made sure that there was plenty of water to keep the sample moist. The sample bags were securely closed and immediately labeled as described previously. They were than put into a container for transportation to the lab for analysis. All dive operations were conducted in accordance with the guidelines of Florida state University's Academic Diving Program. A total of six dives were involved for the mapping of Promise Sink utilizing four divers. There were three dives made during the underwater sampling procedures, involving a total of five divers. The total bottom time for 73 all dives completed during this project was 10 hours and 56 minutes. All dives were no-decompression dives and followed strict safety standards. The people involved in the diving activities used Academic Diving program equipment and met all of its standards for diving personnel. Documentation
In all aspects of this survey, documentation was by written notes, descriptions, and photographs. Drawings, measurements and maps supplemented this documentation. No permanent alterations to the site resulted from this survey. Lab Methods Lab methods included sorting, identification, and storage of the core samples in watertight plastic bags and Tupperware containers. Most of this was accomplished by the researcher with the help of Dr. Glen Doran. The faunal remains were removed from the rest of the core samples and bagged separately for later identification. All fourteen cores and surface sample remains were sorted and analyzed in their entirety for content and identification. Conservation and Preservation Conservation and preservation was undertaken with the help of Dr. Glen Doran of Florida state University's Anthropology Department. Core samples and remains are being kept in wet storage within sample bags. These remains are stored at a permanent storage area in the Anthropology 74 Department. Preservation of these remains is being accomplished by wet storage. Faunal remains are stored within the Anthropology Department. Any special preservation needs have been accounted for by the researcher. All bone faunal and cultural remains have been Rhoplexed by the researcher including the deer bone awl.
ANALYSIS
The analysis of floral remains has been accomplished on a very general level by the researcher. Thus far, resources have not allowed pollen analysis because of the monetary expense. All faunal analysis was conducted by Dr. steve Hale. Analysis of all cultural remains has been accomplished by the researcher, Dr, Doran, and Dr. Hale. Geological analysis has been undertaken by the researcher with the help of Frank Rupert from the Florida Bureau of Geological Research.
GEOLOGICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS FROM PROMISE
Geological results were not what was expected. Originally it was believed that most of Promise consisted of limestone because it was a sinkhole. In actuality, most of Promise consists of clay. From the surface and subsurface samples and research, it has been determined that Promise consists of Pleistocene and Holocene sands and clays 75 overlying a Miocene clay bed layer which, in turn, overlies the st. Marks formation limestone. Geological results from the subsurface survey also show that there is excellent stratification of sediment layers and an extremely hard, crust-like layer ranging from 90 cm to 1 m below the present bottom surface of the northwest cavern in Promise.
This crust layer was approximately 2 cm to J cm thick. This hard, crust-like layer could be indicative of one of two things: 1) that there was sufficient calcium carbonate in the sinkhole to precipitate and form such a layer, or that 2) the basin bottom was dry at one time and the soil hardened because of this period of dryness. Calcium carbonate has been known to precipitate into sands and cement them together to form a very hard sediment layer in warm marine situations (Rupert 1989). This is a possible explanation for the hard crusty layer at Promise, since the water flowing through Promise originates in the Sullivan System and acquires calcium carbonate along the way. Calcium can dissolve from all soils, but more readily dissolves from limestone, dolomite, and gypsum (Rupert 1989). Carbonates are also produced from the reaction of water with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The calcium carbonate from the water could have precipitated into the basin soils during periods of little water flow or water stagnation, creating a hardpan sediment or cementation of sands. Because this occurrence is 76 more common in marine situations, and the fact that the northwest cavern is very shallow, this researcher feels that it is more likely that Promise was at one time at least partially dry. Geological History of Promise sink No geological history has ever been written for Promise sink or for the other sinkholes in the River Sink Tract. Based on geological research, analysis, and the help of Frank Rupert of the Florida Geological Bureau, the present study identified the following sediment history for Promise sink. The oldest sediments are believed to be limestone from the St. Marks Formation. These sediments are located in the southeast cavern and cave beginning about 20 m deep near the cavern entrance. These sediments date from about 25,000,000 years B.P. during the Lower Miocene period. Any sediments deeper than the cave could only be identified through well drilling. The sediment layer above the st. Marks Formation is a clay bed deposited sometime during the Miocene period after about 1,600,000 years B.P. Due to similar characteristics, this clay bed probably belongs to the Hawthorn Group or Torreya Formation. Above this clay layer are undifferentiated sands and clays deposited during the Pleistocene and Holocene periods from about 1,000,000 years B.P. Promise is located within the Pamlico Terrace which ranges from 3 m to 15 m above mean sea level (Figure 13). 77 Promise appears to have moderately well-drained Blanton soils rather than the poorer-drained Albany soils as appear in the southern part of the River sink Tract. Blanton soils are characterized by undulating layers of sand overlying clay (Forney 1983:8).
The subsurface structures which are known to presently affect Promise sink are the Woodville Karst Plain and the Sullivan System. Promise sink derives most of its water from these two sources. Promise also helps to replenish the aquifer through these two systems. Hydrology of Promise Sink The Sullivan System is an underground river which flows through the woodville Karst Plain (Figure 15). It is breached from the surface by various sinkholes. The water in the Sullivan System averages a constant 20 degrees Celsius or 68 to 69 degrees Fahrenheit. The water in this system is also often tannic. Tannic water affects preservation of such organic remains as wood and bone. Spring water is usually very clear because it is filtered by the aquifer and surrounding soils. However, the River Sink System often produces tannic water which is acidic and dark brown in color. Tannic water is caused by heavy rains percolating through the ground and picking up acids from decaying organic material before it enters the aquifer. Rainfall in North Florida causes tannic water in the River Sink System. It is ~' ", o u
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figure 2J TANNIC ACID CHART FOR PROMISE 79 also believed that rainfall in South Georgia greatly contributes to the tannic quality of the water in the River Sink System. Janet B. Erwin (personal communication 1989) has kept a record of water quality at Promise and Go-Between since 1986 (Figure 23). Since 1986, these sinkholes have been very tannic 47 percent of the time and somewhat tannic 6 percent of the time. They have been fairly clear or crystal clear 47 percent of the time. Over all, tannic acid was present in the water at least 53 percent of the time. Rainfall in North Florida averages from 125 cm to 175 cm a year. A correlation between the amount of rainfall and the degree of tannic acid in the water seems probable. During rainy periods the water has become tannic and during very dry periods the water clears up. Sometimes, however, the water becomes very tannic when there has been no rain in North Florida. During these periods it has been noted that there have been heavy rains in South Georgia. No accurate flow measures have ever been taken at Promise but because it is in the same system as Kini and River Springs, a flow can be estimated. Kini and River Springs are both considered to be first magnitude springs which means that their average flow is 100 cubic feet per second or more. From 1942 to 1972, six measurements were taken at River spring (Rosenau 1977). The average flow or discharge at River was 164.5 cubic feet per second. These 80 and other measurements have been converted in Table 2.
