RELIGIOUSLY FRIENDLY DEMOCRACY: FRAMING POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS IDENTITIES IN CATHOLIC AND MUSLIM SOCIETIES A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Notre Dame in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Michael Daniel Driessen Frances Hagopian, Director Graduate Program in Political Science Notre Dame, Indiana April 2011 © Copyright 2011 Michael Daniel Driessen RELIGIOUSLY FRIENDLY DEMOCRACY: FRAMING POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS IDENTITIES IN CATHOLIC AND MUSLIM SOCIETIES Abstract by Michael Daniel Driessen This research project explores the relationship between faith and nation, and the institutional entanglements of religion, state and democracy in Catholic and Muslim societies. It is specifically animated by the following research question: What are the effects of bringing religion into the public sphere in new democracies, especially those whose theological values are considered to be hostile to democratic precepts? My analysis presents a theory for modeling the dynamics which are created when states allow hostile religions more access to the political and public spheres during moments of democratization (or lesser forms of political liberalization) by a) allowing religious political parties to contest elections and b) biasing religion-state arrangements in favor of religion. Drawing from more than eighteen months of field research in Italy and Algeria, I test the mechanisms of my theory through in-depth case studies in both a Catholic and Islamic setting and then use cross-national data on religion-state arrangements by Grim and Finke (2006) and Fox (2008) to statistically explore the theory‟s wider explanatory weight. To all of my teachers who told me to be patient with the wild within and to listen ii CONTENTS Figures................................................................................................................................ vi Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii Acknowledgments................................................................................................................x Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: Democracy Theory, Secularization Stories, and Religion-State Arrangements ...........................................................................................................16 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................16 1.2 Democracy, Democratization and Religions in Democracies .........................17 1.2.1 What is“Democracy”? ......................................................................17 1.2.2 What is Democratization? .................................................................19 1.2.3 What Can We Say Now about Religion and Democracy? ...............23 1.3 Secularization Theories and Norms .................................................................25 1.3.1 Classic Secularization Stories ...........................................................25 1.3.2 Liberal Philosophic Norms ...............................................................31 1.4 Revisiting Secularization Theories ..................................................................34 1.4.1 Varieties in Patterns of Secularization ..............................................34 1.4.2 Modern Public Religions and Contemporary Religious Belief ........38 1.5 Religion-state Arrangements in Democracy: A General Framework ..............43 1.5.1 Government Regulation(s) of Religion (GRI) ..................................43 1.5.2 Government Favoritism of Religion (GFI) .......................................51 1.6 Two Hypotheses about Religion-State Arrangements and Democracy ...........53 Chapter 2: Islam and Catholicism: Qualifying Democratic Hostility ................................58 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................58 2.2 Defining Hostilities ..........................................................................................64 2.2.1 Catholicism and Democratic Hostility ..............................................64 2.2.2 Islam and Democratic Hostility. .......................................................69 2.3 Similarities: Dar al-Islam, Christendom and Liberal Rupture .........................74 2.3.1 Religions and Multivocality ..............................................................74 2.3.2 Theological Hierarchies ....................................................................77 2.3.3 What about Protestants and Democracy? .........................................83 2.4 One Final Observation .....................................................................................85 iii Chapter 3: On the Consequences of Instituting Friendliness toward Religion: Towards a General Theory of Religious-democratic Change ....................................................90 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................90 3.2 Incorporation/Moderation in Democracy ........................................................99 3.2.1 Religious Friendliness, Religious Elites and Elections...................103 3.2.2 Religious Identities and Individual Political Calculations ..............107 3.3 Religiously Friendly Democracies and Religious National Identities ...........114 3.3.1 Democratization and the Decline of Regular-practicing Religiosity ....................................................................................116 3.3.2 Religious Friendliness, Public Religion and National Religious Identity .........................................................................................118 3.3.3 A Rival Hypothesis: Religious Market Theory ..............................121 Chapter 4: Religion and Democracy in Italy ...................................................................132 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................132 4.2 Anti-clerical Democrats and Anti-modern Popes ..........................................135 4.2.1 Pope Pius IX and the Risorgimento (1846-1878) ...........................135 4.2.2 Liberal Anti-clericals, Hostile Catholics and an Evolving Church (1878-1922)..................................................................................139 4.2.3 Fascist Governments and Friendly Institutions (1922-1944)..........144 4.3 Moderation and Inclusion: Friendly Democracy (1944-1966) ......................151 4.3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................151 4.3.2 Christian Democrats, the Left and the Vatican: Implicit Hostilities .....................................................................................152 4.3.3 Democratization and Religiously Friendly Policies .......................159 4.3.4 Inclusion, Mobilization and Moderation.........................................161 4.3.5 Catholic Moderation and Democratic Consolidation .....................184 4.4 : New Theologies, New Religiosities.............................................................187 4.4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................187 4.4.2 GRI, GFI and democracy ................................................................188 4.4.3 New Freedoms, New Theological Directions .................................192 4.4.4 Religiosity in Contemporary Italy ..................................................197 4.4.5 Final Observations: New Public Voices and Loose Religious Identities .......................................................................................213 Chapter 5: Religion and Democracy in Algeria ...............................................................219 5.1 Islam, Nation, State and Democracy in Algeria ............................................219 5.1.1 The Ottoman Empire in Algeria .....................................................220 5.1.2 Abdelkader and Djihad. ..................................................................221 5.1.3 France ..............................................................................................222 5.1.4 Ben Badis and the Association of Ulema .......................................225 5.1.5 Revolution, Independence, Islamic Laïcité and the Origins of Contemporary Algerian Islamism. ...............................................230 5.1.6 Islamism in Algeria .........................................................................233 5.1.7 October, 1988 ..................................................................................238 5.1.8 Madani, Belhadj, Nahnah and Djaballah ........................................240 iv 5.2 Religion and Democratization .......................................................................248 5.2.1 Islamic Religious Political Movement ............................................250 5.2.2 Political Liberalization and Religiously Friendly Institutions ........256 5.2.3 Political Evolution of Nahnah and MSP-HAMAS .........................263 5.2.4 Political Evolution of Djaballah and Islah/Ennahda .......................270 5.2.5 Electoral Shifts and Logics of Support ...........................................273 5.3 Democratization and Religion: Religious