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(Ethnic) Nationalism in North Korean Political Ideology and Culture COPYRIGHT AND USE OF THIS THESIS This thesis must be used in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Reproduction of material protected by copyright may be an infringement of copyright and copyright owners may be entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. Section 51 (2) of the Copyright Act permits an authorized officer of a university library or archives to provide a copy (by communication or otherwise) of an unpublished thesis kept in the library or archives, to a person who satisfies the authorized officer that he or she requires the reproduction for the purposes of research or study. The Copyright Act grants the creator of a work a number of moral rights, specifically the right of attribution, the right against false attribution and the right of integrity. You may infringe the author’s moral rights if you: - fail to acknowledge the author of this thesis if you quote sections from the work - attribute this thesis to another author - subject this thesis to derogatory treatment which may prejudice the author’s reputation For further information contact the University’s Director of Copyright Services sydney.edu.au/copyright (ETHNIC) NATIONALISM IN NORTH KOREAN POLITICAL IDEOLOGY AND CULTURE By Mary Nasr THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES (KOREAN STUDIES) THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY May 31, 2014 © Mary Nasr, 2014 Abstract This study examines nationalism in North Korea through an exploration of that country’s political ideology and culture throughout time. It argues that a nationalist consciousness has always existed in North Korean history, but that it has been purposely changed and manipulated in form to deal with at-the-time difficulty and circumstance that the regime was faced with. This study asserts that state ideology was more state-focussed and subtle in nature in the earlier decades, and more ethnie, or ethnic-group oriented, and extreme in latter decades. More concretely, a state-based patriotism is seen to have constructed the nation in the 1950s and 1960s, and an ethnic-based nationalism is seen to have maintained the nation from the mid-1970s onwards. This claim is illustrated in the thesis by various primary material of a propagandistic nature sourced from the time and published in North Korea, and supported by a recreation of the political and social milieu in which these data were domestically consumed. A theoretical base underpinning the argument is provided in opening, and an elaboration into the main themes of the structure of North Korean ethnic nationalism is given in closing. ii Acknowledgements Thank you to Associate Professor Ki-Sung Kwak, whose support in turbulent times to me was invaluable. Many thanks go to Dr Su-Kyoung Hwang, who assumed my supervisorship at fortunate timing, and supported me with empathy, insight and kindness. A special thank you is reserved for Senior Lecturer, Dr. Rebecca Suter, who generously took the time to review my thesis before submission, and to Christopher Richardson, for his constant support, friendship and inspiration. Thank you to the Academy of Korean Studies in Bundang, South Korea, for their granting myself of an in-residence research grant in 2011, and to Professor Pankaj Mohan of that institution, whose unyielding support became a pillar of my progress. Last and deepest thanks go to my mother, Amal Nasr, of whom without, this long project could not have been completed. iii Table of Contents 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….…….1 2. Nationalism in North Korea: Theory…………………………………………..…….15 Nationalism and Patriotism…………………………………………………………...………15 Ethnonationalism…………………………………………………………………………………..28 Kim Jong Il on Nationalism…………………………………………………………………….43 Reunification………………………………………………………………………………………...59 3. Nationalism of the Early Decades: State focussed and subtle…………….77 1940s/50s: Nation as a new state, and nation in war and reconstruction...78 1960s: Legitimate Korean nation vis-à-vis illegitimate Korean nation……104 4. Nationalism of the Later Decades: Ethnie focussed and extreme…....133 1970s/80s: Nation as native land of ethnic apex figure Kim…………………..134 1990s: Nation as land of the promised race…………………………………………..165 5. Nationalism in Full Bloom: Main Themes………………………………..………199 Love and Hate……………………………………………………………………………………..200 Purity and Unity…………………………………………………………………………………..208 Nature……………………………………………………………………………………………...…213 The Child Race……………………………………………………………………………………..215 6. Concluding Remarks…………………………………………………………………….…218 Reference List………………………………………………………………..………………..221 iv Expanded Table of Contents 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………..1 2. Nationalism in North Korea: Theory………………………………………………….