TABLE 2: OUTPUT MEASUREMENTS FOR KINI AND RIVER SPRINGS (based on Rosenau et al. 1977) MILLION GALLONS CUBIC MTRS. GAL GALLONS PER PER PER SPRING DATE CFS :PER DAY: MINUTE SECOND SEC
KIN I :3-21-72 176 :113.75 : 78,994.08: 49.8 :4,983.74 RIVER :3-21-72 188 :121.51 : 84,380.04: 53.2 :5,323.54 RIVER :5-19-42 :164.5:106.32 73,832.35: 46.6 :4,658.08 TO 3-21-72 : PROMISE : estimate: 1989 :166.1:107.38 : 74,568.62: 47.0 :4,704.53
with these measurements, an estimate of the average flow of Promise can be calculated based on the knowledge that Promise is part of the River Sink System and is the sinkhole located directly before Kini Spring. The average discharge has been estimated to be 166.14 cubic feet per second or about 107,000,000 gallons a day. Because Promise sink is at the same potentiometric surface as Kini and River, this estimate is fairly reliable. The potentiometric surface of Promise is between 2 m to 3 m above mean sea level. The potentiometric surface of River Spring is about 2.7 m (Roseneau 1977). The present water table level in Promise is about 2.1 m to 2.7 m above mean sea level according to the topographic map of the area (Figure 24). However, an exact 81
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figure 24 POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE FOR WAKULLA COUNTY (from Rupert and spencer 1988:37) 82 measurement of the fresh water table level has never been taken with an altimeter. Based on comparative geological and archaeological evidence in Florida and in the Big Bend area, including information from this study, this report attempts to suggest a prehistoric fresh water table level of at least 9 m below the present for the research area in the River sink Tract (Kaufmann 1989). This prehistoric fresh water table level could be generalized for the immediate area surrounding the River Sink Tract. Physiography of Promise sink The underwater "surface" features are divided according to the three sections of Promise: southeast, central, and northwest (Figure 16). The southeast and northwest sections have a basin and a cavern each. Both basins are covered with thick silt and an abundance of organic debris, such as leaves, twigs, branches, and fallen trees. The southeast section also has a cave which leads into the Sullivan System towards upper River Sink (Figure 15). The black crust clay sediment in the cavern walls extends 18 m deep after which pure white limestone extends the rest of the way down and into the cave. There are also many small ledges in the southeast cavern walls which have a thin silt sediment on their surface. The central section is a muddy bridge, submerged 50 em, connecting the two basins of Promise. All of the fine silt sediment has been washed away leaving 83 limestone rubble, mUd, water plants, algae, and cypress knees.
The northwest section has a basin and cavern which is really an underwater tunnel in the shape of the letter "U". It connects the northwest portion of Promise with the southeast portion of Go-Between Sink. This cavern is approximately 17 m long and 10 m wide. It ranges in depth from 4.5 m deep at the entrance to about 8 m near the south wall. This cavern has a very low ceiling allowing at most 2 m between the ceiling and the floor. The soil on the cavern floor is finely grained, light to medium brown, and ranges from 1 m to over 2.5 m deep. All the walls of this cavern are tan clay sediment with black crusty edges. The shelf zone along the south wall of the northwest basin and the cavern were the focus areas for this study. The shelf zone consists of two parts: the upper shelf zone in 10 cm to 70 cm of water and the lower shelf zone in 2 m to 3.5 m. The upper shelf zone extends from the center of Promise to above the northwest cavern, while the lower shelf zone extends along the south wall underneath the upper shelf zone and into the cavern about 1 m. Both shelf zones consist of the tan clay sediment with black crust and are covered with a fine layer of silt, .5 cm to 3.5 cm thick. The upper shelf zone has some eel grass while the lower shelf zone is barren. 84
PROMISE SINK: ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Types of Samples Recovered
Archaeologically, the results from the Promise project correlated closely with what was expected. Most of the remains were located along the cavern wall. The results of surface samples come from a one meter by one meter square on the lower shelf zone which was hand fanned. This area was tested to determine if cultural remains from a prehistoric or historic occupation were located on the shelf zone. This unit was located 2.75 m (at an angle of 55 degrees west of north) from the mid-site datum. The samples collected varied from prehistoric fauna to historic cultural remains. These remains included bone, Kuphis burrow, shell, chert fragments, a piece of brick, some fishing line with a lead weight, and a piece of glass. The subsurface survey archaeological results came from the auger survey and core sample analysis. Mostly plant materials were expected from the auger cores, and this is what the samples produced. The floral remains present in the cores were wood, charred wood, acorn, various seeds, an apricot pit, and various leaves (Appendix 7). The faunal remains present in the cores were deer bone, turtle shell, fish vertebrae, snailS, snail shells, alligator teeth, and other pieces of unidentified bone (Appendix 6). 85 Cultural remains were expected to be minimal, which is what was recovered. Historical cultural remains were expected to consist of metal and glass. The historic material recovered included a metal fish weight and a piece of glass, both recovered on the lower shelf zone. A metal beer can was also found in the cavern but was not within the research area so it was left in ~' The prehistoric remains were expected to be in lesser quantity than the historic remains and this also proved to be the case. These remains were expected to be mostly lithic and ceramic. This, however, was not the case, as the only prehistoric cultural remain found was a deer bone awl which was positively identified by Dr. Doran and Dr. Hale. Some small chert flakes were recovered but their function and origin could not be determined as they were too small. The cultural association for the prehistoric bone awl could also not be determined without sacrificing a piece of the awl for radiocarbon dating which the research design could not afford. There is a listing of remains from the coring project in appendices 6 and 7. Preservation in Promise Sink Preservation conditions in Promise sink seems to be excellent. There is an abundance of wood and leaf remains considering the high tannic quality of the water on most occasions. The tannic acid in the water seems to precipitate 86 just onto the sinkhole walls rather than into the sinkhole floor. Perhaps certain qualities of the silt on the sinkhole floor protect organic remains from the tannic acid to some degree. The constant cool temperature of the sinkhole also aids in organic material preservation. The lack of remains recovered in sinkholes with tannic water is not necessarily due to the tannic acid quality of the water but rather due to the lack of discovery and the lack of communication between the local diving community and the scientific community. Archaeological Analysis Archaeological analyses undertaken were floral, faunal and cultural. Floral analysis has been done only on a very general level by the researcher with the help of Dr. Doran (Appendix 7). This analysis only demonstrates the present environment at Promise Sink. There has been no in-depth analysis to determine a possible paleo-environment. The faunal analysis was undertaken by Dr. Hale. A listing of his findings can be found in Appendix 6. This research shows the present variety of fauna that frequent Promise sink. No extinct fauna have been recovered from this survey of Promise Sink. Cultural analysis has consisted only of identifying the deer bone awl and the historic remains. This has been accomplished by the researcher under the direction of Dr.
Doran and Dr. Hale. The subsurface survey has shown that there was 87 prehistoric activity at Promise Sink based on the recovery of a deer bone awl from core number three located beneath the lower shelf zone just inside the cavern entrance. The presence of this artifact also suggests hide or tool preparation activities at Promise. Bone awls are believed to have had utilitarian purposes such as in processing hide, punching holes in hides, or in flaking tools. These tools were used from the late Paleoindian and Early Archaic periods up until more recent periods such as the Weeden Island and Fort Walton. They are not chronologically diagnostic artifacts and therefore can only be dated by using a piece of the artifact for radiocarbon dating. Perhaps if such an artifact were found in situ in association with another datable artifact, a relative date could be assumed. However, this is not the case with the deer bone awl recovered from core number 3 at Promise sink.
CONCLUSIONS
Although a few original goals of the Promise project were not completed as planned, overall the methodology employed in this project established baseline information about Promise Sink. This baseline gives the Forest Service a brief glimpse of the archaeological potential of the sUbmerged portions within the River Sink Tract and what resources will need protection if increased visitation to 88 this area continues and pUblic access is encouraged by the
Forest Service. CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY
The archaeological literature con~erning karst features is relatively sparse and most documentation is cUlturally biased towards early lithic materials. Pleistocene faunal remains associated with karst features have received much more attention than plant and pollen remains. Very little of the literature documents later prehistoric and historic periods. Archaeological techniques and methods related to karst features are similarly not well developed. Summary of the Promise Project The Promise project established baseline information concerning one sinkhole. It provided geological information on karst topography and the formation of karst features. It also established a geological history for Promise Sink. The hardpan layer discovered during the subsurface survey suggests the possibility that Promise was dry at one time. A surface and vibracore survey provided floral, faunal, and cultural remains from within the sinkhole. Maps were drafted to documewnt the site. Macro-analysis of the floral and faunal remains show representation of the present environment. The cultural analysis determined that the sink
89 90 was most likely open since prehistoric times as evidenced by the recovery of the deer bone awl. Although the Promise Project, as originally proposed, encountered several problems in dealing with the underwater component, work completed under a revised format did accomplish several goals in evaluating Promise as a site with archaeological potential.
