THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS & SCIENCES AN OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGY RELATED TO KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA By KIM KAUFMANN A Thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts DEGREE AWARDED: Summer Semester, 1993 The membe~= of the Committee approve the Thesis of ~:ira I(aufmann defonded on June 3. 1993. R~~ff~QH~-------------- ProFessor Directing ThesIs G~----~-- Committee Member ~~ ~J~'-r. _ Geor Fischer Committee Member ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank various individuals and departments for their assistance with the Promise Project. First, I would like to thank thesis committee members Dr. Rochelle Marrinan, Dr. Glen Doran, and George Fischer. I would also like to thank Dr. steve Hale and Frank Rupert for their assistance and expertise with sample analysis. Thanks are due Sandra Forney and the united states Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, for issuing a special use permit to conduct research at Promise Sink. I would also like to thank the Department of Anthropology at Florida State University, Florida State University Marine Lab's Academic Diving Program, and the State of Florida Bureau of Historical Research, Underwater Archaeology Division for the use of all equipment used in the Promise project. A special thanks to: Scott Hayes, Nancy Nonweiler, Shelly Sikes, Marjorie Peak, and Kimberly Willyoung for the willingness to help with the Promise project. I would also like to express my indebtedness to Jane Kaufmann for all her hours of proofreading. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES LIST OF FIGURES vi ABSTRACT vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2: KARST TOPOGRAPHY IN FLORIDA 5 Sinkhole and Spring Formation Springs Submarine Springs and Sinkholes Hydrology Dating Sinkhole Formation Implications of Karst Features for Archaeology Karst Features in Florida and Preservation CHAPTER 3: AN OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA RECOVERED FROM KARST FEATURES 27 Chronological Synopsis Settlement Patterns Cultural Inventories Environment Reconstruction Radiocarbon Dates for Karst Features summary CHAPTER 4: RIVER SINK TRACT 43 Geology of River Sink Tract Sinkholes of River Sink Tract Promise Sink Previous Archaeological Studies CHAPTER 5: PROMISE SINK PROJECT 63 Research design Promise Sink Project Methodology Analysis Conclusions iv CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY B9 Status of Archaeological Knowledge of Karst Features Summary of the Promise Project Recommendations APPENDICES 1-7: TABLES 94 APPENDIX B: PERMIT COPIES 109 BIBLIOGRAPHY 116 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 131 v LIST OF FIGURES PAGE 1. KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA 2 2. KARST TERRAIN. ................................ .. 6 3. CHEMICAL WEATHERING 6 4 . KARST TERRAIN....... .......................... .. 6 5. SINKHOLE FORMATION.............................. 8 6. SUBMARINE SPRINGS..... ........................ .. 13 7. SUBMERGED KARST SITES IN APPALACHEE BAy 15 8. HYDROLOGIC CyCLE 16 9. FLORIDAN AQUIFER 18 10 RECHARGE AREA OF THE FLORIDAN AQUIFER 19 11. RIVER SINK TRACT 44 12. IWODVILLE KARST PLAIN. ........................ .. 45 13. PREHISTORIC MARINE TERRACES 48 14. OCALA PLATFORM AND THE FLORIDAN PLATEAU 50 15. SULLIVAN SySTEM................................. 54 16. PROMISE SINK.................................... 57 17. PROMISE AND GO-BETWEEN SINKS 58 18. SINKHOLE RAOD AND THE RIVER SINK TRACT .....•.... 60 19. PREVIOUS STUDY AT THE RIVER SINK TRACT 61 20. PROMISE WITH TRANSECT LINES 66 vi LIST OF FIGURES CONTINUED 21. PROMISE DEPTH MAP............ ................. .. 67 22. PROMISE SUBSURFACE SURVEY MAP 71 23. TANNIC ACID CHART FOR PROMISE 78 24. POTENTIOMETRIC SURFACE FOR WAKULLA COUNTY 81 vii AN OVERVIEW OF ARCHAEOLOGY RELATED TO KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA Kira Kaufmann, MA Florida State University, 1993 Major Professor: Rochelle Marrinan, Dr. This thesis discusses the archaeological literature concerning karst features: what information is available, the sites previously studied, the people who researched karst sites, and historic and prehistoric remains recovered from karst features. It describes specific sites, settlement studies related to karst features, and environmental reconstruction. As background, this thesis also describes geological and hydrological information concerning karst features, such as their sediment history, causes, and formation processes. It then presents geological information specific to one karst feature called Promise Sink. It also suggests a possible method to date sinkhole formation through pollen and floral analysis. Another facet of this thesis presents the results of a preliminary survey of a karst feature called Promise Sink. Through survey and excavation, the archaeological potential of viii Promise sink is evaluated. A mapping gram provides documentation of Promise Sink on many levels: the surrounding area, surface features, physiology, and depth profile. An underwater survey of the sink also included subsurface testing which produced evidence of a prehistoric cultural component. ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Florida is known for its karst topography and karst features such as sinkholes and underwater caves. Karst features are located throughout Florida (Figure 1). Previous archaeological research has shown that there is a close correspondence between water-filled karst features and the earliest human inhabitants, the Paleoindian and Archaic populations (Cockrell and Murphy 1978; Cockrell 1980). Cultural remains have been recovered from a variety of karst features: river runs, springs, sinkholes, shelf zones, ledges, sediment cones, caverns, and caves. Archaeological data from karst features in Florida, however, are very limited. North Florida has perhaps the largest concentration of karst features within Florida, but there has been little systematic scientific archaeological research in karst features. The Page/Ladson site, a submerged sinkhole in the Aucilla River, has been studied extensively within the past few years, revealing Paleoindian through Deptford period artifacts (Dunbar 1987, 1989). Only one spring in North Florida, Wakulla Springs, has received any serious archaeological attention. It has been shown to 1 2 .. .. _-..,. ----_ _ .. _.-. .. ........ ...... _ - . -. I' -- ..... -'\ U ·7 1. River Sink Tract 2. Leon Sinks (j J. Wakulla Springs 4. Page/Ladsen 5. Ichetucknee springs 6. Manatee Springs 7. Paynes Prairie 8. Silver Springs 9. Guest Spring 10. Warm Mineral Springs 11. Little Salt Springs 12. Harney Flats ...,.....-' figure 1 KARST FEATURES IN FLORIDA 3 have Paleoindian and Archaic period cultural components as well as an excellent assemblage of extinct faunal remains (Bryne 19BB; Fischer 1990). Springs and spring-fed rivers (also called "runs") in Central Florida have been the sites where cultural materials have been recovered, yet few data are pUblished. In South Florida, only two sinkholes, Warm Mineral Springs and Little Salt Springs, have been studied by archaeologists. Both sites demonstrated associations with Paleoindian and Archaic cultures (Clausen 1975a; Cockrell 19BO; Royal 1960). In Warm Mineral Springs cultural remains have been located on a shelf about 10 m deep and in the sediment cone at the bottom of the sinkhole about 35 m deep (Cockrell 19B7). In Little Salt Springs cultural remains were similarly recovered from the shelf areas (Clausen 1975a) . This thesis brings together geological and archaeological information on karst features. It evaluates the current state of knowledge concerning archaeological data associated with karst features. It also selects a study area associated with a karst feature and reports preliminary research conducted at this area. It then evaluates and assesses the outcomes from this area study. Chapter 2 presents geological information on karst topography, kinds and distribution of karst features, and on 4 formation and dating of karst features. Chapter 3 presents an overview of archaeological data from karst features available state wide. It focuses on Paleoindian and Archaic data. It examines the status of archaeological data relative to major concerns within the discipline: descriptive studies, settlement analysis, and ecological information. It also summarizes available radiocarbon dates associated with karst features. Chapter 4 examines the River Sink Tract in Northwest Florida. This large karst zone is used as the study area to exemplify the problems inherent in archaeological studies of these early time periods. Chapter 5 offers a preliminary study of Promise Sink, a feature within the River Sink Tract, and presents it as a site which is used to attempt to gather archaeological evidence. Chapter 6 summarizes the archaeological data, discusses problems, and makes recommendations for future work. CHAPTER 2 KARST TOPOGRAPHY IN FLORIDA Many of Florida's natural attractions owe their origins to the dynamic processes of karst geology. To the visitor Silver Springs, Ichetucknee River, Warm Mineral Springs, and Crystal River are all natural wonders. These attractions are directly related to the geological history of Florida, particularly the extensive marine deposits which underlie the state. To the geologist these attractions are only a few of the variety of karst features. To the archaeologist these places have long been considered potential sources of information about Florida's earliest inhabitants. Karstic terrain underlies most of Florida and in some places is estimated to be 200 miles wide (Lane 1986:75). The ancient marine deposits, now limestone, are the major component. Karst features