……………….......15 Nationalism and Patriotism……………………………………………………………...............................15 1. What is nationalism…………………………………………………………………………...................................15 2. What is patriotism…………………………………………………………………………..………………………...16 3. The similarities and differences between nationalism and patriotism.....................................18 4. The role of nationalism and patriotism………………………………………………………………………20 5. Nationalism and history…………………………………………………………………………………………….21 6. The politics of nationalism………………………………………………………………………………………...22 7. The economics of patriotism……………………………………………………………………………………..23 8. The myth of nationalism……………………………………………………………………………………………24 9. Divine nationalist missions………………………………………………………………………………………..25 10. Ethnic superiority…………………………………………………………………………………………………...27 Ethnonationalism in North Korea……………………………………………………...............................28 1. Symbol……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..28 a) The city……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...29 b) Military preparedness………………………………………………………………………………………..31 c) Heavy industry…………………………………………………………………………………………………...33 2. Myth…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………35 3. Memory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………38 4. Tradition……………………………………………………………………………….………………………………….40 5. Value………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..42 6. Love of the ethno-nation……………………………………………………………………………………………42 Kim Jong Il on Nationalism……………………………………………….……………………………………..43 1. Nationalism and/versus Patriotism……………………………………………………………………………44 2. The North Korean distinction and justification of the ideology of nationalism.....................48 3. The harmony (“compatibility”) of nationalism and communism and internationalism…50 4. Kim Il Sung’s personality cult in the text and his ideas regarding the nation………………...52 5. Anti-imperialism, with its “globalisation” and “integration”………………………………...………55 6. Reunification of the country.........................................................................................................................58 Reunification…………………………………………………………………………………….…………………….59 1. Reunification: The supreme desire of the Korean people…………………………...………………..60 2. The enemies of reunification…………………………………………………………………………………..…67 3. Kim Il Sung’s 10-Point Programme…………………………………………………………………………….74 3. Nationalism of the Early Decades: State focussed and subtle………..…………………………77 1940s/50s: Nation as a new state, and nation in war and reconstruction…...…………..78 1. Nation as a New State………………………………………………………………………………………………..78 2. Nationalist State in War……………………………………………………………………..................................79 3. Nationalist State in Reconstruction……………………………………………………………………………91 v 1960s: Legitimate Korean nation vis-à-vis illegitimate Korean nation………………….104 1. Bellicosity towards South Korea and the United States………………………………………..……105 a) to destroy the US enemy and reunify the Korean land………………………………………..106 b) to destroy the US enemy in unison with internationalist comrades…………………….112 c) to vilify the national traitor Park Chung Hee………………………………………………………115 d) to express consideration and care for the South Korean brethren………………………117 2. Socialist Patriotism…………………………………………………………………………………………………119 a) What is North Korean Socialist Patriotism?..............................................................................119 b) Its manifestation/presence on the ground at the time………………………………………..121 c) How socialist patriotism functions as a transitional sub-ideology……………………….126 d) The original idea versus its later revival…………………………………….................................127 Concluding Remarks……………………………………………………………………………………………..129 4. Nationalism of the Later Decades: Ethnie focussed and extreme…………………………..133 1970s/80s: Nation as native land of ethnic apex figure Kim………...……………………….134 1. Jucheui Nara ‘Land of Juche’……………………………………………………………..................................134 a) Juche in Essence………………………………………………………………………………………………..134 b) Juche in Manifestation……………………………………………………………………………………….138 2. Minjokui Taeyang ‘Sun of the race’……………………………………………………………………………146 a) Kim in the physical environment………………………………………………...................................147 b) Kim in the literary and artistic form…………………………………………………………………..151 i) Newspapers…………………………………………………………………………………………….151 ii) Songs and Poems……………………………………………………………………………………155 iii) Posters………………………………………………………………………………………………….158 1990s: Nation as land of the promised race………………………………....……………………….165 1. Uriminjok jeiljuui: ‘Korea as Number One-ism’………………………………………………………….165 a) Kim Jong Il texts: construction and theory………………………………….................................165 b) Prominent songs:
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