RECOMMENDATIONS
This thesis illustrates the need for controlled information about karst sites. Much more information is lost by divers who destroy site integrity when artifact hunting than has been gained by scientific study at karst sites. There is also a need for more scientific control and multidisciplinary methods when studying karst sites. More scientific control would include more carefully planned and executed studies. MUltidisciplinary approaches should include more paleontological, geomorphological, micro botanical, and pollen analysis research related to karst features. Recommendations concerning Promise Sinkhole The Promise Project determined that another criterion should be added to Forney's (1983a) predictive model for site location within tha National Forest. Areas of high site probability could also be located within shallow sinkhole basins with associated shallow caverns, caves, or shelf 91 zones. This would include those now submerged which have a depth of 8 m to 12 m below the present fresh water table level. Any sinkhole with a basin having a depth greater than 12 m would not be considered "shallow" based on the research from this project, because the basin floor would have been submerged by the prehistoric fresh water table. This criterion could be applied to any sinkhole to evaluate site probability within the sinkhole itself. Areas of increased material frequencies in such a site would be expected along and under shelf areas, along cavern walls, and near the mouth of the cavern or cave rather than out in the center of the basin. Although the archaeological database concerning karst features is small, Promise is not a likely site to contribute many revelations concerning prehistoric cultures. To obtain a better archaeological data base for Promise, a square by square approach to underwater material recovery is recommended, but not really practical. This method is very time consuming with little chance of recovering any substantial amount of artifacts being slim. A better opportunity for recovery of cultural artifacts would come from a terrestrial excavation of the lands immediately surrounding Promise and the other sinkholes in the River Sink Tract. Promise sink still has prehistoric archaeological potential but the chance of a significant underwater contribution is 92 very small.
Although the potential of Promise Sinkhole may be considered minor, steps should still be taken to preserve the archaeological resources if public access is to be encouraged. A recent visit to the site in June 1993 revealed that Promise and Go-Between have become extremely popular with local divers and swimmers. Since the nearby Leon Sinks Geological Park was constructed in 1992 by the Florida Park Service, access to these sinkholes was terminated. Divers and swimmers have now chosen to frequent the sinkholes on the River Sink Tract. Already there has been much erosion along the shore of Promise and Go-Between where divers and swimmers enter the water. All of the roads leading into Promise and Go-Between which were previously blocked in 1989 are now completely open, making these sinks even more accessible. The integrity of this site and the River Sink Tract in general was excellent since previous access to these areas was very difficult. However, as with any site, increased access through pUblic use encourages increased destruction of site integrity. In viewing the recent destruction of Promise and Go-Between, it is strongly recommended that a more thorough, step by step, assessment be initiated as soon as possible. Such a program would include a terrestrial subsurface testing program, compilation of a site photomosaic, mapping of depth and physical features, and solid coring of 93 the sinkhole bottoms. These data would allow measurement of the damage incurred from the frequent use by the pUblic. Additionally, these baseline data would permit questions concerning date of sinkhole formation, conditions of preservation, and cultural affiliation to be addressed. Because of the recent influx of interest in the Sinkholes on the River Sink Tract, the development of the River Sink Tract for public use by the Park Service before a carefully planned and executed multidisciplinary program is conducted, is strongly discouraged. APPENDICES 1 - 7
94 APPENDIX 1: OVERVIEW OF HISTORIC CULTURAL REMAINS FROM KARST FEATURES
SITE REMAIN LOCATION : SOURCE Cherokee Sink beer bottles Wakulla County 2 Cherokee Sink beer cans Wakulla County 2 Cherokee Sink car Wakulla County 2 Cherokee Sink coke machine Wakulla County 2 clay pipes st. Marks River 1 ballast boulders St. Marks River 1 pewter spoons st. Marks River 1 Natural Bridge hollow shot st. Marks River 1 Natural Bridge minie ball St. Marks River 1 Promise Sink lead fish weight River Sink Tract 2 Promise Sink nylon fish line River Sink Tract 2 Promise Sink broken glass River Sink Tract 2 Promise Sink beer can River Sink Tract 2 Wakulla Springs: coinage spring basin & shore: 2 Wakulla Springs: ceramic pitcher rim: spring basin 2 Wakulla Springs: gun casings beach shoreline 2 Warm Mineral springs:hand blown bottles: within spring J
SOURCES 1) Olsen 1962 2) Kaufmann 1989 J) Cockrell 1988
95 APPENDIX 2: OVERVIEW OF PREHISTORIC CULTURAL REMAINS FROM KARST FEATURES
SITE REMAIN LOCATION : SOURCE Aucilla River Clovis fluted point : lower Aucilla River :12 Aucilla River :Suwannee unfluted point: lower Aucilla Riv.:12 Black Hole Cave: uniface adze surface 6 Cutler human skeletal beneath the ledge 5 Cutler drills ? 5 Cutler scrapers ? 5 Cutler :reworked Dalton-like point:? 5 Cutler : Boleb beveled corner notched point:? 5 Cutler : chert debitagei flakes & cores: ? 5 Cutler :heat altered scrapers & knives: ? 5 Cutler bone pins ? 5 Cutler bone awls ? 5 Cutler bone needles ? 5 Cutler possible bone bead ? 5 Cutler :coral rasper or abrader:? 5 Ecofina Channel: stemmed Archaic point: former bank of river: 4 Ecofina Channel: chert debitage middle of channel 4 Ecofina Channel: stone tools middle of channel 4 Fitch site conical cores ? 4 Harney Flats uniface adze 7 Half Mile Rise sink: uniface adzes surface 6 Hornsby Springs: Suwannee points :10 Ichtucknee River:antler pressure flakers: 8 Ichtucknee : carved Proboscidean : Springs: ivory foreshafts 8 Little Salt Springs: • Page/Ladson Suwannee point :test B, zone A or B 6 Page/Ladson Dalton point :test B, zone A or B 6 Page/Ladson Greenbriar point :test B, zone A or B 6 Page/Ladson :Bolen side notched point:test B, zone A/B 6 Page/Jadson :801en corner notched point:test B" " 6 Page/Ladson : Wacissa point :test B, zone A or B 6 Page/Ladson :Archaic stemmed variants:test B, zone A/B 6 Page/Ladson :Paleoindian through test B, zone Ja 6 Deptford Page/Ladson :Swift Creek & Weeden Island ceramics test 8, zone Jb 6 Page/Ladson chert debitage unit 8 6 Page/Ladson : preform bases unit 8 6 Page/Ladson :antler pressure flakers: unit 8 6 Page. Ladson uniface adze unit 8 6 Page/Ladson utilized flake unit 9 6
96 97
APPENDIX 2: CONTINUED
SITE REMAIN LOCATION :SOVRCE Page/Ladson Bolen beveled point unit lOa & b 6 page/Ladson Bolen plain point unit 11 6 Page Ladson "bolo stone" unit 12 6 page/Ladson utilized blade test B, zone C 6 Page/Ladson bone pins : test B, zone C 6 page/Ladson :socketed antler point: test B, zone B 6 Page/Ladson :partial left mastadon: radius abraded flat : test A 6 Page/Ladson cut deer antler test B, zone A 6 Promise deer bone awl :cavern mouth of sink: 1 Silver Springs clovis points : 11 silver Springs :fluted & unfluted Suwannee points: :11 Silver Springs Cave: Simpson point: ? : 11 silver springs Cave: various debitage: ? : 11 st. Marks River:unfluted Simpson point: ? :12 Wakulla River fluted Simpsom point: ? : 12 Wakulla springs: bone pins ? : 2&3 Wakulla ivory pins ? : 2&3 Wakulla bone fish hooks ? : 2 Wakulla :chert flint scrapers ? : 2 Wakulla : Bolen plain points ? :2&3 Wakulla : Bolen side notched points: ? 2 Wakulla :Bolen beveled points: ? 2 Wakulla :600 bone spear points: ? 2 Wakulla bone awls ? 3 Wakulla Clovis points ? 3 Wakulla Greenbriar points ? 3 Wakulla Kirk points ? 3 Warm Mineral springs: uniface scraper:land surround spring: 9 Warm Minera1 : pressure flaking debitage: and surrounding: 9 Warm Mineral : contracting stem biface frag. :land surr. 9 Warm Mineral : flexed human burial: 13 meter ledge 9 Warm Mineral :shell spear thrower spur: 13 meter ledge 9 Warm Mineral :various human remains: 13 meter ledge 9 Warm Mineral : deer bone pin or awl: debris cone 9
1) Kaufmann 1989 7) Daniel & Weisenbaker 1984 2) Olsen 1959 8) Simpson 1948 3) Gerrell 1986 9) Cockrell 1988 4) Dunbar 1989 10) Dolan & Allen 1961 5) Carr 1986 11) Neill 1958 6) Dunbar et al. 1989a 12) Dunbar 1991 APPENDIX 3: OVERVIEW OF PLEISTOCENE FAUNAL REMAINS FROM KARST FEATURES
SITE : COUNTY: FAUNA SPECIES jAREAjFROM Aucilla River-: Black Hole Cave:Jeff-: mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Aucilla River-: erson Cut Off Sink: Jeff. sloth :ter 1 Aucilla River-: Gator Hole: Jeff. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Aucilla Rivee-: Ladsen rise: Jeff. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Aucilla River-: Mandalay: Jeff. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Aucilla River-: Page/Ladson Jeff. Canus dirus :ter 6 page/Ladson Jeff. horse Eguus sp. : ter : 6 page/Ladson Jeff. :Mammuthus floridanus:ter: 6 Page/Ladson Jeff. :Megalonyx ieffersoni:ter: 6 Page/Ladson Jeff. lama :Paleolama mirifica:ter: 6 Page/Ladson Jeff. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Aucilla River Twin Sinks Jeff. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Aucilla River-: Ward Island #2:Jeff. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Crystal River citrus: :ter cutler giant Dasypus bellUs 2 : armadillo Cutler bison Bison antiguus 2 Cutler lama :Palaeolama rnirifica: 2 Cutler horse : Eguus ~ 2 Cutler :Marnrnuthus cf. ieffersoni:2 Cutler :Mylohus fossilis : 2 Cutler :Trernarctos floridanus : 2 Cutler Canus dirus : 2 Cutler condor :Gymnogyps californianus:2 Hillsborough River Harney Gap :Hills. bison :ter 1 Hillsborough River Cow Creek :Hills. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Hillsborough River :ter 1 Fowler Bridge:Hills. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Ichtucknee River Bison Landing: Suwanee: bison :ter 1 Ichtucknee River- DOT Landing: suw. : mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1
98 99
APPENDIX 3: CONTINUED
SITE : COUNTY: FAUNA SPECIES :AREA:FROM Ichtucknee River- Jug Springs :Suwanee: mastodon: Proboscidean :ter 1 Ichtucknee River- mastodon,: Proboscidean simpson's Camp: Suw. :horse & Camel: :ter 1 Ichtucknee River- mastodon Proboscidean Simpson's Flat's:Suw.: & horse : ter 1 Ichtucknee River Devil's Bend Suw. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Little Salt Sara- Springs sota 5 Sante Fe River- Gil- Boat Launch christ: tapir :ter 1 Sante Fe River- Darby Springs:Alachua: mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Sante Fe River- Gil. mastodon,: Proboscidean Dunnagan's Old Mill :horse & camel: :ter 1 Sante Fe River- Gil. Hollingsworth bluff mastodon Proboscidean : ter 1 Sante Fe River Hornsby springs:Ala. mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Sante Fe River mastodon Proboscidean River Estates: Gil. & horse :ter 1 Sante Fe River- mastodon Proboscidean Sante Fe springs:Gil.: horse :ter 1 Sante Fe River- Col Wilder's rise: umbia horse : ter 1 sante Fe River Wilson Springs: Gil. tapir :ter 1 silver River- :Marion Silver Springs Cave mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Steinhatchee R: Dixie Fish Hook Hole & Falls Proboscidean :ter 1 st. Marks River- Leon Natural Bridge sinks : mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 st. Marks River Sunken spring:Wakulla: mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 Wacissa River-: Jeff. bison & Alexon site area: horse :ter 1 Waciussa River :ter 1 Midway site : Levy horse :ter 1 Wacissa River-: horse & Yeager Camp: Jeff. tapir :ter 1 Wakulla River-: Olin site :Wakulla: mastodon Proboscidean :ter 1 100
APPENDIX 3: CONTINUED
SITE : COUNTY: FAUNA SPECIES jAREA:FRQM Wakulla springs: Wak. : mastodon Proboscidean :mar 4 Wakulla :Wakulla: mammoth :mar 4 Wakulla :Wakulla: horse Eguus :mar 4 Wakulla :Wakulla: tapir :mar 4 Wakulla :Wakulla: camel :mar 4 Wakulla :Wakulla:ground sloth: :mar 4 Warm Mineral Sara- ground :Megalonyx ieffersonii:out:3 Springs sota sloth Warm Mineral Sar. :sabre cat :Smilodon floridanus:out:3 Warm Mineral Sar. :pine vole :pitymys pinetotum:out : 3 Wekiva River- Wekiva Bend Levy : mastodon Proboscidean :ter ; 1 withlacoochee River-:Marion: Rainbow Sprs. run #1 : mastadon Proboscidean :ter : 1
SOURCES 1) Dunbar 1991 2) Carr 1986 3) McDonald 1990 4) Neill 1964 5) Clausen 1979 6) Dunbar et al. 1989a APPENDIX 4: OVERVIEW OF FLORAL REMAINS FROM KARST FEATURES
SITE : FLORAL REMAIN SPECIES jFROM Ecofina Channel: cypress 2 Page/Ladson alder :Alnus serrulata 1 Page/Ladson swamp alder :Cornus foemina 1 Page/Ladson :American elodea:Elodea canadensis 1 Page. Ladson sweetgum :Liguidambar styraciflua 1 Page/Ladson myrtle :Myrica cerifera 1 page/Ladson laurel oak or :Ouercus water oak :~ Laurifolia or ~ nigra 1 Page/Ladson :grape & tendril:Yitis 1 Page/Ladson red mulberry 1 Ray Hole live oak (fossil) 2 Warm Mineral shield fern :Thelypteris normalis(fossil):3 Warm Mineral pine :pinus (fossil) : 3 Warm Mineral slash pine : Pinus elliotii (fossil) : 3 Warm Mineral cedar/cypress :Juniperus/Taxodium (fossil):3 Warm Mineral cypress :Taxodium (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral cattail :Typha (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral grass :Gramineae (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral sedge :Cyperaceae (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral cabbage palm :Sabal palmetto (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral lily :Liliaceae (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral hickory :Carya (fossil) 3 Warm ~lineral willow :Salix (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral hornbeam :Ostrya/Carpinus (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral hazlenut :Corylus (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral birch :Betula (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral oak :Ouercus (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral live oak :Ouercus virginiana (fossil):3 Warm Mineral laurel oak :Ouercus laurifolia (fossil):3 Warm Mineral mUlberry :Moris (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral elm :Ulmus (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral hackberry :Celtis (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral goosefoot :Chenopodiaceae (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral pokeweed :Phytocacca rigida (fossil): 3 Warm Mineral poppy :Papaveraceae (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral mustard :Cruciferae (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral syringa :philadelphus (fossil) 3 Warm ~Iineral sweetgum :Liguidambar (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral sumac :B!ll!§. (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral holly :~ (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral buckthorn :Rhamnus (fossil) 3 Warm ~Iineral pepper vine :Ampleposis arborea (fossil):3
101 102
APPENDIX 4: CONTINUED
SITE : FLORAL REMAIN i SPECIES iFRQM Warm Mineral basswood :Tilia (fossil) 3 \~arm Minera I :st. John's worts:Hypericum (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral violets :Viola (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral myrtle :Myrica (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral gum : Nyssa (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral carrot :Umbelliferae ebenales(fossil):3 Warm Mineral persimmons :Diospyros (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral ash : Fraxinus (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral milkweed : Lyonia mariana (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral borage : Borraginaceae (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral ragweed :Ambrosia (fossil) 3 Warm Mineral sagebrush :Artmesia (fossil) 3
SOURCES 1) Dunbar et al. 1989a 2) Dunbar 1989 3) McDonald 1990 APPENDIX 5: OVERVIEW OF CARBON 14 DATES FROM KARST FEATURES
SITE CARBON - 14 DATE REMAIN PATED :FROM Aucilla 3B 15,050 +/- 260 yr B.P. carbon fragments :1 Aucilla 3E 15,910 +/- 160 yr B.P. wood sample :1 Black Hole Cave 20,490 +/- 200 yr B.P. carbon fragments : 1 cutler 9,670 +/- 120 yr B.P. charcoal :10 Devil's Den 6,975 +/- 180 yr B.P. deer & bear bone : 9 Devil's Den 7,045 +/- 185 yr B.P. deer & bear bone : 9 Ecoofina 5,160 +/- 100 yr B.P. cypress root : 3 Little Salt 5,220 +/- 90 yr B.P. Human bone : 9 Little Salt 8,455 +/-145 yr B.P. algal gyttja : 9 Little Salt 9,645 +/- 160 yr B.P. :pointed wooden pin:9 Page/Ladson 3,440 +/- 70 yr B.P. peat sample :1 Page/Ladson 4,070 +/- 60 yr B.P. charcoal chunks : 1 page/Ladson 9,450 +/- 100 yr B.P. charred wood : 1 Page/Ladson 9,730 +/- 120 yr B.P. peat sample :1 Page/Ladson 10,520 +/- 130 yr B.P. Proboscidean : 1 long bone Page/Ladson 11,770 +/- 90 yr B.P. peat sampl : 1 Page/Ladson 12,330 +/- 120 yr B.P. oak log sample : 1 Page/Ladson 12,330 +/- 110 yr B.P. organic clayey : 1 sediment sample Page/Ladson 12,570 +/- 200 yr B.P. peat sample : 1 Page/Ladson 13,130 +/- 200 yr B.P. Cypress wood : 1 Ray Hole 7,390 +/- 60 yr B.P. oyster shell : 11 Ray Hole 8,220 +/- 80 yr B.P. Oak :11 Warm Mineral 2,550 +/- 60 yr B.P. feature 86-U-2 : 6 Warm Mineral 7,00 to 9,000 yr B.P. Human skeletons : 5 Warm Mineral 8,000 yr B.P. wood samples : 7 Warm Mineral 8,520 +/- 400 yr B.P. charcoal zone 2 : 9 Warm Mineral 8,600 +/- 400 yr B.P. charcoal zone 2 :9 Warm Mineral 8,920 +/- 190 yr B.P. wood : 9 \~arm Mineral 9,220 +/- 180 yr B.P. wood :9 Warm Mineral 9,350 +/- 190 yr B.P. wood : 9 Warm Mineral 9,370 +/- 400 yr B.P. charcoal zone 3 :9 Warm Mineral 9,420 +/- 150 yr B.P. charred wood : 9 Warm Mineral 9,500 +/- 400 yr B.P. charcoa1 zone 3 : 9 Warm Mineral 9,B70 +/- 400 yr B.P. charcoal zone 3 :9 Warm Mineral 9,880 +/- 230 yr B.P. wood : 9 Warm Mineral 10,000 +/- 200 yr B.P. :partly burned log :9 Warm Mineral 10,020 +/- 180 yr B.P. wood :9 Warm Mineral 10,240 yr B.P. Human cranium :8 burial no. 1
103 104
APPENDIX 5: CONTINUED
SITE CARBON - 14 DATE REMAIN DATED :FROM Warm Mineral 10,260 +/- 190 yr B.P. wood :9 Warm Mineral 10,J19 yr B.P. :Human skeleton(lJ):4 Warm Mineral 10,6JO +/- 210 yr B.P. wood :9 Warm Mineral 10,960 +/- 40 yr B.P. ? : 6 Warm Mineral 11,000 yr B.P. Human mandible :7 Warm Mineral 10,980 +/- 160 yr B.P. Sabre Cat :8 Warm Mineral 11,000 yr B.P. Ground Sloth :5
SOURCES 1) Dunbar et al. 1989a:479 2) Anuskiewicz 1988 J) Faught 1988 4) Cockrell & Murphy 1978 5) Cockrell 1980 6) Cockrell 1986 7) Cockrell 1987 8) Cockrell & Murphy 1978 9) Clausen, Brooks, Wesolowsky 1975 10) Carr 1986 11) Dunbar et al. 1989b \
APPENDIX 6: FAUNAL LIST FROM PROMISE SINK
_UNIT_: COLLECTED: GENERAL Core J 4 17-89 deer bone awl : Odocoileus yirginauus (2 pieces) 1 right proximal ulna 2 pieces. :a11igator teeth :Alligator mississippiensis - 2 teeth. bone (1 piece) Mammalia - 1 rib corpus fragment. carapace frag. Pseudemys - 1 Costal carapace fragment. turtle shell Kinosternidae - (5 pieces ) 1 right Hypoplastron, 2 left Hypoplastron, 2 Costals. shell Planorbella 1 shell. Core 4 4-17 89 turtle shell KinosternIdae - 1 Costal carapace frag. shell Bivalva - 1 fossil valve fragment. Core 6 4-19 89 turtle shell KinosternIdae 2 Periphals. shell Planorbella : 1 shell. : uid frags. :2 unidentified fragments. Core 7 4-19-89 turtle shell KInosternIdae - 1 right Xiphiplastron, 2 left Hypoplastron, 1 Costal carapace. shell Planorbella 1 shell, 1 beetle leranium. :uid snail frags.: Lepomis -blue gill or sunfish 1 right Preoperculm,
Core 8 4-19-89 fish vertebrae Ictalurus -catfIsh & uid frags. 1 vertebrae, 2 fossil shell endocasts vertebrae Serpentes - 1 vertebrae. 1 uid bone 1 unidentified bone.
105 106
APPENDIX 6: CONTINUED
UNIT : COLLECTED: GENERAL SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION Core 10: 4-19-89 vertebrae Sylyilagus -rabbit 1 lumbar vertebrae. bone Micropterus Salmoides 1 left Cleithrun. :Rodentia - 1 Busioccipital Core 13: 4-19-89 deer bone odocoileus virginiauus 1 antler tine. : shell (2 pieces) : Planorbella 2 shells. turtle shell Kinosternidae 1 peripheral. Core 14: 4-19 89 deer bone Qdocoileus yirginiauus 1 antler fragment. shell Planorbella 2 shells, 1 fossil endocast. turtle shell Kinosternidae - 1 right Hypoplastron. Surface: 4 20 89 jaw with teeth odocoileus y~ attached 1 left mandible with teeth tanniced. mandible frag. Mammalia - 1 mandible fragment from a large individual. APPENDIX 7: FLORAL LIST FROM PROMISE SINK
107 108
APPENDIX 7: CONTINUED
UNIT : COLLECTED: GENERAL SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION Core 10: 4 19-89 wood charred wood acorns Quercus - acorn fragments. seeds apricot pit plant stem possibly palmetto. Core 11: 4 19 89 wood charred wood acorns Quercus - acorn fragments.
Core 12: 4-19-89 wood acorns Quercus - acorn fragments.
Core 13: 4-19-89 wood charred wood acorns Quercus - acorn fragments.
Core 14: 4-19-89 wood charred wood APPENDIX 8
109 110
...... u .. Llul..' .... LllU.J" .. VI.. "\JI..·J.... UJ.\.U.l.U HUl,;UlU Nu. Kug.1.0n \J-4J t"oruut l~-lt} Foraot Sorvico (1-2) 70 Q9. II SPECIAL USE PERMIT 01atrlct V••r No. Kind of U•• (7-0) (9-12) (13-15 ) Act of Juno 4, 1097 06 2009-10 412 Thio pormit 10 rovocoblo and nontranoforoblo stata County Card NO. (Rot. FSM 2710) (16-17) (18-20) (21) g 129 (ff ! Pormloo1on 10 horoby gronto State Un vorl y, Depart.,nt 0 Anthropology Doportmont, ot Tollohooooo, Florida 32306, hertinafttr called the holdor, to uno Dubjoot to tho conditiona .It out balow, the following d••crlbtd lands or lmprovomonto:
J\ portion of Notional Foroet land locat.d 1n Station 28, Townahip 2 South, Rango 1 Wost, Wakulla County. Plorida, II ehewn on the attachad mop and modo 0 port at this por.it. Exhibit A, Soope ot Work, 1. allo considorod to bo port of thio pormit.
Thin pormit covoro 1.0 aeroo and/or --- .il•• and i. i ••u.a for the purpo•• ot: Mopping ourtaco nnd underwater foatures in Ind around PrOMi•• Sink.
1. Conotruction or occupancy and us. under·tnis peralt shall b.gin within --- montho, and construction, it any, .hall b. co-pl.tid wit~n --- montho, trOM tho dato ot tho per.it, Thi' us. Ihall b' aotually oxoroiood at loaot --- dayo aach year, unl,,8 otherwise authoriz.d 1n writing. 2. In conoidoration tor this uoe, the holder Ihall pay to the For••t Sorvioo, U,S. Department of Agrioultur., the SUM ot Dollar. ($ ) lor the period tra. 19 , to 19 • annually on Rantal FeD WaIved - 36 erR 2~l, 57 ,- Dollara ($ ): ProvIded, however, Chargoo for thio UOD mny 60 msdo or r ••ifj"Ui"Ei'd wh.n.v.r n.o••••ry to plneo tho ohorges on a boois e~.n.ur.to with the value at ula Duthori;r;od by this permit. 3. Thin pormit io accepted subject to the conditionl I.t torth horoin, and to conditlono 4 to 25 attached hareto and .ad, • part ot thio pormit.
Namo ot lIo1dor Slonaturo ot Authorbod Otticor Oat. 1I0LDER Dr. Rochollo Herrinen ~ AUJlt.i.~ Anthropology Oopartmont a. '1/,..,/" Florido stoto Unlvorolty Tltlo lIoldar Namo and Signaturo Titl. Oat. ISSUING OFFICER Robort T. Jacobo Fore.t SUn.rvilor 1700-4 (7f71) 111
FlOrida Stato Univoroity AnthrOpology Depart-ont Hopping Surtaco and Underwater Foature.
4. Oovolopmont plans; layout plana: con.tructton, roconstruction, or altoration ot iMprov,.,ntl; or rlvieion ot layout or construction plans tor thil art. aUlt bt approv.d in advanco and in writing by tho Forest Supervllor. Trl" or shrubbory on tho pormitted area may b. re.cved or d.atrayed only after tho forest Offictr-in-Charoe ha. approved, and h-. marked or otherwiso designated that which ••y be re.av.d or dootroyod. Timber cut or destroyed ~111 b. paid tor by the holdor as follows: Merchantable tieber at apprll••d valu.; young-growth ti~bor below .archantabl. 81z8 It current d...O' appraisod value; provided that the rOrt.t S.rvic. r •••rv•• tho right to dispose ot the .erch.ntabla ti.b.r to othere ~h8n tho holder at no stumpage coat to the holder, Tr•••, shrubs, and othor planta may be plant.d in luch ••nner .nd 1n Duch placos about tho premi••s as ••y be .pproved by~th. \l foreot officer in charge. ~ot It€ft<:t1!l;:!.J 5, Tho holder shall .alntdn the i.prove.ente .nd pre.i••• to otandards at repair, orderlino••• n••tn••••••nit,tion, nnd safety acceptable to tho toreat otUc.r in charge.[Not ~~ e~ 6. This pormit i8 eubjeot to all valid olli••• 7. The holder. in exorcising the privilege. gr.nted by thl. pormit, oha11 comply with the rogulations ot tho D.part••nt of Agriculturo and 011 Federftl, Stat., county, and Munioipal laws. ordinancos, or regUlations which are applic.bl. to the area or operations covered by thi. p.rait. 8. Tho holder shall take all r.a,onabl. pr.caution. to provent and suppress forest fir••• No ••terial ahall be disposod o( by burning in open tir•• during the olo••d ••••on established by law or regUlation without a written pec.it (rom tho Forest Officer-in-Ch.roe or hi. authori%ed aOlnt. 9. Tho holdor shall oxorciDQ diligenoo in proteating trOll damago tho land end property ot the United St.tee ~ov.red by and u90d in conneotion with thi. pe~it, and ehlll pay the Un~ted states tor any damage reSUlting ira- neoligence or from tho violation of the terms ot this pera1t or ot .ny law or rogulat~on applicable to the National For••ts by the holdor. or by any agents or o.ploy.e. ot the holder acting within tho scopo ot their agency or ••playaent.
10. Tho holder sh.ll tully repair all d'luge, other than ordinary woar and tear, to national tore.t roads and trail. cau30d by tho holdor in tho exorcise at the privilege grant.d by thin pormit. 11. No Member of or Delegato to Congre•• or fte.id.nt Commi39ioner shall be admitted to any .h.re or p.rt ot this 112
Florida state Univoroity 3 Anthropology Depart-oot Hnpplng Surfaco and Undorwater Fe.tures aoroomont or to any bonofit that may arl,. her,fro. unl••• it 19 made with a corporation tor it. glnlral benefit. 12. Upon abandonmont, terMination, revocation, or cancollation of this pormit, the holder .hall r.-ave within I roasonable time all otructurl. and iaprov•••nt. except tho•• ownod by tho United Stat••, and ahall r ••tore the 8it_, unless otherwise agreed upon in writing or in thl. peralt. If tho holdor fal1& to removed all luch Itructur•• or improvement9 within 8 reasonable plriod, they .h.~l blCo.. tho proporty of tho United Stat••, but that will not relilv, tho holdor of liability for tho cost of their re.oval and rostoration of tho oite. 13. This pormit io not transforable. It the hold.r through voluntary oalo or trans for, or through .nlorc•••nt of contract, toroclosuro, tax 8alo, or oth.r valid l.gll procoedings shall oeaso to be the own.r of the phylicll ~mprovomont8 othor than thol' owned by the Unit.d Stat•• oituated on tho land d.scribed in thi. pec.it and i. unlble to furniah adequate proof of ability to r.d••• or oth.rwl.e roestablish title to Baid i_provo.lnt., thi. p.r-it .hlll b. subject to cancellation. But it the plrlon to w~ title to said improvomonts shall have boen trlnsflrrld in .ith.r mannor provided i8 qualified a8 a holder and il willing that his futuro occupancy at tho promil•• shall bl lubjlct to luch now conditions ond stipUlations I. exiting or prolp.otivi circumstancos may warrant, his continued occupanoy ot the promisoD may bo 8uthorizod by pormit to hiM it, in the opinion ot tho iS9uing officer or his 8UccI••or, i.,uanol ot o pormit is dosirable and in tho publio inter••t. 14. In oaso of change of addr•••, the hold.r .hall 1mmediately notify the ForG.t Supervisor. 15. Tho tomporary use and occupancy ot the pr'Mi••• and improvemonta herein d••crib.d .ay be .ubl.t by the hold.r to third parties only with tho prior writt.n approvil of thl Forest Supervisor but tho holder ,hill continu. to bl rosponsiblo for compliance with all condition. of thi. p.rait by porsons to whom ouch premilos .ay be Iubl.t. 16. This permit may be terminated upon br.aoh at any of the conditions horoin or at the discretion at tho Regional Forester or tho Chiof, Forest Service. 17. In the event at any conflict betw••n any at the preceding printed clau008 or any provilion. th.r.at Ind any of tho following clauses or any provilion. th.r.ol, the following olauses will control. CPO 914-673 113
Florida stato Univoroity 'Anthropology DODortmont Hopping Surloco and Undorwater Foatureo
10. Tho holdor shall indomnHy tho United stat.. against any liability for damago to lifo or property arislng frc. the occupancy or U90 ot National Forost lands under thia per-it.
19. Rising wntoro, high windo, talling liMbe or tr•••• and other hazards oro natural phonomonons in the loreat that prosont risks which tho hOldor assum08. The holder ha. the rosponsibility ot inspooting hi. Bit., lot, right-ot-way, and immodiato adjoining area tor dangerous tree., hanging Ii.ba, and other ovidonco of hazardous conditione and, attar oocuring pormlsoion from tho Foroet Service, of rt.cving luch hazards.
20. Tho holdor shall pack out or otherwise raaova fro. National Forest lands all roCuso resulting trom operation. under this pormit. 21. Tho holder ahall pack out or otherwi.e remove from National Forest lands all refuse reSUlting lrom operationa under this pormit.
22. This special-uso authorization i. i ••ued lor the period ending Augu~t 31, 1909. 23. Nothing in this pormit shall be can.trued to i_ply permission to build or maintain eny struoture not specifically namod on tho laco of thil po~it, or approved by tho Foroet Sorvico in the 'form ol • new pondt or permit amendmont.
24. Tho holder ogroos to permit tho {reo end unr••tricted accoss to and upon tho promisos at all times lor all lawlul and propor purposes not inconoiotent with tho intent of th. permit or with tho reasonablo exerciso ood onjoyment by the holder of the privilogeD thoraot. 25. The holder ahall provide the authorizld oilictr with. copy at all rQPortu and pUblication. reDulting from tht project including thosoo, d!oaortatlons, artiol••, monographs, otc. Tho final raport on work perfOrMed .hall be submitted in ono (1) copy to tho For••t Servico no l.ter th.n throo (3) months following tho completion of the r ••••rch. 114
tANII" IA SCOPE Of IIORK The nollure of lhl .. stud" will be" b"lJ.tlno Gury.y of Pro-I.e .lnlchote. rhls nu,.vny wtl1 bu .. "yst.,U,ltc und.,.wolt..,. .i1rr.hoi\eoloQic~l 5\.tr"vey for' the purpose of deltninQ, .v.lu~t.lnQ and Intp.rprct.tinQ any hi.toric and p".hl.l~tc cultural r.,ourc•• contoi\ined within the sinkhole. Specific"lly, this Yu,-"ey intends to locat. and Id.nt.tfy cui lural ,.o~.in. which m10ht b. pr•••nt on the sinkhole ,h.lf tone. If pos'51ble this survey will aha t.ry t.o letentlfty and loc.te any cultural rUlI'Iidns which _fQnt b. pr•••nt In the .h,,1Iow "'rea of the sinkhole ba'51n. If po••ibl. this Su"",.y would Itso try to locollta anu (dent! Iy nny cuttu,..t ,..,ulna lOCated in the west cavern ~one of PromlGe sinkhol •. This survey wi 11 bRnRfit the United St~te' For••t Service tn understilndlnQ what tYPlP5 of cullurill iIIIat,rh,l. ar. pr.,.nt tn the underwilter environ.nont. of U. S. For••t Service land. Thi.IUI"VIY wi 1 I provide importilnt cultural data to c~pl •••nt the pre.,nt know I Rdllft About the s.tnllhole'l' on t.he Alvlr Slnk tract. Thi. dU,a wi 11 lJa utled to help Intarpr.tlltion and dlve1op••ent for the propouad nl.vuI'"" Sink I"'ocl"'uatlonal ar.a IUQQct.t.d by U,. U. Ii. Forost S\:!I'""vicllf. Thn final repo,.t of thil lurvey wtil indud. rese~rch on tho 9fto109Y of thQ .,.e. and wt 11 hllp the U. 8. FO(' ••t Sorvlce In und.r.tandlno the proc••••• of .tnkhol. fO('.atlon and recon.tructlon of past environlllenta. Thl. r ••••rc;h hop•• to dlliOcov.r w~y.. In which l51nkhole for••tton can be dated. Tht. geological In(ormation i1bout the Ar.~ wtll al.o b. u.,d to help tnterpretC\tlon and dovQlopemont for the f1ropo••d River Sink recreational are... The OeoloOicoll study wtll con.llt of llt.,...,.y research and Gome s'lllple analysis by Frank Rupp.rt. of the .tat. of Flor1da'~ GooLoOic~l OurR~u. The proposed survey ~rRa conal.ts of the '1ub••roeG shllf zone on tho lIouth welt sldg o( Proml •• linkhole, the shallow ba.tn ""re... , Jlnd thQ wc.t ca....rn 1:one. ProMl,e sinkhole 1. locat.d on U. 5. Forost 5gr... lcG lando tn Township 02 south, A""Q" 01 w.st, Section 28. tho Inv~st1Q~tJon will result In the pr.paratton of " .ltl m~p tndic"tlnQ the prominent lurf"ce and underwater fealure. In and around Promi so .1 nkhol Q. Th11 ,up will b. ba••d on a ••,.t •• of control points obt"lned throuoh the use of " trAnsit. and dirlct obser... ~tlon which will be u ••d to Identify the location of promlnont nurf~ce ·feol'tures 'iluch aa cypr.s. tr••• "lono the shoreline of the &Inkhole. The m..p will include luch ••••u,.•••nt. c\s the diametor o1ntJ depth of the sinkhole. Th. survey 101111 ,,110 consist of an aUQ~r survoy In whlch two or thr•• tr~nlect line. w111 be laid 1n the shalf :;:onll .pproMI.."tlly one .It.,. ..part. Samples will be t.akl8n .. 10n9 the". t,."nsoct lin•• at on••eter interV4\ls. A ...."'plu i. equ.l to on. co,.e. Approld.ately twelve cores will be taken on the "helf 1:00•. It 1. po.tulated that the caras will cont.!n Il1nilf\al prohl.tode floral and faun.l ....t.r1,1 1 such as IOi\ves and sm.all bonel. It II bell.ved that th.,.. wlll b. Rome pros.nctt of historic .aterlilll .uch •• can., .,tal, And gl"•• , hut this p,..senco will be Mlnl.al al.o. If any p,.,hl.torlc 115
"Rm~II1S ~"'e f'(/covq"ud ~5 .1 re'liiult. of thl~ invostlQAttOl'l. such .I. cher"'t fl"l(os 0'" pottvry sh.,.ds1 thy!,.. conc.nlroltlon 1• .a1ao bel J evJ?d tn co mlnlm.11. All 5o.\mple. wit \ be b41;10Rd In whol. and tAlwn to r-lo,-ld~ St~te Unlvltrslly for faun.. , .and cult.ural an~lY'5ls. If Umll and wo.-thwr pOl'"lIllt an .. U9." survey ~111 be conducted In the shallow bastn .areA then the w••t ~&Y.rn &r •• of Promise sinkhole. In th050 ..rOilS about four Of'" fly. tran••ct 11 nes will be spolcod two lIuatera .par-t. and cor•• will b. t ..kltn every thre~ moters apart. ApprOllllllat.ly twwnt.y cor•• will be talten. All fiamples will be bagqod tn whole .and hken to FIOf""ld.. State Unl'lersity for fallnal and cultural analyst •• Analyuls of all allQor corns for thepil\lonto1001c&1 h,un.. 1 rerllolol.ns wi 11 b~ conducted by Ste.... e H.at •. The AnAly.l., of any cultural rsmains will be done by Klra K.au' ...nn with the sl..lpervis~on of Or. Rochelle Marrin.an Ir04l the AnthropoloQY Department .at Florid. State. Any r •••l.n. r.co.....r.d will b_ hou,.d In the Florld~ St.at. Unl .... or.lty·. coll.cllon. ar.a under the supervl·sion of Dr. Glen oor"n. If An .abundanco of • .ate,...t.al I. found, cl..,rr~tl.on nneds wi II be r.,vAluAt.d. Any .peclal curratlan noods, 51.tch .a~ lmmorllon in "".atllr, wI. 11 b. ta-kGn car. of by the houSiino f,aclllty whan po••ible. J( apedal pr•••,. .... ation ne.dl arise which c.annot be .accounted for by the housl.no facility, th••• neads will b~ 5ati.lfled throuQh cooper.. tlon with a rlputabl. preservation ~~cillty. Documentation wl.ll constat 01 ftlld not." written descrlptlons. drawin05, 4nd • .apl. Docu.anhtlon will alIa consist of photogr~ph5 In both bt.ack .and while .nd color. The,.. will also be tho IInilo! report which wilt conalstol an introduction, a chapter on m.thodoloQY ... ch.apter on backQround lnformo1tion, a ch.Jpter on the oeoloOlc~l r ••••rch, a chapt.r on tho analY61s. a ch~ptRr on compar.bJe _ites and data, and a conclusion. Arter tho complotlon of th••W" ..... y .and the analyals of the core5, this; written final report will bo .ub.ltted to the U. S. Forvst 5ol"" .... ice bafol'"ll Septemb.r fll"".t, l,g,. A linal wrl tten report will also be sUbmttted to the AnlhropoloQY ~p.rt~ent at Florid" State Unl .... nr.. lty as p ... rt. of the th.,i, r.qulr.Menl for 1<:1 ra KoiIuImi\l1n. At 1 diving opar~tlon$ wl11 bo conductRd In .accord... nc. with tho Florida State Unlversi ty·. ACl.dellltc Divino PrQ9rull. People invol .... ed in dl .... inq actl .... ities with thh proj.ct 101111 ..eal .11 Academic otvlng Progr.l.m stilnd.rds. All dlve. wilt ba no deCOmprQ5~ion divas. All di .... es will be conducted accordino to tha "~uddy S'/stem" ilnd wt 11 be montto,.ed by .. de.. ton.ted Div. H••t.,. ta iU>liLlrO th... t maxlml.un ..... f.ty stOlnd ... rds .ar. bllno followed. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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VITA Kira Kaufmann 104 Lawton Lane Bolingbrook, Illinois 60440 (708) 972-1322 PERSONAL INFORMATION
SS! 331-64-5774 Date of Birth: July 2, 1966 Place of Birth: Des Plaines, Illinois EDUCATION High School: Glenbard North Degree received: May 1984 Kuhn & Lies Rds. Carol Stream, Illinois 60188 Colleges: Beloit College Transferred: December 1984 Beloit, Wisconsin 53511 Northern Illinois university Degree receiv d: Dec. 1987 DeKalb, Illinois 60115 BA Anthropology; Doubla Minor in Biology , Fr nch Florida State University Degree Expected: Aug. 1993 Tallahassee, Florida 32306 MA Anthropology SPECIAL CERTIFICATIONS CERTIFICATION DATE SSI- Open Water Instructor May 1993 SSI- Cavern Instructor May 1993 SSI- Various specialties Instr. May 1993 PADI- Cavern Instructor March 1993 PADI- Open Water Instructor May 1992 PADI- Open \~ater Scuba May 1987 NACD- Cavern Diving May 1988 NAUI- Diving Rescue Febuary 1989 PADI- Advanced Diver september 1989 NACD- Full Cave April 1989 PADI- Equipment Specialist November 1990 PADI- Divemaster fall 1991 RED CROSS- First-aid June 1984. May 1988,1992 RED CROSS- Water Safety rnstr. December 1985 131 •
132 SPECIAL CERTIFICATIONS CONTINUED
RED CROSS- Lifesaving May 1982, August 1985 AMERICAN HEART ASSOCIATION- CPR May 1982 - June 1993. ELLIS & ASSOCIATES- Lifesaving August 1992 PROFESSIONAL AFFILIATIONS
Beloit Anthropology Club August 1984 - Dec. 1984 Northern Illinois Anthropology January 1985 - Dec. 1987 Club Florida state University January 1988 - April 1989 Anthropology Club South Eastern Archaeology January 1989 - Jan. 1990 Conference Underwater Archaeology Society January 1990 - present of Chicago PROFESSIONAL WORK EXPERIENCE Archaeological Field School July 1983 - August 1983 Northwestern University at Kampsville, Illinois Lab work - Ceramic Lab January 1987 - May 1987 Undergraduate Course at Northern Illinois Unoiversity Exhibit Manager May 1987 - August 1987 Museum of Science & Industry chicago, Illinois Researcher/Cataloger January 1988 - April 1988 Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida 32306
Teaching Assistant August 1988 - December 1988 physical Anthropology Class Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida 32306
Teaching Assistant January 1989 - April 1989 Underwater Archaeology Class Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida 32306 133
PROFESSIONAL WORK EXPERIENCE CONTINUED
Research Assistant January 1989 - May 1989 wak~lla Underwater Archaeology ProJect - Ant. 4135 Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida 32306
Research Work March 1990 - Present Chicago Maritime Society North Pier chicago, Illinois
OTHER WORK EXPERIENCE
Building supervisor/Instructor June 1991 - Present Bolingbrook Aquatic Center 180 S. canterbury Lane Bolingbrook, 11. 60440
Ski Patrol November 1989 - Feb. 1993 Four Lakes Village 5750 Lakeside Drive Lisle, Illinois 60532
Freelance Work 1985 - Present Beta Graphics Corporation Farnsworth Aurora, Illinois
Clerk/Printer october 1989 - January 1990 Quick pix County Farm Road Carol Stream, 11. 60188
Sales Clerk september 1989 - Oct. 1989 The Scuba Shop Roosevelt Road Glen Ellyn, Illinois 60137
Lifeguard/Swimming Instructor June 1988 - August 1988 Summerlakes Pool Warrenville, Illinos 60555 May 1988 - August 1988 Pool supervisor Birch Ponds Pool Carol Stream, Illinois 60188